the care and use of wildlife - CCAC · Research Involving Animals, 2000). Although the care and use of wildlife is regu-lated through provincial, territorial and federal legislation,

Canadian Council on Animal Care

guidelines on:

the care and useof wildlife

This document, the CCAC guidelines on: the care and use of wildlife, has been developed by the ad hoc sub-committee on wildlife of the Canadian Council on Animal Care (CCAC) Guidelines Committee:

Mr Peter Austin-Smith, Acadia University (Chair)Dr Sandie Black, Calgary ZooMr Daniel Bondy, Canadian Wildlife ServiceDr Nigel Caulkett, University of SaskatchewanDr Marco Festa-Bianchet, Université de SherbrookeDr Robert Hudson, University of AlbertaDr Donald McKay, University of AlbertaMr Michael O’Brien, Department of Natural Resources, NSMs Joy Ripley, Canadian Federation of Humane SocietiesDr Helen Schwantje, Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection, BCDr Todd Shury, Banff National Park/Calgary Zoo (CAZWV liaison)Dr Gilly Griffin, Canadian Council on Animal Care

In addition, the CCAC is grateful to Dr Gerald Miller, University of Alberta and member of CCAC Councilfrom 1996-2001, who was the first co-chair of the subcommittee with Dr McKay. CCAC thanks the manyindividuals, organizations and associations that provided comments on earlier drafts of this guidelinesdocument. In particular, thanks are extended to: the Federal and Provincial/Territorial Wildlife Directors,the Canadian Association of Zoo and Wildlife Veterinarians, the Canadian Society of Zoologists, theAnimal Behavior Society/Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour, the American Society ofIchthyologists and Herpetologsts, the Ornithological Council, and the American Society of Mammalogists.The financial assistance of the Max Bell Foundation in development of these guidelines is also gratefullyacknowledged.

© Canadian Council on Animal Care, 2003

ISBN: 0–919087–39–6

Canadian Council on Animal Care315–350 Albert StreetOttawa ON CANADA

K1R 1B1

http://www.ccac.ca

A. PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

SUMMARY OF THE GUIDELINES LISTED IN THIS DOCUMENT . . . . . . . .3

B. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

1. Definition of Wildlife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

2. Rationale for Wildlife Guidelines . . . . . .10

3. Ethics on the Use of Wildlife . . . . . . . . . .10

3.1 Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

4. Wildlife Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

4.1 International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

4.2 Federal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

4.3 Provincial / territorial . . . . . . . . . . .17

4.4 Municipal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

4.5 Private property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

4.6 Professional associations . . . . . . . .18

C. FIELD STUDIES — GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . .19

1. Observational Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

2. Projects Involving Manipulation of Wildlife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

2.1 Indirect manipulation . . . . . . . . . . .20

2.2 Projects involving direct handling of wildlife . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

3. Morbidity and Mortality in the Field . .21

D. COLLECTING VERTEBRATES . . .23

1. Killed Specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

2. Live Capture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

2.1 Trap monitoring frequency . . . . . .24

E. RESTRAINT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25

1. Physical Restraint and Handling . . . . . .25

2. Chemical Restraint and Anesthesia . . . .26

2.1 Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26

2.2 Pharmacological considerations . .26

2.3 Muscle relaxants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

2.4 Drug delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

2.5 Anesthesia under field conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

2.6 Monitoring and supportive care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

2.7 Drug residue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29

F. MARKING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

1. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

2. Banding and Tagging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

3. Tissue Marking (Invasive) . . . . . . . . . . . .32

4. Radio Transmitters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32

G. MEDICAL / SURGICAL PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34

1. Use of Analgesics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34

2. Minor Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

2.1 Tissue / blood samples . . . . . . . . . .35

2.2 Physiological measurements . . . . .35

2.3 Isotopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

3. Major Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36

3.1 Invasive procedures . . . . . . . . . . . .36

CCAC guidelines on: the care and use of wildlife, 2003

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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H. MOVING AND HOLDING WILDLIFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37

1. Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .372. Husbandry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37

2.1 Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .382.2 Nutrition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .392.3 Social interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .392.4 Hygiene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

3. Translocation and Release . . . . . . . . . . . .393.1 General considerations . . . . . . . . . .393.2 Medical considerations . . . . . . . . . .403.3 Environmental considerations . . . .41

I. EUTHANASIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42

1. Pharmaceutical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . .422. Inhalant Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423. Physical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .434. Unacceptable Methods of Euthanasia . .435. Disposal of Euthanized Animals . . . . . .44

J. HUMAN SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . .45

1. Drug Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .452. Hazardous Physical or Environmental

Situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .463. Equipment Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .464. Emergency Preparedness . . . . . . . . . . . . .465. Biohazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46

K. REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48

L. GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52

M. ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . .54

APPENDIX ARELEVANT GUIDELINES . . . . . . .55

APPENDIX BSUGGESTED FORMAT FOR AN ANIMAL USE PROTOCOL FORWILDLIFE IN RESEARCH,TEACHING OR TESTING . . . . . . .56

APPENDIX CUSEFUL CONTACTS . . . . . . . . . . .61

APPENDIX DCCAC CATEGORIES OF INVASIVENESS FOR WILDLIFE STUDIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62

APPENDIX ELISTING OF REGULATORY AGENCIES AND RELEVANT LEGISLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64

the care anduse of wildlife

The Canadian Council on Animal Care(CCAC) is responsible for overseeing the useof animals in research, teaching and testing.Participation in the CCAC program is manda-tory for academic institutions. Failure toadhere to CCAC guidelines and policies maylead to suspension of funding for researchprograms and/or institutions (CCAC, Guideto the Care and Use of Experimental Animals,vol. 1, 2nd ed., 1993; CIHR, NSERC & SSHRC,Memorandum of Understanding on the Roles andResponsibilities in the Management of FederalGrants and Awards, Schedule 3: Ethical Review ofResearch Involving Animals, 2000).

Although the care and use of wildlife is regu-lated through provincial, territorial and federal legislation, some agencies responsiblefor wildlife have adopted animal care guide-lines, including those of the CCAC, and haveestablished internal committees that overseethe care and use of wildlife for research, management and operational procedures.Many of these agencies are keenly interestedin and/or are participating in the CCAC program in order to provide public accounta-bility for their work.

In addition to the CCAC Guide to the Care and Use of Experimental Animals, vol. 1, 2nd ed.(1993) and vol. 2 (1984) which lay down general principles for the care and use of

animals, the CCAC also publishes guidelineson issues of current and emerging concerns(http://www.ccac.ca). The CCAC guidelineson: the care and use of wildlife is the sixth of thisseries. This document replaces ChapterXXII—Wild Vertebrates in the Field and in theLaboratory, Guide to the Care and Use ofExperimental Animals, vol. 2 (CCAC, 1984).

The refinement of animal care and use guide-lines is a continuous process. The presentdocument has drawn substantially from thework of the organizations listed in AppendixA. Permission was kindly granted to CCACto use sections of guidelines developed bytheir various committees and is gratefullyacknowledged. Relevant information notincluded in the listed guidelines is referencedseparately.

The guidelines have been developed by the CCAC subcommittee on wildlife. Apreliminary first draft was agreed on by thesubcommittee in April 2001 and circulated toall federal and provincial/territorial wildlifedirectors to seek their early input. The firstdraft of the guidelines was circulated inAugust 2001 to 56 experts (including officialsof the organizations listed in Appendix A) anda second draft was circulated for widespreadcomment in January 2002. The developmentof the guidelines was facilitated by workshops

A. PREFACE

held in Halifax NS, April 2001, in collaborationwith the Atlantic Provinces Council on theSciences, and in Edmonton AB, November2001, in conjunction with the University ofAlberta.

The guidelines have been organized in a format which should facilitate the preparationand review of protocols. For the most part, thesections move through the conception of thestudy plans, the requirement for permits, andsubsequently, the conduct of the various procedures. An attempt has also been made toorganize the guidelines in such a fashion that

the text moves logically from the least inva-sive to the most invasive procedures, andthrough the various stages of capture,restraint, handling, translocation, release,holding, or euthanasia. A section on humansafety considerations has also been added asanimal care committees are responsible forensuring that there has been institutionalapproval for the use of biohazardous, infec-tious, biological, chemical or radioactiveagents (CCAC Policy on: Terms of Reference forAnimal Care Committees, 2000) and that institu-tions are aware of the hazards to which theirpersonnel may be exposed.

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B. INTRODUCTION

Guideline 1:The use of wildlife for research, management,teaching and testing is acceptable only if itcontributes to the understanding of biologicalprinciples or to outcomes that can be expect-ed to benefit humans, animals or ecosystems.Expert evaluation of proposals must attest tothe potential value of studies involvingwildlife.

Section 3. Ethics on the Use of Wildlife, p. 10.

Guideline 2:All projects involving the use of wildlife forresearch, management, teaching and/or test-ing should be described within a protocol.Protocols should be approved by an animalcare committee prior to commencement of thework (references outlining the requirements:CCAC guidelines on: animal use protocol review,1997; and CCAC Policy on: Terms of Referencefor Animal Care Committees, 2000).

Section 3.1.1 Responsibilities of investigators, subsection3.1.1.1 Protocols involving the use of wildlife, p. 12.

Guideline 3:Investigators are responsible for their ownconduct, as well as for the conduct of all otherpersonnel involved in the investigators’ studies.

Section 3.1.1 Responsibilities of investigators, subsection3.1.1.1 Protocols involving the use of wildlife, p. 13.

Guideline 4:The animal care committee is responsible forreviewing all studies that are conducted byprincipal investigators belonging to their institution or agency, regardless of whether

that project will be conducted within their jurisdiction or in the jurisdiction of anotheranimal care committee.

Section 3.1.2 Responsibilities of the animal care committee,p. 14.

Guideline 5:The local animal care committee shouldinclude persons with relevant expertise withwildlife in field and/or captive situations orshould seek advice from independent expertswho can provide an understanding of thenature and impact of the proposed fieldinvestigation.


Guideline 6:All personnel involved with the use ofwildlife for research, teaching and testingmust be adequately trained in the ethics ofanimal use and receive the necessary trainingand experience to perform the proceduresdescribed in the protocol.


Guideline 7:Consultation and/or participation of veter-inarians having experience with wildlifeshould be sought in projects involving potential animal health concerns, such astranslocation of animals and medical or surgical procedures. Consultation with veteri-narians having experience with wildlife orexperienced wildlife professionals should alsobe sought for immobilization activities.

Section 3.1.3 Role of the veterinarian, p. 15.

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SUMMARY OF THE GUIDELINES LISTED IN THIS DOCUMENT

the care and use of wildlife, 2003

C. FIELD STUDIES—GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

Guideline 8:Procedures likely to have lasting negativeeffects on a population or to affect the existence of a population should not be undertaken, except under extraordinary circumstances. When such impacts are likely,the investigator must demonstrate, throughthe concurrence of recognized experts, thatthe procedure is necessary.

p. 19.

Guideline 9:Observational activities should minimize disturbance that can lead to abandonment ofterritories or home ranges, pre-emption offeeding, disruption of social structures, andalteration of predator-prey relationships.

Section 1. Observational Projects, p. 20.

Guideline 10:Field research involving manipulation ofwildlife for experimental studies requires thatinvestigators use the least invasive practicalprocedures required to achieve the studyobjectives, considering the biology andbehavior of the species of interest. Every effortmust be made to minimize distress andensure the post-handling survival of the ani-mals by selecting the most appropriatemethod(s) of capture and handling for thatspecies.

Section 2. Projects Involving Manipulation of Wildlife,p. 20.

Guideline 11:Those conducting field studies should anticipate and be prepared to deal with therange of conditions that may cause unduestress and/or injury to the animal.

Section 2.2 Projects involving direct handling ofwildlife, p. 21.

Guideline 12:The investigator must be prepared to euthanize any animal in the field that is suffering unrelievable pain and/or distress as a result of the capture or handling procedures, or the experimental intervention.

Section 2.2 Projects involving direct handling ofwildlife, p. 21.

Guideline 13:When morbidity is observed during or following handling or manipulation, it should be addressed and then documentedand investigated. Any mortalities shouldreceive a thorough postmortem to determinecause of death.

Section 3. Morbidity and Mortality in the Field, p. 21.

D. COLLECTING VERTEBRATES

Guideline 14:Killing methods for collection of wildlifeshould be species-specific and humane.Investigators should be trained in the pro-posed collecting method(s) to ensure effectivehumane kills.

Section 1. Killed Specimens, p. 23.

Guideline 15:Before initiating field projects involving capture, investigators must be familiar withthe study species and its response to disturbance, as well as its sensitivity to capture and restraint. In addition, investigators should be familiar with theadvantages and drawbacks of available methods of live capture, particularly thosethat have been used with the study species.

Section 2. Live Capture, p. 23.

Guideline 16:Investigators must check restraining trapsand nets frequently to avoid injury or death to captured animals.

Section 2.1 Trap monitoring frequency, p. 24.

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E. RESTRAINT

Guideline 17:Effective methods of physical restraint thatminimize the possibility of physical injuryand physiological and psychological stressshould be chosen within the limits of humansafety. The least amount of restraint and theshortest possible time necessary for the proce-dures being undertaken should be used.Personnel handling animals should be thor-oughly trained in the planned procedures aswell as in alternative methods of restraint thatmay be required.

Section 1. Physical Restraint and Handling, p. 25.

Guideline 18:Personnel performing chemical restraint andanesthesia on wildlife should receive recog-nized and current training, and should usetechniques and drugs that are appropriate forthe species with which they are working.

Section 2.1 Training, p. 26.

Guideline 19:Drugs used for wildlife capture should,whenever possible, have the following properties: provide anesthesia; be stable insolution; be effective in small volumes; pro-duce minimal deleterious physiological ortoxicological effects; result in rapid onset ofanesthesia; and be reversible.

Section 2.2 Pharmacological considerations, p. 26.

Guideline 20:Depolarizing muscle relaxants (e.g., succinyl-choline chloride) produce paralysis withoutanesthesia and must not be used without ananesthetic agent.

Section 2.3 Muscle relaxants, p. 27.

Guideline 21:Remote drug delivery systems for administer-ing anesthetic agents to free ranging wildlifemust be appropriate for the size of the animaland the volume of drug to be administered.

Section 2.4 Drug delivery, p. 27.

Guideline 22:Efforts must be made to minimize the risks associated with chemical restraint. Theanimal’s welfare must be the primary consid-eration, taking into account human safety.

Section 2.5 Anesthesia under field conditions, p. 28.

Guideline 23:Appropriate supportive care and regularmonitoring must be provided to minimize therisk of morbidity or mortality.

Section 2.6 Monitoring and supportive care, p. 28.

Guideline 24:Adequate steps must be taken to ensure thatdrugs used in procedures on wildlife do notenter the food chain.

Section 2.7 Drug residue, p. 29.

F. MARKING

Guideline 25:Investigators must aim to minimize anyadverse effects of marking procedures on thebehavior, physiology or survival of individualstudy animals.

Section 1. General, p. 31.

Guideline 26:Investigators should weigh the researchneeds for greater visibility and individualrecognition against the potential risks ofinjury that come with the use of specific mark-ing techniques such as banding and tagging,and should minimize the risks associatedwith the chosen technique.

Section 2. Banding and Tagging, p. 31.

Guideline 27:Marking techniques which cause significanttissue injury, such as branding and toe, earand tail clipping, should only be used if evidence is provided to an animal care com-mittee indicating that alternative methodscannot achieve desired results.

Section 3. Tissue Marking (Invasive), p. 32.

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Guideline 28:Telemetry devices should be as light in weightas possible. Transmitters should weigh lessthan 5% of the body mass of the animal. Whenavailable and feasible, lighter transmitterdevices should be selected. Investigatorsshould make every effort to use externaltransmitter devices that will break away at theend of the useful life of the transmitter.

Section 4. Radio Transmitters, p. 32.

G. MEDICAL / SURGICAL PROCEDURES

Guideline 29:Appropriate analgesics must be used whenany procedure is performed that may producesignificant intra-operative and/or post-opera-tive pain.

Section 1. Use of Analgesics, p. 34.

Guideline 30:Sampling of blood and tissue, including tooth extraction, should be performed onlyafter appropriate training and adequate experience. Procedures and protocols must bechosen that avoid or minimize pain and distress.

Section 2.1 Tissue / blood samples, p. 35.

Guideline 31:Investigators planning to use radioisotopesmust be trained in the use of such tracers,ensure that all appropriate permits have beenacquired, and ensure that disposal of wastematerial follows the procedures specified inthe permit.

Section 2.3 Isotopes, p. 35.

Guideline 32:Surgical interventions, including lapa-rotomies, radio transmitter implants, surgicalsterilizations, and other invasive proceduresthat expose the abdominal cavity or otherdeep tissues, should only be done by a veteri-narian or under a veterinarian’s supervision.

Section 3. Major Procedures, p. 36.

H. MOVING AND HOLDING WILDLIFE

Guideline 33:Investigators should ensure that the care,caging, and mode of transportation are suit-able for the species, and that the animal willbe transported in a manner that minimizesstress and avoids injury.

Section 1. Transportation, p. 37.

Guideline 34:The investigator is required to research andunderstand the habits and behaviors of anyspecies to be held captive. This knowledgemay assist in avoiding problems associatedwith captivity.

Section 2. Husbandry, p. 37.

Guideline 35:Animals held for a few hours or for trans-portation over short distances must be placedin appropriate holding cages and providedwith bedding and adequate sources of suit-able food and water.

Section 2.1 Housing, p. 38.

Guideline 36:The long-term captive environment ofwildlife should provide for their behavioral,physical and nutritional needs, while provid-ing enrichment opportunities for physical andpsychological stimulation.

Section 2.1 Housing, p. 38.

Guideline 37:Diet and feeding schedules should reflect theanimal’s normal foods and feeding behavior.

Section 2.2 Nutrition, p. 39.

Guideline 38:Social relationships and social behavior of captive wildlife must be taken into consid-eration.

Section 2.3 Social interactions, p. 39.

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Guideline 39:Husbandry routines should be designed tominimize disturbance to the animals whilemaintaining adequate hygiene levels.

Section 2.4 Hygiene, p. 39.

Guideline 40:Before the translocation of wildlife or releaseof any wild animal held or bred in captivity,the possible ramifications of such actionsmust be considered. Negative effects on theindividual animal, the ecological conditionsat the release site, and human safety must allbe considered and minimized. Release shouldnot occur if the animal is unlikely to survivedue to reasons associated with its captivity, or ifthe existing ecological conditions at the releasearea could be adversely affected, including anyrisk of introduction of a wildlife disease new tothe area.

Section 3.1 General considerations, p. 39.

Guideline 41:Appropriate measures should be taken toensure the health of animals throughout allstages of any translocation or release pro-gram. Prior to release, screening of wildlifefor known infectious agents, parasites andpossible undesirable genetic traits should becarried out.

Section 3.2 Medical considerations, p. 40.

Guideline 42:Investigators should assess the habitat at theproposed release site, not only for its ability toprovide the species requirements for survivaland reproduction, but also to ensure that noimpairment to the ecological integrity of thesite will occur as a result of the release.

Section 3.3 Environmental considerations, p. 41.

I. EUTHANASIA

Guideline 43:Planning for field procedures on wildlifeshould include contingency plans for eu-

thanasia. Information on techniques appro-priate for the species of concern should beresearched and the necessary materials andequipment should be obtained and prepared.Consideration should also be given to tech-niques that least interfere with the conduct ofpostmortems or postmortem analysis.

p. 42.

Guideline 44:Any animal euthanized in the field whichmay contain residues of toxic euthanasiachemicals should be disposed of in such amanner that it does not enter the food chain.

Section 5. Disposal of Euthanized Animals, p. 44.

J. HUMAN SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS

Guideline 45:Many species of wildlife are capable of inflict-ing serious injury or transmitting disease to persons handling them. Appropriate han-dling and restraint techniques should be used,and training in how to apply them should beprovided to avoid injury to both animals andhumans.

p. 45.

