The Case for Urban Agriculture: Regenerative, Human Scale Food Production in Urban Landscapes

8/4/2019 The Case for Urban Agriculture: Regenerative, Human Scale Food Production in Urban Landscapes

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THECASEFORURBANAGRICULTURE:

REGENERATIVE,HUMAN-SCALEFOOD

PRODUCTIONSYSTEMSIN

URBANLANDSCAPES

By

TAMMYL.PARKER

Athesissubmittedinpartialfulfillmentof

therequirementsforthedegreeof

MASTERSOFSCIENCEINLANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE

WASHINGTONSTATEUNIVERSITYDepartmentofLandscapeArchitecture

August2010


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TotheFacultyofWashingtonStateUniversity:

ThemembersoftheCommitteeappointedtoexaminethethesisofTAMMYL.PARKER

finditsatisfactoryandrecommendthatitbeaccepted.

__________________________________________

JolieB.Kaytes,M.L.A.,Chair

__________________________________________

JessicaGoldberger,Ph.D.

__________________________________________

PrestonAndrews,Ph.D.


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

IwishtothankProfessorJolieKaytesforhercreativeandprofessionalassistanceand

supportthroughoutthewritingprocess.Ialsowanttothankmycommittee,AssistantProfessor

JessicaGoldbergerandAssociateProfessorPrestonAndrewsfortheiradviceandguidance,as

wellasAssociateProfessorDavidGreenwoodforhiscounsel.Forhisprofessionalguidanceand

supportIwishtothankRobertCrawleyandforherpatienceandunderstanding,myboss,Randi

Croyle.Finally,Iwanttothankmylovingandsupportivefamilyandfriendsforbelievinginme.


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THECASEFORURBANAGRICULTURE:

REGENERATIVE,HUMAN-SCALE

FOODPRODUCTIONSYSTEMS

INURBANLANDSCAPES

Abstract

ByTammyL.Parker,M.S.

WashingtonStateUniversity

August2010

Chair:JolieKaytes

Urbanagriculturehasalonghistoryandhasseenagreatresurgenceinthepastfew

years.ForthefirsttimesinceEleanorRooseveltplantedhervictorygardenduringWorldWar

Two,theWhiteHouselawnissportingagarden(Burrosn.pag.).Schoolgardensandprison

gardensarebecomingmorecommonandcommunitygardenplotshavewaitlistsofwouldbe

gardeners.TheAmericanCommunityGardenAssociationwebsitelistsamongthemany

benefitsofcommunitygardening:communitydevelopmentandsocialinteraction,increased

self-reliance,reductionoffamilyfoodbudgets,productionofnutritiousfood,beautification

ofneighborhoodsandcreationofopportunityforexercise,recreation,therapyand

education.Anyoneofthesebenefitswouldbeanassettoalandscapearchitectsurban

designproject,buthowdoesalandscapearchitect,trainedtodesignmainstreamcommercial


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projectsusingornamentalplants,introduceelementsoffood-productionsystemsintotheir

designssuccessfully?

Thisthesisexamineshowelementsofurbanagriculturecaninfluencelandscape

architecturedesignsforthebettermentofthepractice.Throughsitevisitstolongstanding

publicschoolandprisongardensIanalyzeaspectsofgrassroots,human-scalefood

productionprojectsthatcanbeputtouseinlandscapearchitecturedesign.


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TABLEOFCONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.......iii

ABSTRACT...iv

LISTOFTABLES..............................................................................................viii

LISTOFFIGURES............................................................................................ix

CHAPTER

1. INTRODUCTION.........................................................................1

Connections..........................................................................2

2. METHODOLOGICALFRAMEWORK..........................................6

Implications7

ResearchMethodology.........................................................8

3. HISTORY.....................................................................................13

England.................................................................................13

AlternateEnglishThinking..........................................14

France...................................................................................15

AlternateFrenchThinking..........................................16

UnitedStates........................................................................18

GardenBasedLearning..............................................19

HistoricMovementsinUrbanAgriculture............................20


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WarGardens..............................................................22

PostWarIndustrialization..........................................23

UrbanAgricultureasaSocialMovement...................24

4. PRISONGARDENS......................................................................28

WashingtonStateSustainablePrisonsProject.....................32

StaffordCreekCorrectionsCenter.......................................34

Narrative....................................................................38

MotherEarthFarm...............................................................41

Narrative....................................................................46

5. SCHOOLGARDENS.....................................................................50

SchoolGardenVisits.............................................................55

OrcaGarden...............................................................56

Narrative..........................................................64

MontlakeElementarySchool.....................................66

Narrative..........................................................73

6. CONCLUSION.............................................................................76

Findings................................................................................80

WORKSCITED...............................................................................................84


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LISTOFTABLES

1.SevenMovementsofCommunityGardens..............................................21

2.SummaryTableofFindings.......................................................................79


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LISTOFFIGURES

1. DetroitAppropriationGarden...............................................................17

2. GardenBasedLearning.........................................................................19

3. ReliefGarden........................................................................................20

4. VictoryGarden......................................................................................22

5. StaffordCreekCorrectionCenter.........................................................34

6. StaffordCreekGreenhouse..................................................................35

7. RetainingWallBehindaGreenhouse....................................................36

8. InmateatWork.....................................................................................37

9. MotherEarthFarm................................................................................41

10. OrcaElementaryGarden......................................................................56

11. MontlakeElementaryGarden..............................................................66


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Dedication

ThisthesisisdedicatedtomyparentsforteachingmeIcouldaccomplish

anythingIsetmymindtoandfortheirlove

andemotionalsupport.


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CHAPTERONE

Introduction

InthispaperIconsiderthelinksbetweenlandscapearchitectureandurbanagriculture

andexploreopportunitiesforlandscapearchitecturetolearnfromthedifferentformsofurban

agriculture.ThroughmyresearchIwilldeterminesocialand/ororganizationalstructureswithin

thediversefieldofurbanagriculturethatcreateoutcomesthatwouldbebeneficialor

informativetolandscapearchitecture.

Urbanagricultureincludesanyprocessthatproducesormarketsfoodthroughoutan

urbanorperi-urban(urbanedge)areatoconsumerswithinthatarea.Itisanintensivesystem

ofproductionthatusesandreusesurbanresourcesandwastestoyielddiversecropstomeet

thedemandsoflocalconsumers.ForthepurposesofthispaperIwilldefineurbanagriculture

astheproductionofanyfoodproductthatisgrowncloseenoughtomarkettogofromharvest

tomarketonthesameday(Cheemaetal.3).

Urbanagricultureiscloselylinkedtomultipleurban,ecological,socialandeconomicsystems.

Itofferseconomicbenefitsforboththefarmersandtheircommunities.Itenhancesthequalityof

lifeandcontributestoimprovedpublichealth(Cheemaetal.xviii).Urbanagriculturedrawspeople

outdoorstoworkonacommoncauseandconnectwiththeirneighbors.Overtime,thisdeepens

communitytiesandreconnectspeopletothenaturalcyclesoftheearth-planting,growingand

harvesting.


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Whileurbanagricultureistheoverarchingtermforgrowingandmarketingfoodinurban

areas,gardeningisamorepersonaltermthatanindividualmightuseinreferringtoherselfor

himselfasaparticipantinanurbanagriculturalsystem.Gardeningempowerspeopleandenhances

self-sufficiency.Gardenersoftensavemoneywhilegrowingtheirownfoodandenhancetheir

healthbyeatingmorefresh,healthyproduceandgettingplentyofexerciseintheactofgardening

(Cheemaetal.6).Therearealsopoliticalbenefitsfromgardening,asnewlyempoweredcitizens

becomeinvolvedinciviclifeandforgegroupstostandupfortheirownneedforaccesstolandand

resources(Durlach22).Ingrowingtheirownfood,thesecommunitiesbegintoexperiencea

greaterresiliencytothevagariesoftheeconomy.Byproducingfoodonahumanscale,peopleare

betterabletorelatetotheirfoodandwhereitcomesfrom.

Connections

Thehealthproblemsassociatedwithfood,suchasobesityanddiabetes,suggestsa

disconnectbetweenpeopleandtheirfood.FoodecologistKloppenburgtellsusthatdistancing

disempowers(36)andthatProvidedwithanapparentcornucopiaofcontinuouslyavailable

foods,fewconsumershavemuchknowledgeofthebiological...implicationsoffood(36).By

reconnectingwiththeprocessoffoodproduction,includingthegrowingoftheirownfood,people

canbegintoseethelinkagesbetweentheirfoodandthemselves.Inanevaluativestudyof

communitygardensintheMadison,Wisconsinareaitwasdeterminedthatparticipantsin

communitygardenprojectsconsumedovertwicetheamountofvegetablesasthenon-gardening

controlgroup(Lackeyn.pag.).


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Similarly,instancesofsocialisolationalsosuggestaneedtoreconnectpeopletoasocial

networkwithintheircommunity.InthebookLoneliness:HumanNatureandtheNeedforSocial

Connection,PatrickandCacioppostatesocialisolationhasanimpactonhealthcomparabletothe

effectofhighbloodpressure,lackofexercise,obesity,orsmoking.(5).Theystatethatatanyone

momentroughlytwentypercentofthepopulationoftheUnitedStatesfeelsufficientlyisolated

forittobeamajorsourceofunhappinessintheirlives.(5).Latertheauthorsmention:Youare

fundamentallyasocialbeing.Thekeytoitallistoformstrongsocialtiesthataremeaningfuland

satisfying,bothtoyouandtothosearoundyou,nearandfar(220).Theyalsooffertheideaof

promotingconnectionisrarelydiscussedalongsidetheheatedissuesofthecostof

pharmaceuticalsandothermedicalinterventionsnecessarytodealwithanincreasinglylonely,

isolated,andagingpopulation.(251).IfoneoffivepeopleintheUnitedStatesfeelsisolated

enoughforittobeamajorsourceofunhappinessintheirlife,thenitisclearthatsocialisolationis

aproblem.Thisisaneedthatcouldbeaddressedbycommunitygardensandsimilarconceptssuch

asCommunitySupportedAgricultureenterprises.Inastudyontheroleofconnectiontonatureby

psychologistFrantzet.al,welearnthat:

Whenpractitioners[designers]thinkofhowtocreatesettingstohelpclients

feelbetter,theymaywanttothinkofmorethansimplyhownaturecanrestore

depletedattentionalcapacityandreducestress.Theymayalsowanttothinkofhow

peopleneedtofeelasenseofbelongingtosomethinglargerthanthemselvesand

thatthisneedmaybefulfilledthroughasenseofbelongingorconnectednesstothe

naturalworld.(635)


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Whatcanurbanagricultureoffertoafrequentlylonely,isolatedurbanpopulace?Urban

gardens,inanycontext,arebastionsofsocialinteraction.Theyofferplacesforneighborsto

congregateandgettoknowoneanother.Theshyareabletooccupythemselveswiththeirtasksin

thegardenuntiltheyarecomfortableenoughwiththepeopletheyseearoundthemeachdayto

formfriendships,andmoresociabletypesareimmediatelyaffordedareadygroupofnewfriends.

