THE AMERICANTHHEEAAMA SOCIETY FORSOSOCIEETTY …...2 CAREER ADVICE FOR LIFE SCIENTISTS WICB members as providing the most help-ful career advice for life scientists. We trust that

Women inCell Biology

Career AdviceforLifeScientists

THE AMERICANTHHEHEE AAMASOCIETY FORSOSSOOC TYIEETCELLCCEC LLLLCEBIOLOGYIOBIOL

Career Advicefor Life Scientists

T H E A M E R I C A N S O C I E T Y F O R C E L L B I O L O G Y

Career Advice

Volume EditorElizabeth Marincola

Production ManagerStephanie Dean

WICB Column EditorsMaureen Brandon, 1998–2001Laura Williams, 1996–2000

Published with support fromthe Office of Researchon Women’s Health,The National Institutes of Health

for Life Scientists

T H E A M E R I C A N S O C I E T Y F O R C E L L B I O L O G Y

©2002 The American Society for Cell Biology

iv CAREER ADVICE FOR LIFE SCIENTISTS

Table of ContentsIntroduction to Career Advice for Life Scientists . . . . . . . 1

1. THE HEAD GAME. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3The Impostor Phenomenon . . . . . . . 4Saying “No” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8Unwritten Rules for Advancing Your Career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2. TEACHING & LEARNING . . . . . . . . 15The Scholarship of Teaching . . . . 16Teaching Science in High School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19Getting the Most from Your Graduate Experience. . . . . . . . . . 23

3. COMMUNICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . 27Communicating Effectively inDepartmental Meetings . . . . . . . . 28“And Our Next Speaker Is...” . . . 30The Unicorn in the Garden or Why Cell Biologists Should Meet the Press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

4. MANAGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39A Crash Course in Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40Designing Productive Lab Meetings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43Some Tips on Successful Negotiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

5. LEADERSHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49Creative Mentoring Strategies . . . . 50Crossing to the Other Side . . . . . 53Dealing with Unstable Colleagues . 56

6. UNDERREPRESENTATION IN SCIENCE CAREERS. . . . . . . . . . . 59Affirmative Action for the NextGeneration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60Increasing Representation of People of Color in Science . . . . . . 64

7. TENURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67The Tenure Process Viewed From the Top . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68Earning Tenure: Ten Recommendations . . . . . . . . . 71The Negative Tenure Decision . . . 75

8. PARENTHOOD & SCIENCE CAREERS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79Juggling Career and Family . . . . . 80Optimizing the Family-Career Balance . . . . . . . . . 82

9. EXPLORING VENUES FOR SCIENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85Breaking Into Biotech. . . . . . . . . . 86Research at a Small Institution: Not as Different as You Think . . . 89

10. WOMEN & SCIENCE CAREERS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95Why Women Leave Science . . . . 96Shaping the Future for Women in Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

vi CAREER ADVICE FOR LIFE SCIENTISTS

Introduction to Career Advice for Life Scientists

T he Women in Cell Biology traces its origins to1971, when a small assembly of Yale colleaguesdetermined to organize a gathering of the few

women attending the 11th Annual Meeting of theAmerican Society for Cell Biology in New Orleans thatyear. They posted flyers on the back of bathroom stallsand thirty women showed up.

The first sustained effort of this pick-up group was a“newsletter”—a bimonthly mimeographed job—featuring entries as diverse and important as sexistadvertisements in scientific journals, job opportunities(though the jobs had not been advertised) and ACLUrulings that women should not be required to use theirhusband’s names, and that single women should qual-ify to receive loans and hold mortgages.

In the subsequent thirty years, women in cell biolo-gy and The Women in Cell Biology have achieved suf-ficient progress as to make early concerns seem almostquaint. But the challenges faced by women in sciencetoday are, while more subtle, still real, and still attract-ing the commitment of dedicated cell biologists. We areproud of contributing to that history.

One of the keys to the success of the Women in CellBiology is that its activities and services have servedthe many male members of the ASCB and the scientificcommunity as well as its women. This has never beenso true as in the past several years, when the challengeof students and post-docs in establishing a satisfyingcareer in the life sciences has become acute. Inresponse, the WICB has given high priority to pro-grams, events, publications and awards that supportthe career aspirations of scientists. In its way, theWomen in Cell Biology Committee has become theheart and soul of the cell biology community.

This volume represents selected articles from theacclaimed Women in Cell Biology column of theaward-winning ASCB Newsletter, those ranked by

W. Sue ShaferChair, Women in Cell Biology Committee

The American Society for Cell Biology1994-1997

Zena Werb Chair, Women in Cell Biology Committee

The American Society for Cell Biology1998-2003

CHAPTER 1 • THE HEAD GAME 1

2 CAREER ADVICE FOR LIFE SCIENTISTS

WICB members as providing the most help-ful career advice for life scientists. We trustthat the compilation will prove even morehelpful than the sum of its parts.

At risk of inadvertently excluding deserv-ing colleagues, we can’t let the presses rollwithout acknowledging the many peoplewho together have conspired to make theAmerican Society for Cell Biology Women inCell Biology Committee and its column wide-ly imitated and praised. Virginia Walbot,Mary Clutter and Mary Lake Polan were thatsmall critical mass from Yale that lighted thespark in 1971; Susan Goldhor and ElizabethHarris were early editors of the “Women inCell Biology Newsletter,” whose job includedgathering $1 and $5 contributions from col-leagues to keep it going; chairs before theWICB became an official ASCB Committeewere Ellen Dirksen, Nina Allen, KathrynVogel, Patricia Calarco, Mina Bissell, Jane

Peterson, Susan Gerbi, Mary Lou King andUrsula Goodenough (33% of whom—Gerbi,Goodenough and Bissell—were later electedPresident of the ASCB); Dorothy Skinner,who served as the conscience of the ASCBCouncil in the early years; Laura Williamsand Maureen Brandon, dedicated editors ofthe ASCB Newsletter WICB column (Lauradid much of the research that contributed tothis history); Emma Shelton, DorotheaWilson and Elizabeth Marincola, ASCBExecutive Directors who helped nurturewomen’s activities through the Society, andRosemary Simpson and Trina Armstrong,ASCB executive staff whose passion for thegoals of the women in cell biology has beencritical in turning ideas into action. Finally,but not least, we thank Joyce Rudick andVivian Pinn from the NIH Office of Researchon Women’s Health for the ORWH’s spon-sorship of this publication. !

1. THE HEAD GAMEThe Impostor Phenomenon

Saying “No”

Unwritten Rules for Advancing Your Career


The Impostor Phenomenon

Sue WickUniversity of Minnesota

Have you ever felt that you did not deserve theprofessional status you have achieved or therecognition you have received for your career

accomplishments? Do you wonder whether beingadmitted to graduate school, being awarded yourPh.D., being offered an exciting postdoc position, orgetting a “real job” was just a mistake on the part ofothers who will eventually figure that out and exposeyour inadequacy? If so, you may be demonstrating aclassic case of the Impostor Phenomenon—you andperhaps as many as half of your colleagues!

The term “Impostor Phenomenon” was coined bypsychology professor Pauline Rose Clance and psy-chotherapist Suzanne Imes in 1978 to describe a sampleof more than 150 high-achieving women. ImpostorPhenomenon (also known as the “ImpostorSyndrome”) has been defined variously as the persist-ent belief in one’s lack of competence, skill or intelli-gence in the face of consistent objective data to the con-trary; an internal experience of intellectual fraudulence,particularly among high-achievers; the belief that one is

not deserving of his/her career success and that othershave been deceived into thinking otherwise; an intensesubjective fear of the inability to repeat past success; aself-concept that one’s record of accomplishments is not

Do you wonder whether being admittedto graduate school, being awarded yourPh.D., being offered an exciting post-doc position, or getting a “real job”was just a mistake on the part of otherswho will eventually figure that out andexpose your inadequacy?

THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR CELL BIOLOGY


due to ability but rather only to luck, fate,charm, attractiveness, or having manipulatedother people’s impressions; the secret convic-tion that one is truly less intelligent and com-petent than he/she appears; and an unrealis-tic sense of one’s competence in which onedownplays strengths and exaggerates or doesnot tolerate any deficiencies or weaknesses.

Numerous doctoral theses and researchpapers have examined the type of personwho tends to fall prey to the ImpostorPhenomenon, and several psychological test-ing instruments have been devised to meas-ure the degree of manifestation. While origi-nally suspected as a problem primarilyafflicting women, subsequent studies havemade it clear that similar numbers of menalso experience impostor feelings. In someprofessions, men experience more severecases of Impostor Syndrome. For example,within a group of faculty members, men

scored higher for the Impostor Phenomenonthan women did, whereas groups of collegestudents showed the opposite results. Peoplein non-professional occupations likewise aresusceptible to the impostor phenomenon.

Some characteristics and tendencies aregenerally correlated with people who feellike impostors. Such people may have feel-ings of depression, anxiety, fear of failure andof being discovered as a fraud; a propensityto feel shame, low self-esteem, and introver-sion as determined by the Myers-Briggs

Personality Type Indicator. (Introversion, asdefined by Myers-Briggs testing, is a charac-teristic of many scientists.) Those who feellike impostors often believe that many deci-sions affecting them are made by other peo-ple (and they may be right—Ph.D. qualifying

exam committees or tenure and promotioncommittees, perhaps?) Those who experiencethe Impostor Phenomenon are likely to seeintelligence as a fixed entity and not a mal-leable quality. They are very achievement-oriented. They are motivated in academic set-tings by the need to look smart; when facedwith learning difficulties, they become anx-ious, shameful, and concerned about lookingbad compared to others.