Guideline 46:

The risks involved in using drugs for the cap-ture and immobilization of wildlife must beidentified and communicated to all personnelinvolved in the project. At least two people onthe team should be trained in first aid andCPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation), localmedical authorities should be informed of thepotential hazards, and an evacuation plan tomedical facilities should be discussed prior tofieldwork.

Section 1. Drug Hazards, p. 45.

Guideline 47:Personnel using drugs for wildlife shouldhave current training and inform other members of the team of the risks of human

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exposure. There should be adequate quanti-ties of applicable reversal drugs on hand inthe field if these exist.


Guideline 48:Every reasonable attempt should be made torecover any darts that miss the target animaland contain chemicals which could pose apublic health risk.


Guideline 49:It is the responsibility of the investigator toensure that hazardous conditions involved infield work are identified to the personnelinvolved. Some situations require particularexperience and/or training, such as workingaround aircraft, diving, climbing, working athigh altitude or in extreme temperature con-ditions, and working on ice.

Section 2. Hazardous Physical or EnvironmentalSituations, p. 46.

Guideline 50:Personnel involved in wildlife restraintshould have current training in the use of pertinent equipment (e.g., ATVs [all terrainvehicles], boats, firearms, drugs, dart rifles,pistols, and jabsticks).

Section 3. Equipment Hazards, p. 46.

Guideline 51:The investigator is responsible for ensuringthat an emergency plan is in place.

Section 4. Emergency Preparedness, p. 46.

Guideline 52:The investigator must ensure that all poten-tially hazardous biological or zoonotic agentswhich may be encountered in the field situa-tion or that are particular to the species understudy are identified for field staff before fieldwork is started, and that the necessary train-ing and preventive medical care is obtained.

Section 5. Biohazards, p. 46.

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These guidelines are necessarily broad and are limited to basic principles that willassist investigators, wildlife managers, andanimal care committees (ACCs) in the devel-opment and review of protocols and standardoperating procedures (SOPs). Additional recommendations for the various speciesgroups of wildlife have been developed inconjunction with these more general guide-lines and are published on the CCAC website(http://www.ccac.ca). These guidelines andrecommendations are expected to be of use to researchers and resource managers fromuniversities and colleges, zoological parks,research institutions, natural resource agen-cies, resource industries, government and/orits agencies, non-government organizations,and consultants retained by public institu-tions and agencies. Individuals involved withprojects related to population management,animal control, and other forms of wildlifemanagement where the welfare of animals isof concern should be encouraged to readthese guidelines to assist in the preparation ofSOPs or for consideration for regulatoryrequirements.

Studies on wildlife in the field and in captivitymay include a wide range of invasiveness and involve species that vary greatly in their response to humans. The tremendousvariation in animal body size, physiology andbehavior needs to be taken into account to determine the most effective means of capture, restraint and handling. The con-trolled parameters of studying test subjects ina laboratory setting may not form a goodmodel for conditions likely to be encounteredin field studies; nevertheless, good welfarepractice in the field is characterized by thesame features as in laboratory-based research.When evaluating protocols for studies thatare to take place in the natural habitat of the animal, ACCs should recognize that conditions may require different approachesand procedures than those dictated by a labo-ratory environment. ACCs should also be

aware that protocols for testing devices ortechniques may involve some unpredictabilityin order to evaluate the most humane andeffective methods for subsequent use.

1. Definition of Wildlife

For the purposes of this document, wildliferefers to free ranging and captive wild vertebrates, including amphibians, reptiles,birds, and mammals (but excluding fish).This includes all introduced and indigenousspecies, as well as domestic animals thathave become feral.

Definitions of wildlife may be restricted togame birds and mammals or expanded toinclude all wild organisms and their habitats.Practical considerations, however, require adefinition that limits the number of speciesand is acceptable to a wide spectrum ofwildlife professionals. The document CCACguidelines on: the care and use of fish in research,teaching and testing (in preparation) is pub-lished separately. Guidelines for research ondomestic commercial wildlife (for example,bison and deer) are published within theCCAC guidelines on: the care and use of farm animals in research, teaching and testing (inpreparation). Other organizations should beconsulted for guidelines on animals main-tained in zoological institutions (CanadianAssociation of Zoos and Aquariums [CAZA];American Zoo and Aquarium Association[AZA]), or for farmed wildlife (e.g., CanadianAgri-Food Research Council [CARC], http://www.carc-crac.ca/english/codes_of_practice).

The CCAC guidelines on: the care and use ofwildlife extends to the consideration of free-ranging wildlife and wild-caught animalswhich have not been habituated to captivity.Other guidelines (both CCAC and others)should be consulted where animals are to bemaintained in long-term holding.

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B. INTRODUCTION


2. Rationale for WildlifeGuidelines

Investigations involving wildlife and theirhabitats are of profound importance to theunderstanding and appreciation of our relationship with the environment (ABS & ASAB, 1997). The knowledge gained fromsuch endeavors can be vital for the well-beingof human societies, as well as for providinginformation for the conservation and ethicaltreatment of vertebrates both in the wild andin captivity. Although acquisition of scientificknowledge and understanding may justifywildlife research, often the effects of fieldresearch procedures on subject animals ortheir habitats cannot be predicted. Many fieldstudies of wild vertebrates involve simpleobservations of the animals. Other researchquestions can only be answered by manipu-lating the animal to some degree, either in the field or in captivity (ABS & ASAB, 1997).Studies may disrupt normal animal activities,especially if capture, marking, or other moreinvasive procedures are used.

These guidelines aim to minimize stress towildlife. When distressed, animals maybehave abnormally and possibly be placed atgreater risk due to increased susceptibility topredation or injury. Excessive stress can alsoreduce health, performance, immune functionand reproduction.

The use of wildlife in research, as well as inteaching and testing, raises ethical questionsthat must be addressed prior to the initiationof the project. Adequate review of the proto-col is critical to ensure that proposed fieldresearch procedures or techniques minimizechanges to habitat, distortion of the behaviorof animals, or other risks to the animals. Somestudies may involve killing animals as part ofa management program to collect biologicalspecimens. A protocol prepared according tothese guidelines should ensure that this isdone in an effective, humane manner. Wildlifemanagement studies may have alteration ofhabitat or behavior as a goal, or be monitoringanimal response to a change in habitat. Thesetypes of studies should also balance the risksto the animals. Humane treatment of wildlife

held captive requires that conditions providethe necessities of normal existence andensures that animals can be returned to thewild, if considered appropriate. In general,treatment of the animals should ensure thatthere is no impairment in their abilities toresume their normal activities on release.However, in some instances modification may be necessary, for example, sterilization or contraception may be part of a special management approach to population control.

Wildlife involved in studies must be treatedhumanely, not only for ethical and legal reasons, but also for scientific reasons (ASB &ASAB, 1997). In general, ethically acceptableprocedures should minimize interference toindividual study animals, populations, andtheir habitats, and thereby increase the validityof the experimental data.

3. Ethics on the Use of Wildlife

Guideline 1:

The use of wildlife for research, manage-ment, teaching and testing is acceptableonly if it contributes to the understandingof biological principles or to outcomesthat can be expected to benefit humans,animals or ecosystems. Expert evaluationof proposals must attest to the potentialvalue of studies involving wildlife.

The CCAC Policy on: Ethics of Animal Inves-tigation (1989) applies equally to wildlife used for research, teaching and testing as itdoes to laboratory animals. The underlyingethical basis of CCAC guidelines and policiesrequires adherence to the three principles ofhumane experimental technique outlined byRussell & Burch (1959): Replacement, Refine-ment and Reduction. According to the CCAC,adherence to the Three Rs means:

• Animals may be used only if theresearcher’s best efforts to find a replace-ment by which to obtain the requiredinformation have failed. Replacement of arare or threatened species with a morecommon species is more desirable in terms

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of conservation impacts. However, it willnot affect the welfare implications of thework, as the replacement species is likelyto be closely related and of a similar sentience. It is recognized that where theaim of field studies is to understand theecology, ecophysiology, or behavior ofwildlife, replacement by a non-animalmethod, or even replacement of one specieswith a less sentient species, will likely notbe an option. In addition, research involvingendangered or threatened species may benecessary in support of the species conser-vation or the habitat.

• The most humane, least invasive techniquesmust be used; minimizing pain and/ordistress should be a priority in considerationof options for the care and use of wildlife.The animal’s physical and psychologicalwell-being should always take precedenceover considerations of cost and conven-ience, taking into consideration humansafety. In addition, refinement should aimfor the use of techniques which have lesspotential to impede normal behaviors.

• Investigators should use opportunities topublish refinement techniques to improvewelfare outcomes for study animals.

• The fewest animals appropriate to providevalid information and statistical signifi-cance should be used. Good study designis the primary means of minimizing thenumber of animals required to demonstrateexperimental outcomes in field studies, asin laboratory-based animal studies. However,field studies often require larger samplesthan laboratory studies to overcome envi-ronmental variation and intrinsic hostvariability that cannot be controlled in thestudy. Prior statistical evaluation of samplesize is necessary, even when sources ofvariation can only be roughly estimated.Familiarity with the literature on similarstudies regarding sample size and study

design is equally important. Animal usecan also be minimized by better sharing ofdata and publication of results in generallyaccessible formats.

• If possible, studies should be designed so that specimens are used for multiplepurposes or so they can be combined withsamples from additional field seasons tomaximize the use of specimens. This alsoincludes the collection of biological andgenetic samples for archiving wheneverpossible.

• All studies must undergo an evaluationfor scientific merit or potential value priorto ethical review by ACCs. Where this hasnot been done as a part of the applicationfor research funding, the ACC mustarrange for an independent review of scientific merit (CCAC guidelines on: animaluse protocol review, 1997).

Formal reporting of results from wildlifestudies should be encouraged (e.g., scientificpaper, accessible database, formal report).Surveys or inventory-type studies where theaim is to determine the type of species presentin an area, habitat use, population size, etc.can contribute to conservation science.

Investigators should take into account tradi-tional/local knowledge and community values, and where appropriate, share know-ledge and understanding of the species studied with the local community. The benefits of establishing a mutual exchange ofinformation between scientists and holders oftraditional knowledge is well recognized by the International Council for Science andthe United Nations Educational, Scientificand Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (ICSU,2002). Researchers should be aware that traditional knowledge may be consideredintellectual property and must follow thesame guidelines (CIHR, NSERC & SSHRC,2000). Aboriginal views on wildlife researchare discussed in Byers (1999).

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3.1 Responsibilities

More detailed information is given through-out these guidelines to assist both investigatorsand members of ACCs to ensure that the fol-lowing responsibilities are met.

3.1.1 Responsibilities of investigators

3.1.1.1 Protocols involving the use ofwildlife

Guideline 2:

All projects involving the use of wildlife forresearch, management, teaching and/or testing should be described within aprotocol. Protocols should be approved by an animal care committee prior to commencement of the work.

(references outlining the requirements: CCACguidelines on: animal use protocol review, 1997;and CCAC Policy on: Terms of Reference forAnimal Care Committees, 2000)

Investigators are responsible for obtainingapproval of their studies by their home institution. They are also responsible for providing notification of the approved proto-col to the local ACC in the jurisdiction wherethe studies are to be conducted.

A suggested format for an animal use proto-col for wildlife studies is given in Appendix B.Due to unpredictable conditions in the field,ACCs should be aware that some of the procedures described within a protocolmay have to be adapted depending on the prevailing conditions. Nonetheless, theprotocol form developed by the local ACCshould be completed fully and accurately.

In preparation of a protocol, investigatorsshould:

• first and foremost, articulate the goal ofthe study from academic or practicalstandpoints, put the work in a broad perspective and explain how the studymay contribute to the general state ofknowledge and/or desired outcomes, andjustify the significance of the anticipated

results against the use and potential pain,distress and/or death of animals;

• ascertain the conservation status of theanimal to be studied and ensure that theanimals chosen are best suited to providethe information sought;

• avail themselves of relevant expertise to ensure that protocols and SOPs are comprehensive and represent bestpractices. Suggestions of appropriateorganizations to contact are listed inAppendix C. If similar procedures will beused on several protocols, such as captureand/or marking techniques, it is recom-mended that the procedures be written up as SOPs. All SOPs must be approved by the ACC and reviewed regularly.Approved SOPs need only be referred toby their assigned number and title in theprocedures section of the protocol form;

• describe all animal-based proceduresaccurately;

• alert ACCs to potential changes in the protocol, in particular where there mightbe better welfare outcomes. No majorchanges should be undertaken until reviewand approval by the ACC.

A complete protocol on any proposed studiesinvolving the use of wildlife should be submitted for review by the local ACC at leastonce every four years. If the protocol is similar to a previous submission, it shouldinclude a progress report (see below underrenewal form).

In the interim years, a renewal form isrequired that includes any minor changes tothe original protocol, the number of animalsrequired in the upcoming year and a progressreport for the past year. The progress reportshould include a basic summary of progressto date and a list of species and numbers ofeach used, including animals used uninten-tionally (e.g., by-catch). It should also includeinformation on all animals injured or killedunintentionally, any treatments given, theresults of any postmortems performed onunplanned mortalities, and precautions orrecommendations to reduce such incidencesin the future. Details on the disposal of

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carcasses should be included. Additionally, itis extremely useful to the local ACC to includerecommendations that may improve the well-being of the animals and/or the outcome ofthe study (e.g., handling times, chase times,and vital signs). The progress report will beused by the ACC to report annual animal useto the CCAC and to evaluate future protocols.In particular, this exercise provides feedbackto the ACC to assist in further developmentand understanding of good welfare practicesin field-based research. The progress report isa means of educating the ACC and improvingstandards of future protocols.

An addendum to a complete protocol can beused to submit minor changes during thecourse of a study. These changes may includesuch things as personnel changes and refine-ment of procedures without altering the level of invasiveness. All major changes inprotocol require submission of a completenew protocol.

A protocol should be reviewed and approvedby the local ACC prior to the commencementof a study. Similarly, renewals and/or adden-dums should be reviewed and approved bythe ACC before continuing with a study. Insome cases (e.g., personnel changes) interimapproval may be granted until the whole ACChas an opportunity to review the protocol orproposed changes (see Section 3.1.2).

In carrying out the approved protocol, inves-tigators should:

• be responsible for adherence to the proto-col, unless permission is given by an ACCto deviate from, or to amend the protocol;

• obtain all applicable permits prior to initiation of research, and understand andcomply with all regulations relative to thespecies to be studied. When working out-side of Canada, Canadian investigators aresubject to the relevant legislation and regulations pertaining to animal care inthe country where the study is conducted;

• avoid or minimize the intensity and dura-tion of an animal’s pain and/or distress,and ensure that an animal experiencingsevere unrelievable pain and/or distress iseuthanized as soon as possible;

• understand and provide the appropriatehusbandry to ensure humane treatmentand daily maintenance of animals used incaptivity;

• understand and attempt to minimize anynegative demographic and behavioraleffects on the species’ population;

• take precautions to minimize the captureof non-target animals, but be prepared to deal with them. In particular, plans for handling non-target species shouldinclude mechanisms to deal with unplan-ned captures and accidental killing. Theplans should include reporting to the ACC and the relevant permit agency (ifrequired), as well as details for handlinglive animals and disposing of any carcasses;

• be prepared to deal appropriately withaccidental injury to animals during captureor handling;

• ensure appropriate disposition of the animals at the conclusion of the study ifanimals are not to be released (i.e. investi-gators should attempt to donate carcassesto museums, to researchers investigatingcontaminants in the area, or to other suitable research programs);

• for animals released back to the wild, takecare to maximize each individual’s abilityto resume normal behavior and to mini-mize effects on existing populations (seeIUCN/SSC Guidelines for Re-Introductions, 1995,http://www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/pubs/policy/reinte.htm);

• ensure that animals released do not repre-sent a risk to the public, other animals, orthe environment.

Guideline 3:

Investigators are responsible for their ownconduct, as well as for the conduct of allother personnel involved in the investiga-tors’ studies.

In particular investigators should:

• ensure that all individuals involved withcapture, handling, sampling, identification,

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maintenance, monitoring, and/or euthanasiaof animals are appropriately trained;

• ensure that all co-operators of their projects, whether volunteers, institutionstaff or contractors involved in any aspectof the study, comply with the proceduresspecified in the approved protocol;

• ensure that all personnel assisting with theproject take appropriate precautions toreduce the risk of transmitting diseases toanimals or humans.

3.1.2 Responsibilities of the animalcare committee

Guideline 4:

The animal care committee is responsiblefor reviewing all studies that are conductedby principal investigators belonging totheir institution or agency, regardless ofwhether that project will be conducted withintheir jurisdiction or in the jurisdiction ofanother animal care committee.

Responsibilities of the ACC are defined in the CCAC Policy on: Terms of Reference for AnimalCare Committees (2000). ACCs must ensurethat all protocols are properly evaluated. Inreviewing a protocol involving wildlife, ACCsare responsible for ensuring that:

• all animals to be used in a study will betreated in a manner which provides fortheir physical and psychological well-being for the duration of the study;

• adequate physical and personnel resourceswill be available for the duration of the study;

• pain and/or distress concomitant to thestudy, in so far as can reasonably be deter-mined, will be minimized both in intensityand duration;

• any animal experiencing severe, unreliev-able pain and/or distress inflicted as aresult of the study will be euthanized assoon as possible;

• the project has merit, either by evidence ofpeer review for scientific merit (research

projects); for pedagogical merit (teachingprojects); or by evidence of evaluation of the goals (e.g., responsible sustainablemanagement, or reduction of human hazards);

• investigators have the necessary trainingand experience to perform the proceduresdescribed in the protocol.

When multiple research partners are involvedin a project, the ACC of the principal investi-gator should normally take the lead in providing an ethical review of the protocol.Co-operating investigators should be respon-sible for provision of the reviewed protocol totheir home institution, indicating thatapproval has already been given by the leadACC. Any questions concerning the reviewedprocedures from the home ACCs of the co-operators should be directed to the leadACC for resolution. Home institutions oragencies should be aware of all projects beingconducted by their investigators and shouldensure that the procedures to be used are ethically acceptable and comply with all legislative and other applicable standards.

Where more than one ACC is involved in thereview of a protocol (e.g., when research is conducted outside of the jurisdiction of thehome institution), a well-defined arrange-ment between the ACC of the home institution and the host organization, formonitoring the proposed project and the welfare of the animals, should be agreed uponbefore the project begins. ACCs need to beaware of the protocols and progress of projectswhich are being carried out locally. The localACC is often the point of contact for the publicand should be able to answer questions con-cerning wildlife studies in their area.

Protocol forms for investigations at CategoriesA and B levels of invasiveness (see AppendixD) and minor changes submitted on anaddendum may be approved on an interimbasis by a subcommittee of the ACC, consist-ing of at least the ACC chair, a veterinarian, anda community representative. The subcommitteeshould consult a wildlife professional with theappropriate expertise where needed. Finalapproval should take place at a formal ACCmeeting.

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Guideline 5:

The local animal care committee shouldinclude persons with relevant expertise withwildlife in field and/or captive situations or should seek advice from independentexperts who can provide an understandingof the nature and impact of the proposedfield investigation.

ACCs that regularly deal with field-basedprojects should have two or more wildlifeprofessionals on the committee. Committeesthat rarely review wildlife studies (less than fiveper year) may need to rely on ad hoc advice.However, given the wide range of species andmethodologies employed, even committees mostexperienced with reviewing protocols involvingwildlife will have to periodically seek outsidereviews from other wildlife professionals orveterinarians having experience with wildlife.

ACCs that deal with applications for field-based wildlife projects, and which have insufficient expertise in the area of field-basedwildlife research, should seek expert advicefrom experienced wildlife field researchersabout the potential welfare implications ofproposed techniques on the individual animalsand the potential impacts on populations. Itshould also be noted that ACCs are in a positionto pass on acquired knowledge on the welfareimplications of field-based practices.

Guideline 6:

All personnel involved with the use ofwildlife for research, teaching and testingmust be adequately trained in the ethics ofanimal use and receive the necessary trainingand experience to perform the proceduresdescribed in the protocol.

