The Crimean WarThe Crimean War

The Crimean War (1853 - 1856) was fought The Crimean War (1853 - 1856) was fought between the Russian Empire on one side and between the Russian Empire on one side and an alliance of France, Britain, the Ottoman an alliance of France, Britain, the Ottoman Empire and later Sardinia-Piedmont on the Empire and later Sardinia-Piedmont on the other. The majority of the conflict took place other. The majority of the conflict took place on the Crimean peninsula, with additional on the Crimean peninsula, with additional actions occurring in the Caucasus, Northern actions occurring in the Caucasus, Northern Balkans, the Baltic Sea region, and in the Balkans, the Baltic Sea region, and in the Russian Far East.Russian Far East.

The war is generally seen as the first modern The war is generally seen as the first modern conflict introducing some major technical conflict introducing some major technical changes which affected the future course of changes which affected the future course of warfare in the rest of the 19th century and in warfare in the rest of the 19th century and in the 20th century.the 20th century.

The original cause of the Crimean War was The original cause of the Crimean War was the competition between the French Empire, the competition between the French Empire, proclaimed in 1852 by the nephew of proclaimed in 1852 by the nephew of Napoléon Bonaparte, crowning himself as Napoléon Bonaparte, crowning himself as Napoléon III, and the Russian Empire, over Napoléon III, and the Russian Empire, over the protectorate of the “Holy Land” (Palestine the protectorate of the “Holy Land” (Palestine with Jerusalem).with Jerusalem).

After its consecutive victories over the After its consecutive victories over the declining Ottoman Empire in the 18th declining Ottoman Empire in the 18th century, Russia had obtained the status of a century, Russia had obtained the status of a Christian “protector power” over the Christian Christian “protector power” over the Christian subjects of the Sultan on the Holy Land.subjects of the Sultan on the Holy Land.

The newest treaty signed by the will and The newest treaty signed by the will and insistance of Napoléon III between France insistance of Napoléon III between France and the Ottomans, confirmed France and and the Ottomans, confirmed France and the Catholic Church as the supreme the Catholic Church as the supreme Christian organization in the Holy Land, and Christian organization in the Holy Land, and gave the French Empire supreme control gave the French Empire supreme control over the various Christian holy places, and over the various Christian holy places, and gave the keys of the “Church of the gave the keys of the “Church of the Nativity”, previously in the hands of the Nativity”, previously in the hands of the Greek Orthodox Church, to the Catholic Greek Orthodox Church, to the Catholic Church.Church.

Tsar Nicholas I naming the Ottoman Empire Tsar Nicholas I naming the Ottoman Empire “the sick man of Europe” dispatched one of “the sick man of Europe” dispatched one of his talented diplomats, Prince Menshikov, on his talented diplomats, Prince Menshikov, on a special mission to the Sublime Porte (a special mission to the Sublime Porte (Bab-ı Bab-ı AliAli) to threaten the weakening empire.) to threaten the weakening empire.

By previous Russo-Ottoman treaties, the By previous Russo-Ottoman treaties, the Sultan had already been committed "to Sultan had already been committed "to protect the Christian religion and its protect the Christian religion and its Churches", but Menshikov attempted to Churches", but Menshikov attempted to negotiate a new treaty, under which the negotiate a new treaty, under which the Russian Empire would be allowed to Russian Empire would be allowed to interfere whenever it judged the Sultan's interfere whenever it judged the Sultan's protection inadequate. protection inadequate.

Menshikov also demanded the replacement of Menshikov also demanded the replacement of some high Ottoman bureaucrats in a clear some high Ottoman bureaucrats in a clear violation of the Ottoman sovereignty rights. violation of the Ottoman sovereignty rights.

France and Britain, worried about the Russian France and Britain, worried about the Russian expansionism in the Near East, clearly showed expansionism in the Near East, clearly showed their supports to the Ottoman Empire by their supports to the Ottoman Empire by sending war fleets to Istanbul. sending war fleets to Istanbul.

With the French and British support, With the French and British support, Abdülmecit refused Menshikov’s proposals and Abdülmecit refused Menshikov’s proposals and the Tsar marched his armies into Moldavia and the Tsar marched his armies into Moldavia and Wallachia (Ottoman principalities in which Wallachia (Ottoman principalities in which Russia was acknowledged as a special Russia was acknowledged as a special protector of the Orthodox Church), using the protector of the Orthodox Church), using the Sultan's failure to resolve the issue of the Holy Sultan's failure to resolve the issue of the Holy Places as a pretext.Places as a pretext.

Nicholas I believed that the Great Powers, Nicholas I believed that the Great Powers, especially Austria, would not resist to the especially Austria, would not resist to the annexation of the Ottoman Danubian annexation of the Ottoman Danubian provinces, especially given Russian provinces, especially given Russian involvement in helping to suppress the involvement in helping to suppress the Revolution of 1848 in Hungary.Revolution of 1848 in Hungary.