According to the literature, certain familysituations tend to spawn impostor feelings.These include not receiving encouragementto pursue educational or career aspirationsbecause they conflict with, or at least areatypical of, the gender role, race, or ageexpectations of the family. Particularly forwomen, having goals that will put you out-side your family’s socioeconomic class mayhave the same result. Families that imposeunrealistic standards, those in which there isonly selective validation, or those in whichthere is much conflict and expressed angeralso put children at risk for developing theimpostor phenomenon. Growing up with analcoholic or incestuous parent or in anotherkind of dysfunctional family can lead to highlevels of impostorism. (Such serious factorscan also lead to psychosis such as MultiplePersonality Disorder.)

Those who feel like impostorsoften believe that many decisionsaffecting them are made by otherpeople.

While originally suspected as aproblem primarily afflictingwomen, subsequent studies havemade it clear that similarnumbers of men also experienceimpostor feelings.

Racial identity attitudes apparently haveinfluences also. Research on AfricanAmerican graduate and professional stu-dents reveals that those who had attendedhistorically black undergraduate institutionsand/or who relied strongly on spiritualbeliefs when making decisions about educa-tional or career goals were much less likely tofeel like impostors.

The good news is that the self-deprecat-ing and debilitating feelings associated withthe impostor phenomenon appear todecrease as a person remains in a particularposition or attains a higher rank—that is,unless the person perceives job uncertainty,ambiguous job expectations, or a highdegree of challenge in their position and

does not have a high tolerance for thesesituations. Studies report that, at least forsome people, having a mentor is helpfulfor overcoming the sense of fraudulence.(Presumably, having a mentor who under-stands the impostor phenomenon wouldbe optimal.) Clance and her co-workerssuggest that the most positive results areobtained through regular meetings with agroup of people who can give honest feed-back about their perceptions of your abili-ties. Such groups can be very good atpointing out when your self-perceptionabout talents and achievements is distort-

ed, i.e., out of line with what theyobserve. Thus, they can help you learn toacknowledge your competence. Makingthe effort to find an effective mentor andassemble a support group for yourself maybe the key not only to survival but also toimproving your self esteem during yourgrad school experience, job probationaryperiod, or even the middle or advancedstages of your career.

Clance also recommends a three-pointexercise for those who recognize that theyhave impostor traits, as published in NewWoman magazine:


Families that impose unrealisticstandards, those in which thereis only selective validation, or those in which there is muchconflict and expressed angeralso put children at risk fordeveloping the impostorphenomenon.

...those who had attendedhistorically black undergraduateinstitutions and/or who reliedstrongly on spiritual beliefswhen making decisions abouteducational or career goals weremuch less likely to feel likeimpostors. Making the effort to find an

effective mentor and assemble asupport group for yourself maybe the key...to survival.

...having a mentor is helpful for overcoming the sense offraudulence.



• document both positive feedback and yourdoubts about its authenticity. This exercise“will demonstrate how you discount theopinions of other people,” says Clance;

• examine the messages that you may havereceived about yourself from your familyand others. Understanding where yournegative self-image comes from canempower you to break free, and

• imagine telling your peers and superiorshow you have fooled them. Realize howridiculous you would sound. !

References

Brown, D. B. (1994). “Are you an impostor?” NewWoman June: 46.

Byrnes, K. D. and D. Lester (1995). “The impostor phe-nomenon in teachers and accountants.” PsychologicalReports 77: 350.

Cherpas, C. C. (1989). The generalizability of the impos-tor phenomenon to adults employed in professional andnonprofessional occupations. Doctoral Dissertation, KentState University. Dissertation Abstracts International.

Clance, P. R., D. Dingman, et al. (1995). “Impostor phe-nomenon in an interpersonal/social context: Origins andtreatment.” Women & Therapy 16: 79-95.

Cohen, E. S. (1990). The impostor phenomenon: An inter-actionist perspective. Doctoral Dissertation, University ofToronto, Doctoral Dissertations International.

Ewing, K. M. (1990). Effect of racial identity attitudes andworld view on African- American graduate and professionalstudents’ experience of the impostor phenomenon style andlocus of control. Doctoral Dissertation, California School ofProfessional Psychology. Dissertation AbstractsInternational.

Hayes, K. M. and S. F. Davis (1993). “Interpersonal flexi-bility, type A individuals, and the impostor phenomenon.”Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 31: 323-325.

Jamail, S. R. (1992). Predicting the impostor phenomenonin successful career women. Doctoral Dissertation, MiamiInst. of Psychology of the Caribbean Ctr. for AdvancedStudies. Dissertation Abstracts International.

King, J. E. and E. L. Cooley (1995). “Achievement orien-tation and the impostor phenomenon among college stu-dents.” Contemporary Educational Psychology 200: 304-312.

Langford, J. (1991). The need to look smart:: The impos-tor phenomenon and motivations for learning. DoctoralDissertation, Georgia State University-College of Arts andSciences. Dissertation Abstracts International.

Langford, J. and P. R. Clance (1993). “The impostor phe-nomenon: Recent research findings regarding dynamics,personality and family patterns and their implications fortreatment.” Psychotherapy 30: 495-501.

Milton, S. and R. J. Mattox (1988). “A study of the impos-tor phenomenon in high achieving college students.” Journalof College Student Development 29: 380-381.

Reinert, L. M. (1991). Influences of family and work onwomen managers exhibiting the impostor phenomenon.Doctoral Dissertation, Temple University. DissertationAbstracts International.

Reis, S. M. (1987). “We can’t change what we don’t rec-ognize: Understanding the special needs of gifted females.”Gifted Child Quarterly 31: 83-89.

Robinson, S. L. and S. K. Goodpaster (1991). “The effectsof parental alcoholism on perception of control and impostorphenomenon.” Current Psychology: Research & Reviews 10:113-119.

Teece, J. K. (1990). Adult children of alcoholics and theexperience of the impostor phenomenon: The developmentof the ‘false self’ in a dysfunctional family system. DoctoralDissertation, University of Maryland College Park.Dissertation International.

Topping, M. E. H. (1983). The impostor phenomenon: Astudy of its construct and incidence in university facultymembers. Doctoral Dissertation, University of South Florida.Dissertation Abstracts International.

Other relevant articles:Author unknown (1986). The impostor syndrome.

Management Solutions 31: 18-19.Clance, P R.. and S.A. Imes (1978). “The impostor phe-

nomenon in high achieving women: Dynamics and thera-peutic intervention.” Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, andPractice 15: 241-247.

Clance, P R.. and M. A. O’Toole (1987). “The impostorphenomenon: An internal barrier to empowerment andachievement. Special Issue: Treating women’s fear of fail-ure.” Women and Therapy 6: 51-64.

Ewing, K. M., T. Q. Richardson, et al. (1996). “The rela-tionship between racial identity attitudes, world view, andAfrican American graduate students’ experience of theimpostor phenomenon.” Journal of Black Psychology 22:53-66.

Harvey, J.C and C. Katz (1985). If I’m so successful, whydo I feel like a fake?, St. Martin’s Press; New York.

MacKay, B. (1988). “The Impostor Syndrome: Why somesuccessful people feel like fakes.” Chatelaine 61: 30.

Miller, D. G. and S. M. Kastburg (1995). “Of blue collarsand ivory towers: Women from blue-collar backgrounds inhigher education. Special Issue: Adult women’s talent devel-opment.” Roeper Review 18: 27-33.


Saying “No”

Zena WerbUniversity of California

San Francisco

A s the countdown to the next millennium drawscloser, it seems that the life of a working cellbiologist grows more hectic everyday: too

many commitments, too many demands, days that aretoo short. How do you manage your time and keepcontrol of your professional and personal life?

“No” is one of the most powerful words in theEnglish language. When I was asked to write this arti-cle, my first inclination was to say “No”. But I said“Yes”, because I felt that I had the responsibility to doso. I have learned to control my life, get satisfactionfrom doing an excellent job, make decisions, takechances, and have fun. So, how do you decide when tosay “No” and, more importantly, when to say “Yes”?

When to Say “Yes” The road to Hell is paved with good intentions.

Saying “Yes” always has a cost, even when there is abenefit. Develop a clear concept of your reasons for say-ing “Yes” or “No” to requests. First ask, “do I have thetime?” There are time-consuming activities that need tobe done for career advancement, personal interest, or

other positive motives. Set career objectives and priori-ties, realizing the inherent obligations. However, recog-nize that there is a fine line between entitlement andhelping out. Try to avoid being exploited.

Secondly, ask, “do I know how to do this?” If you donot have the expertise, then avoid the challenge. A poorjob benefits no one.

Setting priorities helps to develop a set of responses,although not all situations are black and white. Trust

Trust your inner voice that you aredoing things for the right reasons.



your inner voice that you are doing things forthe right reasons. Some examples of these areincluded below.

Being a good citizen. While managingtime is a prime goal, good citizenship isexpected, too. Agreeing to laboratory, univer-sity and public duties is an essential part ofthe scientific and educational endeavor.Science is largely self-motivated and self-governed. We all need to take part, but youdon’t need to be a saint.

Responsibility. Faculty members, stu-dents, post-docs, teachers, researchers, andadministrators have certain duties andresponsibilities to teach, serve on committees,mentor and engage in public service. It is irre-sponsible to shirk these responsibilities, or todo such a bad job that you will not be askedto do them in the future.

Career Advancement. Visibility and recog-nition of research activities and teaching areessential to move ahead in a career as a scien-tist. A career involves investment and sacri-fice, such as agreeing to write review articles,giving research seminars, attending meet-ings, reviewing papers and grants, and get-ting involved in the activities of your schooland professional societies. Be as selective aspossible to achieve the most from the mostefficient expenditure of time. Quality countsmore then quantity.

Interest. Define your specific interestswhen setting priorities. If you are passionateabout encouraging girls to get interested inscience, mentoring graduate students, orinteracting with politicians, then say “Yes” to

activities that have these goals, even at theexpense of other requests.