The CCAC guidelines on: institutional animaluser training (1999) require that animal usersinvolved in research, teaching and testingusing wild species in the field receive ade-quate training according to the RecommendedSyllabus for an Institutional Animal UserTraining Program, Section 2, Wildlife Stream.Institutions are responsible for providing

access to the necessary training programs andfor providing evidence that all personnel havebeen adequately trained (CCAC guidelines on:institutional animal user training and accompa-nying Recommended Syllabus for an InstitutionalAnimal User Training Program, 1999).

3.1.3 Role of the veterinarian

Guideline 7:

Consultation and/or participation of veteri-narians having experience with wildlifeshould be sought in projects involvingpotential animal health concerns, such as translocation of animals and medical or surgical procedures. Consultation withveterinarians having experience with wildlifeor experienced wildlife professionals shouldalso be sought for immobilization activities.

Veterinary legislation of most provinces andterritories requires that a veterinarian have anestablished “veterinarian-client relationship”before dispensing pharmaceuticals or medicaladvice. Researchers should be encouraged toconsult with veterinarians experienced in orknowledgeable about the species in questionand the logistics of field research. In general,veterinarians remain liable for the use ofpharmaceuticals dispensed and for veterinarycare. This means that a veterinarian should bean integral part of research where they haveprescribed pharmaceuticals for the use ofinvestigators and/or when medical or surgi-cal procedures are involved. Pharmaceuticalsused for wildlife immobilization are alsoavailable to trained wildlife professionalsunder special authorization from HealthCanada (Woodbury, 1996).

Where there is no need for a veterinarian toprescribe pharmaceuticals and where medicalor surgical procedures are not involved, consultation and/or participation of non-veterinarians with appropriate expertise inimmobilization, translocation and/or diseaseconcerns is appropriate. However, combiningthe expertise and experience of wildlife biolo-gists and other wildlife professionals with thatof veterinarians maximizes the likelihood of safe,

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humane and efficient use of wild animals andshould be encouraged whenever possible.

4. Wildlife Regulations

Anyone proposing to conduct research on,study, capture, hold or release wildlife shouldbe familiar with, and comply with, the relevantlegislation governing their use.

In most cases, licenses or permits are requiredto import or export wildlife or parts thereof,to capture or kill wildlife, to band or other-wise mark wildlife, and to hold in captivity or release wildlife. It is the investigator’sresponsibility to ensure that all licenses,permits and approvals are in place before proceeding with any wildlife project (seeAppendix E for a list of regulatory agencies).

A wildlife study that involves native commu-nities may require permission from the First Nations Government and, if it involvesinterviews or other surveys, requires reviewby the Human Ethics Review process (seeSection 3. Ethics). Depending on the commu-nity, region or land claim area involved, there may be established protocols for appropriate consultation, project approvaland/or community participation. There mayalso be regional organizations that must beconsulted in addition to the local community.

4.1 International

The Convention on International Trade inEndangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora(CITES), in force since 1975, has 162 membercountries (as of 2003), including Canada.Member countries ban commercial trade inendangered species and regulate and monitortrade in other species that might becomeendangered. The import or export of any animals on the CITES list requires a CITESpermit from the Canadian Wildlife Service(CWS) and the appropriate import or exportpermit from the provincial or territorial agencyresponsible for wildlife. Some provincial/territorial wildlife authorities are also CITESpermit-issuing authorities for that province or territory. CITES not only deals with

live animals, but also with “parts and partsthereof” which includes all types of biologicalsamples (skin, hair, bones, blood, serum, etc.).

Other listings and agreements that investigatorsshould be aware of include: the InternationalUnion for Conservation of Nature and NaturalResources (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species(http://www.redlist.org); the 1997 Agreementon International Humane Trapping Standardsbetween the European Community, Canada and theRussian Federation (http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=EN&numdoc=21998A0214(02)&model=guichett); and theAnimal (mammal) traps, Part 4 (ISO 10990-4:1999) and Part 5 (ISO 10990-5:1999) of theInternational Organization for Standardi-zation (ISO) (http://www.iso.ch/iso/en/ISOOnline.frontpage). As the United Statesand Canada share many species and popula-tions of species, investigators should alsodetermine whether the species or populationto be studied is on the US endangered specieslist (US Fish and Wildlife Service, http://e n d a n g e re d . f w s . g o v / w i l d l i f e . h t m l ) .Additionally, the International Air TransportAssociation (IATA) elaborates regulations forappropriate containers, care and handlingduring transportation (IATA, 1995).

4.2 Federal

The CWS promotes the conservation ofCanadian and international wildlife and biological diversity by managing migratorybirds and nationally significant habitat, andby providing leadership on other issues suchas recovery of endangered species. The CWSoversees the following Acts and Regulations:

• Canada Wildlife Act (http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/W-9/index.html);

• Wildlife Area Regulations (http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/W-9/C.R.C.-c.1609/62555.html;

• Migratory Birds Convention Act (http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/M-7.01/index.html);

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• Migratory Bird Sanctuary Regulations(http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/M-7.01/C.R.C.-c.1036/143398.html);

• Migratory Birds Hunting Regulations(http://www.cws-scf.ec.gc.ca/publications/reg/index_e.cfm);

• Wild Animal and Plant Protection and Reg-ulation of International and Inter-provincialTrade Act (WAPPRIITA) (http://lawsjustice.gc.ca/en/W-8.5/106599.html);

• Wild Animal and Plant Trade Regulations(http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/W-8.5/SOR-96-263/184434.html);

• Species at Risk Act (http://www.speciesatrisk.gc.ca/index_e.cfm).

Other federal agencies (e.g., Fisheries andOceans Canada) bear responsibility for marinereptiles and mammals (marine mammals regulations are listed under the Fisheries Act,http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/F-14/).

The Canada National Parks Act provides forregulations for the protection of fauna, thetaking of specimens of fauna for scientific orpropagation purposes, and the destruction orremoval of dangerous or superabundantfauna (Canada National Parks Act, 2000,http://laws. just ice .gc.ca/en/n-14.01/18251.html).

WAPPRIITA is the enabling legislation forCITES in Canada. WAPPRIITA also providesthe authority to protect Canadian ecosystemsfrom the introduction of listed harmful inva-sive species by requiring permits and makes itan offence to transport an animal or plantfrom one province or territory to another orexport from a province or territory withoutthe required provincial or territorial permits.

The Committee on the Status of EndangeredWildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) develops andmaintains a national listing of Canadianspecies at risk, based on the best scientific evidence available (http://www.cosewic.gc.ca).COSEWIC consists of representatives fromthe wildlife departments of all 13 Canadianprovincial and territorial governments; federaldepartments and corporations concerned

with wildlife, including the Canadian WildlifeService (which provides the secretariat), ParksCanada, Fisheries and Oceans Canada andthe Canadian Museum of Nature; and threenon-governmental conservation organizations.It is the responsibility of the respective provin-cial and territorial jurisdictions where thespecies occurs to take whatever actions areappropriate to address the threats and limit-ing factors placing a species at risk.

Many birds migrate across international borders,and hence their research use and consequentinfluence on survival may be of interest toseveral countries. The CWS regulates the hunt-ing of migratory birds and also requires thatspecial permits be obtained for the collection,banding and/or holding of these birds. Inaddition, permits are required to carry outactivities such as wildlife research in NationalWildlife Areas and Migratory Bird Sanctuaries.

Permits from the Canadian Food InspectionAgency (CFIA) are required for the move-ment of cervids within Canada under theHealth of Animals Regulations (http://laws.just ice .gc .ca/en/H-3.3/C.R.C.-c .296/131353.html) in order to prevent the spread ofbrucellosis, tuberculosis or chronic wastingdisease. If the presence of these diseases, rabies,anthrax or foreign animal diseases are suspectedin wildlife, CFIA should be contacted. Addi-tionally, the Centre for Infectious DiseaseProtection and Control within the Populationand Public Health Branch of Health Canadashould be contacted if wildlife diseases trans-missible to humans are suspected.

4.3 Provincial / territorial

All provinces and territories in Canada havelegislation governing the use of wildlife.Therefore, it is imperative that investigatorsconsult with the appropriate provincial or territorial agency when planning a projectinvolving wildlife (see Appendix E). Licensesor permits are required for the killing, capture, holding, marking, transport, trade,and sometimes release of most wildlife. Thisincludes wildlife held for research, teaching,management, interpretive purposes, rehabili-tation, and may include farming. Provincial

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regulations also exist for the types of trapspermitted and for the use of firearms or otherweapons in specific areas. Additionally, permitsare required for the movement of wildlife, orparts thereof, across borders, and such move-ment may necessitate obtaining permits inmore than one province/territory.

Provinces and territories may have endangeredspecies legislation and listings and associatedpermit requirements. Such legislation and listings may also be applied to species forwhich the normal management responsibilitylies with another agency (e.g., migratorybirds, and marine reptiles or mammals).Investigators should note that most terrestrialspecies (mammals, amphibians and reptiles)and several species of birds (raptors, corvidsand resident non-migratory species) fall solelywithin provincial/territorial jurisdiction.

Permits may also be needed to conductwildlife research in provincial/territorialwildlife areas, refuges, game sanctuaries, ecological reserves, wilderness areas, parks,or other specially designated lands. Addi-tionally, permits may also be required foractive habitat manipulation or other activitieson any provincial/territorial land holding.

4.4 Municipal

Many municipal governments have regulationsgoverning the holding or use of wildlife withinmunicipal boundaries. There are usuallyrestrictions on the use of firearms and otherweapons. There may be regulations relating tothe use of traps or other tools and vehicles.

Investigators must consult the appropriatemunicipal by-laws.

4.5 Private property

Although wildlife is a public resource, wildanimals may occupy private and communallands and certain rights of access are extendedto lease holders. Therefore permission shouldbe obtained from the owner to access privateproperty regardless of the permits held. Insome cases, on undeveloped lands and/or inremote areas, it may be difficult to locate theowners for permission. In these situations,local provincial/territorial wildlife personnelshould be consulted for advice. It is also prudent to inform local residents or interestgroups (e.g., local fish and game organizations)of any studies being conducted, whether onprivate or public land. In addition, governmentagencies likely to receive calls from the publicshould be notified prior to the activity (e.g.,provincial/territorial and local conservation officers, the Coast Guard, Harbor Commission,CWS, RCMP or local police).

4.6 Professional associations

Many professional associations have producedguidelines for the capture, handling and careof wildlife (see Appendix A). In addition, somescientific journals have developed guidelinesthat must be followed in order to have workpublished in their journals. For Canadianresearchers, many journals specifically ask fordemonstration of ACC review and approvalbefore reviewing a paper that involves animals.

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Projects involving aspects of wildlife ecology,management and/or behavior typically dealwith free ranging animals in natural habitats.These projects may address such questions as habitat selection, foraging behavior, socialorganization, communication, effects of vari-ous management regimes, and interspeciesrelationships, and provide information forpopulation management and the impact ofdevelopment projects on wildlife.

Some projects may require baiting, capture,marking or additional procedures, usually in combination. Those projects involvingmanipulation of one or more variables of thestudy animal and its environment, or actualphysical handling, are more intrusive. As such,ensuring that these procedures are carried outin a humane manner is an ethical concern.Understanding the nature of the proceduresand potential impacts is also important to theinterpretation and integrity of research results.

To understand and potentially reduce the impactof observational and experimental procedures,investigators should conduct appropriate pilotstudies whenever possible, particularly toevaluate a new technique or a proven techniquebeing used in a novel manner.

It is essential for personnel involved in astudy to be assessed by qualified persons asbeing adequately trained and/or experiencedin the procedures listed on the protocol beforethe study begins (see also Section B.3.1.1).

A list of examples of procedures and their relative level of invasiveness has been providedin Appendix D in order to assist ACCs toassign the study to one of the CCACCategories of Invasiveness (A-E).

Guideline 8:

Procedures likely to have lasting negativeeffects on a population or to affect theexistence of a population should not beundertaken, except under extraordinary

circumstances. When such impacts arelikely, the investigator must demonstrate,through the concurrence of recognizedexperts, that the procedure is necessary.

For the most part, procedures should not have a detrimental impact on populations.However, some types of research may havepopulation control, or even extirpation, as itsgoal. For example, habitat improvement forrare birds may involve elimination or controlof introduced or over abundant predators(e.g., rats on islands), or management of urbandeer or raccoons may involve sterilization orculling of populations.

Investigators must be knowledgeable aboutthe population status of a species to be studiedand should consider the use of a species lesssensitive to population effects where possible.Sometimes, however, population statusassessment is the goal of the study. Field workdone on species outside of Canada shouldinvolve a local partner, in particular one withknowledge of local wildlife populations.

Unless the design of a study entails manipu-lation of local populations (e.g., studiesdesigned to lower density, alter sex ratio, or tostudy certain aspects of physiology or behav-ior), permanent removal of animals for experi-mental purposes may be permitted only ifthere are no lasting negative effects on thepopulation. Other practical alternative methodsof achieving the study objectives should beconsidered and engaged (e.g., obtaining speci-mens from animals collected for other purposes,such as hunting).

Investigators should take into account the socialstructure and social behavior of the species inquestion. The most obvious example is thedependence of young on maternal care. Forspecies with complex social organization, theremoval of a critical member could impair thewell-being of the remaining group members.These precautions may apply to the temporaryremoval of animals.

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C. FIELD STUDIES — GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS


When conducting the temporary removal ofanimals, the animals should not be relocatedbut reintroduced as close to the original capture site as possible so as to permit thecaptured animal to rejoin its social group or tooccupy the territory with which it is familiar.Animals that are relocated into unfamiliarareas may be driven away by territorial animals, predated, or may die from lack ofshelter or starvation. Even when released atthe original capture site after a temporaryabsence, some of these problems can occur,depending on the length of absence.

1. Observational Projects

Guideline 9:

Observational activities should minimizedisturbance that can lead to abandonmentof territories or home ranges, pre-emptionof feeding, disruption of social structures,and alteration of predator-prey relationships.

Observational activities may lead to disruptionof normal animal activities, whether as part ofthe study procedure or incidental to it. Forexample, access to or through sensitive areas(e.g., breeding sites) is disruptive and thereforerequires ACC review and approval (seeAppendix D).

Aircraft or ground surveys should be con-ducted in such a manner that disturbance tothe animals is minimized. Reaction to aircraftand vehicles (e.g., snow machines or ATVs[all-terrain vehicles]) may be extreme andmay depend upon the characteristics of themotorized vehicles themselves, as well as onthe animal, season, distance, terrain and otherfactors. The investigator should refer to themost recent literature for survey techniquesrecommended for each species or to peoplemost experienced with the species and tech-nique to be used.

Disturbance of breeding individuals is a significant concern. The impact of observers,the number and length of visits, and otherforms of disturbance should be minimized. Inaddition, reducing the impact on dependentoffspring, pair bonds, and breeding behaviorshould be considered in the timing and loca-tions of the research.

2. Projects Involving Manipulation of Wildlife

Guideline 10:

Field research involving manipulation ofwildlife for experimental studies requiresthat investigators use the least invasivepractical procedures required to achieve thestudy objectives, considering the biology andbehavior of the species of interest. Everyeffort must be made to minimize distress andensure the post-handling survival of theanimals by selecting the most appropriatemethod(s) of capture and handling for thatspecies.

2.1 Indirect manipulation

Experimental manipulation of animals in the field (e.g., artificial or actual predators,competitive interaction field experiments,food supplement experiments, acousticalexperiments, and aversive conditioning) mayexpose animals to physical injury, disrupt nor-mal social interactions, or impose other formsof distress. Well-defined endpoints should beagreed upon prior to commencement of astudy (CCAC guidelines on: choosing an appro-priate endpoint in experiments using animals forresearch, teaching and testing, 1998). Wheneverpossible, studies of natural encounters or the useof models should replace staged aggressive orpredatory encounters. Also, investigatorsshould monitor the study continuously withthe intent to stop the interactions at predeter-mined levels (ABS & ASAB, 1997). Provision ofprotective barriers and escape routes to reduceinjuries should be included in the study design.

2.2 Projects involving direct handling of wildlife

Once the decision has been made to handle wild animals, maximizing the informationobtained and reducing the impact on the indi-viduals is an ethical imperative (Karesh,1996). Nevertheless, there are some situations(e.g., re-establishment of stable groupings)where reduction of stress and impact on agroup of animals may necessitate imposingstress on a particular individual.

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Stress is the result of an animal’s interactionwith its environment that serves to protect itduring adverse conditions. A state of excessivestress (distress) will occur if the animal has todevote substantial effort or resources to theadaptive response to challenges emanatingfrom the environmental situation or if the animalis unable to make the necessary adaptations.

Potential causes of distress in capture andhandling situations are numerous. Excessiverunning, struggling and exertion may lead tophysiological changes, which may have fatalconsequences either immediately or at a latertime (Jenkins & Kruger, 1973). These includehyperthermia, hypothermia, capture myopathy,abortion in pregnant animals and shock.

Any procedures with the potential to causedistress should be well controlled or, if possi-ble, avoided. Maximum chase time and signsof animal distress should be agreed uponprior to the initiation of studies requiringchases for capture. Physiologic stress causedby temperature extremes (hot or cold) shouldbe minimized by selecting daily and seasonaltimes best suited for the work, and utilizingmethods to warm or cool animals as needed.Distress may also be induced by lack of wateror nutrition. Frequent monitoring and theprovision of water and high quality food foranimals held in captivity may be required.

Pre-existing stressors such as pregnancy, lactation, lack of adequate food and/or water,social stress, and environmental factors suchas temperature extremes may decrease anindividual animal’s ability to deal with theintense and sometimes prolonged distress of acapture event. Therefore, animals alreadycompromised by such stressors are likely to bepoor candidates for handling or immobiliza-tion, and if possible, their handling should beavoided. There is considerable variabilityamong species regarding their ability to compensate for stressful conditions. It isimperative that the investigator be aware ofthe specific sensitivities of his/her species ofinterest and of any non-target species that arelikely to be caught.

During any handling procedure, noise andtouching or movement of the animal shouldbe minimized. For example, using ear plugs,covering an animal’s eyes, or placing it in

a darkened environment may help reducestimuli and prevent arousal. For certain animals, restraining the legs and/or muzzlingthe mouth will decrease the risk of injury toboth the animal and personnel. Handlingtimes should always be kept to a minimum.

Sufficient personnel must be on hand to dealwith all reasonable eventualities, e.g., largerthan expected number of animals in nets andtraps. If insufficient personnel are available,excess animals captured must be released assoon as possible and the operation reduced inscale or stopped.

Guideline 11:

Those conducting field studies shouldanticipate and be prepared to deal with therange of conditions that may cause unduestress and/or injury to the animal.

Investigators should be prepared to stopactivities when they are considered to causeunacceptable stress or likely to cause injury,e.g., during extremes of weather (includingtemperature extremes) or in the presence ofpredators.

Investigators should be prepared to recognizeand treat animals injured as a result of theiractions.

Guideline 12:

The investigator must be prepared to euthanize any animal in the field that is suffering unrelievable pain and/or distress as a result of the capture or handling procedures, or the experimental intervention.

See Section I. Euthanasia.

3. Morbidity and Mortality in the Field

Guideline 13:

When morbidity is observed during orfollowing handling or manipulation, it shouldbe addressed and then documented andinvestigated. Any mortalities should receivea thorough postmortem to determine causeof death.

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Basic veterinary first aid and the appropriatemedications should be available during allprocedures relating to the handling of wildlife.An individual with the appropriate trainingand direct experience with the species ofinterest, or related species, should be on sitefor all animal first aid, medical or surgicalprocedures, physical and chemical restraintand anesthesia. Investigators should establisha link with a veterinarian with expertise inwildlife in the planning phase of the projectand ensure that they can contact the veterinarianduring the field season for additional advice.

If animals are to be medicated for any pre-existing health problems or prophylactically, a veterinarian experienced with the species of interest, or related species, should be consulted in the planning phase of the project.

