The cult of Lord Guan

motivations for this projecteternal problem of documentation for Chinese

temple cults◦ partly quantitative problem◦ normative info◦ lack of concrete (local, personalized) info in most

sourcesLord Guan relative exception

◦ state recognition=>preservation sources◦ spread of cult=>many (types of) sources◦ 20th century fieldwork◦ many anecdotal sources

not the most interesting cult◦ much rather know more about Wutong and other cults

with mediums◦ strong normative nature sources

aims projectlong term history cult allows

asking some types of questions◦changing hagiography cult◦analysis spread over time and space◦multiple origins◦impact (or not) written traditions◦changes in social appeal◦role medium practices (esp. spirit

writing)

historical figureGuan Yu 關羽 (?-219)

◦fled home in Xiezhou 解州 because of a killing◦ joined Liu Bei 劉備 in 涿州 , withZhang Fei 張飛

among his most loyal supporters◦captured and service Cao Cao 曹操 200 CE◦rejoined Liu Bei, several epic battles◦captured by forces Sun Quan 孫權 and

beheaded 219 CEparagon of loyalty 忠 (to Liu Bei) and

righteousness 義 , really a rebel to the rulers of that moment and possibly a murderer

in a HK temple

from the movies

how Sun Quan would have seen it

his modern fate?

EARLY STAGES

originsmemorialist cults

◦Chengdu (immediately after death)◦Luoyang (head)◦Yueyang (ordinary temple)

not listed in derogatory attacks on medium cults by Daoist writers

largely out of sight until the Tang period

Zhiyi’s arrival at Jade Source Mountain2 events

◦ founding of monastery by Zhiyi and a miracle of divine support

◦ local cult for hungry ghosts, which later turns out to be Lord Guan

Zhiyi 智顗 (530-598)◦ connected southern elite◦ patronage Sui prince forced upon him◦ retreats to Jade Source Mountain in ca. 592 (in the hills)◦ builds monastery

explicitly with support local people (pre-617) his pupil Guanding’s bio (pre-632) mentions divine (but

dragon!) support (event 1.)◦ monastery flourishes

center Tiantai and later early Chan Buddhism many monks and laypeople pass through

a local cult on Ju Riverlocation execution and grave-hill on 沮 river

(far from later monastery)=> close to road (no dates, beyond 219 CE)

general phenomenon cults for hungry hosts (attested in pre-Sui Daoist writings)

first mentions◦ 802 CE temple for Lord Guan near monastery,

deity associated with miraculous building monastery

◦ late 9th century same temple for Third Lad Guan 關三郎 , same link monastery

somewhere in 7th-8th century dragon replaced by Lord Guan

modern picture of his not so old grave

Jade Source Monastery by early Song monastery and cult intimately

connected◦ the most prestigious cult for the deity◦ possession dragon relics (associated with the salt

ponds, more on which later!)◦ Guan Yu’s historical (?) seal

treasures for advertising◦ literati

Buddhist origin cult?◦ local cult incorporated by Buddhist monastery◦ limited number of early Buddhist foundations◦ one of the protector deities of B. monasteries by

late Ming ≠ Buddhist origins

a demonic figure (early evidence)original local cult must have been

demonic/hungry ghosts, but not properly recorded

860-873 scare of Third Lad Guan with his demon soldiers causing epidemics

meaning “Third Lad”◦Second Lad (erlang)◦Young Prince from Triad lore◦power of youth

story of violent demonic deity crucial

DAOIST ORIGINS

the defeat of Chiyou 蚩尤Chiyou= saltponds of Xiezhou (alr. 3rd century BCE)miracle Guan Yu (as a general)

◦ Huizong version: dragon, flooding, destroyed, Heavenly Master 張繼先 (1092-1127)

◦ Zhenzong version: Chiyou, Yellow Emperor, drought, destroyed, an anonymous Heavenly Master

Huizong version older◦ floods were a real problem, happened in 1105◦ story is not a local story=> dragon (relics at Jade Source

Monastery!)Zhenzong version newer drought fit the Chiyou

story, not the local circumstances◦ Chiyou/Yellow Emperor fits cultic history northern Song◦ textual reworking of the dragon story