AspoliticalleaderstalkaboutthehealthcarecrisisgoingonintheUnitedStates,weneedto

addressnotjustthehealthvalueoftheexerciseandfreshfoodgrownintheU.S.,butthe

happinessgrowninthegardenaswell.Inasocietythatissofrequentlybusyandisolated,urban

gardensareaplaceforpeopletoreconnectsocially,aswellasnutritionally.InLackeyscommunity

gardenstudyitwaslearned,Manygardenersfoundsocialandpsychosocialbenefitsthrough

participationintheprogram.Someclientsdescribedhowthegardenshadbecomesocialhubsin

theirneighborhoods,drawingthesupportofformalandinformalgroups(n.pag.).Whilethese

gardensmeetasignificantsocialneed,theydosowhileconcurrentlymeetinganimportanthealth

andnutritionneed,makingthemallthemoreeffectiveatoolforurbanimprovement.

RobertThayer,ProfessorEmeritusofLandscapeArchitectureattheUniversityof

CaliforniaatDavis,writesThelandscapeofthenextfourorfivedecadeswillundergo

considerablerapidevolutionarychangeasastrangeadmixtureofglobalandlocalaffairstugs

ontheformativedimensionsofourwild,rural,andurbanlandscapes(20).Hereferstothe

wayinwhichourworldhasbecomeaglobalmarketplaceandyet,forthefirsttimeweare

facinganenergycrisis,whichthreatensthesystemthroughwhichwecurrentlyprocurethe

thingsweneed.Aspetroleumbecomesincreasinglyexpensivewewillneedandwanttobuy

moreitemsfromwithinourlocalareaandurbanagricultureisanimportantpartofthat


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picture.Thisisnotaminorroleforlocalfoodsystemstoplay.Byprovidingasourceoffresh,

localfoodgardensservetoincreasecommunityresilience,ortheabilityofasystem,from

individualpeopletowholeeconomies,toholdtogetherandmaintaintheirabilitytofunction

inthefaceofchangeandshocksfromtheoutside(Hopkins12).If,asRobHopkins,the

founderoftheTransitionmovementclaims,theAgeofCheapOilisinfactathand,thenfora

societyutterlydependentonit,thismeansenormouschange;butthatthefuturewithlessoil

couldbepreferabletothepresent,ifweplansufficientlyinadvancewithimaginationand

creativity(17).Urbanagricultureisalogical,creativeresponsetothechangescurrentlyat

hand.

Urbanagriculturehastheabilitytoaddresscurrentsocial,economic,recreational,

emotional,healthandnutritionneedsallatonce.Foronesocialresponsetofillsomany

nichesforsucharelativelyminorcostasisassociatedwithagarden,thisisanissuethat

landscapearchitectureneedstogivedueconsiderationtoandexaminewhereourrolewithin

itmightlie.


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ChapterTwo

MethodologicalFramework

Theprimaryquestionunderlyingthisstudyiswhataretheimplicationsofurban

agricultureforlandscapearchitecture?Thefollowingquestionsassistinunderstandingthe

precedingquestionandwillbeexploredthroughresearchandsitevisits.Whatarethegoals

ofurbanagricultureprojects?Howarethosegoalsmet?Howareurbanagricultureprojects

managedandfunded?Dotheseformsofmanagementcreateanyoftheirownproblems?

Whatistheroleofvolunteersandpaidemployeesinanurbanagricultureproject?Howisthe

seasonalnatureofurbanagricultureaddressed?Whatistheimpactoftheseprojectsontheir

surroundingcommunities?Howdotheseprojectsimpactpeople?Whatistheimpactofthese

projectsonthesenseofplaceintheircommunity?Whatistheimpactoftheseprogramson

thenutritionoftheirsurroundingcommunities?

Eachurbanagricultureprojecthasitsownreasonforbeingandeachtypicallyaddresses

multiplegoalswithinitscommunity.Formanyurbanites,theseprojectsaretheonly

opportunitytheyhavefordaily,personalinteractionwithnature,theirfoodandtheir

neighbors.Thelonghistoryofurbanagriculture,coupledwiththerecentresurgenceof

interestinit,bearwitnesstothesignificanceofthismovementonAmericanculture.

Landscapearchitectureseekstocreatedesignsthatimpactpeopleandcommunitiesand

throughananalysisofthesemoreunderstandable,human-scalefoodproductionsystemswe

cangainabetterunderstandingoftheelementsthatmaketheseprojectssuccessfulandthat

mightbetransferabletothedisciplineoflandscapearchitecture.FrommyliteraturereviewI


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haveconcludedthatlittleresearchhasbeendoneontheimpactofurbanagriculturalsystems

onthedisciplineoflandscapearchitecture.

ImplicationsByincreasingunderstandingofspecificurbanagricultureprojects,thisstudywillshow

specificmethodsofincreasingcommunityandculturalrelevancyoflandscapearchitecture

projects.Throughthelensoffoodproductionsystemsonascalecomparabletoahuman

being,itwillbepossibletolookatlandscapearchitectureandseeopportunitiestoincreasea

projectsrelevancytothecommunityinwhichitisplaced.Iamnotsuggestingthatevery

urbanlandscapemustbebasedinafoodproductiondesign,merelythatelementsoffood

productionsystemshavetheabilitytoenhanceadesignandincreaseitsimportancetothe

communityitisdesignedtoserve.Isuspectthatbyincludingfoodsystemsinadesignitis

possibletoaddressabroaderrangeofsocietalissuesthanhavebeentraditionallyconfronted

bylandscapearchitecture.Thestudyofurbanagriculturemayintroduceus,asdesigners,toa

moreorganicmeansofsitedesignthanwehaveconsideredpreviously.AsIshallusetheterm

inthispaper,byorganicIrefertoasystemofdesignanalogoustolivingformsand

possessingastructureorplanthatperfectlyfulfillsthefunctionalrequirementsoftheoriginal

designpurpose(Dictionaryn.pag.).Sinceurbanagricultureisdifficulttomeasureandtakes

manyfrequentlychangingforms,organicisadesignconceptthatseemsespecially

appropriatehere.


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ResearchMethodology

OriginallyIenvisionedthisprojectasbeingaboutthecreationofafoodsystems

curriculumforlandscapearchitecturestudents.Ibeganwithaneedtoknowaboutany

landscapearchitectureprogramsthatofferedanyleveloftraininginfoodsystems.I

consideredsurveyinguniversitylandscapearchitectureprogramsintheUnitedStates,but

quicklyrealizedthatthiswastoobroadforthetimeIhadavailableinwhichtocompletethis

project.Iinsteadchosetoutilizeane-maillistserveforlandscapearchitects.Isentouta

requestforinformationonlandscapearchitectureprogramsthatofferedclassesor

curriculumonfoodsystems.Iheardbackfromsixprogramsthatofferedsometypeoffood

systemscourseworkwithintheirlandscapearchitecturecurriculum,butIalsoheardfrom

manymorelandscapearchitectswhoexpressedinterestinsuchtrainingandafeelingthat

suchtrainingwaslackingintheirownbackgroundsandwouldbeuseful.

FromthisinitialinquiryIagaindecidedtonarrowmyfocusandlookatfoodsystemsand

theirpossibleimplicationsforlandscapearchitecture.Consideringtheburgeoninggrowthof

urbanagricultureintheUnitedStates,withallthatthattermcovers,Idecidedtoconcentrate

onpublicsitesofurbanagriculture.Iengagedinanextensiveliteraturereview,beginning

withthehistoryofurbanagricultureasitrelatedtotheUnitedStates.FromthatpointIchose

toconductsitevisitsfocusedonprisongardensandschoolgardenprojects.

IdeterminedIwantedtoconductinstrumentalsitevisitsbecauseIwantedmystudyto

beaninvestigationthatwouldallowmeinsightintounderlyingprinciplesofeachtypeof

gardenIstudiedthatIcouldthenapplybacktolandscapearchitecture(Stake,1995).Iwanted

tofindoutwhatpeopleactivelyinvolvedineachofthesegardenshadlearnedalongtheir


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wayandwhatadvicetheywouldoffertosomeoneelseinterestedinasimilarundertaking.I

wantedtolookoutsidethelandscapearchitectureprofession,toseewhatwasbeingdoneby

urbanagriculturalistswhodidnotpossesseyesinfluencedbyyearsofdesigntraining,but

createdfromtheirownexperienceandtheexperienceofthosetheyworkedwith,their

intendedendusers.

IchosethetwocategoriesofgardensbecauseasIstudiedurbanagricultureIsaw

interestingthingshappeningintheseareasthatIdidnotfeelwerebeingaddressedinanyof

thelandscapearchitectureliteratureIencounteredorclassesIhadtaken.Iwonderedwhat

thesegrassrootsformsofgardeninghadtooffertolandscapearchitectureasadiscipline.

IfocusedmyliteraturereviewfurtheronthesetopicsandfromwhatIdiscoveredinthat

processIbegantonarrowdowneachfieldtochoosesitesthatinterestedmeandthatIcould

visitpersonally,tobetteraidmyowngrowthandunderstandingofthetopicathand.I

determinedthatIwantedmysitestobeinWashingtonstate,oratleastthePacific

Northwest.Iwantedmysitestoeachbeagrassrootsoccurrencethathadnothadthe

influenceofalandscapearchitectintheirplanningorcreationandIwantedeachsitetohave

anestablishedhistorythatspokeofitssuccessinaccomplishingitspurposes.Ididnot

determineasetlengthofhistory,asIwantedtostudythebestpracticesofsomeofthe

longestestablishedprogramsthatmetmyothercriteriawithoutbeingboundbyanarbitrary

measureoftime.

OnceIestablishedmysitesIdeterminedthatIwantedtoallowforsnowballing;ifin

studyingonesite,IlearnedofanotherrelatedsitethatmetmyothercriteriaIwantedtobe

abletoincreasemyunderstandingbyincludingthesesecondarysitesaswell.Ideterminedto


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conductmyonsiteanalysisthroughvisualobservationofatypicalmomentinthelifeofthat

siteanditsusers.Sincemyprimarygoalwitheachcasewastoincreasemyunderstandingof

thatsite,Iwantedtoallowforanorganicabilitytostrayfrommyplannedinquiryandfollow

anynewobservationsIcameacrossduringthecourseofthesitevisit.

IdevelopedagenerallistofquestionsIneededtofindanswerstoateachsite,and

anotherlistthatwasmorespecifictoeachtypeofsite.WhenIvisitedasiteItooknoteson

paperasItoured.Iwaslookingtoanswerthefollowingquestionsformyself:

Whatmotivatedinvolvementfortheparticipantsinthisproject?

Whatisthisproject'smission/goal?

Whatarethekeyrolesofparticipantsinthissite?

Whataretheproject'sprimaryfundingsources?

Howfaraheaddotheybudgetforthisproject?

Whatsortofmanagerialhierarchydoestheprojectemploy?

Hasthathierarchyevercreatedproblemsinachievingtheproject'sobjectives?

Whathavebeentheproject'sbiggestsuccesses/challenges?