Arrangements for postmortems to be carriedout in veterinary pathology facilities shouldbe made in advance of the beginning of field-work so that the pathologist can explain howthe carcass and tissues should be handled and preserved, as well as to minimize the timerequired to make arrangements for the examination. Ideally, postmortems should beconducted by veterinary pathologists in

laboratories, by veterinarians, or remotely bypersonnel in direct consultation with animaldisease specialists who can then receive specimens for further evaluation. When it isnot possible for carcasses to be retrieved fromthe field, it is helpful for someone on theresearch team to have had prior training inpostmortem techniques. A gross postmortemor photographs of lesions may be adequatefor diagnosis of the cause of death. However,samples of the carcass may be required forfurther work-up or genetic archiving. It is necessary that the personnel conducting postmortems understand proper sample collection and preservation techniques tomaximize the opportunity for the recovery ofdisease agents and causes of death and forgenetic archiving. A pathologist or veterinariancan then make the diagnosis with the greatestdegree of accuracy. Field postmortem tech-niques are well described for some species(e.g., National Wildlife Health Laboratory,General Field Procedures and Diseases ofMigratory Birds, 1987; Canadian CooperativeWildlife Health Centre & Office Internationaldes Épizooties, Wildlife Disease InvestigationManual, 1990; and Munson, Necropsy Proceduresfor Wild Animals, 1999).

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1. Killed SpecimensInvestigators should attempt to obtain deadspecimens from other sources (e.g., road killsand hunter kills) whenever possible.

Provincial/territorial regulations concerningtraps and their use should be consulted forlocal requirements.

Guideline 14:

Killing methods for collection of wildlifeshould be species-specific and humane.Investigators should be trained in the proposed collecting method(s) to ensureeffective humane kills.

Some types of studies require the killing ofspecimens for study collections. It is importantthat such collections further our understandingof these animals. Collection of specimens tobe used only to demonstrate specimen prepa-ration should be discouraged. Whenever possible, this should be done using laboratoryor domesticated species that have been eutha-nized for other purposes. All reasonable effortsshould be made to acquire as much informationas possible from each collected animal.

The collection method chosen will depend uponcircumstances (e.g., the species, season, andpurpose for which the specimen will be used);however, the most efficient and humanemethod that will serve the study collectionpurposes should be used. The collectionmethod should not compromise the quality ofthe biological samples to be collected.

Testing and certification of traps for mammalspecies in accordance with standards set outin the Agreement on International HumaneTrapping Standards (AIHTS) (EuropeanCommunity, Government of Canada &Government of the Russian Federation, 1997) iscurrently on-going but incomplete in Canada.Full implementation of AIHTS is expected in 2007. As far as possible, traps that are certifiedas having met the standards specified in AIHTSshould be used. For information on traps thathave been tested and certified for various

species, consult provincial/territorial wildlifemanagement authorities (see Appendix E) orthe Fur Institute of Canada (2002). Exceptwith special authorization from provincial orterritorial authorities, only traps permitted byprovincial/territorial regulations for variousspecies may be used. Traps for species notcovered by provincial/territorial trap regula-tions should be the most humane and effectiveavailable, based on references to published literature and/or persons experienced in animalcapture.

All traps should be deployed and operatedaccording to instructions, monitored for per-formance, and adjusted to ensure effective andhumane kills.

Kill traps should be checked regularly to complywith provincial/territorial regulations and toprevent specimen loss due to scavengers orspoilage.

Shooting may be the most efficient or onlypractical means of collecting some species.Firearms and ammunition appropriate for thespecies to be collected should be used.Situations that may lead to a high risk of losing the carcass (e.g., aquatic or marine mammals in open water) should be avoided.An experienced marksperson should be used.The investigator must be prepared to retrieveand kill wounded animals quickly (seeSection I. Euthanasia).

2. Live Capture

Guideline 15:

Before initiating field projects involvingcapture, investigators must be familiarwith the study species and its response to disturbance, as well as its sensitivity to capture and restraint. In addition,investigators should be familiar with theadvantages and drawbacks of availablemethods of live capture, particularly thosethat have been used with the study species.

Investigators should review the various trapsand trapping techniques to ensure that the

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D. COLLECTING VERTEBRATES


type used is effective and suited to the speciesand situation, will minimize distress andinjury to the study animals, and will minimizecapture of non-target species. In addition, theinvestigator should be trained in the correctuse of the selected method or technique andshould be able to ensure the prompt release ofany non-target animal that may be accidentallycaptured. Restraining (live holding) traps forcertain mammal species are also subject to theAIHTS and provincial/territorial regulations.

Live captures must be planned to keep captiveanimals alive, uninjured, and where necessary,provided with food and water prior to pro-cessing and release. Trapping methods mustalso be selected based on the geographicregion and the climatic conditions. Wherepossible, trapping must be avoided whenweather conditions threaten the survival orwell-being of trapped animals, unless stepscan be taken to mitigate these risks. Investigatorsshould make every effort to avoid trap deathsfrom factors such as exposure, shock, capturemyopathy, and predation. In some areas, theprovision of shelter is required.

When not in use, traps must be closed, deacti-vated or removed, and mist nets should be closed and furled to avoid unintentionalcaptures.

The removal of animals with dependentyoung from the wild should be avoided.Capture and handling of these animals mustbe carried out with particular care to avoidabandonment. The timing of births can bewidely variable. Local expertise (e.g., biolo-gists, trappers and/or wildlife rehabilitators)can be a good source of information about thevariances at any particular time.

Decoys can be useful in capturing some species.As far as possible, dummy lures should beused (McCloskey & Dewey, 1999). Where livinglures must be used, investigators are responsiblefor the well-being of all of the animals, bothlure and target. Therefore, care must be takento minimize the level of distress of the lurespecies (Bloom, 1987; Bookhout, 1996).

Investigators should monitor and record theeffects of capture on both study animals andnon-target species. This also applies to theprotection of lure animals in live traps used toattract predator species.

Investigators should ensure that special con-siderations have been reviewed for the livecapture of animals dangerous to humans.Depending upon species and location, orwhen trapping gear that is potentially dan-gerous to humans or their pets is deployed,the public may have to be warned to avoidstudy areas (e.g., warning signs should be posted around the study site). Someprovincial/territorial jurisdictions may haveregulations or restrictions governing place-ment and use of certain devices. Investigatorsshould be aware of relevant regulations andconsult local authorities regarding the need for posting of warning signs, public information efforts, etc.

2.1 Trap monitoring frequency

Guideline 16:

Investigators must check restraining trapsand nets frequently to avoid injury or deathto captured animals.

Depending on the protocol and speciesinvolved, traps and nets must be checked asoften as possible, with the frequency dependingupon the species, trap or net type, weather,location, study objectives, and applicableprovincial/territorial regulations. Many ani-mals are sensitive to exposure to heat, cold,dehydration and energy deprivation. As well,long periods spent in traps or nets during thereproductive season should be avoided toreduce the possibility of affecting dependentyoung and breeding behavior.

Animals caught in live holding traps willsometimes fight the trap and may becomeinjured. The occurrence and severity of thiswill vary with individuals, species, trappingdevices and the trapping situation. Investigatorsshould be aware of the specific sensitivitiesand requirements of the species they are dealingwith and make provisions to accommodatethese (e.g., providing shelter, shade, etc.; seethe CCAC species-specific recommendations,http://www.ccac.ca).

Radio telemetry can be used to monitor trapsites; however, it should not replace frequenton-site monitoring.

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The well-being of the animals under study isof paramount importance. Improper restraint,especially of distressed animals, may lead tomajor and potentially fatal physiological disturbances. In addition, the capture of somespecies of animals may alter their behavior orpredispose them to predation.

The decision to use physical or chemicalrestraint should be undertaken through consultation with knowledgeable individuals.This should be based upon the length of theprocedure, the invasiveness of the procedure,the need for analgesia, the degree of stressinvolved in the capture and restraint of a particular species, and the safety of the inves-tigator. Predictable chemical restraint protocolswith good analgesia and antagonists exist forsome species, but not others. For manyspecies, effective physical restraint (e.g., netgun capture) can be accomplished faster withfewer complications.

Investigators should be competent in therestraint techniques to be used and should notallow unsupervised or inexperienced personsto handle any species until adequately trainedto restrain, manipulate and release the animalsproperly. The investigator should consult thecurrent literature and seek the advice of expe-rienced professionals before handling anunfamiliar species.

Chemical or physical restraint of wildlife maycause various forms of social disruptionwhich should be considered in the planningprocess of the project. Social disruption ismore detrimental at certain times of the year,especially during breeding. Pregnancy statusof female animals should be taken into con-sideration and physical or chemical restraintof pregnant females avoided, particularlyduring the last trimester of pregnancy, due tothe potential risks to the health of the femaleand fetus. Generally, chemical restraint of animalswith dependent young should be avoided asthere is increased risk of abandonment.

The following are basic restraint principles. Formore detailed advice, particularly species-specific information, consult the CCAC species-specific recommendations, http://www.ccac.ca,and the guidelines listed in Appendix A.

1. Physical Restraint andHandling

Guideline 17:

Effective methods of physical restraint thatminimize the possibility of physical injuryand physiological and psychological stressshould be chosen within the limits of humansafety. The least amount of restraint andthe shortest possible time necessary forthe procedures being undertaken shouldbe used. Personnel handling animalsshould be thoroughly trained in the plannedprocedures as well as in alternative methodsof restraint that may be required.

Physical restraint should be performed onlyby individuals who are familiar with the normalbehavior of the species being restrained.

Investigators should endeavor to keep thelength of the procedure(s) to a minimum.Prolonged stressful restraint is not acceptable.Investigators should also minimize sensorystimuli by handling animals quietly, with aminimum of personnel, and without suddenmovement. Placing blindfolds and earplugson animals and/or working in darkened environments may reduce stress.

Supplemental chemical restraint may be nec-essary to prevent injury to an animal and/orto personnel (see Section J.). Additionally,restraining devices (e.g., hobbles, nets andbags) may be required to avoid injury to theanimal or to the researcher. Investigatorsshould be familiar with the appropriatenessof such devices for the study species.

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E. RESTRAINT


On-site weather and other environmentalconditions, as well as species-specific factors,will influence the outcome of the restraintprocedures, and should be considered whenplanning such activities. Investigators shouldbe aware that seasonal changes in behaviormight influence the ease with which manyanimals may be captured and restrained.

2. Chemical Restraint andAnesthesia

The principal goals of chemical restraint andanesthesia are: to render the animal uncon-scious or deeply sedated, with a minimumamount of stress and no injury to the animal;to provide adequate intra-operative and post-operative pain control when painful procedures are performed; and to ensure safeand rapid recovery. Wild animals are frequentlyanesthetized in hazardous environments.Capture equipment has the potential toinduce severe injury to the target animal orpersonnel working with the animal. Drugsused for wildlife anesthesia have the potentialto produce adverse effects in the animal andin members of the capture team. The risk ofsignificant morbidity and mortality is oftenhigh. Every possible step should be taken todecrease these risks. The following sectionsoutline guidelines that should be followed todecrease stress and morbidity or mortalityduring chemical restraint and anesthesia.Additional useful information is found in theCanadian Association of Zoo and WildlifeVeterinarians (CAZWV) course manual forthe Chemical Immobilization of Wildlife (Woodbury,1996). For guidelines on the use of analgesics,see Section G. Medical / Surgical Procedures.

2.1 Training

Guideline 18:

Personnel performing chemical restraintand anesthesia on wildlife should receiverecognized and current training, andshould use techniques and drugs that areappropriate for the species with whichthey are working.

Anesthesia of free ranging wildlife can becomplicated and can result in significant mor-bidity and mortality. Additionally, anestheticprotocols and complications vary considerablybetween species. Personnel performing anes-thesia on wildlife should, therefore, receiveappropriate training in anesthesia and befamiliar both with the target species and withthe best techniques available.

At a minimum, personnel involved in chemicalrestraint of wildlife should have successfullycompleted a recent (within the past five years) and recognized course in the chemicalimmobilization of wildlife or an acceptablecombination of initial training (recognizedcourse), refresher training, continuing educa-tion, and regular hands-on practice or actualparticipation in wildlife chemical immobiliza-tion events. Personnel should gain experiencewith the process and target species beforeattempting the process themselves. It is recommended that the current literatureshould be reviewed and that a consultationprocess should take place with personnel thatare familiar with the particular species (e.g.,wildlife biologists, wildlife management person-nel, and veterinarians with wildlife experience).

2.2 Pharmacological considerations

Guideline 19:

Drugs used for wildlife capture should,whenever possible, have the followingproperties: provide anesthesia; be stablein solution; be effective in small volumes;produce minimal deleterious physiologicalor toxicological effects; result in rapidonset of anesthesia; and be reversible.

While it is recognized that there is no perfectdrug to be used in capturing wildlife,researchers should strive to meet the objec-tives of this guideline as closely as practical.

Chemical restraint as the primary capturemethod should be performed with drugs thatprovide adequate anesthesia. The drug shouldrender the animal unconscious and make it unaware of manipulations that are being performed during immobilization.

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All drugs should be stored and transported in the field appropriately (i.e. under asepticconditions and correct temperature, humidityand light requirements). An extreme range ofambient temperatures may be encountered inthe field. Drugs should be stable over a largerange of temperatures to facilitate precisedelivery of a given drug dosage. Many of the commonly used drugs are water-basedsolutions and therefore subject to freezing inextreme cold temperatures. Drugs must beproperly disposed of when outdated.

Drugs used for wildlife immobilizationshould be potent, allowing for the use of smallvolumes. The use of smaller drug volumesand small darts facilitates accurate remotedelivery of drugs and minimizes tissue trauma.

Drugs used for wildlife immobilization shouldhave a high therapeutic index and minimal toxicside effects to decrease the risk of morbidityor mortality.

Induction of anesthesia is a particularly hazardous time for wildlife and capture personnel, and should therefore be as rapid aspossible. If prolonged, there may be increasedrisk of injury to the animal and capture personnel, as well as increased risk of losingthe animal if it is free ranging and cannot bereadily tracked. The drug dose should be calculated to deliver an adequate volume in asingle dose to ensure effective, rapid immobi-lization within the maximum safe dosagemargins for the drug in question.

Since wild animals must often be allowed torecover in the field, the administration of areversal agent is useful to decrease recoverytimes and to enable the animal to defend itselfor escape predators more readily. These drugsalso antagonize the side effects of anestheticagents and facilitate rapid recovery in emer-gency situations.

2.3 Muscle relaxants

Guideline 20:

Depolarizing muscle relaxants (e.g.,succinylcholine chloride) produce paralysiswithout anesthesia and must not be usedwithout an anesthetic agent.

In the past, muscle relaxants have been usedas the sole agent for wildlife capture. Becausethey do not produce anesthesia and the animal is fully aware of its surroundings, theyare extremely stressful and inhumane. Musclerelaxants are titrated to produce paralysis ofthe limbs, but are not selective for the musclesof locomotion, and thus produce varyingdegrees of paralysis of the respiratory mus-cles, resulting in depression of the respirationsystem, potential suffocation, and often death(Delvaux et al., 1999; Jolicoeur & Beaumont,1986; Kreeger, 1996). Therefore, they must notbe used without an anesthetic agent.

2.4 Drug delivery

Guideline 21:

Remote drug delivery systems for admin-istering anesthetic agents to free rangingwildlife must be appropriate for the size ofthe animal and the volume of drug to beadministered.

Many equipment systems are available for theremote injection of drugs, including highvelocity dart rifles, low velocity systems andpole syringes. It is important to choose a systemthat will deliver the required volume of drugwith the least amount of physical trauma tothe animal (Bush, 1992; Kreeger, 1996).

Hitting a proper injection site is critical whenremotely injecting immobilizing drugs in wildlife species. A large skeletal musclemass is usually the most desirable target toachieve an intramuscular injection. Regularpractice sessions with remote drug deliverysystems and knowledge of animal anatomyare necessary to be able to consistently hit theappropriate anatomical site. Factors such asseason, age and body condition of the animalshould all be considered before immobiliza-tion as they can radically alter the target siteand the dose required. Additionally, anappropriate needle length should be chosenfor the size, age and body condition of the target animal to allow effective injection andreduce the risk of laceration and trauma.

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High velocity dart rifles are capable of killingmost mammalian species and should only be used by experienced personnel. They aregenerally much less accurate than traditionalfirearms. Most accidental animal deathsinvolving these firearms have resulted fromusing excessive velocity to propel the dartand/or missing the target area, causing pene-tration of a vital organ or body cavity, and/orbroken bones.

Low velocity systems, including CO2 poweredpistols and low velocity dart guns, cause lesstrauma than high velocity dart guns becausethe projectile travels at a much lower speed.Low velocity systems, however, have limiteduse for most free ranging animals becausethey have a short range and are limited tosmaller drug volumes.

Slow-injection darts, pressurized with air orgas, cause less tissue damage when injectingthan rapid-injection darts which contain anexplosive charge.

Pole syringes are useful for trapped or restrainedanimals. They are capable of delivering largervolumes of drug than some of the low-velocitysystems and create less trauma than high-velocity systems due to the slow speed ofinjection. However, pole syringes can result inlacerations or needles can break off, especiallywhen used with needles that are too long orwhen administering large volumes. Placementof the syringe needs to be accurate as polesyringes may harm the animal if incorrectlyplaced.

2.5 Anesthesia under field conditions

Guideline 22:

Efforts must be made to minimize the risksassociated with chemical restraint. The animal’s welfare must be the primary con-sideration, taking into account human safety.

Anesthesia of free ranging wildlife can be particularly challenging. Prior to administering

anesthetic agents, many factors need to beconsidered with regard to their potential riskto anesthetized animals in the field. Theseinclude terrain, ambient temperature, visibility,weather, season, age and sex, as well as thepossibility of pregnancy or accompanyinginfant animals, the proximity of predators,and the metabolic state of the animal.

During the induction period of anesthesia,animals are not fully aware or fully ambulatoryand may not avoid hazards such as cliffs,water bodies, ice, steep slopes, roads and fences.Investigators must be aware of such changesof behavior and avoid operations near suchhazards. In addition, investigators must agreeon acceptable chase times with maximum andminimum ambient temperatures for capturesessions. These should be set prior to the project,and chase times should be minimized.

Anesthetized animals may remain under theinfluence of anesthetic agents for several hoursor days following immobilization and are oftenat risk of injury and death from predators orconspecifics. Steps must be taken to reducethese risks by using anesthetic agents that canbe reversed, if available, and by protecting theanimals while they recover.

2.6 Monitoring and supportivecare

Guideline 23:

Appropriate supportive care and regularmonitoring must be provided to minimizethe risk of morbidity or mortality.

General anesthesia subjects the animal topotentially life-threatening complications.Anesthetized animals require close monitoringof their cardiovascular, respiratory and thermo-regulatory systems. Personnel working withanesthetized animals must be trained to recognize potential complications and dealwith them. Ideally, these systems should bemonitored continuously; if this is not feasible,close monitoring should be performed every

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5 to 10 minutes. The depth of anesthesia shouldalso be closely monitored to detect suddenchanges that may indicate distress of the animal or a hazard for personnel. The type ofsupportive care required varies considerablybetween species, and therefore, personnelmust be aware of the appropriate care for thetarget species. Investigators should keep theamount of talking and noise to a minimum.Helicopters and other motorized equipmentshould be turned off or moved away from thehandling area. It is advisable to have oneworker whose sole job is to monitor the phys-iological status of the immobilized animalthroughout the handling procedure.

Dependable, lightweight, highly portableequipment to assist in monitoring anesthesiais becoming increasingly available (e.g., pulseoximeters, digital thermometers, and oscillo-metric blood pressure monitors). Personnelconducting field anesthesia should becomeproficient in the use of the appropriate aidsand make this equipment available in thefield. Animals showing signs of hypoxiashould be treated with supplementary oxygenand investigators should be prepared toadminister oxygen in the field. Compressedmedical grade oxygen is easily transported inD-size cylinders under most field conditions(Read et al., 2001) but is classified as a haz-ardous material and may be subject to trans-port regulations. Portable self-inflating resus-citation apparatus (ambu bags) can be usefulin smaller species as they are very portableand provide ventilatory support.