Why to Say “Yes” Analyze why you say “Yes.” Do you agree

to do things for the wrong reasons? Here is asmall set of examples:

Flattery. Are you seduced into saying“Yes,” because you are told that you are theonly one who would do a stellar job? Are youflattered to be asked to give a lecture by acaller who tells you how wonderful your lastarticle is, and how only you will make theirlecture series complete? Perhaps you areapproached by an old graduate school buddyto review a grant, manuscript, or college pro-gram because you have the unique and perfectqualifications to do a good job. Accept thecompliment graciously, but do not agree to theflatterer’s request as payment for the praise.Recognition that is only of value as a com-modity is not worth the paper it is written on.

Criticism. This is just as effective as praisefor getting people to do things they do notwant to do. The hint that someone is not adedicated teacher or a sensitive mentor low-ers self-esteem and coerces others into mak-ing a commitment for fear of offending some-one. Take time to evaluate your imperfec-tions, the source of the criticism, and its intentbefore agreeing to do something.

Desire for approval. Do you say “Yes” toteaching an additional course during a semes-

Science is largely self-motivatedand self-governed. We all needto take part, but you don’t needto be a saint.

Are you flattered to be asked togive a lecture by a caller whotells you how wonderful yourlast article is, and how only youwill make their lecture seriescomplete?

ter off for research, or sitting on twice as manycommittees as your colleagues, because thedepartment chair will approve of goingbeyond the call of duty? The problem withsaying “Yes” for approval is that soon thoseextra tasks become an expectation. When youtake on more tasks to show how indispensa-ble you are, you eventually burn out.

Intimidation. Do you say “Yes” to unrea-sonable requests out of fear for your profes-sional life? For example, do you do extra shifts,postpone a planned vacation to do another setof experiments, show up at a meeting or revisethe curriculum at two days’ notice because therequester hints that if you don’t you will not geta merit increase, a good letter of recommenda-tion, or a positive recommendation for tenure?Insecurity makes people do unnecessary thingsout of fear of offending a supervisor.

Avoiding conflict. Too often people say“Yes” to avoid conflict at all costs. They endup being a de facto martyr, and see them-selves as powerless to change their lives, timemanagement, space, or salary.

Greed. Do you agree to teach a course inthe summer rather than taking the time to doresearch or write a paper, because you willget paid extra? Do you say “Yes” to give a lec-ture at a boring meeting, because they willgive you a large honorarium? There is noth-ing wrong with being self-serving so long asit is not at the expense of something moreimportant in the long run.

Picking up the slack. Do others takeadvantage of your inability to say “No” todump unpopular tasks on you, such as clear-ing out 50-year-old department files, or

teaching a third introductory course so thatthe department does not have to hire anotherlecturer? If no one else is willing to do thesethings, perhaps they are not worth doing.

Don’t be manipulated because others areirresponsible with their deadlines. Resist thetemptation to do other peoples’ work becausethey are chronically late, or do such a poorjob that they appear to be incompetent andwill not be asked again.

Guilt. If you feel guilty about having goneon vacation, taken a sabbatical, takenparental leave, or made a mistake, wait untilthe guilt subsides before committing to anyadditional responsibilities.

When to Say “No” Saying “No” is essential to achieving your

personal and professional goals. It is an indi-cation that you value your time, energy, tal-ents and experience, and that you controlyour life. Striking a balance between enjoyinglife as a cell biologist and resenting thedemands put upon you is essential to person-al and professional empowerment.

Saying “No” can be a right or an option.You have the right to say “No” if you havequestions about the ethics, professional stan-dards or quality of the request. You have theright to invoke your conscience in makingdecisions. You have the option of decliningcareer-building duties, if the timing is wrong,you can’t do a good job, or meet a deadline.


Resist the temptation to doother peoples’ work because theyare chronically late, or do such apoor job that they appear to beincompetent and will not beasked again.

The problem with saying “Yes”for approval is that soon thoseextra tasks become an expectation.



Your priorities are critical factors in saying“No”. It is essential to have plans for achiev-ing goals. It helps to make a list of everythingto which you say “Yes” and “No” over amonth or year to evaluate how you are doing.Once a pattern emerges, begin planning for ayear, five years, a career.

Once you have learned to say “No,” avoidusing your newfound assertiveness as aweapon to refuse to do tasks with sadisticglee. This can boomerang.

How to Say “No” Learning to say “No” is not negativism. It

actually frees you to say “Yes” to the thingsthat really matter. It is essential to makechoices. There is a world of differencebetween knowing what you do not want todo and refusing to do it, and knowing whatyou want and going for it. Get advice fromfriends and colleagues that seem to have theirpriorities right.

Using “No” is more powerful in decliningthan saying, “I don’t think so.” It helps topractice saying “No” to friends, family or lab-mates. If you resent always doing the order-ing, replenishing the photocopier paper, ortaking a speaker out to dinner, then take astand and say “No!”

Determine whether the answer is, “No”,“Yes” or “Maybe.” It is OK to ask for time tothink it over. Ascertain exactly what therequest entails. Is one lecture or a wholecourse needed?

While it is not necessary to offer an expla-nation for your refusal, it is often useful togive a brief legitimate reason for saying“No”. Avoid a long, drawn-out excuse orexplanation, or you may be argued out ofyour refusal.

You can say “No”, while agreeing to dopart of the request.

Offer alternatives by suggesting someoneelse to do the work, or giving a student orfellow the chance to give the talk or writethe review. However, be careful that super-vising the substitute is not time-consuming.

Sometimes, saying “No” actually post-pones saying “Yes.” Maybe you can’t do itnow because of your teaching schedule, butyou can do it next semester.

Be prepared for people who do not want“No” for an answer to have difficulty get-ting the point. If the person persists afterseveral “No” answers, try silence, or changethe subject.

If you feel that you are being manipulatedor volunteered, verbalize your desire to beconsulted first.

It is OK to change a “Yes” answer to a“No” answer.

Finally, don’t feel guilty. It is not up toyou to solve everyone’s problems or to doeverything. !

References 1. Helpful Hints for Assertive Behavior: Saying “No”.

Michigan State Counseling Center. http://web.couns.msu.edu/self-help/sk_behav.htm

2. Consulting Skills For Professionals. Murray Hiebertand Colleagues, Inc. How to Say “NO,”with Options.http://www.consultskills.com/sayingno.htm

3. Smith, Manuel J., Yes, I can say no: a parent’s guide toassertiveness training for children. New York: Arbor House,1986.

4. Fensterheim, Herbert and Baer, Jean. Don’t say yeswhen you want to say no: how assertiveness training canchange your life. New York : McKay, 1975.

5. Chenevert, Melodie. STAT: special techniques inassertiveness training for women in the health professions.4th ed. St. Louis: Mosby, 1994.

Don’t feel guilty. It is not up toyou to solve everyone’s problemsor to do everything.


Unwritten Rules for AdvancingYour Career

Maureen BrandonIdaho State University

Unwritten rules: those tidbits of information thatcan make or break a first impression or a repu-tation. How does a cell biologist discover the

unwritten rules of an organization and protect andensure their career advancement by fulfilling unstatedexpectations? Following are some of the most commonunwritten rules and advice on how to address them:

Mentors are Key Sources ofInformation

It may seem that the role of mentors as the panaceaof a scientist’s career is exaggerated, but they truly areimportant figures. Most successful people, no matterfrom what field, can name at least one person senior tothemselves who was instrumental in their success andwith whom they have had a long-term relationship.But a mentor does not have to be narrowly defined, norrepresent an exclusive relationship. Mentors are thoseindividuals in an organization that have the “neces-sary” knowledge. Seek out colleagues to discuss scien-tific matters, such as how much unpublished informa-tion to reveal to a competitor, as well as more mundanebut still important matters, such as how to dress for aninvited seminar.

Meeting ExpectationsThe first unwritten rule is ‘do not expect the written

rules to cover everything.’ Young scientists shouldmeet regularly with their supervisors to assess theirprogress. Ask for constructive criticism and advice. Inan academic environment, it may be important to clar-ify how many publications (and in which types of jour-nals) are necessary for tenure or promotion, or howmuch time to devote to service at the institutional andnational level. In addition, teaching is usually takenseriously, even at institutions with a heavy emphasison research productivity for promotion.

Caroline Kane University of California

Berkeley



If the written rules at an institution seem tobe in a state of flux, the junior scientist is com-pelled to be in frequent communication withsupervisors and other more senior scientists.Obtain clearly stated guidelines for advance-ment that can be referenced at promotion time.These should be available in writing as they areindeed the written rules. Get a copy of them.

Promote YourselfJunior scientists must take steps to pro-

mote themselves, or no one else will.However, there are ways to accomplish self-promotion without offending others by beingoverly aggressive or compromising your ownpersonality. When an opportunity arises foran award, membership on a prestigious com-mittee or even a choice class schedule,approach the individual making the selectionwith a document delineating your credentials,qualifications and accomplishments thatmake you an attractive candidate. Mentorscan be extremely helpful in this situation byadvising a young scientist about what oppor-tunities to pursue and speaking to selectioncommittees on behalf of their protégé.

Territoriality Never assume that ideas, space or equip-

ment have common ownership. The micro-centrifuge in the third floor cold room mightbelong to the senior research scientist on thefourth floor. The empty shelf in that samecold room may have been cleared by thechair’s graduate students to store preciousclinical samples arriving the next day. If a col-league shares unpublished data, ask permis-

sion before citing it in your manuscript.Always ask before acting: a reputation as atrusted colleague may depend on it.

Managing Employees andStudents

Most scientists are not trained in manage-ment techniques, so learning skills to managestudents and staff may feel like trial by fire.However, classes and books on general man-agement skills that apply to any work situa-tion are easily available. The most efficientway to learn management skills may be toobserve and speak with scientific and busi-

ness colleagues who appear to haveadmirable management styles. From thesediscussions, young scientists need to developtheir own standards and expectations fortheir employees that are then stated and writ-ten clearly and reinforced frequently. Beaware that students and staff may not have

the same career goals as their supervisors, sotheir expectations may need to be determinedas well. These are essential skills for a scien-tist, since one’s career advancement is often

There are ways to accomplishself-promotion withoutoffending others by being overlyaggressive or compromisingyour own personality.