Havetherebeenanyunusualoutcomesthatwerenotexpected?

Whatarethefuturegoalsfortheproject?

Myprisonspecificlistincludedtheseadditionalinquiries:

Whodoestheworkatthesite?

Howareparticipantsselectedforinvolvement?

HavetherebeenanyInstitutionalimpactsoninmatebehaviorasaresultofthis

project?Ineithertheparticipantsornon-participants?


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Whatvariousprojectsareapartofthissustainabilityprogram,bothatthissite

andatothersitesinthesystem?

Hasthisprojectproventobecostefficient?Howso?

Arethereanyrelatedprogramsforpost-releaseparticipants?

Howdoesthisprogramimpactinmatenutrition?Whatpercentofaninmate's

diettypicallycomesfromfoodproducedon-site?

Myschoolspecificinquiriesincludedthefollowing,inadditiontothegeneralqueries:

Whodoesthework?(oversight,planning,actualgardening,upkeep,etc.)

Howdoesthesitecontinuetooperateoverthesummerbreak?

Whatmotivatesparticipantinvolvementinthisproject?

Whatsortoffeedbackfromthecommunity-students,parents,hasbeen

received?

Istherealotofenthusiasmamongprojectparticipants?

Howdoesthisprojecttieinwithcurricularobjectives?Isthereanutrition

componenttothisproject?Howdoesthatwork?(Specifically,istheproduce

usedinschooldining?)

InanalyzingandinterpretingthecommunicationsandobservationsIhadwiththesites,

aswellasmypreviousresearch,IsoughttofirstaddressmyexperienceatthesiteandwhatI

learnedfromit:thefacts,lookingforcommonalitiesbetweenthecases,aswellasmajor

differences.FortheschoolsIvisitedIexaminedthedemographicdatafortheareaincluding:

racialmakeup,medianhomesaleprice,averageadjustedgrossincomeandaverageresident

age.Sincetheabilityofaschooltoofferaprogram,suchasagarden,couldbeinfluencedby


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thedemographicsfortheneighborhoodinwhichtheschoolwaslocated,Ifeltthisdatawas

essentialtomyresearch.ToprocurethatinformationIusedanonlinedatafinder,City-

data.com,whichgetsitsinformationfrompubliclyavailablerecords.

Iwassearchingforgeneraltrendsineachcasethatwouldshowhowthatsiteconducted

itsmissionandhowthosegeneralitiesmightinfluencelandscapearchitecture.Ialsolooked

forsustainableeconomicimpactsandproductivityissuesineachsitethatcouldbesignificant.

Ifollowedupthisobjectivedatawithmyownnarrativeimpressionsandobservationsthat

wouldaidmeinunderstandingpracticalapplicationsforlandscapearchitecture,asasitesimpact

onavisitorisavitalcomponentofitssuccess.Ichosetoutilizenarrativeasatooltocapturethe

immeasurablebenefitsofurbanagriculture,whicharedifficulttoassesswithstandardquantitative

metrics.Landscapearchitectsseektocreatelandscapesthattellameaningfulstoryandthrough

myownnarrativeIhopedtocapturethatstoryasIexperiencedthesite.


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ChapterThree

History

Aslongastherehavebeenurbansettlements,therehasbeenurbanagricultureinsome

form.Withindustrializationcamerapidincreasesinurbanpopulationsandtheinfluxofnew

urbandwellershadtofeedthemselves,greatlyexpandingthescaleofurbanagriculture.Prior

totheIndustrialRevolution,thebiologicalsystemthatencompassedurbanagriculturewasan

ecologicallyclosed-loopwheremostwasteproducts,suchasanimalmanureandcropresidue,

wereorganicinnatureandcouldberecycledbacktothesoilasaregenerativefertilizer

(Cheemaetal.12).Increasingindustryoftenproducedwastethatwasnon-organicandmore

complicatedtorecyclesuchasindustriallubricantsandotherpetroleumbasedproducts

(Cheemaetal.13).

Alongwithindustrializationcametheseparationofpeoplefromtheland(Cheemaetal.

13),withtownplannersseekingtoseparateagricultureouttotheruralareasandcommercial

productionbeingcontainedwithintheurbanarea(Cheemaetal.13).Newhygieneprinciples

suchasindoorplumbingandamunicipaldesireforcleancitiesdiscouragedurbanfarming

andcreatedwastemanagementsystemstodisposeofconcentratedwaste(Cheemaetal.13).

England

Initially,thefirstgardensallocatedbymunicipalitiesfortheuseoflandlesscitizens

occurredinEngland.Between1754and1815,asEnglandtransitionedtoacommercialand

industrializedformofagriculture,ruralfamilieswereoftendisenfranchised(Durlach8).During


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thisperiodtheEnclosureActsprivatizedthecountrysideandcommonsintoindividualparcels

(Durlach8).Withindustryofferingjobsandtheirpropertyseized,youngpeopleandpeasants

wereluredintothecity,creatingcongestedurbanareas.BeforethistimeBritainscitieshad

designatedblocksofopenspacethatcitizenscouldcultivateaskitchengardens.Asurbanland

increasedinvaluetheseopenspaceswereconsumedbydevelopment(Durlach8).Urbanites

wouldsometimesjointogethertorentperipheralurbanpropertyforgardensbutdevelopment

pressureincreasinglypushedthatlandfartheroutintothesurroundingcountrysideuntilitwas

unfeasibleforacity-dwellertoworkit.

Inthelate18thcentury,somelandownerswouldrentpatchesoflandforusebyprivate

gardeners.Strictruleswereplaceduponsuchactivitiesoutofconcernthatworkinginsuch

gardenswoulddistractworkersorevenallowthemtheself-sufficiencynottoworkatall

(Durlach9).TheseplotsweresopopularthattheAllotmentActsof1887and1890were

passed,creatingallotmentgardensforthelaboringpopulation.Theseactsrequiredurban

boroughsanitationauthoritiestomakeavailablespaceforcommunitygardens,otherwise

knownasallotments(King7).SimilardevelopmentswereoccurringacrossEurope.

AlternateEnglishThinking

In1898,inEngland,EbenezerHowardauthoredatheoryforaradicallydifferentkindof

town:thegardencity.InHowardsvision,alargeragriculturalzonesurroundedthemain

populationcenter,wherethepopulatedtownareaservedasareadymarketforthefarmer.In

thiswaythecity-dwellershadreadyaccesstothepleasuresandbeautiesofthecountryside.

Includedintheplanwasanefficientrailsystemtofacilitateeaseoftransportinandaroundthe


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city(Newton453-4).Five-sixthsoftheareainandaroundthesecitieswastobedesignatedfor

agricultureandresidentsweregiven20by130footplotsinwhichtogrowfood(Bohn,Howe

andViljoen99).TheGardenCityrailservicewastoavoidovercrowdingwithinagricultural

lands.Howardalsoclaimedtherailsystemwouldreducethecostoftransportationoffoodand

allowforrecyclingcitywaste.Howardstheorieshadwidespreadeffectontownplanning

acrossEurope,but,accordingtoBohn,HoweandViljoen(99),internationallyitwasthe

theoriesofLeCorbusier,asdelineatedinTheCityofTomorrow(LeCorbusier,1929)thathad

themostimpactoninternationalarchitectureandurbanplanninginthetwentiethcentury.

France

Parisinthe19th

centurywasknownthroughoutEuropeforitshighlyintensiveagricultural

production,whichtodayisstillreferredtoasFrenchgardening.One-sixthofthecityofParis,Le

Maraisorthemarsh,producedannuallymorethan100,000tonsofhighvalue,outofseason

saladcrops(Cheemaetal.31).Thissystemwasamodelofinnovativeandintensiveuseof

resourcesathand,exploitingthestablemanurethatwasproducedinabundance.Before

modernmethodsofsanitationweredeveloped,urbanagriculturewastheprimarymethod

usedtodisposeofurbanwastes.Inenergy,massandmonetaryterms,theinputsandoutputs

oftheParisianurbanagro-ecosystemexceededthoseofmostexamplesofpresent-day,fully

industrializedcropproduction(Cheemaetal.31).SomuchwasproducedthatParisexceeded

itsownlevelofconsumptionandvegetableswereexportedasfarasLondon.Towardstheend

ofthe19thcenturythissystemofFrenchgardeningpeaked,ascarsreplacedhorsesandanimal

manurewasnolongerreadilyavailableforfertilizer.Aslandvaluesincreased,areaswithbetter


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climatesandlowerpropertyvaluesoutsidethecitywereabletoout-competeParisthanksto

efficientnewformsoftransportationthatcouldquicklyhaulproduceacrossthecountrysideto

market,makinglocalproductionseemquaintandinefficient(Cheemaetal.31-32).

AlternateFrenchThinking

InTheCityofTomorrowLeCorbusierdescribeshisGardenCityasmorecondensedand

verticalthanHowardsdesign.Heenvisionedoverone-thirdofatypicalhousingplotbe

designatedtocommunityfarmingwithafarmerinchargeofevery100plots.Intensive

cultivationwouldbeundertakenandorchardswouldseparatethefarmedareasfromthe

housing(LeCorbusier218).Hespelledoutseveraldifferentplansofusethatwouldinteract

witheachotheroverafabricofcultivatedfarmlands,creatingwhatwerefertotodayasperi-

urbanagriculture,oragricultureimmediatelyadjacenttourbanareas.Hisideawasthat

housingwouldbebuiltinsunandairinfusedcellsstackedinthree-storybuildings,eachwith

itsownhanginggardenthatwouldprovidetheownerwithaprivatespaceforrelaxingor

diningandthatrequiredminimalmaintenance(LeCorbusier217).Aroundtheseapartment

buildingshecalledforareasofopenspaceforrecreationandorchardsadjacenttosurrounding

allotmentgardensthatwouldbesupervisedbyafull-timefarmerwhowouldseetotheheavy

workofplowingandwatering.Thisgardenspacewouldalsoallowforstorageofexcess

produceforwinter(LeCorbusier218).

InthisgardencityschemeLeCorbusierbelievedhehadsolvedtheproblemsinherentin

thesprawlingmoderncitiesthatweregrowingcommonacrossthedevelopedworld.He

suggestedthatthisdesignplanwouldturninhabitantsofhiscitiesintoagriculturallabourers,


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theproducerthatwasdisappearingfromthecountryside.Healsosuggestedthatthisdesign

wouldallowitsinhabitantsmoreroominwhichtoliveandplayandmoreefficientuseoftheir

timeandenergy(LeCorbusier215-218).LeCorbusierwasavisionarymanitwouldseem,as

todaycitiesaroundtheworldareadoptingaspectsofhisplanandincorporatingthemintotheir

cityplan.ACNNArticlebyShaikhmentionsthatCuba,JapanandChinaallhavesuccessful

urbanfarmsandVancouver,CanadaevenhasanOfficeofUrbanAgriculturewithinthe

government.DevelopingcountriessuchasKenyaareexperimentinginurbanagricultureand

manycitiesintheUnitedStates,suchasChicago,DetroitandNewYorkallhavesignificantcity

farmprojects(Shaikhn.pag.).Germanyalsohassomeinterestinginterestingandprogressive

urbanagricultureprojectstakingplace(Schroedern.pag.).