Nicholas I sent his powerful Black Sea war Nicholas I sent his powerful Black Sea war fleet against the Ottoman navy and fleet against the Ottoman navy and destroyed a squadron of the Ottoman fleet destroyed a squadron of the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Sinop on 30 November at the Battle of Sinop on 30 November 1853. 1853.

The destruction of the Ottoman fleet The destruction of the Ottoman fleet alarmed both London and Paris. alarmed both London and Paris.

In 1853, after Russia ignored an Franco-In 1853, after Russia ignored an Franco-British ultimatum to withdraw from the British ultimatum to withdraw from the Danubian principalities, Britain and France Danubian principalities, Britain and France declared war on the Russian Empire.declared war on the Russian Empire.

Joint French, Ottoman and British Joint French, Ottoman and British expeditionary forces landed on the expeditionary forces landed on the Crimean peninsula besieging the Russian Crimean peninsula besieging the Russian fortified city of Sebastopol. fortified city of Sebastopol.

Later the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont, Later the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont, hoping to gain the French support in their hoping to gain the French support in their future conflict in Northern Italy against the future conflict in Northern Italy against the Austrian Empire, joined the conflict and Austrian Empire, joined the conflict and sent also an expeditionary corps to sent also an expeditionary corps to Crimea.Crimea.

Some minor naval and military action also Some minor naval and military action also took place on the Russian Pacific coast, took place on the Russian Pacific coast, the Caucasus, the Baltic and White Seas. the Caucasus, the Baltic and White Seas.

Peace negotiations began in 1856 under Peace negotiations began in 1856 under Nicholas I's successor, Alexander II after Nicholas I's successor, Alexander II after the fall of Sebastopol at the end of highly the fall of Sebastopol at the end of highly costful battles. costful battles.

By the Peace Treaty of Paris, the Tsar and By the Peace Treaty of Paris, the Tsar and the Sultan agreed not to establish any the Sultan agreed not to establish any naval or military arsenal on the littoral of naval or military arsenal on the littoral of the Black Sea, greatly diminishing the the Black Sea, greatly diminishing the naval threat that Russia posed to the naval threat that Russia posed to the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman Empire.

Moreover, all the Great Powers pledged to Moreover, all the Great Powers pledged to respect the independence and territorial respect the independence and territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire.integrity of the Ottoman Empire.

AttentionAttention The Treaty of Paris stood until 1871, when The Treaty of Paris stood until 1871, when

the French Empire was crushed by the the French Empire was crushed by the Prussian led German Confederation in the Prussian led German Confederation in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871. While Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871. While Prussia and several other German states Prussia and several other German states united to form the mighty German Empire, united to form the mighty German Empire, the Emperor of the French, Napoleon III, the Emperor of the French, Napoleon III, was deposed and the III. French Republic was deposed and the III. French Republic was proclaimed. was proclaimed.

During his reign (1852-1871), Napoleon III, During his reign (1852-1871), Napoleon III, willing to have the support of Britain, had willing to have the support of Britain, had opposed Russia over the “Eastern opposed Russia over the “Eastern Question”, although Russian interference Question”, although Russian interference in the Ottoman Empire, however, did not in the Ottoman Empire, however, did not directly threaten the French interests. directly threaten the French interests.

So, the new French republic began to look So, the new French republic began to look for a rapprochement with Russia against for a rapprochement with Russia against its new hostile neighbour, the German its new hostile neighbour, the German Empire (Empire (II. ReichII. Reich).).

Encouraged by the French attitude, and Encouraged by the French attitude, and supported by the German chancellor Otto supported by the German chancellor Otto von Bismarck, Russia denounced the Black von Bismarck, Russia denounced the Black Sea clauses of the Paris Treaty of 1856. Sea clauses of the Paris Treaty of 1856.

As Britain alone could not enforce the As Britain alone could not enforce the clauses, Russia once again established a clauses, Russia once again established a war fleet in the Black Sea.war fleet in the Black Sea.

Having abandoned its alliance with Russia Having abandoned its alliance with Russia in the Crimean War, Austria was in the Crimean War, Austria was diplomatically isolated following the war. diplomatically isolated following the war.

This isolation was one of the reasons of its This isolation was one of the reasons of its defeat in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War and defeat in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War and loss of influence in most of the German-loss of influence in most of the German-speaking lands. Soon after, Austria would speaking lands. Soon after, Austria would ally with Prussia as it became the new ally with Prussia as it became the new German Empire, creating the conditions German Empire, creating the conditions that would lead to the First World War.that would lead to the First World War.