Most scientists are not trainedin management techniques, solearning skills to managestudents and staff may feel liketrial by fire.

Obtain clearly stated guidelinesfor advancement that can bereferenced at promotion time.

directly proportional to the productivity ofstaff and students.

Conflict ResolutionLike management techniques, conflict reso-

lution is an essential skill for which scientistsare not trained specifically. Books or work-shops on conflict resolution are available, buta few simple rules may be enough to defusemost situations. Use time, space and/orhumor to place distance between dissenting

individuals. Obtain another perspective of theproblem by speaking to someone who is famil-iar with the individuals. If necessary, bring ina neutral party to help resolve the issue. Youngscientists would be wise to choose their battlescarefully to avoid being labeled contentious.

Use All Available ResourcesSecretaries, administrative assistants and

staff members of an organization are oftenvast storehouses of information. They canoften help with questions about the general

atmosphere of a department, appropriatedress or behavior, personalities of otherorganization members, and what senior peo-

ple can “get away with” while junior peoplecannot. For questions that are too sensitive tobroach with local colleagues, speaking tomentors at other institutions by phone or e-mail is an excellent solution. In addition, theinternet may be a quick way to obtain infor-mation about management or conflict resolu-tion skills, to name a couple.

Although mastering the unwritten rules ofscientific society may seem daunting, the keyis identifying the few individuals with themost information. After this, mastering thewritten rules will seem like a piece of cake! !

This article was based on a Women in Cell BiologyCommittee presentation of “The UnwrittenRules” at the ASCB 40th Annual Meeting in SanFrancisco in December 2000. Caroline Kane mod-erated the session which featured Mina Bissell,Frank Solomon, Julie Theriot and Donella Wilson.


Secretaries, administrativeassistants and staff members ofan organization are often vaststorehouses of information.

Young scientists would be wiseto choose their battles carefullyto avoid being labeledcontentious.

2. TEACHING & LEARNINGThe Scholarship of Teaching

Teaching Science in High School

Getting the Most from Your GraduateExperience


The Scholarship of Teaching

Christopher DobsonFront Range Community College

New faculty members commonly make theirinstructional debut by diving head-first intoteaching, with little formal training or prepa-

ration in pedagogy, to either sink or swim. Naturally,many instructors adopt a teaching method based pri-marily on how they were taught as students. Thisseems reasonable, but is it effective?

Although effectiveness as a teacher is difficult tomeasure, any such measurement should be based on itsimpact on student learning. The central importance oflearning was highlighted in the seminal article, “FromTeaching to Learning—A New Paradigm forUndergraduate Education” (1995), and more recentlyin the national videoconference, Tools for Transformation:Making the Learning Paradigm a Reality (1999). The pur-pose of both was to advocate systemic change at anational level that would place the focus of educatorson learning.

Many instructors attempt to improve their teachingover time by adopting ad hoc pedagogical techniques.But without systematic and purposeful implementa-tion, an individual’s teaching method may not changesignificantly over the course of a career. While instruc-tors often measure their teaching effectiveness by thesuccesses of their students after graduation, some stu-dents may succeed in spite of our teaching, notbecause of it.

Instructors at all levels need a formal and compre-hensive treatment, a scholarship of teaching, with the

Effectiveness as a teacher is difficult tomeasure; any such measurementshould be based on its impact onstudent learning.


CHAPTER 2 • TEACHING & LEARNING 17

ultimate goal of increasing student learning.In addition, educators need a working modelthat they can use to guide their professionaldevelopment in a systematic and purposefulmanner over the course of their careers. Sucha model must be general enough to encom-pass as many aspects of teaching as possible,yet specific enough to have practical value.

The model presented here is based on theconcept of scholarship defined by ErnestBoyer in Scholarship Reconsidered: Priorities ofthe Professoriate (1990). Boyer’s developmentof scholarship, however, was in relation todiscipline-specific research, rather than teach-ing per se. Our model embraces three distinctyet overlapping elements that coalesce toform the body of one’s teaching. These ele-ments are a scholarly approach, rationale andclassroom practice. In brief, successful teach-ers have a rationale for their teaching meth-ods, based on an adequate knowledge of theirdiscipline and pedagogy that translates intoeffective classroom practice. The scholarlyapproach, which consists of a mindset thatcompels a persistent exploration of one’steaching, serves as the mechanism that con-tinues to inform an educator’s rationale andclassroom practice over time. It is the mostcentral and cohesive element of the model.

Traits that characterize the mindset of ascholarly approach include inquiry, reflectionand receptiveness. Inquisitive scholars con-tinually question teaching methods with thepurpose of improving student learning. They

actively reflect on their teaching, openlyinviting constructive criticism from peers.Scholars are receptive to new ideas anddemonstrate a willingness to try new teach-ing techniques.

This scholarly mindset drives an explo-ration of one’s teaching through activities,such as discovery, integration, applicationand interaction. Discoveries germane toteaching can be made through classroomobservation, experimentation and assess-ment, as well as through activities, such asreviewing the literature and attending con-ferences. Scholars integrate the results of thisexploration with their knowledge of peda-gogy and apply their findings to future teach-ing methods in the classroom. Scholars sharetheir discoveries by interacting with col-leagues through discussion, publications andpresentations.

Since teachers are unique individuals, suc-cess in any component of our model is rela-tive, and subject to continual refinement.Serving as a road map, the model can guidean educator’s professional development bytargeting specific components of the modelfor development.

The scholarly approach is not new.Academic researchers typically employ ascholarly approach when contributing toknowledge in their field. They are inherentlyinquisitive and reflective about their studysubject, engaging in various methods of dis-covery, integration, application and interac-tion. Readily apparent in the sciences,researchers regularly investigate the causal

Traits that characterize themindset of a scholarly approachinclude inquiry, reflection andreceptiveness.

Without systematic andpurposeful implementation, anindividual’s teaching methodmay not change significantlyover the course of a career.

relationships of natural phenomena. Duringthis exploration, it is essential thatresearchers be receptive to new ideas anddemonstrate a willingness to modify theirmethods as needed. Integration of findingswith an existing understanding of their fieldand application of this product is crucial inrealizing the larger implications of theirwork. Interaction with colleagues throughpublications and presentations is the naturalculmination of their efforts.

The scholarly approach, typically seen inresearch, can be directed with the samerigor to developing aspects of one’s teach-ing rationale and classroom practice. Forexample, teachers can approach the class-room as researchers and attempt to assessthe effectiveness of both their teaching andtheir impact on student learning. Based onthis evaluation, educators can modify boththeir rationale and classroom practiceaccordingly.

By practicing a scholarship of teaching,educators can accumulate a number of teach-ing strategies, each based on sound rationaleand intended for specific learning situations.Over time they acquire a portable toolbox ofpedagogical methods and the ability to dis-cern opportunities for employing varioustechniques. In other words, they becomeexcellent classroom practitioners whosemethods are prescribed by a rationale basedon a sound knowledge of their discipline andpedagogy, which is tested and strengthenedover time by a vigorous scholarly approach. !

Sharolyn Belzer and Stephen Burton were instru-mental in the development of this model.

References

Barr, Robert B. and John Tagg. 1995. From Teaching toLearning—A New Paradigm for Undergraduate Education.Change, November/ December.

Boyer, Ernest L. 1990. Scholarship Reconsidered: Priorities ofthe Professoriate. The Carnegie Foundation for theAdvancement of Teaching, Princeton, New Jersey.

Tools for Transformation: Making the Learning Paradigm aReality. Produced by Palomar College and presented viasatellite by PBS, February, 4, 1999.


Teachers can approach theclassroom as researchers andattempt to assess the effectivenessof both their teaching and theirimpact on student learning.

Some students may succeed inspite of our teaching, notbecause of it.

Teaching Science in High School

William WallaceGeorgetown Day High School

Acell biologist has the special opportunity topresent science as a living discipline to a highschool biology or chemistry class. The experi-

ences of designing experiments, interpreting results,writing papers, and applying for grants are uniquequalifications that will enrich the understanding andappreciation of science for a biology or chemistry stu-dent. Students will benefit from a teacher who canteach science as a process instead of a simple collectionof facts.

Why Would a Scientist Want to Teach?Abstractly, the intellectual challenge is to present

biology as a unified view of the world, and as an ongo-ing process of inquiry. This view includes presenting“big pictures” of such diverse concepts as ecology, evo-lution, physiology and molecular biology. However,even more important is to guide the students towardan understanding of the connections between each ofthese disciplines. The students are more likely toremember these connections than the specific facts ofany one topic. In addition, there is the challenge ofteaching students to think skeptically, like a scientist,through the scientific method.

On a personal level, teaching can be tremendouslysatisfying for the academic and personal effects that ateacher can have on the development of a student. Thesimple fact that they have done science gives any sci-entist-teacher a number of unique advantages. First,being a participant of the discipline of biology, a scien-


Students will benefit from a teacherwho can teach science as a processinstead of a simple collection of facts.

tist brings a certain enthusiasm for the subjectthat will infect the students, especially if it isa topic that he or she actively researched inthe laboratory. Second, the scientist will havea greater credibility for any point of view. The

speculation of a scientist-teacher has greatweight even if it is a profession of igno-rance. Third, a scientist-teacher can make atopic come alive with anecdotes from his orher own career experiences. Nothingimpresses a student more than to discusspersonal experiences with a scientist who isintroduced in a textbook. Students love tohear of the foibles of scientists, especiallyfamous ones. Great lessons can be taughtabout the process of biology through suchanecdotes. Finally, a scientist-teacher hasspent a career making a network of friends,colleagues and mentors that can be exploit-ed for the benefit of students. These connec-tions can be used as potential research hostsfor motivated students or as expert speak-ers for the whole class.