DetroitAppropriationGarden

Figure1


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UnitedStates

IntheUnitedStates,thefirstappropriatedgardens,allotmentgardens,werecreatedfor

economicreasonscausedbythedepressionof18931897.DetroitmayorHazenS.Pingree

requestedthatownersofvacantlandatthecitiesedgelendtheirpropertytotheunemployed

togrowfoodtosupportthemselvesthroughthecomingwinter.Thecityplowed430acres.On

plotsofone-quartertoone-halfacreinsize,945familiessettoworktogrowtheirownfood.

Thecityrequiredhalfofthelandtobeplantedinpotatoesand14,000bushelsofpotatoes

weregrown.ThecityofDetroitspent$3,000ontheprojectandproduced$12,000worthof

potatoes.(Durlach13).Today,Detroitisagainhometoathrivingrevivalofurbanfarming

(DetroitAgriculture).Othercitieswentontoimitatethisprojectinsimilareconomiccrises.An

importantaspectoftheseprogramswastheirtemporarynature.Assoonasthecrisispassed

andtherealestatepricesrecovered,thegardenswereforfeit.Whilethisworkedwellfor

recruitinglandownersindifficulteconomictimes,astheyknewitwouldnotcostthem

anything,theshort-termnatureofthesegardensmeantthattheyweretemporarysolutionsto

theneedsofthepoor.


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GardenBasedLearning

Figure2

GardenBasedLearning

Whilethepoorweregardeningasameansofsurvivalinthe1890s,educationreformers

promotedschoolgardensasaninteractiveteachingvenuethatcorrelatedwithschoolsubjects

andtaughtcivicsandgoodworkhabits(Lawson21).Theinclusionofchildreninthegardenisa

recurringthemeacrossthehistoryofgardenprograms,buttheperiodfrom1890totheearly

1920swasthemostnoteworthyeraforsuchprojects.Becausegardeningwasconsideredan

appropriatetooltoaddressarangeofsocietalills,childrensprogramsenjoyedbroadsupport

andwerepromotedbycelebritiesofthedaysuchaslandscapearchitectFrederickLaw

Olmstead,socialreformerJacobRiisandPresidentWoodrowWilson(Lawson52).

In1914theschoolyardgardenconceptbecameanationalmovementwiththe

establishmentoftheFederalBureauofEducationsOfficeofSchoolandHomeGardening

devotedtoitspromulgation.Thisnationalofficesuggestedthat:Gardenprogramsneedto


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demonstratetheirpopularappealandeducationalworthifschooladministratorswereto

acceptgardeningintothecurriculumandbudget(Lawson66).Citingtherelativelowcostof

gardening,theofficeurgedlocalschoolboardstoofferfinancialsupport,andmanyschool

boardsrespondedbyaddingadedicatedgardenertotheirfaculty(Lawson66).

Regardlessofwhetherlocalschoolboardstookgardeningintotheirbudgetorcurriculum,

gardenprogramsreliedonabroadnetworkofsupport.Collaborativeunionsbetweenschools

andphilanthropicandcivicorganizationswerecommonandfrequentlynecessarytoget

projectsstartedandtosustainthem(Lawson66).

ReliefGarden

Figure3

HistoricMovementsofUrbanAgriculture

OnefoundationalworkfrequentlycitedbystudiesonthetopicofU.S.community

gardeningisthe1979geographyMastersthesisofThomasBassettattheUniversityof

California,Berkeley.Inthisthesis,Bassettexaminescommunitygardensbygroupingtheir

historicalgeographyintowhathereferstoasmovements(Bassett1).Hedelineatesseven

suchmovements,eachcorrespondingtoaperiodofsocio-economiccrisisthatplacedgreat


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stressontheculturalframeworkofthecountry(Bassett2).Hecontendsthatcommunity

gardenshaveservedasabufferingmechanismthatlendssupporttotheAmericansocial

systemduringtimesofeconomicandsocialdistress(2).UniversityofCalifornia,SantaCruz

AssociateProfessorofCommunityStudiesMaryBethPudupstatesthatBassettswork

remainsthestandardinterpretationasdoeshisnotionthatcommunitygardensintheUnited

Stateshavebeenresponsestocrisisandemergency(Pudup1229).

SevenmovementsofcommunitygardensasoutlinedbyBassett:

Title Year Event

PotatoPatches 1894-1917 Panicof1893

Schoolgardens 1900-1920 Characterformationofchildren

GardenCityPlots 1905-1920 Urbanbeautification

Libertygardens 1917-1920 WorldWarI

Reliefgardens 1930-1939 GreatDepression

Victorygardens 1941-1945 WorldWarII

Communitygardens 1970-present Urbansocialmovements Table1

Thesemovementsarehelpfulindiscerningthehistoricalphasesofthecommunity

gardeningorurbanagriculturemovement.Theyserveasatimelinetoitsevolutioninthe

UnitedStatesaswellasmakingclearthelinkbetweennationalcrisisandsocietalresponse.


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ofnecessityduringtheGreatDepressionandagainduringWorldWarTwo.In1944withthe

nationonceagainatwar,20milliongardensproduced44%ofthefreshvegetablesinthe

UnitedStates(Durlach17).

OneofthefewvictorygardensthatcontinuedonafterthewarwasinDavis,California,

nearbytotheUniversityofCaliforniasSchoolofAgriculture.Thegardensinfluenceonandby

theuniversitygaveitasubstantialinfluenceinsuburbansubdivisiondesign.Onesubdivision,

VillageHomesinDavis,wasanopen-spacedesign,whichincorporatedorchards,vineyardsand

communitygardensownedandmanagedbytheneighborhoodresidents(Cashdan,Paxson&

Frances23-25)aswellasdesignatedopenspace.BecauseDaviswashometoalandgrant

university,thesubdivisionsnearbyhadaninfluenceonstudentswholivedandstudiedthere,

providingthemwithafunctionalexampleofhowsuchahuman-scaledurbanfoodsystem

couldwork(Durlach21).Thedesignsofthesesubdivisionswouldgoontoinfluencecommon

landsonsuburbanlayoutsacrossthecountry(Durlach21).

Post-WarIndustrialization

Urbanhouseholdfoodproductionandperi-urbanmarketgardeningweresignificant

industriesintheU.S.upuntiltheendofWorldWarTwo,whenAmericaturneditswartime

munitionsfactoriestofertilizerproductionfacilitiesandsettoworktoindustrializeitselfona

majorscale.Asignatureofmodernlifebecamecompartmentalization.Citiesandtownstookto

separatinghomefrommarketplace,workplacefromopenspace.In1973SecretaryofAgriculture

EarlButzcommandedfarmerstocompartmentalize,toseparatelivestockfromcropsandtoget

bigorgetoutandPlantfencerowtofencerow(qtd.InPhilpott).Thesepost-warfragmented


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farmswereconsideredhallmarksofmodernityandinzoningandplanningagriculturebecame

somethingquaintandbackwards,notsuitableforthepolite,moderncompanydesiredintowns

andcities.Smallfarmsontheedgesoftownsweredevelopedintohousing,pushingagriculture

fartherout,fartherfromtheconsumer(Durlach21).

UrbanAgricultureasaSocialMovement

Inthe1960sanewenvironmentalawarenessgrewoutofsocialupheaval,beginningwith

RachelCarsonsseminalworkSilentSpring,whichwasthefirsttogetpeoplethinkingaboutthe

stateoftheenvironmentandtheearthsabilitytosustainlife.Thepopulationgrowththat

cameoutofthepostwaryears,coupledwithpeoplesemergentthinkingaboutthe

environmentandthecivilrightsmovementofthe1960screatedanewpoliticalenvironment.

Thegrowthofthesuburbsalsoledtomorevacantlandinthecitycenters.Togetherthesetwo

events,theempowermentofnewpoliticsandtheopportunitiesofvacantlandhavecreateda

historicallyunprecedentedseriesofclassandracialcoalitions(Durlach20).Thesenew

alliancesbegantobringurbanneighborstogethertoplantandmaintaincommunitygardens

andmanagetheirpubliclandswhilesettinggoalsfornewwaysofrebuildingtheir

neighborhoods.

Thisnewmixofenvironmentalconcernandpoliticalactioncreatedrenewedinterestin

allotmentgardensinEnglandandsawthecreationofthefirstmodern-eracommunitygardens

intheU.S.intheearly1970s.Thesecommunitygardensdifferedfromallotmentsofthepast

inthattheiremphasislayinregeneratingcommunity.Thetermcommunitygardenhascome

tomeangardenscreatedbygrassrootsinitiativesasopposedtothepublicgardensofthe


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1890sand1950s,whichwerelargelytheresultoffederalandlocalgovernmentfundingand

organization(Hassell91).Inresponsetothegrowingnumberofcommunitygardensacrossthe

countryandacorrespondingincreaseinnumbersofcity-basedcommunitygarden

organizations,theAmericanCommunityGardeningAssociationwasformedin1979(American

CommunityGardeningAssociation).TheACGAwascreatedtounitethethousandsofprograms

thathadsprungupacrossthecountry,toprovidelandandresourcesforpeoplewithoutlandof

theirown,andasanorganizationalbodyforallcommunitygardengroups.TheACGAwasa

meanstoassisturbanfarmersandgardenersingrassrootsorganization.Forthefirsttime,the

gardenersthemselveswereorganizingtheirowngardens.

Duringthe1970sand1980scommunitygardensincreasinglyservedastoolstorebuild

communitiesthatwerebeingtornapartbyurbanrenewalprojects,decliningurbanpopulation,

abandonedpropertiesandracialtension.Byworkingtogetherongardenprojects,neighbors

couldtakepersonalstepstoaddressinflation,theenvironment,andsocialanomiewhilealso

contributingtoaneighborhoodrenaissance(Lawson206).Manyofthesameoutcomesthat

motivatedgardenersofthepreviouscentury,suchasfresh,economicalfoodandself-

sufficiency,werestilldesiredbythesenewgardeners,buttheywerenowacknowledgedasa

partofthesocialprocessinherentinnegotiatingcommunalgardenspace(Lawson206).Inthe

1970sand1980sthefocuswasoncreatingcommunityamongstthegardenersandbetween

thegardenanditsneighborhood,cityandsocietyingeneral.Wherepreviousgenerations

gardenprojectshadtypicallybegunwithatopdownapproachofanoutsideorganization

developingthegardenforthegardeners,theseprojectsofthe70sand80ssawhigherratesof

userinvolvementandplanningandwerelocallycontrolledandmaintained(Durlach21-22).The


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UnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculturehadanUrbanGardeningProgramofitsownfrom

1976until1993.In1973,theMasterGardenerProgramwasbegunbyExtensionagentsof

WashingtonStateUniversityasaresponsetopublicinquirytheyreceivedfrompeopleseeking

assistanceintheirgardens(Gibbyetal.n.pag.).