Ideally, anesthetized animals that have lostthe reflex to swallow should be intubated.Since this is difficult for many species in fieldsituations, it is recommended that the head andneck be extended, and that handling personnelhave the necessary training to recognize andtreat airway obstruction. Monogastrics shouldbe positioned in lateral or sternal recumbencyon a soft, even surface with the head and neckextended; ruminants should be positioned insternal recumbency on a soft, even surface withthe head and neck extended. If, for any reason,sternal recumbency cannot be maintained with

ruminants, the animals may be maintained inlateral recumbency if carefully monitored forrumenal tympany and regurgitation.

Dissociative anesthetics are frequently usedfor wildlife anesthesia and may eliminate thepalpebral or blink reflex. Eye lubrication is there-fore required to decrease the risk of cornealulceration or trauma. The eyes and eyelidsshould also be protected by blindfolding.

Drugs used for wildlife immobilization oftenimpair thermoregulation, making the animalssusceptible to hypo- or hyperthermia. This riskis further increased by the field conditions underwhich wildlife immobilization is frequentlyperformed. Personnel using immobilizingdrugs should be able to recognize these complications and know how to prevent ortreat them. Because there is a high degree ofvariability between species, wildlife handlersshould know the range of normal body tem-perature for the target species, and shouldmonitor the temperature frequently through-out anesthesia.

2.7 Drug residue

Guideline 24:

Adequate steps must be taken to ensurethat drugs used in procedures on wildlifedo not enter the food chain.

Drugs used for wildlife have the potential to have adverse effects in humans and otheranimals if the subject is consumed soon afteranesthesia. Animals should be clearly markedto indicate that they have received a drug andthe individuals or agency performing the cap-ture should include contact information onthe tag. Personnel administering these drugsshould be aware of approximate withdrawaltimes for the target species. The VeterinaryDrugs Directorate at Health Canada or drugmanufacturers and/or distributors should be able to provide information for some drugsregarding the length of time during which an animal should not be consumed afterreceiving the drug (withdrawal time) and

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may have specific requirements for animalsadministered drugs under their authority. Itshould be noted, however, that many of thepharmaceuticals used in wildlife are “off label”uses, in which case the drug residues andlong-term effects have not been determinedfor these species. Information on withdrawaltimes for some drugs commonly used forwildlife is given by Craigmill et al. (1997) andthe Western Wildlife Health Committee (2000);and is available to veterinarians throughCanada’s gFARAD (global food animalresidue avoidance databank) by phone 1-866-

243-2723. However, these withdrawal timesshould be used at the discretion of veterinaryauthorities in each region.

Chemical restraint should not be performedclose to the hunting season for the targetspecies unless appropriate notification hasbeen given. Additionally, consumers of wildmeat (e.g., First Nations groups, regionalhunter groups and trappers associations, etc.)should be notified prior to wildlife captureand fully informed about any potential risksfrom consumption of the meat.

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1. GeneralWhen choosing a marking technique, primaryconsideration should be given to methodologiesthat are not invasive, do not require recapturefor identification, and will remain visible forthe duration of the study. Where possible, inves-tigators are encouraged to use unique naturalfeatures as marks to identify individuals, ratherthan removing or damaging tissues or attachingauxiliary markers.

Guideline 25:

Investigators must aim to minimize anyadverse effects of marking procedures onthe behavior, physiology or survival ofindividual study animals.

Guideline criteria for marking:

• marking should be quick and easy to apply;

• marking code (numbers or colors) shouldbe readily visible and distinguishable;

• markings should persist on animals untilall research objectives are fulfilled;

• animals should experience no long-termadverse effects on health, behavior, longevity,or social life;

• accurate records of the marking procedureshould be kept;

• marking must comply with federal,provincial/territorial, and other agencyregulations;

• marking must allow for seasonal changesand growth of juvenile animals.

While some of the effects of marking may not be known, researchers should strive tocomply with the above criteria as much aspossible.

Where feasible and practical, investigatorsshould include an investigation of the effectsof marking in their study objectives. In most

cases, these effects are unknown, partlybecause of the unavailability of controls; how-ever, in some cases, the opportunity exists to compare the impact of different types ofmarkings. New marking methods should betried on captive animals first, if feasible.

In choosing an acceptable marking technique,the investigator should consider the natureand duration of restraint, the amount of tissueremoved or damaged, whether or not pain ismomentary or prolonged, and whether therisk of infection is minimal. The legibility andpermanence of the mark should be weighedagainst subsequent need for recapture.

Techniques for marking animals have beenreviewed in many publications which shouldbe consulted for specific methodologies. Thefollowing guidelines summarize the mostcommon animal marking techniques andtheir potential problems.

2. Banding and Tagging

Guideline 26:

Investigators should weigh the researchneeds for greater visibility and individualrecognition against the potential risks ofinjury that come with the use of specificmarking techniques such as banding andtagging, and should minimize the risksassociated with the chosen technique.

The risk of injury for each type of marker isdependent upon the species; and therefore,researchers should be aware of problems andnew developments associated with the use of each type on the species of interest.Investigators should be encouraged to publishresults of studies showing the effectiveness of the marker type or design, including anynegative impacts on the study species, so thatthis can be taken into account by other inves-tigators. This is particularly true of novelexperimental marking techniques.

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F. MARKING


The size, shape and placement of tags shouldallow normal behavior in the animal that ismarked. Bands and tags that project from thebody may impair physical activities or causeentanglement in undergrowth or aquaticcover. In addition, projecting markers may betorn as a result of the animal’s movements.Brightly colored tags may compromise an ani-mal’s camouflage or possibly act as predatorattractants.

Because of the high visibility of bands and tags,investigators making use of them must also beprepared to address questions and concernsfrom the public.

Tattooing and Passive Integrated Transponder(PIT) tags have been used successfully on manyanimals, primarily mammals, but also onbirds, amphibians and reptiles (e.g., Williamset al., 1997; Nietfeld et al., 1996). One limita-tion of tattoos and dye marks is that theymight be misread due to loss of legibility.

3. Tissue Marking (Invasive)

Guideline 27:

Marking techniques which cause signifi-cant tissue injury, such as branding andtoe, ear and tail clipping, should only beused if evidence is provided to an animalcare committee indicating that alternativemethods cannot achieve desired results.

Branding causes pain and serious tissue damage. Therefore, it should only be used inexceptional circumstances. There is currentlyinsufficient data to determine whether freezebranding is preferable to hot branding(Schwarkopf-Genswein & Stookey, 1997;Pierre Yves Daoust, pers. comm., 2002). Ifbranding is the most appropriate option (e.g.,for long-term studies), the operation shouldbe conducted only by experienced personneland every effort must be made to minimizethe animal’s pain and discomfort (e.g., provi-sion of analgesia with or without anesthesia).

Removal or damage to tissue by toe, ear andtail clipping should be used only when noalternative marking methods are available.When used, tissue removal should not impair

normal activities and survival of the markedanimal. Toe clipping must not be used for ani-mals that burrow, climb, or otherwise use toeswith specialized functions. If no alternativemethods to toe clipping are available, then toeremoval combinations should be tested oncaptive animals to determine if impairmentwill occur. Only the most distal phalanx shouldbe cut. New technologies available give reasonto question the continued use of these methods,except when tissue samples are required.

Researchers should ensure that the markingprocess does not cause unnecessary tissuedamage, pain, and/or severe blood loss.Adequate pain control is necessary whenundertaking such procedures. Certain tech-niques can lead to infection if not carried outunder aseptic conditions.

4. Radio TransmittersRadio telemetry packages have becomeincreasingly popular for remotely monitoringthe physiology, behavior, habitat use, sur-vival, and movements of animals. In recentyears, these devices have become lighter withlonger battery life and are increasingly morereliable. Therefore, in some instances feweranimals are required to be captured and han-dled to acquire the needed data for meetingstudy goals.

Transmitters are becoming preferred to otherforms of marking to follow the movements of animals. Effects on energetics, survival,reproductive success and behavior should beconsidered in protocol development. This isespecially important for birds and marinemammals.

Guideline 28:

Telemetry devices should be as light inweight as possible. Transmitters shouldweigh less than 5% of the body mass ofthe animal. When available and feasible,lighter transmitter devices should beselected. Investigators should make everyeffort to use external transmitter devicesthat will break away at the end of the useful life of the transmitter.

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In the past, it was generally accepted thattransmitters should weigh less than 5% of thebody mass of the animal. With better technol-ogy, it may be appropriate to further reducethe 5% rule. In addition to mass, however, thedesign, fit and materials of the radio transmittershould also be considered to ensure there isno unacceptable hair loss or skin damage to theanimal. As well, in calculating the allowablemass of a transmitter, the investigator shouldtake into account the mass of other trackingmaterials being used at the same time (e.g.,wing bands, tags, and adhesives) (Barclay &Bell, 1988). Final mass of the transmitter pack-age will be a compromise between total massand inclusion of such desirable features aslonger battery life, mortality sensors, drop offdevices, GPS devices, etc.

If transmitters are surgically implanted, theprocedures should use recognized veterinarytechniques (see Section G. Medical / SurgicalProcedures).

Ideally, external transmitters should be removedonce an experiment or study is completed, butthis is frequently not possible or presents toomuch risk to the animal. Attachment designsthat will quickly and completely “self-remove” within a pre-planned time period orwhen remotely triggered should be consid-ered. It should be noted that implanted andsometimes externally attached transmitterscan be ingested by predators.

In order to use radio transmitters, a permit orlicense may be required from IndustryCanada, depending on the frequency used.The appropriate spectrum office of IndustryCanada should be contacted regarding thelicensing process. Industry Canada’s Radio-communication Information Circular 66 document (RIC-66) should be consulted forcontact information of regional and districtoffices (http://strategis.ic.gc.ca/SSG/1/sf01742e.html).

Some newer telemetry systems, referred to as harmonic radar, use a microwave pulsedetector (the tag) that emits a VHF signal onlywhen it detects a specific microwave pulsefrom a radar transmitter. As power consump-tion of the tag is very low in “listening mode”,the 1g unit should operate for up to one yearor more.

A wide variety of attachment methods fortransmitters exist and these are reported inthe literature. It is important that investigatorswho intend to utilize telemetry investigatethose sources relevant to their study species.A review of the pertinent literature will helpto identify any potential adverse effects thattransmitters may have upon the behavior, survival and well-being of their study animals.It is strongly recommended that prior to beingused in the field, new attachment techniquesare evaluated on captive individuals of thesame or similar species.

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It may be necessary to perform medical andsurgical procedures on study animals, either aspart of an experimental protocol, for prophy-lactic treatment, or to provide care to animalsinadvertently injured during the capture andhandling phase of a study. Some proceduresmay be considered minor, while other proce-dures may require chemical restraint for thesafety of the animal and/or handlers, or com-plete general anesthesia for painful or invasiveprocedures. Investigators may be the mostknowledgeable persons regarding the handlingof the animals for minor conditions.

The advice and/or direct assistance of a veterinarian should be requested during theplanning stage of a study for the administra-tion of antibiotics or other pharmaceuticalsused, and for the more involved procedures,particularly with a species or procedures new to the investigator. Depending upon thejurisdiction, laws or policies may require thatsome procedures only be undertaken by a veterinarian. If any problems are encounteredduring recommended procedures, the investi-gator should consult with a veterinarian having experience with wildlife.

1. Use of Analgesics

Guideline 29:

Appropriate analgesics must be usedwhen any procedure is performed that mayproduce significant intra-operative and/orpost-operative pain.

Acute pain triggers catecholamine (epineph-rine, norepinephrine) release, resulting inimmediate multiple changes in physiologyand organ function. The responses to chronicpain can result in decreased healing, decreasedresistance to disease, and malnutrition. Lossof function due to pain may make the animalmore susceptible to predation.

Wildlife research may involve invasive proce-dures such as laparotomy, biopsy, or tooth

extraction, and measures must be taken to controlpain during and after any of these procedures.

A variety of techniques may be available toprovide analgesia for wildlife, including localanesthesia, narcotics, anti-inflammatory drugs,or a combination of these. Current literatureand experts should be consulted to make anappropriate choice. It is recommended thatanalgesics be administered prior to surgicalmanipulations in order to optimize analgesicactivity. It should be remembered that durationand action of analgesics vary between species.

The use of opiates, such as morphine, and opioids, such as fentanyl, buprenorphine andbutorphanol, may cause side effects and shouldonly be administered following careful con-sideration and consultation with a veterinarianhaving experience with wildlife. These drugsare classified as narcotics and are thereforeincluded in the Controlled Drugs and Sub-stances Act (Health Canada, 1996, http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/C-38.8/35884.html). An indi-vidual wishing to use these drugs must haveappropriate training and make a writtenrequest directly, or through a veterinarian, tothe Drug Strategy and Controlled SubstancesProgramme at Health Canada for every projectthey undertake. Once obtained, these drugsmay only be used by the individual whoacquired them, and the regulations for recordkeeping, storage and disposal of the drugs, asspecified in the Act, must be followed.

The use of analgesics post-surgery must becritically evaluated, taking into account thecharacteristics of the species. Re-restraininganimals held in short-term captivity followingsurgery to deliver an analgesic may causemore stress to an animal than leaving it alone.

Local anesthetics can be useful for intra-operative and post-operative analgesia ofwildlife, but consideration must be given toroute of administration, duration of action, andtoxicity. While local anesthetics can be admin-istered by a variety of routes, local infiltrationof the surgical site is the simplest method and

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G. MEDICAL / SURGICAL PROCEDURES

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is recommended for personnel that do not haveadvanced training. Duration of action oftendictates the choice of local anesthetic agent.

2. Minor ProceduresInvestigators must minimize stress and paincaused by sampling, physical measurementsand aging techniques and ensure that theyhave no long lasting effects on the animal.

2.1 Tissue / blood samples

Guideline 30:

Sampling of blood and tissue, includingtooth extraction, should be performed onlyafter appropriate training and adequateexperience. Procedures and protocolsmust be chosen that avoid or minimizepain and distress.

The advice of a veterinarian can be helpful indeciding on, and training in, proper bloodand tissue sampling methods. The need for ananesthetic depends upon the restrainingmethod, the species, the physical condition ofthe individual animal, and the tissue and/orvolume of blood required. As a general rule,the volume of blood collected should be nomore than 10% of the total blood volume ofthe animal (blood volume is approximately100ml/kg body weight).

When appropriate, blood and other biologicalsamples can be collected during the handlingof animals in order to maximize data collection.The samples may be analyzed immediately orarchived for later use. Proper collection andspecimen handling and preservation protocolsshould be followed in order to obtain usefulfield data. Opportunities for tissue samplinginclude hair, fecal samples, skin plugs fromear tagging, claw tips, blood samples, etc.Opportunistic non-essential sampling activityshould be balanced against additional restrainttime required.

Tissue sampling should use procedures that minimize stress and pain while obtainingadequate samples for study purposes. Remotetissue sampling methods such as biopsy darts

and remote hair sampling are options forgenetic sampling of free ranging species andfor the collection of samples for contaminantanalysis. Darting should be done by individualsexperienced with the use of remote samplingsystems to ensure that sampling is done safelywith as little stress to the animals as possible.

2.2 Physiological measurements

Investigators should be prepared to minimizestress and pain to captured animals as a result ofprocedures to take physiological measurements.See Section E. Restraint for more informationon handling procedures.

2.3 Isotopes

Guideline 31:

Investigators planning to use radioisotopesmust be trained in the use of such tracers,ensure that all appropriate permits havebeen acquired, and ensure that disposal ofwaste material follows the proceduresspecified in the permit.

Special training and precautions are requiredof researchers planning to use radioactive iso-topes or tracer techniques in order to protectthe health and safety of the researcher, staff,and the public. For any work involvingradioactive isotopes in Canada, investigatorsare required to be licensed by the CanadianNuclear Safety Commission (CNSC) (http://www.nuclearsafety.gc.ca/eng/licensees/).The specifics of the licensing requirementswill depend on the type, activity and use ofthe isotope.

The advantages and disadvantages of usingstrong gamma emitters must be weighed interms of possible deleterious effects on theanimal and potential hazards to the public whomight ingest isotope labeled game animals.

Labeling compounds have been used to markseveral species of animals. Stable isotopes ofelements such as carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen,and iodine are gaining use in wildlife studiesof diet, energetics, and water dynamics. They

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do not pose the health and environmentalrisks of radioactive isotopes.

3. Major Procedures

Guideline 32:

Surgical interventions, including laparo-tomies, radio transmitter implants, surgicalsterilizations, and other invasive proceduresthat expose the abdominal cavity or otherdeep tissues, should only be done by aveterinarian or under a veterinarian’ssupervision.

As previously outlined, investigators shouldhave an established link with a veterinarianprior to the commencement of a project withinvasive procedures. One of the aspects of theplanning phase should be to establish whowill perform any surgical procedures on theanimal. If the veterinarian is not to carry outthe procedures, then he or she should: beapprised of the procedures to be carried out;ensure that the personnel to be performingthe procedures are well-trained and have

adequate supervision; and be available toanswer any questions if problems arise.

3.1 Invasive procedures

Cardiac puncture is not generally permittedexcept in terminal collection procedures and must be performed under general anes-thesia. For additional information, see theCCAC species-specific recommendations,http://www.ccac.ca (in particular for use inamphibian species).

Invasive procedures require the use of recog-nized veterinary procedures, including asepsis,anesthesia, analgesia, appropriate surgicaltechniques, and patient monitoring.

The advice of a veterinarian must be soughtprior to the administration of antibiotics orother pharmaceuticals used during invasiveprocedures.

Animals should be observed during recoveryfrom anesthesia whenever possible, and notbe released from traps and enclosures untilfully recovered.

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1. Transportation

Guideline 33:

Investigators should ensure that the care,caging, and mode of transportation aresuitable for the species, and that the animal will be transported in a manner thatminimizes stress and avoids injury.

Transporting animals over long distances byroad, rail or air requires planning and specialprocedures that will ensure they receivehumane treatment and care for the durationof the journey.

The species involved, the method of trans-portation, and the length of time of the journeyare important factors in determining the typeof care and conditions of containment requiredto transport the animal in a safe and humanemanner. Individuals involved in transportingthe animal should be knowledgeable regardingthe appropriate procedures to be used forcaging, and must ensure that adequate food,water and bedding are available during travel.Veterinary assistance may be required to prescribe and/or administer tranquilizers tothe animal if the transportation process isanticipated to be highly stressful.

The transportation process should be as briefas possible. For some species, periodic restperiods may be required to allow the animalsto feed undisturbed. Other species should beshipped only when they are normally inactive.

Before planning to ship wild vertebrates byair, investigators must consult the most recentedition of the International Air TransportAssociation (IATA) Handbook on Live AnimalRegulations for information on species-appropriate containers, care and handling.The airline should also be contacted for further advice. Additionally, the IATA docu-ment is a good resource when preparingground shipments.

To avoid delays, all permits, health certificatesand other documents should be completedprior to shipping. The trip should be sched-uled to minimize the number of transfers anddelays, and to ensure that a person competentto provide appropriate care is available tomeet the shipment upon its arrival. Multidayshipping may require a qualified person toaccompany the shipment or appropriate alter-native measures. Any required clearance ofanimals by animal health and customs inspec-tors should be arranged prior to shipment toavoid unnecessary delays.

Contingency plans must be in place to deal withemergencies such as breakdowns, collisions,or extreme weather.

Animals that have received general anesthesiashould be fully recovered prior to transport.

2. Husbandry

Husbandry describes the care given to animals held in short- or long-term captivity.Animals may be held either before or aftertransport to a new location for required disease testing or for acclimation.

Guideline 34:

The investigator is required to researchand understand the habits and behaviorsof any species to be held captive. Thisknowledge may assist in avoiding problemsassociated with captivity.