What is it Like to Teach?For the first few years, teaching requires a

similar time commitment as does research.This time commitment includes actual con-tact time with students (both in and out of theclassroom), preparation for classes andassessments of the students. However, themanner in which teachers organize their daydiffers from research because they are obli-gated to be prepared and present a lesson atset times during the day: they do not have the

freedom to start an experiment or write amanuscript when they roll into the lab.

Generally, a high school science teacherhas four or five classes (a total of 60 to 150students, depending upon the school) in twoor three different levels (called “preps”).Scientist-teachers need to fight the urge topresent every lesson as a seminar. In fact,talks with slides should be avoided. Instead,introduce the topic and then have the stu-dents take over the discussion. It is amazinghow relatively little time a teacher needs totalk. The teacher does need to become an“expert” in a wide range of various topics,such as ecological succession or punctateequilibrium, so that they can be sure that thestudents extract the important points fromeach of these concepts.

In addition to teaching classes, the obliga-tions of teachers include contributions to thecommunity of the school. This obligation caninclude coaching sports, drama or sponsor-ing a club. It is an important part of theteacher’s job to make this commitment, evenif the school does not officially require it. So atypical day will start at 7:00 AM and finisharound 5:00 PM, excluding any after-schoolactivities such as sports or clubs.


Nothing impresses a studentmore than to discuss personalexperiences with a scientist whois introduced in a textbook.

Teaching can be tremendouslysatisfying for the academic andpersonal effects that a teachercan have on the development ofa student.

It is amazing how relativelylittle time a teacher needs to talk.


Three other important reasons to teach areJune, July and August. The summer is anamazing time for possibilities, academic orotherwise. It is surprising how enjoyable it isto work in a research lab during this timewithout having to produce any papers.

The starting salary for a teacher varieswith experience and level of education. In theFairfax, Virginia public schools, a startingteacher with a Ph.D. can earn about $40,000annually (slightly less with a Master’sdegree), while in private schools the salarywill generally be slightly lower.

How to Get a Teaching PositionThe application process in private schools

is different than in public schools. Privateschools have greater flexibility to judge thequalifications of each teaching candidate.Therefore, applying for a teaching position inprivate schools is much less complicated. Acandidate can simply send a letter of interestand an accompanying resume.

Public schools require a more complicatedapplication process because they requireteaching certification. Each state has its ownqualifications for determining certification.Myra Thayer of the Fairfax County PublicSchools states that the certification processexamines competence in both science content(for example, an understanding of all the con-cepts of biology) and pedagogy (teachingskills). While scientists will have less difficul-ty in proving competence in science content(although a cell biologist will need to know amore diverse view of biology, such as popu-lation ecology and evolution), usually they

will need to take classes in educational tech-niques. Completing the necessary classestakes approximately four semesters, andincludes topics such as child psychology andinstructional methods. Perhaps most impor-tant, classes will include a teaching internshipwith a master teacher in a local school. Manypublic school systems work closely with localcolleges to offer an education program that iscertifiable in that school district. For example,the Fairfax schools cooperate with GeorgeMason University, which offers classes in theevening to interfere as little as possible with acandidate’s day job. Eventually, a competencetest (called a Praxis Examination) must bepassed for certification.

Public school systems are generally willingto give selected candidates who are not yetcertified provisional contracts that last threeto five years. These contracts allow the scien-tist to begin teaching immediately under theprovision that the scientist will undertake theeducation program for certification in thefirst years of teaching.

How to Get StartedAs an applicant for a teaching position,

any school system will be looking for experi-ences with teaching. An application from ascientist should emphasize a commitment toteach. The number of publications and grantswill not impress a school system. Instead, aresume needs to show experience in teachinghigh school students, and an interest in edu-cational issues.

There are numerous opportunities to gainexperience teaching biology to high schoolstudents. For example, a scientist can talk at alocal school — this obligation is very small.As long as the scientist makes an earnesteffort to reach his audience (i.e. do not pres-ent your most recent research seminar), nomatter what is presented, the students will begrateful. A slightly greater obligation is to


Three other important reasonsto teach are June, July andAugust.

mentor a student through a research projectin the laboratory. This mentorship should bean active intellectual involvement of the stu-

dent in the research, not simply having thestudent “shadow” in the lab. The projectshould include a beginning (framing a bio-logical question and hypothesis), a middle(performing the experiments to test thehypothesis), and an end (writing a reportthat summarizes the entire project). The stu-dent does not need to win the Nobel Prizewith the project, nor even produce a publica-tion, but it is cheating the student if a project

does not contain these elements. Other waysthat a scientist can get experience teaching atthe high school level include helping a localschool system with the biology curriculum,or teaching a course in contemporary meth-ods in cellular or molecular biology for highschool teachers.

Local schools (public or private) arealways interested in taking advantage of theexperiences of scientists to teach. For privateschools, it is easier to talk directly with prin-cipals or science department chairs, while inpublic schools, administrators (such as cur-ricular specialists) will be the initial contacts.These officials can be used as sources of infor-mation and advice for an application. Takeadvantage of their knowledge and willing-ness to help.

Teaching high school is a wonderful wayto use your research experiences to influencea child’s life. The satisfaction of having a for-mer student return to tell you that he or she isbecoming a biologist because of your teach-ing matches the thrills of an acceptance letterfrom Nature or a positive pink sheet for anNIH grant application. !


The satisfaction of having aformer student return to tell you she is becoming a biologistbecause of your teaching matchesthe thrills of an acceptanceletter from Nature or a positivepink sheet for an NIH grantapplication.

Getting the Most from YourGraduate Experience

Leana Topper University of North Carolina

Chapel Hill

T he foundation of a good scientist is built in gradu-ate school. Although at the time progress can seempainfully slow, scientists often look back over their

graduate years and consider how quickly the timepassed. By taking advantage of the many opportunitiesduring graduate training, students can become well-rounded scientists, and potentially avoid regret in lateryears. Following are suggestions to make the paththrough graduate school less rough and more rewarding.

The Technical ChallengeUnlike graduate students in the humanities, who are

required to propose a thesis for admission, graduatestudents in the basic sciences usually have the oppor-tunity to complete several laboratory rotations beforechoosing a thesis advisor and designing a project.These short periods of research in various labs allowstudents to gain knowledge of diverse techniques, tobuild a strong foundation for bench work, and also aidin understanding the literature. Even after choosing anadvisor, it is wise to learn as much as possible about awide range of techniques that will be useful in a post-doctoral or first independent position. In addition, stu-dents with knowledge of diverse techniques are valu-able sources of information for their training lab.

OrganizationOrganization is critical to maintaining sanity.

Although the advisor is a graduate student’s guide, thestudent is accountable for doing the backgroundresearch and pushing the project ahead. Critical exam-inations of the published literature are essential toforming the framework of a project and keeping upwith advancements in the field. It is impossible to reador plan too much. Short and long term organizationwill help determine and retain a clear direction for aproject. Keep a calendar of experiments and other


preparations that need to be done a week inadvance. Planning experiments on a dailybasis will help to avoid frustration and inde-cision. Planning for the long term is more dif-

ficult and requires more flexibility, but can beas simple as listing which parts of a projectshould be accomplished in the next threemonths. Without clear planning, it is all tooeasy to lose direction and, as a result, a senseof self-worth.

Along with a plan to carry out the work,decide how to collect the data in an organizedfashion. Proper documentation can pre-empthaving to re-do work and serves as a poten-tial reference for months, sometimes evenyears later, when a particular technique mayagain be needed. Planning for both the short-and long-term also teaches prioritizingskills—that will be useful later in juggling themany responsibilities of a career.

Getting InvolvedMost graduate programs have some type

of student organization. For departmentswithout this type of council, students canspeak to faculty and the department chair

about forming one and funding it. Studentswith access to this resource should use it. Theacademic gatherings provided through thistype of organization offer a forum to givepresentations and an opportunity to askquestions in an atmosphere that is morerelaxed than a typical department seminar ormeeting presentation. Also, discussionsamong peers help hone critical thinking andscientific thinking skills. These groups mayalso sponsor social events—a great way tobuild friendships. The best support duringgraduate school will most likely come frompeers. Moreover, classmates can be valuableallies in the future.

MentoringThe thesis advisor is considered a graduate

student’s principal mentor, so it is imperativeto develop a good working relationship withthe advisor. However, the members of a stu-dent’s thesis committee can also be valuableguides. Do not wait for a committee meeting todiscuss research directions or other concernswith committee members. In addition, facultymembers both in and outside of the depart-ment may be excellent sources of insight andadvice. Make appointments and visit them.Though it may be intimidating at first, over-come the fear of asking for help. Also, remem-ber that graduate students are in a position tobe mentors to other graduate students or toundergraduates who may be working in thedepartment. Instructing others on techniquescan expand the instructor’s knowledge, whilediscussing thesis projects with others mayrekindle excitement for one’s own work.


Keep a calendar of experimentsand other preparations that needto be done a week in advance.

Discussions among peers helphone critical thinking andscientific thinking skills.

Proper documentation can pre-empt having to re-do work andserves as a potential referencefor months, sometimes evenyears later, when a particulartechnique may again be needed.



NetworkingMeetings and conferences are significant

opportunities to broaden graduate students’knowledge within and beyond their field ofinterest. Attend a meeting or conference eachyear not just to look at posters and listen topresentations, but also to step forward and

ask questions about the research presented.Don’t pass up the timely chance to meet newpeople, discuss projects, and find answers tocommon technical problems. It is also anoccasion to meet future post-doctoral advi-sors and potential employers.

Individual InitiativeCompleting graduate school is a long and,

at times, difficult adventure. Ask yourselfwhat you expect from your graduate trainingand then make a plan for reaching those goals.Your project is unique, which means you mustlearn to think and act independently, take con-trol, and accept the responsibility for the direc-tion of your work. Doing so may lessen someof the worry and pain along the way to obtain-ing a degree, and build a strong foundation forbecoming an exceptional scientist. !

Instructing others on techniquescan expand the instructor’sknowledge, while discussingthesis projects with others mayrekindle excitement for one’sown work.