Communityleadershipdevelopedaroundgardensasgardenersparticipatedinthe

processesofcommunityoutreach,negotiatingwithcityagenciesfornecessaryresourcesand

frequently,infightingwiththecitytodefendthegardenagainstdissolution(Durlach20-21).In

theearly1990stheACGAwaspressuredtobroadenitsmission,toincludecommunity

development,socialjustice,educationandenvironmentalisminresponsetothetrendsseenin

communitygardening(Lawson238-9).Inthe1990sthenumberandtypesofgardensincreased

(Lawson238)andincludedunderthetermofcommunitygardenwereneighborhood

gardens,institutionalgardensthatofferedhorticulturaltherapyprograms,andschoolgardens,

aswellasotherstypesofprojects,suchasprisongardens.

ACGAmembersinthe1990sweremostactiveincommunityorganizing,assistingwith

landacquisition,followedbyprovidingassistancewithhorticultureissuesandeducation

programs.Theseactivitiesstillrepresenttheprimaryservicesofferedbymemberorganizations

oftheACGA.Byexpandingtheirworkincommunitydevelopmentandbecomingincreasingly

politicallysavvy,gardenorganizationshavebeenabletoexpandtheirinfluenceintomunicipal

planningandfundingandtheiractivelobbyinghasincreasedawarenessamongpolicymakers

forthenecessityforgardenfundingandsitepermanence(Lawson243).Inexercisingpolitical

clouttheseorganizationsareabletobettermeettheneedsofthememberstheyserve.

Additionally,gardenorganizationsinthe1990sgrewadeptatcollaboratingwithother


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organizationstoaccomplishsharedvisions.Mostalsoinsistedthatgardensmustbeestablished

bythemembersthemselves,notsimplygiventoresidentsfromanoutsidebenefactor.Tothat

end,theACGAcreatedamentorshipcurriculumfornewgardenorganizationscalledFromthe

RootsUp.Thefollowingfivecorebeliefsthatgroundedthisprogramwere:

1. Therearemanywaystostartacommunitygarden.

2. Inorderforagardentobesustainableasatruecommunityresource,it

mustgrowfromlocalconditionsandreflectthestrengths,needsand

desiresofthelocalcommunity.

3. Diverseparticipationandleadership,atallphasesofgardenoperation,

enrichandstrengthenacommunitygarden.

4. Eachcommunitymemberhassomethingtocontribute.

5. Gardensarecommunitiesinthemselves,aswellaspartofalarger

community.(qtd.InLawson244)

Thesebeliefssayverylittleaboutgardening,choosinginsteadtofocusontheskills

requiredtomakeacommunitygardensuccessfulatempoweringlocalgardengroups.Itwas

thistypeofthinkingthatfounditshomein1990surbanagriculturesettingsanditsummarizes

themovementinthe1990s.

InlookingbackontheurbanagriculturemovementsofthepastwecanseeBassetts

sevenmovementsandthecrisiseachwasrespondingto:financialdepression,war,character

developmentandfinally,thesocio-economicdifficultiesofourmodernera.Ineach

circumstanceurbangardenprojectswereresponsestochangewiththegardenservingto

bufferthedifficultiesoftheday.


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ChapterFour

PrisonGardens

Thegardenshidden...possibilitiesmayemergeinextremesituations....

Indefiantsituations,humansdisplayasurprisingresourcefulnessindesignand

function,informalarrangement,andintheappropriation,gathering,anduseof

materials.Recognitionofourowncreativityunderadverseconditionsheightens

oursatisfactioninbeinginsuchagarden.Asweknow,theseedsofcertain

plantswillgerminateonlywhenexposedtotheheatoffire;thehorrible

inhumaneconditions...unlocksomethingdormant,allowingittosproutasa

defiantgarden(Helphand6).

InlookingatgrassrootsurbanagriculturalmovementsIwasmostintriguedbythe

programsthathadthemostpotentialforgood,withthelowestinvestment.Ihadread

somethingaboutWashingtonStatesSustainablePrisonsprojectanditmadesensetomefrom

aneconomicandanecologicalperspective.Aprojectsuchasagarden,inaprison,seemedto

makemoresensethananythingIcouldthinkof.AsIlookedintoitfurther,Idiscoveredthere

waslittlewrittenonitandIdeterminedthatthiswouldbesomethingIwantedtolearnmore

about.Inmymind,ifanyoneneededthesimplepleasuresfoundinagarden,aprisonerwould.

Italsoseemedthatitwouldmakesensefromaneconomicstandpoint.Ifagardeninaprison

couldprovebeneficialtotheinmatesandeconomicallyfeasibletotheDepartmentof


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Corrections,thissystemwouldcertainlyofferbenefitsworthexaminingforlandscape

architecture.

Writingaboutprisonersandgardens,KennethHelphand,inhisbookDefiantGardens:

MakingGardensinWartimestates,Recognitionofourowncreativityunderadverse

conditionsheightensoursatisfactioninbeinginsuchagarden(6).Hegoesontosay,the

humanbenefitsofgardeningaremoreclearlyseeninimpoverishedenvironmentsthatlackthe

amenitiestomakelifepleasant.Gardenspromisebeautywherethereisnone,hopeover

despair,optimismoverpessimism,andfinallylifeinthefaceofdeath(7).Helphandsstudyof

gardensconstructedintheadverseconditionsofwar,prisonsorghettospointstothepositive

powerofagardentoinspirehopeinthebleakestconditions.Initsverynature,agardenisa

hopefulplace;whenweplantwehopetheseedswesowwillgerminate,theplantswillsurvive

andthriveandthatwewillbearoundtowitnessthesemiracles(Helphand7).Ingardeningwe

cancreatepeacefulsolaceinachaoticworld.Gardenscreatedbyimprisonedpopulationsare

importanttoexaminebecausetheyofferhopeinthebleakestofconditions.

NancyFlinn,authorofThePrisonGardenBook,listsfourgeneralbenefitsofaprison

havingagardeningprogramforitsinmates.Theseincludethemeaningfulworkitprovidesthe

inmates,thefooditproducesfortheinstitution,thejob-preparatoryeducationthatinmates

gainwhilegardeningandadditionally,gardeningisanopportunitytosucceedforapopulation

whomaynothavehadmanysuchopportunities(16).Anotheradvantageofaprisongardenis

seeninresearchconductedbyMoore,aprofessorofarchitectureattheUniversityof

Nebraska-Lincoln,whichshowedthattheviewsofferedoutofaprisoncellarerelatedtothe

numberofsick-callsreceivedbytheinfirmary,withprisonerswhohaveaviewofplantsbeing


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lesslikelytobeill(24).LaterresearchbyWest,agraduatestudentattheUniversityof

Washington,confirmedthecorrelationbetweenthenumberofsick-callstothetypeandquality

oftheinmatesviewsfromtheircells;thosewithmorenaturalisticelementsintheirview

makingthefewestsuchcalls(qtd.InUlrich204).Accesstovisuallycomplex,naturalisticviews

withintheprisonenvironmenthasalsobeenshowntohavearelaxingeffectonbothinmates

andprisonstaff(Lindemuth89).

RikersIsland,thelargestjailcomplexintheUnitedStates,situatedbetweenManhattan

andQueens,hashadahorticulturalprogramforinmatessince1996(Jiler13).Administered

anddevelopedbytheHorticulturalSocietyofNewYork,theprogramsgoalistoreduce

recidivism,orreturnoffenders.Onjusttwoacresoflandinmateslearnhorticultureskills,plant

science,andecology,aswellasgardendesignandconstructionskills(Jiler13).Aftertheir

release,formerprisonershavetheopportunitytoreturntotheprogramtoworkaspaid

interns,gainingexperiencethatwillhelpthemre-integratebackintosociety.JamesJiler,the

DirectoroftheHorticultureSocietyofNewYorksjail-to-streetGreenHouseprogramand

authorofthebookDoingTimeIntheGarden,tellsusthatRikersIslandisthebiggestfarmin

NewYorkCityandproducesasmuchas40,000poundsofproduceannually(24).Thisoutputis

poweredbythelaborsoftheinmateworkers.Thistypeoflaborbyinmatesisnotuncommonin

prisonsandjailsacrosstheUnitedStates.WhatismoreunusualistheeffortRikersmakesto

connecttheinmateslabortoskillsthatwillhelpthelaborersgainemploymentoncetheyare

freed.JilertellsusthattheRikersprogramincorporatesaneclecticmixofgardentherapy,

scienceandEnglishliteracy,lifeskilldevelopmentandjobenrichmentwithprogramsforjob

placementonceastudenthasservedhis/hersentence.(Jiler28).


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Oneproblemwithintheprisonsystemisthatofmentalhealthissuesintheincarcerated

population.JilertellsusthatIn1999,theBureauofJusticeStatisticsreleasedareportthat

estimated283,000inmatesnation-widewerementallyill,almost16%ofallpeoplebehind

bars(35).Asearlyas1798Dr.BenjaminRush,knownatheFatherofAmericanPsychiatry

publishedaccountsofenhancedhealingamongtheeconomicallydisadvantagedpatientswho

workedinthehospitalfoodgardenstohelppayfortheircarewhencomparedtothewealthier

patientswhoserecoverywasconfinedtotheirrooms(qtd.InJiler34).Beyondthebenefitsof

exercisingoutsideinthesunandfreshair,caringforplantshasbeenfoundtoreducestress,

increaseself-esteemandimprovementalfocus.PsychiatristKarlMenningerlabeledthe

intangiblebenefitofferedbynatureadjunctivetherapyandstatedthatithelpspatientswith

depression,angerortraumaissues(qtd.InJiler34).

Anotherissueinthecorrectionssystemisthatofrecidivism.TheU.SBureauofJustice

Statisticscalculatesthattwo-thirdsofreleasedinmateswillberearrestedwithinthreeyearsof

leavingprison(Jiler13).Iftheseinmatesexperiencedonlyfutilitywhileinprison,isolatedfrom

theircommunityandfamily,itisdifficulttoimaginethemfeelinganydifferentlyoncetheyare

backonthestreet,withnojobandacriminalbackground(Jiler84-85).Itisalsoplausibleto

thinkthatthelives,whichledthemtoprisoninthefirstplace,werenothighlysatisfyingorfull

ofpossibility(Jiler17,28).Combinethesefactorsanditiseasytoseewhyconvictsarelikelyto

endupbackintheprisonsystem.Gardeningwhileinprisonoffersapositiveexperienceanda

chanceforprisonerstolearnskills,contemplatetheirownplaceinthenaturalorderoflifeand

increasetheirownsenseofselfworthandempowerment(Jiler34).InthecaseoftheRikers

Islandprogram,inmateshavetheopportunitytointeractwiththeirenvironmentandnurture


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relationshipswiththoseorganismsaroundthem,betheyplant,animalorhuman.Withinthese

interactionstherearechoices,rewardsandconsequences,bothtangibleandintangible.These

inmatesaregivenanopportunitytohaveapositiveimpactontheirworld,andthatcanbe

enoughtostartthemonapathtoabetterfuture.InastudyofaprisonprograminParis,Texas,

participantsinatwelvemonthhorticulturaltherapyprogramhadarecidivismrateof26%

comparedto49%forparoleesnotinvolvedintherapeuticactivities(Jiler38).