The biological needs of each wild species andthe nature of individual projects vary widely,and therefore, only general recommendationscan be made on the housing and care ofwildlife in either short- or long-term captivityfor research, teaching or testing purposes. Theliterature contains many reviews and docu-mentation of species successfully kept in captiveenvironments. It may be necessary, especially

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H. MOVING AND HOLDING WILDLIFE


when dealing with unfamiliar species, to testand compare several methods of housing tofind one that is most appropriate for the needsof the animals and the purposes of the study.

2.1 Housing

Guideline 35:

Animals held for a few hours or for trans-portation over short distances must beplaced in appropriate holding cages andprovided with bedding and adequatesources of suitable food and water.

The most appropriate housing conditions forwildlife can be markedly different from thoserecommended for similar domestic or labora-tory animals. However, methods and types ofhousing, caging, feeding, and cleaning forcommon laboratory species and domestic animals may be applied in a general sense towildlife. Reference to domestic livestock andexotic animal husbandry documents may beof use for many animal groups.

Holding cages should be protected fromdirect sunlight, wind and precipitation, andkept at a temperature appropriate to thespecies. Care should be taken to minimizepsychological stress by shielding cages fromexcessive light, noise and human activities.Holding cages should have an enclosed areaor denning box into which the animal canescape from view. Live trap type caging maybe suitable for short-term holding if it pro-vides adequate space and ventilation; but it isonly suitable for up to a couple of hours as theanimal cannot hide and the lack of mobilityincreases its stress level and compromises itscirculation.

Animals should be regularly monitored, butwith as little disturbance as possible.

Guideline 36:

The long-term captive environment ofwildlife should provide for their behavioral,physical and nutritional needs, while providing enrichment opportunities forphysical and psychological stimulation.

Long-term housing should attempt to duplicateall aspects of the species’ natural conditions,or replace these with artificial elements orconditions of comparable value to ensure thesurvival and well-being of each individual.While in captivity, wild animals must bemaintained under conditions that meet theirneeds for food, moisture, nesting, space andmicroclimate.

Of particular importance is the maintenanceof environmental humidity and temperaturewithin the animal’s thermoneutral zone tominimize energy demands. Animals that arehibernating require special housing to main-tain and monitor ambient temperatures andhumidity at the optimum level for each species.

Wild species kept in captivity for more than afew days will have additional requirementsfor enrichment to accommodate features oftheir ecology, morphology, physiology, biology,and behavior. These may include feedingstrategies, visual barriers, refuges, naturalmaterials, perches, dust and water baths, andopportunities and space for exercise and play.Animals which are not provided with thesefeatures may develop signs of acute and chronicstress, including poor health and abnormalbehaviors.

Wild animals maintained in captivity should beprovided with a preventive health care program.This program should serve to assess the need forthe following types of procedures: 1) healthmonitoring (e.g., visual and physical exams,blood sampling and testing, bacterial and viralcultures, and serology or molecular diagnosticsfor diseases of concern); 2) vaccinations; 3) mon-itoring and treatment for internal and externalparasites; and 4) dental and foot care.

Ease of restraint and maintenance should notbe the only determinants of housing conditions.The suitability of housing may be judged bymonitoring a number of biological indices overtime, such as changes in general health, appetite,growth and weight, survival rates, breedingsuccess, activity types and levels, generalbehavior, and appearance of skin, pelage orplumage (reference manuals: Kleiman et al.,Wild Mammals in Captivity: Principles andTechniques, 1997; Fowler & Miller, Zoo and Wild

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Animal Medicine: Current Therapy, 4th ed., 1999;CCAC guidelines on: the care and maintenance ofmarine mammals, in preparation; CCAC, Guideto the Care and Use of Experimental Animals, vol. 2, 1984 and subsequent versions).

2.2 Nutrition

Guideline 37:

Diet and feeding schedules should reflect theanimal’s normal foods and feeding behavior.

In addition to attempting to duplicate criticalaspects of a species’ natural environment, it isalso critical, for both normal health and behavior,to ensure that the animals’ nutrient require-ments are met and that the animals are kept inbody condition appropriate for age, gender andseason. Where possible, it is advantageous tosupplement standard dietary requirementswith a variety of natural feeds.

Providing food ad libitum may be a problemfor some species. Dietary changes should bemade gradually; overfeeding may be a concern.

Personnel responsible for the care of wild animals must be familiar with the normalappearance and behavior of those animals inorder to recognize nutritional deficiencieswhen they occur.

2.3 Social interactions

Guideline 38:

Social relationships and social behavior of captive wildlife must be taken into consideration.

For some species, group housing is necessary,but for others, it will increase stress and risk ofinjuries. Consideration should therefore begiven to the appropriateness of visual, auditory,olfactory and tactile contact among animals.

2.4 Hygiene

Guideline 39:

Husbandry routines should be designed tominimize disturbance to the animals whilemaintaining adequate hygiene levels.

The frequency of cage or pen cleaning shouldrepresent a compromise between the level ofcleanliness necessary to prevent disease andthe amount of stress imposed by frequent disturbance, handling and exposure to unfa-miliar surroundings and bedding (ABS &ASAB, 1997). An understanding of the normalecology, morphology, physiology, biology,and behavior for each specific wildlife specieswill assist the researcher in providing optimumcare and housing.

3. Translocation and ReleaseTranslocation involves capture, transportationand release. Captive holding before and/orafter transport may also be considered neces-sary for health testing, quarantine, habituationto new environments, or other reasons. Captureis discussed in Section D.2. The other phasesof translocation have been covered in the pre-ceding sections dealing with transportationand husbandry.

3.1 General considerations

Guideline 40:

Before the translocation of wildlife orrelease of any wild animal held or bred in captivity, the possible ramifications of such actions must be considered.Negative effects on the individual animal,the ecological conditions at the releasesite, and human safety must all be consid-ered and minimized. Release should notoccur if the animal is unlikely to survivedue to reasons associated with its captivity,or if the existing ecological conditions atthe release area could be adversely affected,including any risk of introduction of awildlife disease new to the area.

The translocation and release of animals arecommon tools of wildlife management. Theyare used to: repopulate original ranges; aug-ment or consolidate remnant populations;control local overabundance; remove problemanimals; rehabilitate injured animals; and better understand animal health. Despite their

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many uses, these procedures bring inevitablerisks associated with diseases, genetic and ecological integrity, and have the potential tocompromise animal welfare.

The translocation of wildlife from one locationto another, as well as the movement of animalsfrom captive situations (rehabilitated, captivebred and long-term holding) for release, maybe considered as routine procedures. Suchprojects, however, should be carefully plannedto enhance the probability of subsequent sur-vival and eventual reproduction of releasedanimals. A multidisciplinary approach toplanning may be required, involving govern-ment and non-government agencies withresource management, veterinary, husbandryand academic expertise.

To be worthwhile, a release should contributesomething to the well-being of the releasedanimal and/or the species as a whole. Thewelfare of the animals to be released shouldbe of paramount importance through allstages of a project. For group re-introductionsor translocations, prior feasibility studies anda formal analysis of the risks should be under-taken. This should include biological and eco-logical investigations of the habitat, existinganimals at the site and any animals to bereleased (Population and Habitat ViabilityAnalysis). See the IUCN Position Statement onTranslocation of Living Organisms (1987),http://www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/pubs/policy/transe.htm, and the IUCN/SSC Guide-lines for Re-Introductions (1995), http://www.i u c n . o rg / t h e m e s / s s c / p u b s / p o l i c y /reinte.htm, for additional useful information.

Further information is available from theOffice International des Épizooties through theCanadian Cooperative Wildlife Health Centre(CCWHC) website at http://wildlife.usask.ca/bookhtml/RiskAnalysis/RSKGUID1.htm.

Federal and/or provincial/territorial wildlifeagencies must be contacted for consultationand authorization at the earliest stages of plan-ning for a proposed release of non-indigenousanimals into the wild. All applicable local,provincial/terrirorial and federal legislationshould be followed, and necessary permitsobtained before release.

Where possible, for captured animals notinvolved in a translocation or re-introductionproject, release should occur as soon as possibleafter processing and at the site of the originalcapture. For captive-bred animals, or for reasonsof conservation, other ecologically appropriatesites may be selected in consultation with andapproval by the appropriate government nat-ural resource management authority. Permitsmay be required for the release of any wildlifewhich has been held or bred in captivity,whether indigenous or non-indigenous.

If animals bred or held in captivity are to bereleased, they should be assessed for normalbehavior and their ability to survive in thewild. Investigators should thoroughly reviewresearch into “hard” release (immediate) versus “soft” release (holding for a period oftime at the release site). Potentially dangerousanimals should not be so accustomed to humanpresence that they pose a potential threat tolocal inhabitants.

3.2 Medical considerations

Guideline 41:

Appropriate measures should be taken toensure the health of animals throughoutall stages of any translocation or releaseprogram. Prior to release, screening ofwildlife for known infectious agents, para-sites and possible undesirable genetictraits should be carried out.

The principal risks to be considered intranslocation and release include:

• The animals may carry new diseases orparasites into the destination ecosystemthat cause harm to the destination ecosys-tem, or animals being moved mayencounter new diseases in the destinationecosystem and be harmed by these newdiseases (CCWHC, n.d.).

• The animals may not represent the samerace or subspecies as those at the releasesite, or may introduce undesirable genetictraits if interbreeding occurs.

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• The animals may not find all the basicphysical and nutritional conditions required,or may encounter unfamiliar mortality factors (i.e. novel predators) that preventlong-term survival in the environment intowhich they have been translocated.

Before release, a quarantine and observationperiod can help to rule out many health concerns. The time frame selected (generally15 to 60 days) should reflect the incubationperiod of known diseases, particularly thosefor which no reliable screening test exists.During this quarantine period, appropriatetests should be carried out (e.g., serology, viraland bacterial cultures, and external and inter-nal parasite screens). Archiving of tissue and serological samples for possible futurereference should be encouraged whereverpossible.

Species-appropriate vaccinations and treat-ments to control parasites may be desirableprior to release, if such treatments will notinterfere with post-release health monitoring(e.g., serology). If used, vaccinations shouldbe appropriate for the species and timed toallow appropriate immunity to developbefore release.

Post-release monitoring is an important com-ponent of release programs. This monitoringcan include radio tracking of selected individuals, thorough postmortem and inves-tigation in cases of natural post-releasedeaths, demographic studies of released stock,and disease monitoring through serology ofrecaptured individuals. Knowledge of the

age-specific natural recruitment rates can helpto assess the success of re-introduction efforts.Care should be taken so that post-releasemonitoring does not impair the success of there-introduced species.

3.3 Environmental considerations

Guideline 42:

Investigators should assess the habitat atthe proposed release site, not only for itsability to provide the species requirementsfor survival and reproduction, but also toensure that no impairment to the ecologicalintegrity of the site will occur as a result ofthe release.

Investigators planning to release animals in ageographic area should be confident thatecosystem integrity will not be compromisedby the release. They should attempt to deter-mine the effects of the proposed release onresident populations, including competitiveinteractions and risks for other species.

Local and seasonal conditions should be conducive to survival at the time of release.The physiology and behavior of the speciesshould be understood and considered. Forexample: diurnal animals should be releasedearly in the day; seasonal times should corre-spond to times when food sources are abundant;there should be suitable cover for preyspecies; weather extremes should be avoided;and consideration should be given to normalseasonal times of dispersal for that species.

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Guideline 43:

Planning for field procedures on wildlifeshould include contingency plans foreuthanasia. Information on techniquesappropriate for the species of concernshould be researched and the necessarymaterials and equipment should beobtained and prepared. Considerationshould also be given to techniques thatleast interfere with the conduct of post-mortems or postmortem analysis.

The following recommendations for euthanasiaare based on the 2000 Report of the AVMA Panel onEuthanasia (AVMA, 2000). Many recommendedmeans of euthanasia for captive animals arenot feasible in the field; however, the chal-lenges presented by field conditions do notlessen the ethical obligation of the responsibleindividual to reduce pain and distress to thegreatest extent possible during euthanasia.More details relevant to the individual speciesare provided in the CCAC species-specificrecommendations (http://www.ccac.ca).

One of the most important criteria of accept-ance of a euthanasia method as humane isthat it have an initial depressive action on thecentral nervous system to ensure immediateinsensitivity to pain; this must be followed bycardiac and respiratory arrest. For this reason,pharmaceutical methods are often advised;however, the use of pharmaceuticals requiresproper disposal of the contaminated carcass.

1. Pharmaceutical MethodsNon-inhalant Pharmaceutical Agents: Theseagents should be administered intravenously,with added sedation as needed to decreasefear and distress in the animal. Intraperitonealinjection of non-irritating solutions is accept-able if intravenous injection is impractical orimpossible. Intracardiac injection is onlyacceptable in fully anesthetized or comatoseanimals. Other sites of injection (intramuscular,

subcutaneous, intrathoracic, intrapulmonary,intrathecal, etc.) are not considered acceptableroutes of administration for injectable euthana-sia solutions.

• Barbiturates depress the central nervoussystem, starting with unconsciousness andprogressing to apnea and cardiac arrest.Sodium pentobarbital is the most commonlyused agent. The effects are rapid andsmooth, and the solution is inexpensive.Disadvantages include: a) intravenousinjection is required for best results; b) it isa controlled substance, and therefore mustbe carefully accounted for and used underthe supervision of a veterinarian; and c) there are potentially fatal toxic effects toscavenging animals consuming carcasses.

• T-61 is a non-controlled mixture of threedrugs. It must be used intravenously andtypically does not provide as smooth adeath as barbiturates (Close et al., 1996 &1997; Hellebrekers et al., 1990).

Volatile Anesthetics: These anesthetics (e.g.,halothane and isoflurane) are useful agentsfor euthanasia of small species as intravenousinjection is difficult. Because the liquid stateof most inhalant anesthetics is irritating, animals should only be exposed to vapors.Ether and nitrous oxide are combustibleand/or explosive and have potential forhuman toxicity and abuse, and therefore arenot recommended as volatile agents for use ineuthanizing wildlife. Volatile anesthetics areunsuitable for animals that have the ability tohold their breath for long periods of time(especially reptiles and diving mammals).Personnel safety must be considered in orderto avoid exposure to the vapours.

2. Inhalant GasesEuthanasia with inhaled gases is slow due tothe requirement for any gas being inhaled toreach a certain concentration in the lungsbefore taking effect. A closed chamber to holdthe gas is needed and personnel safety must

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I. EUTHANASIA

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be considered in order to avoid exposure tothe toxic gas.

• Carbon Monoxide (CO) can only be deliv-ered reliably, in concentrations high enoughto be effective, through CO gas cylinders.Vehicle exhaust is not an acceptable source.Under the effects of CO, animals do notappear in distress as CO induces uncon-sciousness without pain or discomfort. COmay be explosive at levels exceeding 10%.

• Carbon Dioxide (CO2) is non-explosive andinexpensive. It can be obtained in pressur-ized cylinders. It may be distressing to theanimal in higher concentration, and isunsuitable for animals that hold theirbreath (e.g., diving or burrowing birds andmammals) or do not breathe at a very highfrequency (e.g., amphibians and reptiles).

3. Physical Methods

These techniques, when properly applied, killrapidly and cause minimal stress. They mayoffer a practical solution for field euthanasiaof various sized animals and prevent pharma-ceuticals from entering the food chain.

Gunshot: While a shot to the brain of an animal produces a quick and humane death(Longair et al., 1991), it is best attempted whenthe animal is immobilized by injury or physicalrestraint. In free ranging situations, a success-ful shot to the brain may be difficult to achieveand can result in accidental injury to the animal.Under these conditions, a shot to the heart andlung area may be more appropriate and is recommended in hunter education programsconducted by provincial and territorial agen-cies. Although death from this shot is not asquick, it is much more certain under free rangingconditions. In some cases, a gun shot to the brainmay prevent proper postmortem analysis. Thisis particularly important if animals are to betested for rabies.

Penetrating Captive Bolt: This methodrequires that animals be well restrained inorder to properly place the captive bolt. Non-penetrating captive bolts are not recommended

as a means of euthanasia as they may causeunconsciousness without killing the animal.

Cervical Dislocation: This method is used formice, rats and bats (<200g), and other selectedsmall mammals (small rodents <200g andlagomorphs <1kg), as well as birds (<2kg).The technique involves stretching the neck tocause separation of the cervical vertebraefrom the skull and can only be used on smallanimals. For immature rabbits (<1kg), the neckis stretched, hyperextended and dorsallytwisted to separate the first cervical vertebrafrom the skull.

Decapitation: This technique is acceptable forvery small species, but requires appropriatespecialized equipment not likely to be carriedin the field.

Exsanguination: This can be a practicalmethod of euthanasia in the field when performed on an anesthetized animal.

4. Unacceptable Methods ofEuthanasia

When properly carried out, stunning andpithing will produce rapid unconsciousness,but not death, and should only be used incombination with other techniques such asexsanguination. Likewise, physical methodssuch as freezing and drowning are unacceptableunless used in combination with anesthesia toensure that the animal is deeply anesthetizedat the time of euthanasia.

Unacceptable injectable agents for euthanasiainclude caffeine, strychnine, any neuromuscularblocking agents, nicotine, and magnesiumsalts. Injectable potassium chloride is accept-able if the animal is under general anesthesia,and may reduce the risk of toxicosis for predators and scavengers in situations wherecarcasses of euthanized animals may be con-sumed. Chloral hydrate may be consideredfor intravenous euthanasia of sedated hoofedanimals, but is not acceptable for carnivoresor small mammals. Injection of an air embolusis unacceptable.

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Unacceptable sources of gas include the reac-tion of sodium formate and sulfuric acid, andvehicle exhaust to produce CO, and fire extin-guishers and chemical means (e.g., AlkaSeltzer® tablets) to produce CO2.

5. Disposal of EuthanizedAnimals

Guideline 44:

Any animal euthanized in the field whichmay contain residues of toxic euthanasia

chemicals should be disposed of in such a

manner that it does not enter the food

chain.

Acceptable disposal methods include inciner-ation or liming the carcass and burying in adeep hole. Prior to disposal of the carcass inthe field, investigators should also determinethe suitability of euthanized animals forpreparation and use as study or teachingspecimens with accompanying relevant information.

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Guideline 45:

Many species of wildlife are capable ofinflicting serious injury or transmitting disease to persons handling them. Appro-priate handling and restraint techniquesshould be used, and training in how toapply them should be provided to avoidinjury to both animals and humans.

Investigators are responsible under occupa-tional health and safety legislation for theirown health and safety as well as that of theircoworkers in the field. Investigators mustensure that the hazards to human health andsafety when working with wild animals areclearly identified and communicated to theproject personnel, and that training, writtenprocedures and any necessary protectiveclothing and equipment are provided toensure that personnel are protected againstpossible injury or exposure to potentially dan-gerous wild animals or their fluids and waste.

Personnel should work in teams of at leasttwo people in the field, especially wheninvolved in physical or chemical restraint andhandling of animals or other high risk situa-tions. Appropriate physical and/or chemicalrestraint may be necessary to prevent injuryto an animal and/or personnel.

Investigators should maintain a record of anyinjuries incurred while handling wildlife inthe field or in a holding facility. Applicablelocal regulations regarding the documentationand reporting of workplace injuries should beconsulted.

A record must be kept of all training given to staff with the date of the training and signature of the staff member.

1. Drug Hazards

Guideline 46:

The risks involved in using drugs for thecapture and immobilization of wildlifemust be identified and communicated to

all personnel involved in the project. Atleast two people on the team should betrained in first aid and CPR (cardio-pulmonary resuscitation), local medicalauthorities should be informed of thepotential hazards, and an evacuation planto medical facilities should be discussedprior to fieldwork.

Guideline 47:

Personnel using drugs for wildlife shouldhave current training and inform othermembers of the team of the risks of humanexposure.There should be adequate quan-tities of applicable reversal drugs on handin the field if these exist.

Anesthesia of free ranging wildlife may placepersonnel at risk of injury. Injury can occurfrom animal attacks, capture equipment, orexposure to potent drugs. Every possible effortmust be made to minimize the probability ofhuman injury when undertaking chemicalrestraint and anesthesia of wildlife.