3. COMMUNICATIONCommunicating Effectively inDepartmental Meetings

“And Our Next Speaker Is...”

The Unicorn in the Garden or WhyCell Biologists Should Meet the Press


Communicating Effectively inDepartmental Meetings

Maureen Brandon Idaho State University

Virginia Allen Idaho State University

W hy are some individuals effective at pro-moting their projects, while other equallymeritorious ideas are never advanced?

How do you get your own innovative plans acceptedand initiated by your organization? At least part of theanswer may come from understanding the groupdynamics of meetings.

There are many reasons why colleagues do not voicesupporting opinions in a public forum. A few commonones are:

• They may need time to think about the idea beforeforming an opinion.

• They do not want to align themselves with thespeaker.

• They want the meeting to be over.• They are not paying attention.• They are part of the group only to pad their resume

or because it seems un-community-spirited todecline to serve but they never intended to partici-pate fully.

• They are competing with the speaker for position orpower, or have a competing proposal.

One successful strategy to counteract several ofthese problems is to solicit opinions or support fromfellow group members before the meeting, either inperson or by e-mail. This method allows others time toconsider a proposal and formulate support — althoughit also carries an inherent risk of allowing time to for-mulate opposition. In any case, it is likely that whenparticipants are aware of an idea prior to the meeting,they will pay closer attention when it comes up for dis-cussion in a group. Compromises with competing indi-viduals can also be addressed ahead of time, furtherincreasing the chances of success. In general, this is askill that men have developed better than women.

CHAPTER 3 • COMMUNICATION 29

Another strategy to combat the naturalattention loss during lengthy meetings is to vol-unteer to speak first at group meetings. Topicsnear the top of the agenda will get more atten-tion because group members are more alert.

Women often hinder their ability to effective-ly communicate with a group by assigningthemselves roles within the group. For exam-ple, some women view themselves in the tradi-tional, passive role of the group facilitator, mov-ing the meeting toward closure even if it meanswithholding their opinion. A related posture isone of preventing conflict, either because it isuncomfortable to the individual or because shetakes opposing comments personally. In orderto participate fully at meetings, women need torelease themselves from these self-imposedroles. One of the best qualities that women can

bring to a group is the ability to admit mistakesand work to correct them. Women also tend tobe better listeners. Without the full participa-tion of women, group decisions may suffer dueto the loss of these perspectives.

Another reason that individuals do not par-ticipate in group discussions is lack of self-con-

fidence or intimidation by the group. Theseindividuals may find it easier to assert them-selves if they accept that their position withinthe group was earned through their abilities.

Why should anyone express their opinionsat meetings? One very important reason is

that silence is usually viewed as approval.The group decision-making process may bethe only opportunity to express opposition toor reservations concerning a decision.Without these comments, the group may bestuck with a poor choice for a very long time.An equally important reason to fully partici-

pate in groups is visibility. An individualwho never supports fellow group members’proposals or never initiates their own pro-grams is invisible in the group. This is espe-cially detrimental for women and minoritiesseeking to gain acceptance in new fields.

Even if you have planned ahead, polledyour group like a politician, and managed toplace your program at the top of the agenda,do not wait for or depend on others to voicetheir support. Decide which mountains toclimb and be prepared to climb them alone.The penalty for silence is powerlessness. !

One successful strategy tocounteract several of theseproblems is to solicit opinions orsupport from fellow groupmembers before the meeting,either in person or by e-mail.


Some women view themselves inthe traditional, passive role of thegroup facilitator, moving themeeting toward closure even if itmeans withholding their opinion.

One of the best qualities thatwomen can bring to a group isthe ability to admit mistakesand work to correct them.

An individual who never supportsfellow group members’ proposalsor never initiates their ownprograms is invisible in the group.


“And Our Next Speaker Is...”

Elizabeth J. TaparowskyPurdue University

Y ou have just received notice from the ASCBAnnual Meeting Program Committee and dis-cover that your abstract has been selected for a

symposium presentation. Your initial reaction is one ofjoy, followed rapidly by feelings of fear or even panicas you envision yourself standing in front of severalhundred people and speaking. You have many weeksto prepare, but your mind is racing — hoping that youwill be able to generate new data, wondering how largethe audience will be, and speculating on who may be inattendance at the session. You lie awake at night goingover in your head what may happen — good scenariosand bad. You feel inadequate since you are convincedthat public speaking comes naturally only to reallygood scientists.

What you may not realize is that up to 80% of thegeneral population (and probably the vast majority ofspeakers at the ASCB Annual Meeting) experiencenervousness, trepidation, and anxiety at the prospect ofspeaking in front of an audience. Paradoxically, someexperts believe that controlled nervousness and tensionenhances public speaking performance. But, while youmay find comfort in knowing that the fear you areexperiencing is normal, it does not change the fact thatyou will be expected to speak! Is it possible to imple-ment some strategies now that will help you controlyour nervousness and minimize the effect that this

Your initial reaction is one of joy,followed rapidly by feelings of fear oreven panic as you envision yourselfstanding in front of several hundredpeople and speaking.



physical and emotional state will have on thequality of your presentation? The answer tothat question is ‘yes’.

First of all, it is important to establish ifyour fear of public speaking is a “trait” or a“state”. As defined by Rudolf Verderber inThe Challenge of Effective Speaking, a “trait” is arelatively ongoing characteristic of an indi-vidual, while a state is the “state” of mind aperson experiences from time-to-time. If yousuffer from trait nervousness, all communica-tion tasks you perform — laboratory meet-ings, teaching, even friendly conversations —are impaired by this fear. It is estimated thatup to 20% of the population may experiencetrait communication nervousness, whichmay require formal attention from publicspeaking professionals in order to be con-trolled. If, on the other hand, you handle rou-tine communication tasks with ease, then it islikely that you suffer from a state of nervous-ness, the possible negative consequences ofwhich may be avoided with the followingpreparation strategies:

Select the Content of YourPresentation Carefully

Make an outline of your talk. The first out-line you prepare is likely to contain moreinformation than can be accommodated com-fortably in the time allowed. Prune your datato include the best evidence to support yourconclusions. Unless absolutely necessary, donot present experiments or procedures withwhich you are not thoroughly familiar ordata from new experiments that may be pre-liminary. Likewise, do not use slides that con-

tain extraneous information. Take advantageof the technology available to make slidescustomized for your talk. Presenting clear,informative slides will benefit your audience,and it will make preparing and giving yourtalk much easier. On your slides, label data

with short, descriptive words. Numberinglanes on a gel may be suitable for a manu-script, but, when flashed on a screen, thesenumerals will convey nothing to your audi-ence. More importantly, they will not func-tion as a prompt for you during your talk. Ifyour work involves a new or a modified tech-nology, project a flow diagram of the tech-nique as you are describing it verbally. Lastly,think about including a brief heading foreach slide which will highlight the point youwould like to make.

Prepare a Scripted Beginningand Ending to Your Presentation

Once the content of your presentation hasbeen finalized, the next step is to write one ortwo opening sentences that summarize con-cisely the research question your data willaddress. These sentences should be scripted,memorized and typed legibly on a note cardwhich will accompany you to the podium.Stage fright peaks at the moment immediate-ly before you are introduced and it is not atall uncommon for you to “blank out” on theway to the stage. You can rebound quickly byhaving your introduction readily available.Once you begin to speak, you will calm

...controlled nervousness andtension enhances publicspeaking performance.

...do not present experiments orprocedures with which you arenot thoroughly familiar or datafrom new experiments that maybe preliminary.

down. The remainder of the talk should beorganized around your slides and jotteddown in outline form only. Do not attempt towrite down and memorize the entire talk.However, prepare your conclusion in thesame manner as your introduction, with oneor two summary sentences written on a notecard. This advance planning will insure thatyour ending will be strong and that you sum-marize to your audience exactly what youwanted to say.

Practice, Practice, PracticePractice your presentation several times,

alone and then in front of a group. Invite yourlabmates and friends to be your audience, butalso invite colleagues outside your immedi-ate field since they will be able to commenton whether you have successfully conveyed

your points to a general scientific audience.Hold your practice in a relatively large room,and have your audience critique the visibili-ty, as well as the information content, of yourslides. Make a conscious effort to speak slow-

ly when you practice, because you will sure-ly speed up at your talk. The most effectivespeakers use a strong, expressive voice andspeak slowly in order to allow their audiencetime to absorb the information they present.Another way to enable the audience toabsorb the information is to insert pausesthroughout your talk. Pausing will also pro-vide you with the time necessary to recallyour next slide or remember what you wantto say next. Use your practice sessions withan audience to help you to prepare for ques-tions, but do not spend too much time tryingto predict questions and prepare answers.Your efforts need to be focused on the contentof your talk.

Familiarize Yourself with theRoom and the AudiovisualEquipment Ahead of Time

Sometime before your talk, visit the roomin which you will be speaking and try out thelaser pointer, microphone and visual equip-ment. Request a podium, if there is not oneavailable. A podium provides an anchor forfidgety speakers and a physical barrier tolessen the feeling of being out there on thestage all alone. In selecting what you willwear on the day of your talk, make sure yourclothes are neat and comfortable. You shouldnot have to think of your clothes at all duringyour presentation. Far better to wear your oldstand-by that you know will hold up to reach-ing and bending than to splurge on some-thing new to make you look “great” only tolearn on stage that it has a faulty zipper.

Implement Self-CalmingStrategies Directly Before You Talk

There are a variety of techniques profes-sional speakers use to calm those pre-presen-tation jitters and, as you gain experience inpublic speaking, you will find a routine that


Stage fright peaks at themoment immediately before youare introduced and it is not atall uncommon for you to “blank out.”