WashingtonStateSustainablePrisonsProject

FollowingthepathforgedbyRikersIsland,atwo-yearpartnershipbetweenEvergreen

StateCollegeandtheWashingtonDepartmentofCorrections(DOC)isworkingtomakethe

stateprisonsystemmoreenvironmentallyfriendly.FundedbyagrantfromtheDepartmentof

Corrections,theprogramseekstomaketheprisonsystemmoreeconomicallyand

environmentallysustainableandalsotoprovidejobtrainingtooffendersabouttore-enterthe

jobmarket.TheDOCalsoseesthisasameansofcuttingcosts.Theprojectunitesscientistsand

conservationgroupswithinmatesandprisonstafftoconductresearchandworkonrestoration

projects(TheEvergreenCollegeandWADOCn.pag.).

OneoftheWashingtonStateSustainablePrisonssitesistheMcNeilIslandCorrections

Center(MICC),locatedinsouthernPugetSoundbetweenTacomaandOlympia.Thisprojectis

enteringintoitssecondyearofproduction.Duringitsfirstyearin2009,theinmatesproduced

5,000poundsoffoodwhichwereusedtosupplementsoupsandsaladsinthefacilitiesFood

Servicesunit(TheEvergreenCollegeandWADOCn.pag.).Thisgardenprogrambeganonshort

noticewithfundingfromWashingtonStateCenterforWomensHorticultureProgramandis


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operatedbytheLawnsandGardensSupervisorandanoffendercrew.Nochemicalsareusedin

thegarden;onlygrassclippingsandwaterareaddedtothesoil.InOctoberof2009,aseriesof

soilworkshopswereofferedtotheLawns&Gardencrew.Taughtbyagraduatestudentfrom

EvergreenCollege,thecrewlearnedsoilscienceandsoilmanagementandwasgiventhe

trainingandknowledgetopreparefor2010sgarden(TheEvergreenCollegeandWADOCn.

pag.).

TheSustainablePrisonsProjectcurrentlyinvolvesfourprisons,butadministratorshave

hopesofiteventuallybecomingastatewideprogram.Withinthefourinvolvedprisons,tasks

includethecultivationoforganicproduce,beekeeping,vermiculturecompostingand

separationofrecyclablesfromtheprisonwastestream(TheEvergreenCollegeandWADOCn.

pag.).

RelatedprojectsintheSustainablePrisonsProjectincludegrowingendangerednative

plantsforprairierestorationincollaborationwithTheNatureConservancy,assistingin

breedingendangeredspottedOregonfrogsandthefarmingofmossesforthehorticultural

trade.Alloftheoffendersinvolvedintheseprogramsreceivespecializedtrainingandguidance

fromscientistsandeducatorswiththeprogramsmainfocusonjobtrainingandrecidivism

reduction(TheEvergreenCollegeandWADOCn.pag.).Theseprogramsalsosavethestate

moneyandbecauseofthistheyaremorelikelytocontinuetobeabletoassistinpreparing

offendersforre-entrytosociety.

IdiscoveredtheWashingtonStateSustainablePrisonsInitiativethroughanarticleon

grist.com,whichledmetotheEvergreenCollege,throughwhichIarrangedtovisitthefacility

onMay12,2010.


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StaffordCreekCorrectionsCenter

Figure5

StaffordCreekCorrectionCenter

UponarrivingattheStaffordCreekfacilityIwasallowedtotakeinonlymynotebookand

pen,mycamerahadnotbeenpre-approvedandwasnotallowedinside.Inaccessingthe

gardensitewepassedthroughthreedouble-gatedholdingpenswherewehadtowaitinside

forthenextpassagewaytobeopenedbeforeus.The210-acregrounds,hometonearly2,000

maleinmates,wereprimarilymadeupoflarge,flatexpansesofgreenlawnwithdormitories

andbuildingsashortdistanceapart.Thegardenwasoutbehindthemaincampusofthe

facility,nestledamongsttheshopbuildings.Themaingardenareawaslittlemorethananacre,


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butalargetrafficcircleacrossthedrivehadjustbeenplowedandplanted,doublingthe

plantingarea.Acrossfromthegardenareawastherecyclingfacility,whereinmatessort

throughtheprisonsrefuse.ThisrecyclingprojectonStaffordCreekscampushassavedthe

facilitynearly$200,000ayearjustbyrecyclingtrashinsteadofpayingtohaveithauledtoa

landfill(Oppmannn.pag.).

StaffordCreekGreenHouse

Figure6

ThevisitbeganwithalecturebytwoNatureConservancyemployeeswhometusthere.

Theywerespeakingonthenativeplantsthattheseinmatesweregrowinginthegreenhouses

tobeusedinstatewiderestorationprojects.Oncethelecturewascomplete,theinmateswent

toworkinthenext-doorgreenhousepottingseedlingsfortheproject.

TheGrounds&NurserySupervisormentionedhisfrustrationwiththedifficultyof

motivatingtheinmatestodothemoretedioustaskssuchasweeding.Ifhewasnotwatching

overthemallthetimetheytendedtoslackoff,asmanydidwhentherewerevisitors,suchas

thegrouppresentthisday.Whilethesupervisorwasbusydirectingthemenswork,Iwasable

towalkaroundthegreenhousesandlookatthegardens.

Largebedscontainedvariousvegetablecrops:berries,broccoli,brusselssprouts,

cauliflower,onions,beans,corn,strawberries,raspberries,etc.Thesefoodcropsare


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intercroppedwithornamentalsandpottedflowersnearthegreenhouses.Theoldestplanting

bedsare5or6yearsofageandirrigationisconductedwithsprinklers.Whilethereisa

rainwatercollectiontankonsite,ithasnotbeenusedduetoalackofhardwaretogetthe

wateroutofthetank.

Thesupervisormentionedtheyhaveneverbeenabletogrowenoughonsiteto

significantlyimpactthediningfacility,buttheproducesupplementstheinmatesdietsandall

produceisconsumedon-site.Also,heallowstheinmatestosnackontheproduceastheywork.

Thefacilityproducesallofitsowncompostfromkitchenwasteandthis,coupledwiththe

recyclingprogram,hassignificantlyreducedtheamountofwasteproducedatStaffordCreek.

Retainingwallbehindagreenhouse

Figure7

ProgramfundingcomesfromaDepartmentofDefensegrant,theNatureConservancy,

andfromtheDepartmentofCorrections.Thegoaloftheprogramisandnatureandscience

educationandjobtrainingfortheinmates,aswellasteachingthemtogivebacktothe

community.Itishopedthattheinmateswilllearnskillsthatwillenablethemtobeproductive

oncetheyarereleased.Thesupervisorsaidsomeofthemenwereveryinterestedinthework,


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butmanywerenotandonlywantedtoearntheir42centsanhouraslaborers.Themenwho

arereallycommittedtotheprogramareassignedthemoretediousandimportanttaskssuchas

sowingseedsandthinningseedlings.Abigproblemwithintheprogramisthatoncethemen

getveryinterested,theirgoodbehaviorisrewardedbytransferringthemtoalowersecurity

facilitybeforetheyarereleased,thusendingtheirworkinthegardenprogram.Thisalsomakes

itdifficultfortheprogramtohavethenecessarytimetoimpactthemeninameaningful

manner.

Inmateatwork

Figure8

ThereisnoworkreleaseprogramofanysortatStaffordCreekthatenablesthemento

transitionbackintosociety.TheprisonisaDOCinstitution,andoncetheyarereleasedthey

becomeamatterforthelocalwelfareauthorities,frequentlyhomelessandlikelytocommit

furthercrimesduetoalackofsupport.

Financially,theprogramdoesnotcosttheDOCanythingextra.TheFortLewismilitary

basepaidforthegreenhouses,whichareusedtogrowplantsforprairierestorationworkon


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themilitarybase.TheNatureConservancyalsopaysfortheplantsraisedbytheinmatestobe

usedinConservancyrestorationprojects.Bytheendoftheyearthegardenprojectwillbe

relocatedacrosstheprisongroundstomakewayforachairfactory.Thesupervisormentioned

hisdisappointmentatthis,buthopesthattheycanmakethegardenworkinthenewlocation.

Asfarasplantingdesignwent,thesupervisorhasultimateauthoritybuttriestoallowthe

mentotakesomeownershipinwhattheygrowandwheretheygrowit.Hefrequentlyhasto

leavethemenunsupervisedforperiodsoftimewhileherunserrandsorworksonmattersin

anotherarea.

Duringaconversationwithanothergraduatestudentinvolvedintheproject,itwas

mentionedthathefeltthatifaprogramsuchasthisdidnotbenefittheinmatesitwasmissing

itsmark,thatsuchaprogramshouldbeprimarilytherapeuticinnatureandeverythingelsean

off-shootofthat.Thisstudentwouldliketoseeanexpansionintheproductionendandnotbe

limitedtofoodproduction.AtStafford,severalfeltaneedtoexpandtheprogramtooffercut

flowerstovisitorsandotherinstitutionsandrecommendthatsuchgardenprogramsbeamore

centralpartoftheprisonsystem.

Narrative

Myfirstimpressionofthegardenareawasgenerallypositiveduetothemultitudeof

pottedflowersaroundthegreenhouses,givingtheareaapleasantandunexpectedlycheerful

air.Therewerealsolargepottedfruittreesandpottedvinesbeingtrainedtoclimbupthefront

ofthegreenhouses.Oneinmatetoldmehehadbeenreadingagardenbookandaskedmy

opinionofthegarden.SeveralotherinmatesalsoreallywantedtoknowwhatIthoughtofthe


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gardenoncetheyheardwhoIwas.WhatIfoundinterestingwasthattheydidnotrefertoitin

apossessivemanner,asthoughitwastheirpersonalwork,butinamoregeneraltoneinwhich

oneinquirestoknowifavisitorappreciatesthecommunityparkintheirneighborhood.Igot

thefeelingthatthesenseofownershiptheyexperiencedwiththisprojectwasmoreofa

generalsensethatthisentirefacilitywashometothem,andassuchtheyhopedIapprovedof

thegardenpartofitinwhichwewerestanding.WhileIdidnotfeelasenseofownership,I

couldtellthatthosewhospoketomeweretrulyinterestedingardeningandcuriousaboutmy

beingastudentinterestedinthisproject.Itfeltlikethisgardenhadcertainlypiquedtheir

interestandtheywerecurioustoknowmore.

AsIwatchedthemenworking,Inoticedthatthreemenwhowereplantingseemedquite

involvedintheirwork.Theothers,about12,workedforalittlebitintheothergreenhouseand

thenseemedtodisappear,withaboutthreeremainingbehind,doingalittlework,cracking

jokesandchatting.Thereseemedtobeagenerallypleasantenergyabouttheplace,whichI

hadnotexpected.