It is the responsibility of the investigator toensure that personnel have knowledge of current procedures with the subject speciesand thorough knowledge of the emergencycare of personnel exposed to the pharmaceu-ticals involved. Training for those authorizedto use immobilization drugs must includefirst aid and emergency procedures relevantto the region. Members of the field team mustbe familiar with and competent in such firstaid procedures as may be required in an acci-dental exposure emergency.

Because smaller volumes of drugs are moreeasily delivered via remote drug delivery sys-tems, most drugs used for wildlife anesthesiaare extremely potent and pose significant hazards to the people using them. This isespecially true for the potent opioid drugssuch as carfentanil, A3080, etorphine, and thepotent alpha-2 agonist, medetomidine (Sawyer& Hoogstraten, 1980; Petrini & Keyler, 1993).

45

J. HUMAN SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS


Guideline 48:

Every reasonable attempt should be madeto recover any darts that miss the targetanimal and contain chemicals which couldpose a public health risk.

2. Hazardous Physical orEnvironmental Situations

Guideline 49:

It is the responsibility of the investigator toensure that hazardous conditions involvedin field work are identified to the personnelinvolved. Some situations require particularexperience and/or training, such as workingaround aircraft, diving, climbing, workingat high altitude or in extreme temperatureconditions, and working on ice.

When working in such locations, the investi-gator must ensure that the hazards involvedare clearly described to field staff and thatappropriate training and protective equipmentand clothing are provided. The investigator isresponsible for ensuring that field staff arecompetent to work under difficult conditions.

3. Equipment Hazards

Guideline 50:

Personnel involved in wildlife restraintshould have current training in the use of pertinent equipment (e.g., ATVs [all ter-rain vehicles], boats, firearms, drugs, dartrifles, pistols, and jabsticks).

4. Emergency Preparedness

Guideline 51:

The investigator is responsible for ensuringthat an emergency plan is in place.

An emergency plan appropriate for theintended study must be developed involvingcollaboration with local emergency personnelwhere necessary. This may include: making

plans for evacuation; informing local medicalauthorities of the project and possible safetyissues; and putting a checkup and/or responsesystem in place.

A procedure for accessing emergency medicalservices must be developed.

Materials and equipment, such as helmets,face masks/protectors, gloves, firearms, orrespirators, should be supplied to facilitate thesafe conduct of projects. Field personnelshould also be provided with appropriate andeffective means of communication with eachother and with emergency personnel.

5. Biohazards

Guideline 52:

The investigator must ensure that allpotentially hazardous biological or zoonoticagents which may be encountered in thefield situation or that are particular to thespecies under study are identified for fieldstaff before field work is started, and thatthe necessary training and preventivemedical care is obtained.

The investigator is responsible for identifica-tion of any specific biohazards or zoonoticagents which may reasonably be expected tobe encountered in the field. Field staff must beinformed about the possible routes of diseasetransmission and exposure, and trained in theuse of protective equipment, medical inter-ventions and safety procedures which are tobe used to manage the hazard.

In the interest of human health and safety, it isimportant that all wildlife that die fromunknown causes in the field or in holdingfacilities undergo a thorough postmortem todetermine the cause of death. Depending onthe postmortem results, it may be necessary toobtain medical assistance to protect personnelfrom diseases and parasites. Investigatorsshould familiarize themselves with theknown biohazards specific to the speciesunder study.

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All individuals involved in wildlife projectsshould have medical checkups and be givenaccess to any recommended vaccinations.Where exposure to infectious agents can reasonably be expected (e.g., field work withbats), all field staff must be provided withimmunization or prophylactic drugs, if avail-able and appropriate.

Investigators who become ill should seekimmediate medical assistance and advisetheir physician of their possible exposure topotentially hazardous animals, diseases andenvironmental conditions.

The investigator must ensure that safety procedures are established for the conduct ofpostmortems in the field and that appropriateprotective equipment (e.g., gloves, aprons,eye protection and respiratory protection) is provided. The investigator is responsible forensuring that all personnel are trained in thepostmortem techniques appropriate for thespecies.

Where an animal that can reasonably beexpected to be infectious is to be trapped orhandled, the investigator must provide hazardinformation, safety equipment, and trainingto minimize the potential of transmission ofthe infectious agent. If wild animals potentiallyinfected with an infectious agent or identifiedas potentially carrying a zoonotic agent are tobe brought back to the laboratory or confinedin proximity to personnel, the investigator mustensure that the animals are housed accordingto the requirements of the Containment Standardsfor Veterinary Facilities (CFIA, 1996) and the Guideto the Care and Use of Experimental Animals, vol. 1,2nd ed. (CCAC, 1993).

All potential accidents or exposures, or suspected exposures, to infectious biologicalagents must be reported immediately to thenearest medical authorities as described in theemergency plan. The investigator must benotified and a record of the accident or injurykept. Any unexpected illness must also bereported immediately in a similar manner.

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American Veterinary Medical Association(AVMA) (2000) 2000 Report of the AVMA Panelon Euthanasia. Electronic document, http://www. avma.org/resources/euthanasia.pdf

Animal Behavior Society (ABS) & Associationfor the Study of Animal Behaviour (ASAB)(1997) Guidelines for the treatment of animals inbehavioural research and teaching. Electronicdocument, http://www.societies.ncl.ac.uk/asab/ethics.html

Barclay R.M. & Bell G.P. (1988) Marking andobservational techniques. In: Ecological andBehavioral Methods for the Study of Bats (ed.T.H. Kunz), pp. 59-76. Washington DC:Smithsonian Institution.

Bloom P.H. (1987) Capturing and handlingraptors. In: Raptor Management TechniquesManual (eds. B.G. Pendleton, B.A. Millsap,K.W. Cline & D.A. Bird), pp. 99-123. NationalWildlife Federation Scientific and TechnicalSeries, 10. Washington DC: National WildlifeFederation.

Bookhout T. (ed.) (1996) Research and Manage-ment Techniques for Wildlife and Habitats. 740 pp.Bethesda MD: The Wildlife Society.

Bush M. (1992) Remote drug delivery systems.Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 23:159-180.

Byers T. (1999) Perspectives of aboriginal peoples on wildlife research. Wildlife SocietyBulletin 27(3):671-675.

Canadian Council on Animal Care (CCAC)(1984) Guide to the Care and Use of ExperimentalAnimals, vol. 2. 208 pp. Ottawa ON: CCAC.Available at http://www.ccac.ca/english/gui_pol/guides/english/toc_v2.htm

Canadian Council on Animal Care (CCAC)(1989) CCAC Policy on: Ethics of AnimalInvestigation. Available at http://www.ccac.ca/english/gui_pol/policies/policy.htm

Canadian Council on Animal Care (CCAC)(1993) Guide to the Care and Use of ExperimentalAnimals, vol. 1, 2nd ed. 212 pp. Ottawa ON:CCAC. Available at http://www.ccac.ca/english/gui_pol/guframe.htm

Canadian Council on Animal Care (CCAC)(1997) CCAC guidelines on: animal use protocolreview. 12pp. Ottawa ON: CCAC. Available athttp://www.ccac.ca/english/gui_pol/gdlines/protocol/protgde.htm

Canadian Council on Animal Care (CCAC)(1998) CCAC guidelines on: choosing an appropri-ate endpoint in experiments using animals forresearch, teaching and testing. 30 pp. OttawaON: CCAC. Available at http://www.ccac.ca/english/gui_pol/gdlines/endpts/appopen.htm

Canadian Council on Animal Care (CCAC)(1999) CCAC guidelines on: institutional animaluser training. 10pp. Ottawa ON: CCAC.Available at http://www.ccac.ca/english/gui_pol/gdlines/niaut/niautcov.htm

Canadian Council on Animal Care (CCAC)(2000) CCAC Policy on: Terms of Reference forAnimal Care Committees. Available at http://www.ccac.ca/english/gui_pol/policies/terms.htm

Canadian Council on Animal Care (CCAC)(in preparation) CCAC guidelines on: the careand maintenance of marine mammals. OttawaON: CCAC.

Canadian Council on Animal Care (CCAC)(in preparation) CCAC guidelines on: the careand use of fish in research, teaching and testing.Ottawa ON: CCAC.

Canadian Council on Animal Care (CCAC)(in preparation) CCAC guidelines on: the careand use of farm animals in research, teaching andtesting. Ottawa ON: CCAC.

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Canadian Cooperative Wildlife Health Centre(CCWHC) & Office International des Épizooties(OIE) (n.d.) Step 1: The translocation plan. In:Guidelines for Analysis of Health and RelatedRisks in Translocations of Wild Animals.Electronic document, http://wildlife.usask.ca/bookhtml/RiskAnalysis/RSKGUID1.htm

Canadian Cooperative Wildlife Health Centre(CCWHC) & Office International des Épizooties(OIE) (1990) Wildlife Disease InvestigationManual. Available at http://wildlife.usask.ca/english/framePublications.htm

Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA)(1996) Containment Standards for VeterinaryFacilities. Electronic document, http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/lab/convet/convete.shtml

Canadian Institutes of Health Research(CIHR), Natural Sciences and EngineeringResearch Council (NSERC) & Social Sciencesand Humanities Research Council (SSHRC)(2000) Schedule 3: Ethical Review of ResearchInvolving Animals. In: Memorandum ofUnderstanding on the Roles and Responsibilitiesin the Management of Federal Funds and Awards.Electronic document, http://www.nserc.ca/institution/mou_sch3_e.htm

Close B., Banister K., Baumans V., Bernoth E.-M.,Bromage N., Bunyan J., Erhardt W., FlecknellP., Gregory N., Hackbarth H., Morton D. &Warwick C. (1996) Recommendations foreuthanasia of experimental animals, part 1.Laboratory Animals 30(4):293-316.

Close B., Banister K., Baumans V. , Bernoth E.-M.,Bromage N., Bunyan J., Erhardt W., FlecknellP., Gregory N., Hackbarth H., Morton D. &Warwick C. (1997) Recommendations foreuthanasia of experimental animals, part 2.Laboratory Animals 31(1):1-32.

Craigmill A.L., Rangel-Lugo M., Damian P. &Riviere J.E. (1997) Extralabel use of tranquilizersand general anesthetics. Journal of the AmericanVeterinary Medical Association 211(3): 302-304.

Delvaux H., Courtois R., Breton L. &Patenaude R. (1999) Relative efficiency of succinylcholine, xylazine and carfentanil/xylazine mixtures to immobilize free-rangingmoose. Journal of Wildlife Disease 35(1):38-48.

European Community, Government ofCanada & Government of the RussianFederation (1997) Agreement on InternationalHumane Trapping Standards between theEuropean Community, Canada and the RussianFederation. Electronic document, http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smar-tapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&lg=EN&numdoc=21998A0214(02)&model=guichett

Fowler M.E. & Miller R.E. (eds.) (1999) Zooand Wild Animal Medicine: Current Therapy, 4th

ed. Toronto ON: W.B. Saunders Co.

Fur Institute of Canada (2002) Traps MeetingRequirements of Agreement on InternationalHumane Trapping Standards and CertificationStandards. Electronic document, http://www.fur.ca/research/index-e.asp

Hellebrekers J.T., Baumans V., Bertens A.P.M.G.& Hartman W. (1990) On the use of T-61 foreuthanasia of domestic and laboratory animals:an ethical evaluation. Laboratory Animals24(3):200-204.

International Air Transport Association (IATA)(1995) Live Animal Regulations. Available athttp://www.iata.org/cargooperations/liveanimals/index

International Council for Science (ICSU)(2002) Science, Traditional Knowledge andSustainable Development. ICSU Series onScience for Sustainable Development, 4.24pp. Paris FR: ICSU. Available at http://www.icsu.org/Library/WSSD-Rep/Vol4.pdf

International Organization for Standardization(ISO) (1999) Animal (mammal) traps—Part 4:Methods for testing killing-trap systems used onland or underwater (ISO 10990-4). Available athttp://www.iso.ch/iso/en/ISOOnline.frontpage

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International Organization for Standardization(ISO) (1999) Animal (mammal) traps—Part 5:Methods for testing restraining traps (ISO 10990-5). Available at http://www.iso.ch/iso/en/ISOOnline.frontpage

International Union for Conservation ofNature and Natural Resources (IUCN) (1987)Position Statement on Translocation of LivingOrganisms. Electronic document, http://www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/pubs/policy/transe.htm

International Union for Conservation ofNature and Natural Resources (IUCN) (1995)IUCN/SSC Guidelines for Re-Introductions.Prepared by the SSC Re-Introductions SpecialistGroup. Approved by the 41st Meeting of theIUCN Council, Gland, Switzerland, May 1995.Electronic document, http://www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/pubs/policy/reinte.htm

International Union for Conservation ofNature and Natural Resources (IUCN) (2002)Red List of Threatened Species. Electronic docu-ment, http://www.redlist.org

Jenkins W.L. & Kruger J.M. (1973) Modernconcepts of the animals physiological responseto stress. In: The Capture and Care of WildAnimals (ed. D.E. Young), pp. 172-183. CapetownZA: Human and Rousseau Publishers.

Jolicoeur H. & Beaumont A. (1986) Techniquesde marquage et de repérage des faons orignauxdans les réserves fauniques des Laurentides et desMastigouche, 1977 à 1983. 35pp. Québec QC:Ministère du Loisir, de la Chasse et de la Pêche.

Karesh W.B. (1996) Addressing animal welfareconcerns in the field setting: The WildlifeConservation Society’s field veterinary pro-gram. In: The Well Being of Animals in Zoo andAquarium Sponsored Research (eds. G.M.Burghardt, J.T. Bielitzki, J.R. Boyce, D.O.Schaeffer), pp. 55-59. Bethesda MD: ScientistsCenter for Animal Welfare.

Kleiman D.G., Allen M.A., Thompson K.V.,Lumpkin S. & Harris H. (eds) (1997) WildMammals in Captivity: Principles and Techniques.639pp. Chicago IL: University of Chicago Press.

Kreeger T.J. (1996) Handbook of WildlifeChemical Immobilization. 340pp. Laramie WY:International Wildlife Veterinary Services.

Longair J., Finley G.G., Laniel M.-A., MackayC., Mould K., Olfert E.D., Rowsell H. &Preston A. (1991) Guidelines for euthanasia ofdomestic animals by firearms. CanadianVeterinary Journal 32(12):724-726.

McCloskey J.T. & Dewey S.R. (1999) Improvingthe success of a mounted great horned owllure for trapping northern goshawks. RaptorResearch 33:168-169.

Munson L. (1999) Necropsy Procedures for WildAnimals. Wildlife Health Center, School ofVeterinary Medicine, University of California,Davis. Electronic document, http://www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/whc/Necropsy/TOC.html

National Wildlife Health Laboratory (1987)General Field Procedures and Diseases ofMigratory Birds. 440pp. Field Manual ofWildlife Diseases. Madison WI: US GeologicalSurvey. Available at http://www.nwhc.usgs.gov/pub_metadata/

Nietfeld M.T., Barrett M.W. & Silvy N. (1996)Wildlife marking techniques. In: Research andManagement Techniqes for Wildlife and Habitats,5th ed. (ed. T.A. Bookhout), pp. 140-168.Bethesda MD: The Wildlife Society.

Petrini K.R. & Keyler D.E. (1993) Immobilizationagents—developing an urgent response protocol for human exposure. In: Proceedingsof the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians,Saint Louis, 10-15 October 1993, pp. 146-155.Media PA: AAZV.

Read M.R., Caulkett N.A., Symington A. &Shury T. (2001) Treatment of hypoxemia duringxylazine-tiletamine-zolazepam immobilizationof wapiti. Canadian Veterinary Journal 42(11):861-864.

Russell W.M.S. & Burch R.L. (1992 [1959]) ThePrinciples of Humane Experimental Techniques.238pp. England: Universities Federation forAnimal Welfare (UFAW), Potters Bar, Herts,UK. Electronic document, http://altweb.jhsph.edu/publications/humane_exp/het-toc.htm

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Sawyer D.C. & Hoogstraten S. (1980) A keta-mine experience—unintentional injection ofketamine hydrochloride into a human. Journalof the American Animal Hospital Association16(1):123.

Schwarkopf-Genswein K.S. & Stookey J.M.(1997) The use of infrared thermography toassess inflammation associated with hot-ironand freeze branding cattle. Canadian Journal ofAnimal Science 77(4):577-583.

US Fish and Wildlife Service (1999)Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants.Electronic document, http://endangered.fws.gov/wildlife.html

Western Wildlife Health Committee (2000) AModel Protocol for Purchase, Distribution, and

Use of Pharmaceuticals in Wildlife. Report to theWestern Association of Fish and WildlifeAgencies. Arizona Game and Fish Department.

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Woodbury M.R. (ed.) (1996) The ChemicalImmobilization of Wildlife Course Manual.Canadian Association of Zoo and WildlifeVeterinarians.

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Analgesia—loss of sensitivity to pain

Anesthesia—loss of sensation with or with-out loss of consciousness

Antagonizing agent—an antagonizing agentor antagonist is a drug that will bind to a specific receptor and antagonize the clinicaleffects of the “agonist” drug, e.g., atipamezoleis an alpha-2 antagonist drug that “reverses”the sedation induced by medetomidine

Apnea—absence of spontaneous breathing

Asepsis—absence of living germs, free fromseptic or poisonous putrefactive products

Biopsy—the surgical removal of a cell or sample of tissue for diagnostic purposes

Capture myopathy—muscle damage resultingfrom anaerobic muscle function; predispositionmay be due to improper capture procedures

Cardiac puncture—penetration of the heart,usually for removal of a blood sample

Catecholamines—a type of biogenic amine;includes epinephrine, norepinephrine anddopamine

Culling—selective killing to reduce a population

Depolarizing agent—a muscle relaxing agent(drug) that produces a depolarization (con-traction) of the muscles before it producesmuscle relaxation; succinylcholine is an example of a depolarizing agent

Dissociative agent—a drug that will producedissociative anesthesia; this type of anesthesiais characterized by a cataleptoid state in whichthe eyes remain open, and purposeful orreflexive muscle movements may occur

Distress—a state of excessive stress which willoccur if an animal has to devote substantialeffort or resources to the adaptive response tochallenges emanating from the environmentalsituation, or if the animal is unable to makethe necessary adaptations

Ecological—having to do with relations amongliving organisms and between living organismsand their environment

Ecosystem—a complex of the plant and animalcommunities within an area, along with thenon-living components of the environmentand the interactions among these

Enrichment—the improvement of an animal’sliving conditions that contributes to thebehavioural and psychological well-being ofthe animal

Euthanasia—literally, a good death—rapidloss of consciousness and death, with no painor distress accompanying the procedure

Exsanguination—a procedure causing exten-sive loss of blood due to internal or externalhemorrhage

Extirpation—elimination of unwanted species

Food chain—a sequence of organisms, each ofwhich uses the next lower member of thesequence as a food source

GPS (Global Positioning System) devices—equipment that uses satellites to determine alocation on earth

Humane—conditions which promote physicaland behavioral well-being of animals; in thecase of euthanasia, humane methods are thosewhich are painless, minimize fear and anxiety,and are reliable, reproducible, irreversible,simple, safe and rapid

Hyperthermia—higher than normal bodytemperature

Hypothermia—lower than normal body temperature

Hypoxia—reduced oxygen in air and/or bloodand tissues

Immobilization—a procedure causing loss ofthe ability to make coordinated, purposefulmovements

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L. GLOSSARY

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Indigenous—originating from a particulararea; native

Intraoperative—occurring during an operation

Laparotomy—abdominal incision to access theperitoneal cavity

Lateral recumbency—lying down on the side

Monogastric—having a single stomach

Morbidity—diseased state

Mortality—loss of life; death

Pain—an unpleasant sensory and emotionalexperience associated with actual or potentialdamage, or described in terms of such damage(International Association for the Study of Pain®,http://www.iasp-pain.org/terms-p.html)

Palpebral—pertaining to the eyelid

Postmortem—an examination of the body madeafter the death of the animal; an autopsy