1907年拍攝的南旺蚩尤塚

鹽池鹽池

漢代的蚩尤

temples with Daoist connection1166 Hangzhou 1324 Beijing

1174 Suzhou 1329 Wuyuan

1185-1219-1242 Xiangning 1334 Anyang county

(Zhangde prefecture)

long before a

separate temple was

founded with official

support in circa

1308-1311 and

restored in 1336

Nanxiong (northern

Guangdong)

1336 Yanchuan

1308 Huizhou 1341 Jiyuan county

(Huaiqing prefecture,

in), both Dingxiang

and Jiyuan are to the

east of Xie on the

route to Beijing

1314 Changxing 1353 separate temple in

Xiangning county

(slightly north of Xie

Prefecture)

1324 Xie prefecture.    

1. only pre-Ming temples connected to Guan Yu’s Daoist titles2. note southern dominance (except Xiangning): artefact sources or real phenomenon?

possible historical trajectoryproblems of datinga possible trajectory

◦ Guan Yu as violent deity suited for dealing with demons

◦ Guan Yu adopted as Daoist exorcist general (extensive use in D. ritual manuscripts, no clear early dates)

◦ source of inspiration for recruitment by HM◦ feedback into use as exorcist general, leading to

foundations (small) temples and shrines◦ like Buddhist connection of minor importance

even less important over time◦ result growing spread cult and dominance local

communities over cultic image◦ higher titles of king and even emperor made

subordinate role in Daoist ritual difficult

LOCAL CULT

starting with datesas always problem of data, but at

least we have many dates (for a northern cult)

dates and places allow verification and falsification certain types of hypotheses

preliminary database  North per year South per year nationwide960-1126 (Song) 8 0.047 3 0.017 111126-1276 (Southern Song/Jin)

11 0.062 8 0,052 19

total Song/Jin 19   11   301277-1307 6 0.193 4 0.129 101308-1334 20 0.692 8 0.296 281335-1367 22 0.666 5 0.151 27total Yuan 48   17   65grand total 67   28   95

a northern cult • Xie centre early cult• Jingmen near Jade Source Mountain• Haiyan has Daoist connection• Shaowu (Fujian) no evidenceLocation N/S date Location N/S date

Linjin 臨晉 , close to Xie

N 976 Ronghe 榮河 , close to Xie

N 1104f

Xie 解 N Founding 1008-1016 is most likely mythical; 1092 first restoration

Wenxi, close to Xie

N 1109

Shaowu S 1078-1085 Zhangqiu 章丘 N 1113

Qin 沁 N 1080 Ningzhou 寧州 N 1123f, 1139r

Ruicheng 芮城 , close to Xie

N 1092 Jingmen S 1125

Haiyan S 1110f      

analytical comments northern spread tied to

traderoutes (salt-trade?)few connections to military

background, but some to local defense

spread prior to rise vernacular narratives and in regions with low (assumed) literacy

how meaningful are the growth rates vs. economic growth (disc. next slide), based on same sources

  North per year South per year nationwide

960-1126 (Song) 1 0.101 22 0.131 391126-1276 (Southern Song/Jin) 4 0.026 37 0.229 41total Song/Jin 21   59   801277-1307 7 0.225 3 0.096 101308-1334 6 0.222 2 0.074 81335-1367 8 0.242 4 0.121 12total Yuan 21   9   30grand total 42   68   110

“Pre-Ming attestations of local Eastern Marchmount temples”(preliminary count)

  North per year South per year nationwide960-1126 (Song) 8 0.047 3 0.017 111126-1276 (Southern Song/Jin)

11 0.062 8 0,052 19

total Song/Jin 19   11   301277-1307 6 0.193 4 0.129 101308-1334 20 0.692 8 0.296 281335-1367 22 0.666 5 0.151 27total Yuan 48   17   65grand total 67   28   95

“Pre-Ming attestations of Guan Yu shrines and temples”

comparing rate of spread of two prominent cults

continued spread of the cultnorthern cult

◦present down to rural level◦all social/educational groups

spread southward only with specific interest groups◦Daoist priests (above)◦military staff ◦merchants

Taiwan special case (still to be studied by me)

curious connections

FOLKLORE&MYTHOLOGY

terminologymythology?