Thisvisitleftmewithmixedfeelings.Whileitispossibletoseeagreatpotentialinthis

typeofaproject,thisparticularprojectappearedtobemissingthemark.Thelimitedamount

oftimethattheinmatesspendinthisprogramreducestheirbenefitfromit.Theydonothave

thetimetoexperienceasenseofownershipintheprojectnorgainvaluableskillsfromthe

work.Becauseofthesetwopoints,thisprojectisindeedmissingitsmarkinprovidinga

therapeuticbenefittothemeninvolvedinitandthesupervisorscommunicationgavethe

sensethathefeltthistoo.Hementionedthathewaslookingforwardtoworkingoutsidethe

prisonsystem.Whenaskedwhy,hewouldonlysayhewanteddosomethingthatwouldbe


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morerewarding.Iftheprojectisunabletoinspirethemanwhoisleadingit,howcanithopeto

inspirethosewhoareworkingbeneathhim?

Acommonthemeintheprisongardenliteratureisthatofthenecessityofvisionary

leadershiptomaketheseprojectswork.AtRikersIsland,thegardenwasbegunbythe

PresidentoftheHorticulturalSocietyofNewYork,whobroughttheideaandaplantothe

CommissioneroftheRikersIslandcomplexandwasabletosellittohim(Jiler10).Becausethe

meninchargeoftheprogramwereinspiredbyitandpossessedthepowertomakeithappen,

thatprogramisnowrenownforitssuccess.

MystudyofthisprojectwaslimitedandIcannotbegintounderstandittothedepthit

deservesfromthetimeIspentthere,butthetakeawaymessageformewasthatforaproject

suchasthistosucceeditneedsvisionarysupport.Theremustbesomeonewithintheprison

system,withinthefacilityitself,whorecognizestheimportanceandpotentialthegarden

programholdsandmakescertainitreceiveswhatitneedstobesuccessful.

Theadministrationsdecisiontorelocatethegardentomakewayforachairfactory

beliedthegeneralsensethat,likesomanyothercommunitygardenprojects,thisonewasnot

valuedasaserious,contributingelementofthefacility.Withoutaleaderwhoplacesahigh

levelofimportanceontheprogramitislikelytobeatemporarydiversionthatkeepsthe

inmatesbusy,butmissesthemarkasfarasjobtrainingandtherapygoes.


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MotherEarthFarm

MotherEarthFarm

Figure9

ThenextprisongardenprogramIsawwasnotactuallyonaprisonground.Ifirstheard

aboutMotherEarthFarmfromthegraduatestudentwhoassistedmewiththeStaffordCreek

site.MotherEarthFarmisanaffiliateofEmergencyFoodNetwork(EFN),anorganizationthat

workstoprovidefoodtoPierceCountyfoodbanks.EFNhasseveraldifferentprojectsthathelp

themtomeettheirmissionoffeedingtheareashungryincludingacanneryprojectwhere

donatedfreshfoodsarecannedforlaterdistribution.Thefarmmanagertoldmethespecifics

ofthefarmandthefollowinginformationcomesfromourcommunicationsofthatMay14th

,

2010,unlessnotedotherwise.


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SignoutsideMotherEarthFarms

MotherEarthFarmbeganwhenthepropertyowner,whosefamilyhadfarmedthesitefor

manyyears,wasapproachedbyhergrandson,whowasworkingforEFNandsawan

opportunityfortherundownfarmtogivebacktothecommunityandstayinagriculture.Once

theownersgrandsonhadsecuredhisgrandmothersinterestintheprojectheapproachedhis

friendtomanagethefarm.Thiswomanhadbeeninvolvedinguerrillagardeningforyearsand

hadworkedpreviouslywithGuadalupeGardens,ahomelessgardenCSAproject.Sheisabig

proponentofweavingpeopleintoagarden,orgettingasmanypeopleinvolvedaspossible,and

wasinterestedintheopportunitytogrowfoodonalargerscaleandhaveagreaterimpactona

community.Thisexperiencedurbanfarmerlookedthesiteoverandtoldherfriendthatit

wouldtakeaboutsevenyearstorebuildthesitessoilfertilityandgetthefarmfullyupand

running.Intheenditonlytookfive.Thepropertyiscomprisedof8acresinaresidentialareaof

thePuyallupValleyandfirstbeganoperationinMayof2000.

ThemissionofMotherEarthFarmisfirst,togrowfreshproduceforthoseinneed,and

second,toeducatethecommunityonhowtogrowthatproduce.Toaccomplishthesecond

goal,thefarmmangerutilizestheassistanceoffemaleinmatesfromtheWashington

CorrectionalCenterforWomenatPurdywhoworkonthefarmfortyhoursperweek.The


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womenreceive42centsanhourfortheirworkandalsoreceivecollegecredit.Theirprogram

runsfromMarchthroughNovemberandonlywomenabletokeepthatcommitmentare

eligibletoparticipate.Themanagermentionedthatpriortothisarrangement,whichbeganlast

year,thewomenwouldcomeworkfortwo-weekperiods,anditwasnotsufficienttimefor

theseinmatestogainasenseofownershipoverthefarmortheirwork.Withthislonger

commitment,thewomenareveryenthusiasticandgrowvestedintheirlabors-somuchso

thatsomereturntovolunteeronthefarmoncetheyarereleased.

Greenhouseinfrontoffield

Beingontheworkcrewatthefarmisarightthattheinmatesmustearnandbecauseof

that,boththeirinvestitureinthesiteaswellastheprogramsoverallmoraleisquitehigh.

Thesewomenstayontaskandtheirbehaviorandattitudesreflecttheirenjoymentand

appreciationfortheprogram.TheDOCpays$50,000ayeartofundthesupervisorofthe

program,butfeelsitismoneywellspentbecauseofthereductionintherecidivismrate.While


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thereisnorealmonitoringprogramforthesewomenoncetheyarefree,farmvolunteers,

someformerprisonersandothers,oftentakethatuponthemselves,watchingoutforthe

womenandhelpingthemfindjobsaftertheyarereleasedfromprison.

Themanagersaidsheusedtobeabletofeedtheinmatesmorefreely,untilalawsuit,

unrelatedtothisprogram,causedtheDOCtofearthattheremightbejealousyfromother

inmatesoutsidetheprogramandthatthespecialfoodsprogramparticipantsenjoyonsite

mightconstitutefavoritism.Currently,byservingonlyteamadefromplantsonthefarm

theyareabletoskirtthisissue.TheDepartmentofCorrectionsdefinestearatherlooselyand

theprogramisableusethatlaxdefinitiontothebenefitofthelaborers.

Littlegreenhouse


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Inadditiontothefemaleinmates,MotherEarthFarmalsoservesasafieldtripsitefor

localschoolkids,whoenjoylearningaboutthefoodsystemfromthefarmandfromthe

manager.Forschoolchildren,thefarmoffersmanyimportantlessonsaboutthefoodsystem

andThemanagerdoesallshecantogetthekidsinvolvedandeatingastheytour.Thelocal

DistrictCourtsendsoffenderstothefarmtoservecommunityservicesentencesandsomelocal

businessesalsosupporttheiremployeesinprovidingweeklycommunityserviceatthefarm.

Thesevolunteersarethemajorityofthelaboronthefarm.Themanagerspositionispaidand

full-timeandshealsohasafull-time,paidassistanttohelphergettheworkdone.Emergency

FoodNetworkpaysfortheirsalaries.Intheearliestdaysofthefarmitwasdifficulttogetthe

necessaryfundsfromEFN,buttodaythefarmleadstheprogramsfundraisingefforts,asthe

valueofsuchasystemgrowsmoreapparenttodonors.ThemanagerreportstoEFNsExecutive

Director.

Futuregoalsforthefarmaresimplytokeepimprovingatwhattheyarealreadydoing.

Theyproduceanaverageof150,000poundsofproduceperyear,includingvegetables,fruit,

herbsandhoney.Theyalsohopetocontinuetoenhancevolunteeroutreachinaneffortto

engagemorepeopleinsolvingthelocalhungerproblem.

Themanagersaidthebiggestlessonshehaslearnedfromtheprojectwasthetransition

processfrombeingasolofarmertoacommunityfarmer.Shehashadtolearntoteachandlet

go,ornottomanagetotightly.Shehasfoundthatbeingrigiddoesnotworkandhashadto

learntorelinquishcontrolandletwhatneedstohappen,happeninitsown,bestway.

Shestatedthattherecipientsofthefoodareaverygratefullot.Eachyearshevisitsthe

foodbankandspendstimetalkingtothosewhoarebeingfed.Shehasfoundthatgenerally


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theyareveryimpressedtoknowthattheirfoodisveryfreshandgrownlocallyandtheyenjoy

itsflavorandvariety.

Herbandflowerbeds Tulips

Narrative

IfoundthisprogramatMotherEarthFarmtohaveadecidedlydifferentnaturethanthe

programatStaffordCreek.Itisnotsurprisingthatthisshouldbeso,consideringStaffordCreek

isonsiteataprisonandMotherEarthFarmisnot,butitseemedtomethatthebasic

fundamentalsofthetwoprogramswerethedifferencehere.AtStaffordCreekthemen

involvedareonlyinvolvedforashorttimeandmuchofwhattheydoisdistantfromtheirlives.

Growingseedlingstorestoreaprairieisnotlikelytoapossesshighlevelofrelevancyinthelife


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ofaninmate,whilefeedingthehungryoftheircommunityismucheasiertorelatetofor

someonewhomayhaveexperiencedsomeofthedifficultieslifeoffersfirsthand.

MotherEarthFarmalsohastheadvantageofitssetting.Surroundedbymountains,fresh

airandsuburbanhomes,MEFhasthefeelofapeacefulretreatfromacrazyworld.Withoutthe

prisonsrazorwireandarmedguards,thisisatherapeuticsetting.Themanagerisacaring

person,whilecertainlynotsomeonetobepushedaround,shegivesthesensethatshetruly

cares,notjustfortheearthandherfarm,butforpeopleaswell.Shetoldmethatthisisan

attitudethatisfosteredatthefarmandmanyvolunteersgooutoftheirwaytoassistinmates

withfindingbothjobsandhousingwhentheyarereleased.Thisfarmisabridgeforinmates,

helpingthemtogivemeaningtotheirlivesandcreatingrelationshipsbetweenthemandthe

communitytowhichtheyaresoontoreturn.

IcouldfeeltheStaffordCreekSupervisorsconcernfortheinmateshehadchargeoveras

well,butIcouldalsosensehisownfrustration.Hisprogramcouldnotofferinmatesalong-term

solutiontotheirsituationandhedoesnothavethepowertochangethat.Theycannotspend

enoughtimeintheprogramtolearnjobskillsortoexperiencethesenseofsatisfactionthat

comesfromseeingagardenstartasafieldofbaredirtinthespringandmakeitthroughtoa

lushandvibrantgreenswardbyfall.Withouttheseexperiences,agardenisjustalaborcamp,

pullingweedsjustachoreandfoodproductionbutaby-product.Itisessentialthatthese

programshaveavailabletothemtheresourcestobuildsuccessandtheleadershiptoengage

theheartsoftheinmates.Withoutthesefactors,theprogramisunlikelytoachieveitsfull

potential.Oneclearneedforthesuccessofaprisongardenprogramisstrongleadershipwithin


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theprisonsystemthatsupportsthemissionoftheprogramandfostersrelationshipsthatwill

supporttheinmateswhentheyreturntotheoutsideworld.