Postoperative—occurring after a surgicaloperation

Prophylactic—preventing a disease or theprocess leading to a disease

Protocol—a written description of a study oractivity that includes details of the goals, theuse of animals, the procedures that are to be followed and the personnel involved; thepurpose of the protocol is to ensure the qualityand integrity of the study or activity

Quarantine—the segregation or isolation ofanimals from all others to prevent the spreadof disease

Radioisotopes—radioactive atoms that decayinto more stable atoms by releasing energy inthe form of radiation

Radio transmitter—a piece of telemetryequipment that emits a signal (usually a ‘beep’)on a particular radio frequency

Regurgitation—passive return of food orfluid to the mouth from the stomach

Reversal agent—drug that will “reverse” theeffects of another drug or drug combination;reversal agents may specifically “antagonize”the pharmacological effects of another agentat the receptor level, or they may act non-specifically to reverse the clinical effects, e.g.,doxapram induces CNS stimulation that canresult in more rapid arousal

Rumenal tympany—bloat; an abnormal collection of gas in the rumen

Ruminants—polygastric animals having usually four digestive compartments

SOP—Standard Operating Procedure; writtendocuments specifying procedures for routineactivities that must be followed to ensure thequality and integrity of the study

Sternal recumbency—lying down on the chest

Telemetry—the use of devices to transmitinformation via radio to a distant station whereit is recorded; commonly used in wildlifestudies to monitor animals in order to answerquestions about their physiology, behavior,habitat use, survival and movements

Therapeutic index—the ratio of dosagewhich kills 50% of animals (LD50) to dosagewhich is effective in 50% of the animals (ED50)used in qualitative comparison of drugs

Thermoregulatory—able to regulate heat

Translocation—the movement of animalsfrom one site to another

Withdrawal time—the length of timebetween when an animal is given a drug andwhen that animal could be safely consumedby a human

Zoonotic—relating to the transmission of adisease from a non-human species to humans

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ABS—Animal Behavior Society

ACC—Animal Care Committee

AIHTS—Agreement on International HumaneTrapping Standards

ASAB—Association for the Study of AnimalBehaviour

ASIH—American Society of Ichthyologistsand Herpetologists

ASM—American Society of Mammalogists

AVMA—American Veterinary MedicalAssociation

AZA—American Zoo and AquariumAssociation

CARC—Canadian Agri-Food ResearchCouncil

CAZA—Canadian Association of Zoos andAquariums

CAZWV—Canadian Association of Zoo andWildlife Veterinarians

CCWHC—Canadian Cooperative WildlifeHealth Centre

CFIA—Canadian Food Inspection Agency

CITES—Convention on International Trade

in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and

Flora

COSEWIC—Committee on the Status of

Endangered Wildlife in Canada

CWS—Canadian Wildlife Service

IATA—International Air Transport Association

ICSU—International Council for Science

ISO—International Organization for

Standardization

IUCN—International Union for Conservation

of Nature and Natural Resources

OC—Ornithological Council

SOP—Standard Operating Procedure

UNESCO—United Nations Educational,

Scientific and Cultural Organization

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M. ABBREVIATIONS

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American Society of Ichthyologists andHerpetologists, The Herpetologists League &the Society for the Study of Amphibians andReptiles (1987) Guidelines for the Use of LiveAmphibians and Reptiles in Field Research.Electronic document, http://www.asih.org/pubs/herpcoll.html

American Society of Mammologists (1998)Guidelines for the Capture, Handling, and Care ofMammals. Prepared by the Animal Care andUse Committee of the American Society ofMammalogists. Electronic document, http://www.mammalsociety.org/committees/index.asp

Animal Behavior Society & Association forthe Study of Animal Behaviour (2001)Guidelines for the Treatment of Animals inBehavioral Research and Teaching. Electronicdocument, http://www.societies.ncl.ac.uk/asab/ethics.html

British Columbia, Ministry of Environment,Lands and Parks, Resources InventoryCommittee (1998) Live Animal Capture andHandling Guidelines for Wild Mammals, Birds,Amphibians and Reptiles. Standards forComponents of Bristish Columbia’s BiodiversityNo. 3, version 2.0. Electronic document, http://srmwww.gov.bc.ca/risc/pubs/tebiodiv/capt/index.htm

Friend M., Toweill D.E., Brownell R.L.Jr., et al.(1996) Guidelines for proper care and use ofwildlife in field research. In: Research andManagement Techniques for Wildlife andHabitats, 5th ed. (ed. T.A. Bookhout), pp. 96-105. Bethesda MD: The Wildlife Society.

The Ornithological Council (1999) Guidelinesto the Use of Wild Birds in Research. Electronicdocument, http://www.nmnh.si.edu/BIRDNET

APPENDIX A

RELEVANT GUIDELINES


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1. Administrative Information

a) Name and title of principal investigator

b) Address for correspondence (include phone, fax and email)

c) Title of project/number and title of course

d) Type of project:

❑ Research ❑ Teaching ❑ Testing ❑ Management

e) ❑ New ❑ Renewal of protocol no.

f) Expected date of: commencement conclusion

g) Location:Where will the study take place? (Name the closest town and whether the study will occurin the field or laboratory)

h) Permits:

* Please provide photocopies of both sides of relevant licenses.

APPENDIX B

SUGGESTED FORMAT FOR AN ANIMAL USE PROTOCOL FOR WILDLIFE IN RESEARCH,

TEACHING OR TESTING

Office Use

Protocol No.

Category of Invasiveness

Start Date

End Date

Permits applied for Permits obtained (Y/N) Permit number

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i) Emergency Contact:

Name:

Work phone number:

Home phone number:

Declaration

All animals used in this research project will be cared for in accordance with the policies and guide-lines of the Canadian Council on Animal Care (http://www.ccac.ca) and the requirements of the relevant international, federal, provincial/territorial and municipal legislations.

Signature, Principal Investigator/Course Director Date

2. Source of Funding

a) Funding Agency(ies):

b) ❑ Grant approved, agency file number:❑ Grant under review

c) Scientific Merit Review:Approval of pedagogical merit or evaluation of goals by a peer review process?

❑ Yes ❑ No

3. Description of Use

a) Purpose of Animal Use (PAU):Circle the number (1-6) below that best describes the purpose of animal use.

1. Studies of a fundamental nature in sciences relating to essential structure or function (e.g.,biology, psychology, biochemistry, pharmacology, physiology, etc.).

2. Studies for medical purposes, including veterinary medicine, that relate to human or animal disease or disorders.

3. Studies for regulatory testing of products for the protection of humans, animals, or theenvironment.

4. Studies for the development of products or appliances for human or veterinary medicine.

5. Education and training of individuals in post-secondary institutions or facilities.

6. Other:

b) Lay Summary:Describe in terms understandable to the non-scientist how the proposed use of animals willcontribute to the advancement of science, or to outcomes that can reasonably be expected tobenefit humans, animals or the environment.

c) Why is it necessary to use live animals, and what consideration has been given to the use ofalternative methods which do not involve the use of animals?


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d) Provide rationale for the choice of species.

e) What precautions will be taken to avoid capturing vulnerable animals and what action will betaken if these animals are captured?

f) Protocol description summary (40-100 words) listing all procedures to be done on the animalswith a brief rationale for the overall protocol. This summary will be used for reporting to theCCAC.

g) Animals to be used:

* Provide justification for numbers of animals to be used.

h) Agents to be administered:Indicate all agents to be administered in the research protocol for each species.

i) Samples to be taken:Indicate all samples to be taken for each species.

j) Details of procedures to be performed on animals:

Descriptions must be sufficiently detailed to permit assessment of compliance with CCACguidelines. Use terminology understandable to ACC members with widely different back-grounds (including non-scientists). Indicate which members of the team will be carrying outwhich procedures. For killed specimens, describe the method to be used to kill the animal. Forcomplex projects with many procedures or those with routine procedures, it is easier to developstandard operating procedures (SOPs) in consultation with the ACC. These can be attached tothe application and referred to from this section.

i) Describe all procedures and manipulations performed on live animals for each species. Ifmultiple procedures are to be performed, flow diagrams may be useful, particularly if theprotocol involves short-term holding and subsequent release.

Animal Location # Required at time

Annual total Housing

Species Agent Purpose Route Dosage Frequency

Species Type ofSample

Site Amount Procedure Frequency

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ii) For studies involving capture and restraint, detail the type of restraint chosen, state thetime and frequency for checking traps, provide details of physical restraint, chase times(taking into consideration possible environmental conditions), provide details of immobi-lization agent used for chemical restraint, describe all manipulations and precautions takento protect the animal and investigator.

iii) Provide details of marking, including potential long-term effects.

iv) Will any radio tracking collars or other tracking equipment be used? If so, detail the equip-ment to be used, the method of attachment, the weight of the equipment, and the impacton the animal. Also, detail how the equipment will be retrieved.

v) Provide details of any surgical and medical procedures. Indicate where and under what conditions it will be performed, as well as by whom. Provide the name of the veterinarianwhere consultation is necessary.

vi) Provide details for monitoring the animals (during capture, handling and post-release),including personnel and qualifications.

vii)Housing:Provide justification for any housing of the animals. Include details of pens, enclosures,duration and nutrition.

4. Pain and Distress

a) Is any pain and/or distress likely to be associated with the procedures or manipulations?

❑ Yes ❑ No

If Yes, please describe how it will be alleviated or minimized.

b) If animals encounter unanticipated pain and/or distress, what criteria will be used to terminate the procedure/study and possibly euthanize the animal(s)?

c) Indicate the category of invasiveness which best describes the protocol:

❑ A Methods used on most invertebrates or on live isolates

❑ B Methods used which cause little or no discomfort or stress

❑ C Methods which cause minor stress or pain of short duration

❑ D Methods which cause moderate to severe distress or discomfort

❑ E Procedures which cause severe pain near, at, or above the pain tolerance threshold ofunanesthetized conscious animals

5. Methods of Euthanasia

Provide details of method of euthanasia:

i) for species of interest, where necessary upon termination of the study;

ii) for species of interest, where necessary due to unanticipated pain and/or distress;

iii) for by-catch species, where necessary due to unanticipated pain and/or distress.


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6. Disposition

Provide details of intended fate of the animals used in the study. For any voucher specimens,justify the taking and number of specimens or by-catch and where they are to be kept.

7. Possible Hazards to Staff

List potential biohazards, chemical hazards, etc.

8. Qualifications and Experience

List names, positions and relevant training and experience of all individuals who will beworking directly with the animals. Each individual must initial this form, indicating that theyhave read the entire application form, before submission.

I hereby certify that the above personnel is(are) qualified to conduct the procedures described andthat they have read and initialed this application in person.

Signature (principal investigator/team leader)

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American Society of Ichthyologists andHerpetologists (ASIH)(http://www.asih.org)

American Society of Mammalogists (ASM)(http://www.mammalsociety.org)

Animal Behavior Society (ABS)(http://www.animalbehavior.org)

Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour(ASAB)(http://www.societies.ncl.ac.uk/asab)

Canadian Amphibian and Reptile ConservationNetwork(http://www.carcnet.ca)

Canadian Association of Zoo and WildlifeVeterinarians

Canadian Federation of Humane Societies(http://www.cfhs.ca)

Committee on the Status of EndangeredWildlife in Canada (COSEWIC)(http://www.cosewic.gc.ca)

Convention on International Trade inEndangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora(CITES)(http://www.cites.org)

International Organization for Standard-ization (ISO)(http://www.iso.ch/iso/en/CatalogueListPage.CatalogueList)

Ornithological Council(http://www.nmnh.si.edu/BIRDNET)

The Wildlife Society(http://www.wildlife.org)

APPENDIX C

USEFUL CONTACTS


Category of Invasiveness AMethods used on most invertebrates oron live isolates

Possible examples:

the use of tissue culture and tissues obtained atnecropsy; the use of eggs, protozoa or othersingle-celled organisms; experiments involvingcontainment, incision or other invasive proce-dures on metazoa; and studies in which theanimals are observed without any disturbanceto them.

Category of Invasiveness BMethods used which cause little or nodiscomfort or stress

Possible examples:

observational studies in which there is somedisturbance to the animals but not to the pointthat the same individuals are repeatedlyobserved so as to habituate or otherwise mod-ify their behavior; census or other surveyswhich disturb animals but which do notinvolve capture or marking individuals; non-invasive studies on animals that have beenhabituated to captivity; short periods of foodand/or water deprivation equivalent to periodsof abstinence in nature.

Category of Invasiveness CMethods which cause minor stress orpain of short duration

Possible examples:

capture, using methods with little or no poten-tial to cause injury and marking of animals forimmediate release; long-term observationalstudies on free ranging animals where thebehavior of individuals may be altered byrepeated contact; brief restraint for blood or

tissue sampling; short periods of restraintbeyond that for simple observation or exami-nation, but consistent with minimal distress;short periods of food and/or water deprivationwhich exceed periods of abstinence in nature;exposure to non-lethal levels of drugs or chem-icals; low velocity darting and slow-injectiondarts with immobilization chemicals. Suchprocedures should not cause significant changesin the animal’s appearance, in physiologicalparameters (such as respiratory or cardiacrate, or fecal or urinary output), in socialresponses or inability to survive.

Note: During or after Category C studies, animals must not show self-mutilation, anorexia,dehydration, hyperactivity, increased recum-bency or dormancy, increased vocalization,aggressive-defensive behavior, or demonstratesocial withdrawal and self-isolation.

Category of Invasiveness DMethods which cause moderate to severedistress or discomfort

Possible examples:

capture, using methods that have the potentialto cause injury (e.g., high velocity darting andrapid-injection darts with immobilizationchemicals, net gunning, etc.); maintenance ofwild caught animals in captivity; translocationof wildlife to new habitats; major surgicalprocedures conducted under general anesthe-sia, with subsequent recovery; prolonged(several hours or more) periods of physicalrestraint; induction of behavioral stressessuch as maternal deprivation, aggression,predator-prey interactions; procedures whichcause severe, persistent or irreversible disrup-tion of sensorimotor organization.

Other examples in captive animals include:induction of anatomical and physiologicalabnormalities that will result in pain or

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APPENDIX D

CCAC CATEGORIES OF INVASIVENESS FORWILDLIFE STUDIES

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distress; the exposure of an animal to noxiousstimuli from which escape is impossible; theproduction of radiation sickness; exposure todrugs or chemicals at levels that impair phys-iological systems (N.B. Experiments describ-ed in this paragraph would be Category E ifperformed on wildlife immediately prior torelease).

Note: Procedures used in Category D studiesshould not cause prolonged or severe clinicaldistress as may be exhibited by a wide rangeof clinical signs, such as marked abnormalitiesin behavioral patterns or attitudes, the absenceof grooming, dehydration, abnormal vocaliza-tion, prolonged anorexia, circulatory collapse,extreme lethargy or disinclination to move,and clinical signs of severe or advanced localor systemic infection, etc.

Category of Invasiveness E

Procedures which cause severe pain near,at, or above the pain tolerance thresholdof unanesthetized, conscious animals

This Category of Invasiveness is not necessarilyconfined to surgical procedures, but mayinclude exposure to noxious stimuli or agentswhose effects are unknown; exposure to drugsor chemicals at levels that (may) markedlyimpair physiological systems and which causedeath, severe pain, or extreme distress; behav-ioral studies about which the effects of thedegree of distress are not known; environmentaldeprivation that has the potential to seriouslyjeopardize an animal’s well-being; use of musclerelaxants or paralytic drugs without anesthetics;burn or trauma infliction on unanesthetizedanimals; a euthanasia method not approvedby the CCAC; any procedures (e.g., the injectionof noxious agents or the induction of severestress or shock) that will result in pain whichapproaches the pain tolerance threshold andcannot be relieved by analgesia (e.g., removalof teeth without analgesia, or when toxicitytesting and experimentally-induced infectiousdisease studies have death as the endpoint);capture methods with a high potential of caus-ing severe injury that could result in severechronic pain and/or death (e.g., leghold traps)


FEDERAL

Canadian Wildlife Servicehttp://www.cws-scf.ec.gc.ca/index_e.cfm

• Canada Wildlife Acthttp://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/W-9/index.html

• Wildlife Area Regulationshttp://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/W-9/C.R.C.-c.1609/62555.html

• Migratory Birds Convention Acthttp://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/M-7.01/index.html

• Migratory Bird Sanctuary Regulationshttp://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/M-7.01/C.R.C.-c.1036/143398.html

• Migratory Birds Hunting Regulationshttp://www.cws-scf.ec.gc.ca/publications/reg/index_e.cfm

• Wild Animal and Plant Protection andRegulation of International and Interpro-vincial Trade Act (WAPPRIITA)http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/W-8.5/106599.html

• Wild Animal and Plant Trade Regulationshttp://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/W-8.5/SOR-96-263/184434.html

• Species at Risk Acthttp://www.speciesatrisk.gc.ca/index_e.cfm

Fisheries and Oceans Canada

• Fisheries Act (Marine Mammal Regulations)http://laws. just ice .gc .ca/en/F-14/SOR-93-56/119433.html

Parks Canada

• Canada National Parks Acthttp://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/N-14.01/18251.html

PROVINCIAL

Alberta

Alberta Sustainable Resource Development,Fish and Wildlife Division

http://www3.gov.ab.ca/srd/fishwl.html

• Wildlife Act

British Columbia

Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection,Biodiversity Branch

http://www.gov.bc.ca/wlap

• Wildlife Act

Manitoba

Manitoba Conservation, Wildlife and EcosystemProtection Branch

http://www.gov.mb.ca/natres/wildlife/index.html

• Wildlife Act

• Endangered Species Act

New Brunswick

Department of Natural Resources and Energy,Fish and Wildlife Branch

http://www.gnb.ca/0078/fw/index_fw.asp

• Fish and Wildlife Act


Newfoundland and Labrador

Department of Tourism, Culture and Recrea-tion, Inland Fish and Wildlife

http://www.gov.nf.ca/tcr/wildlife/default.htm

• Wildlife Act


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APPENDIX E

LISTING OF REGULATORY AGENCIES AND RELEVANT LEGISLATION

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Northwest Territories

Department of Resources, Wildlife and Eco-nomic Development

http://www.nwtwildlife.rwed.gov.nt.ca

• NWT Wildlife Act

Nova Scotia

Department of Natural Resources, WildlifeDivision

http://www.gov.ns.ca/natr/wildlife/index.htm

• Wildlife Act


• Circus Standards

Nunavut

Department of Sustainable Development,Wildlife Division

http://www.gov.nu.ca/sd.htm

• Wildlife Act

Ontario

Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources,Natural Resource Management Division, Fishand Wildlife Branch

http://www.mnr.gov.on.ca

• Fish and Wildlife Conservation Act


Prince Edward Island

Department of Fisheries, Aquaculture andEnvironment, Fish and Wildlife Division

http://www.gov.pe.ca/fae/faw-info/index.php3

• Wildlife Conservation Act

• Animal Health and Protection Act

Québec

Société de la faune et des parcs du Québec

http://www.fapaq.gouv.qc.ca/fr/organisa/la_societe.htm

Ministère de l’Environnement

http://www.menv.gouv.qc.ca

• Loi sur la conservation et la mise en valeurde la faune

• Règlement sur les animaux en captivité

• Loi sur les espèces menacées ou vul-nérables

• Loi sur les droits de chasse et de pêchedans les territoires de la Baie James et duNouveau Québec

• Loi sur les parcs

• Loi sur les réserves écologiques

• Loi sur les forêts

Saskatchewan

Department of Environment, Programs Division,Fish and Wildlife Branch

http://www.serm.gov.sk.ca

• Wildlife Act

Yukon

Department of Environment, Fish andWildlife Branch

http://www.environmentyukon.gov.yk.ca

• Wildlife Act

• The Yukon Animal Health Act

• The Yukon Game Farm Regulations

• The Yukon Animal Protection Act


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Documents

the care and use of wildlife - CCAC · Research Involving Animals, 2000). Although the care and use of wildlife is regu-lated through provincial, territorial and federal legislation,