◦hard to find: historical record made mythological narratives invisible (absent)

◦the record partly mythological itself, but in historical format

my preference: narratives/stories that give meaning and explain beyond the specific local context

vernacular traditionsthe historical record not basis of the cult

◦ authors inscriptions often refer to the record (normative info)

the vernacular traditions largely postdate rise of cult◦ could be seen as one form of cult’s larger

mythology (only on more abstract level, see later on)

◦ have incorporated some cult-lore (Peach Garden, epiphany deity in Jade Source Monastery, Bluegreen Dragon halberd)

limited relevance vernacular traditions ◦ illustrate deity’s loyalty and righteousness ◦ do not explain deity’s miracles◦ also many other figures who are not deified

“folklore”surprisingly separate account from vernacular

traditions or historical record ◦ abundant data from 20th century (though not well-

recorded from academic perspective )earlier confirmations

◦ Christian source pre-1658: 關羽，乃漢時山西解梁人氏，姓施名壽昌。因拖欠差糧，官兵拘納，拒捕不完，殺死官兵，逃出關去，指關為姓，官兵盤詰，詐名關羽 .

◦ Liang Zhangju 梁章鉅 (1775—1849) records story of Guan Yu’s rescue of damsel in distress by killing local no-good and subsequent fleeing and adoption name Guan

◦ most elements confirmed in morality book early 19th century

similar narratives probably transmitted much earlier as well

making the deity present imagining the deity

◦ attested from the beginning◦ Example: “The general has a dark date-coloured face,

phoenix eyes, three fang-like whiskers and a long beard of one foot and three inches. A sky-blue band around his head and large red court robes, a belt with a jade buckle, dark court shoes, holding a dragon head, with a large halberd. He has the Red-Hare Horse following him. Normally he uses a joyous face, but when he is engaged in cutting off ears and arresting he has an angry face. He arrives from the Thundergate.” (Daoist ritual, anytime before 1400s)

enacting the deity◦ medium traditions (not well documented)◦ processions◦ exorcist ritual traditions (very real)◦ theatrical traditions (more than others, Lord Guan in

theatre is also imagined as a deity)

MIRACLES

rainunclear: brings rain because he does

everything or specifically bringer of rain?◦5: 13 associated with rain◦5: 13 deity’s birthday since early 13th century◦deity seen as bringing rain on 5:13 at least

since mid 16th century (proverb: whetting his sword)

◦throughout cult’s history able to ward of rain◦20th century folklore very explicit

how to solve this question◦more comparative work◦more data (unlikely)

martial figuregeneral in exorcist ritual practice

◦well-attested in ritual textsdrives away demons

◦expulsion Chiyou paradigmatic storyhelps against bandits etc.

◦from beginning cult’s history in the north

◦against wokou threat 1555s (led to further spread)

◦1813 Eight Trigram’s attack Forbidden Palace

places of contact

a literate deitysurprising: general who is literate

◦historical Guan Yu wrote one letter (according to 三國志 )

◦later commentary on 三國志 claims he could recite 左傳

◦his possible literacy played no role in his personal life or subsequent rise to divinity

prognostication slips ascribed to deity (since late Ming)

spirit writing (since late Ming)

MORAL AGENCY

divine punisherrole also inherent in other

activities (discussed before)case book of Xiangtan (1849-

1850, some 1851-1852)

morality booksgeneral phenomenon

◦太上感應篇◦功過格◦multiplication through recitation,

copying and printingoften revealed through spirit

writing

True Classic to Awaken the World by Imperial Lord Saint Guan 關聖帝君覺世真經

oldest extant version in Japanese ms as 關夫子經 (next slides)general ethicssupported by threat with retribution and

direct punishment◦ I made these words, and I wish that people

honour them. Although the words are shallow and obvious, they are of great benefit to your heart. If you ridicule and insult my words, you will be beheaded and dismembered.

◦common format for maledictions (see Triads)

Classic of Imperial Lord Saint Guan who Illuminates Saintliness 闗聖帝君明聖經revealed text

◦ explicit on its origins in spirit writing session as evidence on legitimacy as divine words

◦ often rambling text, but rhymed (not according to literary modes)

◦ origins in historical records and folklore (already discussed above)

◦ early 19th century text, always reprinted in 1840 version with a revealed commentary

◦ Guan Yu is given task of supervising morality all over the empire

develops later in even stronger morality texts in which only following his moral injunctions can prevent the end of the world at the command of the Jade Emperor

SOME CONCLUDING COMMENTS

commentshungry ghost and demonnot primarily a Buddhist or Daoist

cultlocal cultloyalty etc. secondary

consideration: first and foremost a violent, martial figure

development independent of vernacular traditions

regional basis