... invite colleagues outside your immediate field since theywill be able to comment onwhether you have successfullyconveyed your points to ageneral scientific audience.



works best for you. Make your trip to therestroom well in advance of your scheduledtalk. Available to you on the podium shouldbe a glass of water—without ice, because icemakes it harder to drink, the noise it makesmay be picked up by the microphone, and icecan numb your mouth. A brief walk in theminutes prior to your introduction is veryhelpful, but often is not possible. As an alter-native, while you are seated in the audience,engage in deep, controlled breathing. Closeyour eyes and visualize yourself giving a

great talk. Think about how wonderful youwill feel once your presentation is over. It isimportant that you think positively in thosepreceding minutes so that your nervous ten-

sion will work to your advantage during theopening segment of your presentation.

The ASCB Annual Meeting is rapidlyapproaching. Some attendees will be speak-ing for the first time in front of a large audi-ence; others will have spoken so many timesthey will have lost count! Sharing your obser-vations and discoveries with your colleaguesat professional meetings is one of the mostrewarding components of a scientific career.However, public speaking comes naturally toonly a rare few of us. For most, it is a skill thatis practiced and developed over time.Welcome any opportunity you have to speakpublicly and use your experience to developa preparation strategy and communicationstyle that works best for you. !

...public speaking comesnaturally to only a rare few ofus. For most, it is a skill that ispracticed and developed overtime.

Close your eyes and visualizeyourself giving a great talk.Think about how wonderful youwill feel once your presentationis over.


The Unicorn in the Garden orWhy Cell Biologists ShouldMeet the Press

John Fleischman The American Society

for Cell Biology

T here is a famous medieval tapestry in New York’sMetropolitan Museum of Art of a great lady in afantastical garden holding up a mirror to the uni-

corn reclining on her lap. Both are fascinated by whatthey behold. The tapestry is a riot of living things;flowers are intricately woven into her dress and allaround the green hummock where they sit are rabbits,foxes, hounds and strange creatures in harmonious co-existence. That garden came to mind with the 2001publication in Nature and Science of the completehuman genome.

The revelation that an organism with only30,000–40,000 genes could be as complex as a humanbeing stunned biologists. But scientists, by and large,are delighted by unexpected discoveries: waking uplast month as a member of a 30,000–40,000-genespecies was for many of us like finding a unicorn inthe garden. The unexpected makes the cellular gardenthat much more interesting to explore with new argu-ments to wage, new reputations to be made, and newfields to open.

However, the public, by and large, is either confusedor annoyed. The confusion is understandable but theannoyance is dangerous. It has its roots in a belief thatscience doesn’t know what it’s talking about and thatmeans it’s out of control.

This dangerous annoyance is affecting cell biology. Itcan be seen in “hot button” political positions that ren-der complex subjects such as genetically modified

The public, by and large, is eitherconfused or annoyed. The confusion isunderstandable but the annoyance isdangerous.



organisms or stem cell research into two-dimensional cartoons. Beyond that, there’s animpatience with basic biomedical researchwhere the answer so often turns out only tobe the next question. In this view, it’s all taxmoney down the lab sink or a plot by money-hungry biotechs to sow Frankenfood orexperiment on defenseless worms.

As a cell biologist, you can shrug this offand get back to the lab where real peopleunderstand what’s at stake. Or can you?Sadly, the more complex, the more powerful,and the more unexpected cell biologybecomes, the more dangerous it is to keep itin the garden like a unicorn on a rope. Youhave to get out there. You have to explain thatwe all live in the cellular garden and thatthese are exciting times in research. Thatmeans you have to deal with the media.

Unfortunately, much of what scientistsbelieve about general journalistic coverage ofscience is true. It’s inadequate, sensationaland simplistic. Scientists are misquoted, their

points distorted, and their work is presentedout of context. Conversely, much of what sci-ence journalists believe about researchers isuntrue: that most scientists are control freaks,personally possessive of what should be pub-lic knowledge, and so caught up in specificsthat they can offer no context to outsiders.

It can be rough, but as a practicing cellbiologist, you need to be out there. TheASCB’s Public Information Committeebelieves that cell biology is too important toleave to cell biologists alone. We must illumi-nate our science before a wider audience. Wemust raise the level of biology literacy in themedia, in government, and in our schools.We must widen the circle of informed publicdiscussion.

For most researchers, their first profession-al contact with the news media is when theypublish something startling that’s considerednews. Often it’s not their most importantpaper that attracts the press calls but thequirkiest one. They have demonstratedsomething interesting in mice and the pressjumps on the “mice get X” angle, missing thewhole point. Or do they? Journalists are con-stantly looking for an “angle” or a news pegto “sell” a particular story to their editors orproducers. An angle can also draw a generalreader into a difficult science story. Morereaders (and editors) know mice than knowintracellular signaling. The mice, though, canbe reader-bait, at least in the hands of askilled reporter who understands the real sig-nificance of a paper.

In this view, it’s all tax moneydown the lab sink or a plot bymoney-hungry biotechs to sowFrankenfood or experiment ondefenseless worms.

The more complex, the morepowerful, and the moreunexpected cell biology becomes,the more dangerous it is to keepit in the garden like a unicornon a rope.

Unfortunately, much of whatscientists believe about generaljournalistic coverage of scienceis true. It’s inadequate,sensational and simplistic.

Making the reporter understand is yourjob. You need to be able to tell a reporter or anassignment editor what your paper means inthe larger context. That goes against the grainfor many scientists. In writing for journals,young scientists are drilled in the profession-al aesthetic of understatement and minimiz-ing implications. If your lab did stumble ontothe fundamental mechanism that causes ALLcancers, the title of your paper to Science isthe last place you would mention that.

Still if your work has significance, try “sell-ing” it first to your institution’s public infor-mation office with a brief one- or two-para-graph “take away message.” Send it alongwith the text of your paper and send it assoon as possible after you get an acceptanceand a publication date. Public informationofficers can embargo a paper until publica-tion but they need time to write a pressrelease and distribute it. Convincing yourpublic information officer that your paperhas news value is the first step in finding outwhat you want to say to a journalist or theRotary Club. Don’t hype a tiny paper todeath but good work has implications.

Journalists come in all shapes, abilities anddeadline schedules. Even science reporterscover a wide range of topics from day to day sodon’t assume that a writer from a big nameoutfit will have background in your field. Don’ttalk down but be prepared to get basic. Get thereporter a copy of your paper to read before theinterview. If there’s an up-to-date review of theliterature in print, get a copy of that. If yourprevious papers will help, have them on hand.

Most journalistic organizations have astrong taboo against showing a subject a

story before it appears or goes on air. Yetwriting about a complicated science subjecton a short deadline is difficult and experi-enced reporters know how easy it is tomake mistakes. Believe it or not, they don’tlike making mistakes. Help journalists to beaccurate without being threatening. Offer toread a draft for factual errors. Offer to listento the reporter read back quotes or individ-ual paragraphs. Offer to listen to a para-phrase of the story. Offer corrections or fur-ther explanations in a calm voice.Remember also that editors and news pro-ducers come behind the reporters. Storieswill be edited. Film will be cut. If the finalresult is, in your opinion, a mess, see if youcan salvage something, a relationship withthe reporter for the next story or an offerfrom an editor to submit an opinion articleto the Editorial page.

Being in the news will help prepare you foryour next assignment—shaping the news as apublic scientist. You want to become what thePIC calls “an unusually reliable source.” Youwant to be the name in a reporter’s Rolodexthat rings the bell, the expert who’s willing tocomment, or the scientist who may not knowa specific answer but can steer a journalist tosomeone who does. You want to contribute toEditorial pages or serve as a “talking head”on Sunday morning. You want to find out if


You want to be the name in areporter’s Rolodex that rings thebell, the expert who’s willing tocomment, or the scientist whomay not know a specific answerbut can steer a journalist tosomeone who does.

Cell biology is too important toleave to cell biologists alone.



your local newspaper has a science or medicalwriter (and sound deeply shocked if you aretold that they do not). You want to introduceyourself to the editors or TV news producerswho coordinate science/health coverage andconvince them that a big amorphous “nation-al” story like the human genome has a localangle and a local face. That face does not haveto be your face. Suggest names and numbers.

Talking on science policy issues requiressupport. Consult websites such as the ASCB’s

that has the Society’s statements and back-grounds on such issues as stem cells, fetal tis-sue and genetically modified foods.

There’s professional danger here and a fairamount of thankless work. You can be mis-understood. You can be ignored. But there’san even greater danger in biologists speakingonly to other biologists. We can make greatand unexpected discoveries in the lab only todiscover that the world doesn’t recognize aunicorn when it sees one. !


4. MANAGEMENTA Crash Course in Management

Designing Productive Lab Meetings

Some Tips on Successful Negotiation


A Crash Course in Management

Elizabeth MarincolaThe American Society

for Cell Biology

M ost people who are managers — those whoare responsible for the supervision of people,money and/or other resources — have not

been formally trained in management. Many untrainedmanagers rise to the challenge successfully. HaroldVarmus is a stunning example of an untrained manag-er who served a spectacular tenure as Director of a $15billion, 16,000-person federal agency, having nevermanaged anything more extensive than his own lab.

But every successful manager has learned lessonsalong the way. Here are some to consider:

Don’t Act, AskThe first thing a new manager should do, even

before the first day on the job, is to draw out those whoare already there. Ask the previous manager what hisgreatest contribution and biggest mistake was; ask cur-rent employees what they like and dislike about theenvironment; ask the clerical staff how operations canbe improved; ask the supervisor for her expectations;ask the grounds keepers for a good route for a walkand about security concerns. Collecting this importantinformation has the added benefit of signaling that thenew manager values others’ opinions.

Don’t take immediate action. If it is clear thatchanges should be made, for example in personnel, askseveral people in the organization for their advicebefore doing anything. Even after building confidenceand experience, asking others for advice is rarely harm-ful and always helpful, if it is considered seriously.