Chiveswithhoneybee

Additionally,MEFmanagersmessagetodesignerswastoteachandletgo.Ifadesign

projectistobecomeavaluedpartofacommunity,thenthatcommunityneedstofeelthat

theyareessentialtoitsdesignandcreation.Itispossiblethatasdesignerswewillneedtolearn

anewwayofworking.Insteadofgoingouttoasite,talkingtocommunitymembersandthen

creatingwhatwehearthemtellustheywant,perhapswewillneedtolearntoallowthe

creativespaceforthemtobecomemoreinvolvedinthedesignprocessaswell.Community

gardenprojectsaredirty,productivecreaturesthatrequireamoreorganicprocessthan

landscapearchitectsareaccustomed.Farmersandgardenersunderstandthenecessityof

learningasyougo,makingchangesandlettingthegrowthprocesshappen.Withinanurban

agriculturesetting,adesignmustproducetobeconsideredasuccess,notjustlookgood,and

weasdesignersmustlearntorespectandworkwiththatprocess.


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Itwouldbeaninterestingtopicforfurtherresearchtocomparethegardeningstylesof

menversuswomen.TheStaffordCreekCorrectionsCentergardenispretty,butcomesacross

asprimarilyfunctional.Therearepotsfullofflowers,buttheylinetheareassmallareaswhere

peoplearelikelytocongregate;thegreenhouseentrancesandpatios.Thelinesofcropsare

straightandasenseoforderpermeatesthesite.AtMotherEarthFarm,whichismuchmorea

traditionalfarmthanStaffordCreek,theflowersareprofuseandunkempt,plantedforthe

nourishmentofthebees,andalsoonesenses,thenourishmentoftheheart.Whilethefarmis

comprisedprimarilyofrowcrops,themoreornamentalfrontzonealongthedrivewaycallsyou

tomeanderthroughtheflowersandherbs,tosmelltherosesandtastethemint,tositata

picnictableandenjoyyourlunch.Itwouldbeinterestingtoseeifthereisagender-based

corollaryinthesedesignoccurrences;domentendtocreatemoreefficientandfunctional

spacesthanwomen?Dowomentendtoallowmoreroomfortheprocessesoflifetohappen?

AtRooseveltIsland,wheretheybothsexeshaveequalbutseparateaccesstothegarden,has

theirbeenanynoticeabledifferenceinthedesignscreatedbyeachgroup?


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ChapterFive

SchoolGardens

Beginninginthe1500s,thepopularityofgardensinEuropeanschoolsbegantoincrease.

Originallythisbeganonlargeestatesforthepurposeoftrainingofoverseers(Greene8)but

outofthispracticegrewagriculturalcollegesandfarmschools.Thecurriculumattheseschools

wasofferedtochildrenofestatelaborersovertheageoffourteen.Fromtheseschoolsarose

programsinruralareastotrainchildrenintheuseoftheirenvironmentsothattheymight

drawfromitbothwealthandhappiness(Greene8).Thegoaloftheseprogramswastoslow

theflowoflabortotownsandcitiesandbuilduptheagriculturalwealthoftheseruralareas

andtheirrespectivenations.

Significantphilosophers,suchasComenius,Rousseau,Gandhi,MontessoriandDewey

promotedschoolgardensandtaughtthateducationshouldbeinteractiveandsocial,basedon

actualexperiences,ratherthanateachersinterpretationofasubject(Subramanian3).Inareas

wherefarmsandnaturewherereadilyavailabletochildren,thegoaloftheschoolgardenwas

tobeutilitarianandteachthroughexperiencewithagoalofconnectingchildrentonatureand

ofshapingtheirmoralcharacter(Subramanian2-3).

Bythelate1800smostEuropeancountrieshadmandatedsomeformofgardentraining

inelementaryschools(Subramanian3).Atthattime,Switzerlandwasthefirstandonlycountry

toplacepedagogicalemphasisongardeningasameansofdevelopingpowersofobservation

andexperientiallearning(Greene12).Attheturnofthecenturyneweducationaltheorieswere

takinghold,suchasMariaMontessorisbeliefthatitwasnecessarytofirsteducateachilds


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sensesbeforehisintellectandJohnDeweysbeliefthatgardeninghelpedchildrentorelate

schoollifewiththeirhomeenvironment(Subramanian2).Asthisnewbeliefinexperiential

learningcaughton,thekindergartenmovementdevelopedbyFriedrichFroebel,anotable19th

centuryGermanpedagogue,begantoreachacrossEuropeandtotheUnitedStates

(Subramanian3).Froebelcausededucatorstobeginlookingatchildren,notasreceptaclesof

informationbutrather,asflowerstobenurtured.AustraliaheldaSchoolGardenConferencein

1903thatledtotheacceptanceofschoolgardensasidealtoolsfortheintegrationof

educationalcurriculumandconceptsofconservationandnaturalstewardship(Subramanian3).

In1904CanadaestablishedschoolgardensineachoftheprovincesofOntario,Quebec,

NewBrunswick,NovaScotiaandPrinceEdwardsIsland(Greene13).Thegardensweretheidea

ofDr.JamesRobertson,aformerCommissionerofAgricultureandDairying,whohadgoneon

todirecttheMacdonaldFundandwasthePresidentofMacdonaldCollegeatSte.Annede

Bellevue(Greene13).TheMacdonaldFundsgoalwastobettereducatetheruralpopulationof

Canadaandtheschoolgardenswereafundamentaltoolinaccomplishingthatgoal(Greene

14).Withinafewyearsthevariousprovinceshadpassedordersincorporatingthesesuccessful

gardensintotheireducationalsystems.ThisactsetCanadaaheadoftheworldinthe

acceptanceofandutilizationofschoolgardensasameansofeducatingchildrenandpreparing

skilledfarmers(Greene17).Ofthesegardensitwassaid:

Thegardenisbecomingtheouterclassroomoftheschool,andits

plotsareitsblackboards.Thegardenisnotaninnovation,oran

excrescence,oranaddendum,oradiversion.Itisahappyfieldof

expression,anorganicpartoftheschoolinwhichtheboysandgirlswork


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amonggrowingthingsandgrowthemselvesinbodyandspiritualoutlook

(Cowley401).

In1891HenryLincolnClapp,whohadjustreturnedfromaEuropeantourofschool

gardens,beganthefirstschoolgardenintheUnitedStates.Mr.ClappwasMasterofthe

GeorgePutnamSchoolofRoxbury,Massachusetts,thefirstofficialU.S.schoolwithagarden.

(Greene7-8).Intheyearsthatfollowed,citiesacrosstheU.S.begantoembracethisconcept

andthepopularityofschoolgardensspreadquickly,thoughthisinitialmotivationwasfor

aestheticratherthaneducationalreasons(Subramanian3).

IntheUnitedStatesthemostsuccessfulearlyschoolgardenwastheBoysGarden,

establishedbytheNationalCashRegisterCompanyofDayton,Ohioin1897.Thecompany

presidentsawaneedandcreatedalargegardeninaroughneighborhoodasanexperimentto

giveopportunitytothelocalboysandinstillagoodworkethic.Thisgardenprojectwasso

successfulthatitwascontinuedonformanyyears(Greene20).

Asanincreasingnumberofschoolsbegantoembracegardens,teachingcollegesbeganto

providetrainingtoteachersinschoolgardening.By1909severalcollegesofferedsummer

coursesforteacherswiththeUniversityofPennsylvaniaofferingacourselinkedtoa

Philadelphiaschoolgarden,whichservedastheclasslaboratory(Greene22).Cornells

AgriculturalCollegealsoofferedrelatedcoursesandpublishedmanybulletinsdirectedat

creatingandsustainingpublicinterestinschoolgardens(Greene23).

SchoolgardeningintheUnitedStates,originallyintroducedforaestheticpurposes,has

beenstrongestduringperiodsofwar-correlatingwiththegeneralhistoricriseofcommunity

gardeninggenerallyduringthosetimes.Weseeitpeakfirstin1918duringWorldWarOneand


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thenagainduringWorldWarTwo,butwaninginthe1950swiththenewemphasisonnewand

moderntechnology.WhenAmericansarepushedintofocusingonfood,suchasduringthe

rationingofwartime,theinstancesofcommunityandschoolgardenspeak(Blair17).

In1995,CaliforniasStateSchoolSuperintendentDelaineEastinmandatedagardenin

everyschoolinanefforttocreateopportunitiesforourchildrentodiscoverfreshfood,make

healthierfoodchoices,andbecomebetternourished(qtd.inUniversityofCalifornian.pag.)

WhileCaliforniahasnotyetreachedEastinsgoal,muchgrantmoneywasawardedtowardthat

endinthestateandinotherstatesaswellfollowinghermandate.Themoneyhasgoneto

createKindergartenthrough12thgradegarden-basedcurriculumsaswellasforthe

establishmentofthegardensthemselvesonschoolgrounds(UniversityofCalifornian.pag.).

UniversityofCaliforniaBotanicalGardenAssociateDirectorSusanMeuxWhitesaid:

Thisisamovementallacrossthecountry...Moreandmoreevidence

showsthatgettingchildrenoutoftheclassroomisapowerfullearningstrategy

thattakesadvantageoftheirenthusiasmandinterest.Outofdoors,alotofnew

observationsandquestionscomeupthatreinforceandaddtothelessons.

(UniversityofCalifornian.pag.)

Childrentodayoftenlackpersonalexperiencewiththeintricaciesofnature.Therecent

successoftheRichardLouvbookLastChildintheWoodsspeakstothedawningrealizationthat

childrennolongerpossessthenaturalunderstandingofpreviousgenerations,whospentlarge

portionsoftheirdayoutdoors.Louvstates:

Withinthespaceofafewdecades,thewaychildrenunderstandand

experiencenaturehaschangedradically.Thepolarityoftherelationshiphas


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reversed.Today,kidsareawareoftheglobalthreatstotheenvironmentbut

theirphysicalcontact,theirintimacywithnature,isfading.Thatsexactlythe

oppositeofhowitwaswhenIwasachild.(Louv1)

Amere17%oftheU.S.populationlivesinnon-metropolitanareas(U.S.Departmentof

Agriculture)wheretheyhavedailyaccesstonature.TheNationalInstitutesofHealthstates

thatamongchildrenagesixtonineteen,17%areoverweight(StatisticsRelatedtoOverweight).

A2002studyconductedbytheCentersforDiseaseControlandPreventionstates:

61.5%ofchildrenaged9-13yearsdonotparticipateinanyorganized

physicalactivityduringtheirnonschoolhoursandthat22.6%donotengagein

anyfree-timephysicalactivity.Improvinglevelsofphysicalactivityamongthis

populationwillrequireinnovativesolutionsthatmotivatechildrenandthat

a

Documents

The Case for Urban Agriculture: Regenerative, Human Scale Food Production in Urban Landscapes