Sincerity and Equity are More Effectivethan Flattery and Favoritism

The most enduring working relationships are thosebuilt on honesty and consistency. It is tempting to giveinto insecurities by pandering to others, but the loyaltyit may engender is fickle. Be quick to note when others

CHAPTER 4 • MANAGEMENT 41

have done good work, but don’t feel thateach day must be started by making therounds telling people how nice they look orinquiring about their children or pets. Peoplecan smell insincerity quickly. They respectthose who respect their own time. In a pro-fessional setting it is better to be respectedthan adored; to be trusted than everyone’sbest friend.

Be Specific in Your CriticismIf someone makes a mistake or produces

poor work, it is the manager’s responsibility tolet him know it and why. First, look for aspectsof the work that can be praised. Compare thework to assignments produced by the sameperson that were done better. Praise publicly,but criticize privately. Criticism should beclear and helpful, not punitive. Do not gener-alize criticism: stick to the actual mistakesmade in the case at hand. Do not apologize forhaving to confront someone with their weak-nesses: it is not only the manager’s job, but sheis also helping colleagues improve, which is toeveryone’s benefit.

Don’t ApologizePerhaps having internalized the tradition-

al subordinate mother’s role of an earlier gen-eration, women in particular often have ahard time asking people to do something forthem, even if it is the person’s job, such aswith a secretary or assistant. “Please” shouldbe used abundantly, but “sorry” should beused sparingly. For example, “would you

please copy this paper for me?” is moreappropriate than, “I’m sorry, would youmind copying this paper for me?” if it isindeed the person’s job to perform suchtasks. “Can you do me a favor and...?” isanother form that should be avoided (unlessit is a favor, e.g. something personal). Manywomen are so used to being apologetic about

managing other people that they are not evenconscious of this terminology, which weak-ens them.

Drive Your Own PrioritiesThere is not necessarily a correlation

between how insistent or anxious peopleare for the manager’s attention and theimportance of their projects. Give yourattention to what is most important, notwhat (who) is loudest in demanding yourattention. An exception to this rule is if aquick review by the manager will allow anentire production process to move forward.Managers who are over-responsive to themost insistent demands will not be able toeffectively achieve their most importantobjectives.

Let Others Look GoodResist the instinct to be jealous of col-

leagues. If the organization (lab, department,company) looks good, everyone looks good.Encourage junior colleagues to give a paper,

It is tempting to give intoinsecurities by pandering toothers, but the loyalty it mayengender is fickle.


Praise publicly, but criticizeprivately. Criticism should beclear and helpful, not punitive.Do not generalize criticism:stick to the actual mistakesmade in the case at hand.

make a presentation, serve on a committee orauthor a memo when appropriate. One per-son cannot pretend to be as knowledgeableabout each aspect of an operation as the sumof all the others. This also satisfies theemployees’ natural need to be recognized fortheir own work, contributing to the retentionof valuable people.

One caveat, though, is that the managerwill ultimately be held accountable for thework of others. Allowing others to take thecredit they deserve does not extend to relin-quishing involvement and control. In theend, the manager is accountable for thequality of work.

It’s the Money, Stupid!In almost any work environment,

whether or not the purpose of the organiza-tion is to make money, the bottom line is...the bottom line. Be certain that the financialaspects of risky and/or creative projects arefully analyzed in advance. Storms areweathered much more successfully if detrac-tors cannot say, “and besides, look at themoney she’s lost us!”

Penny Wisdom is PoundFoolishness

Pay people what they’re worth within theconstraints of the organization. In reviewingsalary, the guiding principle should be howbadly hurt the organization would be in thelong run if the person in question were toleave. For service and knowledge industries,employees are the most valuable assets of anorganization. Turnover is expensive in train-ing, lost productivity, and the uncertainty ofbeing able to recruit a replacement effectively.

Negotiate for the Long TermIn negotiations, leave something on the

table. The most successful negotiations leaveall parties feeling they have “won.” Decidewhich variables are most important and con-cede something of the others. For example,an offer of a lower starting salary to a newemployee may be made more attractive by aflexible start date or a travel allowance.Always assume an ongoing business relation-ship with negotiating partners.

Set an ExampleAcknowledge mistakes, and apologize for

them. Work hard. Perform beyond the levelexpected of employees. Start meetings ontime to avoid a culture of tardiness and con-sequent lost time. Follow through. Activelydefend subordinates when they have beenunfairly accused. Have a sense of humor,especially about yourself. !


Women in particular often havea hard time asking people to dosomething for them.

Designing Productive Lab Meetings

Beth BurnsideUniversity of California

Berkeley

S cience is not only about discovery; it is aboutcommunicating discovery. Lab meetings aretraining grounds for both. It is here that young

scientists learn about the level of rigor necessary toconvince colleagues of their results, and about how tobehave and communicate effectively. This is accom-plished by instructing students how to evaluate andpresent results, receive and deliver feedback, think ontheir feet, and respect the procedural boundaries andethics of the profession. Ideally they will emerge fromthis process confident of their skills, but respectful ofscience and other scientists.

The benefits of lab meetings are myriad.Presentations at lab meetings demand that each labmember step back to review accumulating data andjustify their experimental plan. This process alone canproduce important shifts in perspective and prioritiza-tion. The actual presentation can be even more usefuldepending on how skillful the lab group is at providingconstructive feedback.

Effective criticism is a fine and delicate art; achievingit in lab meetings is challenging. It is crucial that everymember of the lab group give honest feedback aboutthe science and share any reservation about the validi-ty or interpretation of data. The lab group is the “hometeam” who knows most about the subject. It is their jobto ensure that the speaker gets a harder time at homethan anywhere else. This function is critical to buildingconfidence in a young scientist’s presentation skills.Everyone in the group should give and expect toreceive this kind of feedback from all other lab mem-


Science is not only about discovery; itis about communicating discovery.

bers. The content of the criticism shouldaddress both the science and the effectivenessof the communication.

How the feedback is given is of paramountimportance. Criticism must be directed atprocedural or scientific issues. The challengefor lab members is to learn how to expose theweak points in the science and experimentaldetail without attacking the speaker person-ally. Sarcasm and condescension have noplace in a lab meeting. Even a little of this willcause people to become taciturn and poisonthe cooperative atmosphere of a laboratory,enormously reducing its effectiveness andproductivity. The principal investigator andsenior people in the lab group serve as rolemodels for group meeting behavior, settingthe standards not only for rigor and ethicsbut also for manners.

The details of lab meeting organization arevariable among labs, although several con-cepts recur. Food is crucial. Blood sugar andcreativity must surely be associated.Attendance at lab meetings by all lab mem-bers is usually mandatory (possibly also cor-related to food). The time period reserved forlab meetings is generally one to two hours,

but some presentations stimulate large groupdiscussions which cause time limits to beignored. Most lab meetings occur in confer-ence rooms, but some groups meet in the lab.The lab setting allows the speaker to quicklyretrieve additional data, demonstrate aunique piece of equipment or experimentalarrangement, or view a computer image.

Most principal investigators plan somecombination of regular short progress reportsand less frequent formal presentations whichinclude literature review, research strategy,and critical evaluation of results. Theprogress reports keep the group informed of

each member’s progress, and permit feed-back critical to keeping the research strategyon track. Formal presentations provide anopportunity for maturing scientists to honetheir speaking skills. Often the formal pre-sentations occur in group meetings sharedwith another laboratory with similar inter-ests. This permits speakers to practice withina strict time limit in front of a larger group.Some groups alternate these two types ofmeetings from week to week: one week withdata presentation, in which each lab memberuses five to fifteen minutes to briefly discusstheir successes and failures, followed the nextweek by a journal club presentation or com-prehensive research presentation by onespeaker.

For progress report presentations, speak-ers use prepared overheads or slides to pres-ent actual data. If no experiments have beendone since the last presentation, the speakercan present future plans, ideas, or hypothe-ses. Some principal investigators require thespeakers to write a summary of the presenta-tion and distribute it to lab members before


Food is crucial.

The challenge...is to learn howto expose the weak points in thescience and experimental detailwithout attacking the speakerpersonally.

Effective criticism is a fine anddelicate art; achieving it in labmeetings is challenging.



or at the meeting. This practice stimulatesthe speaker to organize data for presenta-tion, allows colleagues to consider sub-stance in advance and generates a writtenrecord of progress. Other principal investi-gators require annual or biannual writtenprogress reports, complete with literaturereview, research progress, discussion, andfuture plans.

These are reviewed by the principal inves-tigator, revised in response to the criticisms,then collected into a laboratory notebook.

These lab presentation notebooks or progressreports are important historical documentsfor the laboratory as well as helpful startingpoints for papers or theses.

Journal clubs are common adjuncts to reg-ular research lab meetings. An analysis of arecent paper provides additional opportunityfor young scientists to practice formal pres-entation. Journal clubs also keep the entirelab current with the relevant literature andprovide an opportunity to practice criticalevaluation of other scientists’ observationsand interpretations.

As integral features of the culture of aca-demic science, lab meetings help train youngscientists and push each laboratory towardoptimal research performance. At the sametime, lab meetings set the tone for each labo-ratory’s style of doing science. An emphasison discovery and constructive feedback in labmeetings can enhance everyone’s effective-ness and productivity, and make doing sci-ence much more fun. !

The lab group is the “hometeam” who knows most aboutthe subject. It is their job toensure that the speaker gets aharder time at home thananywhere else.


Some Tips on SuccessfulNegotiation

Elizabeth Marincola The American Society

for Cell Biology

T here is much pop-wisdom associated with nego-tiation. For example, seating your negotiatingpartner in a broken chair or an overheated room,

because increasing the other’s discomfort is believed toreduce one’s own perceived advantage. In contrast tothis frivolous pseudo-science, basic, time-proven nego-tiating skills are important and useful across industriesand a variety of personal and professional situations.Following are some basic negotiating tactics:

Recognize When to Negotiate Take control of framing the negotiation. For example,

if an employee receives a competitive job offer, determinefirst if the threatened outcome would be advantageous ordisadvantageous to the organization. If the changewould be mutually beneficial, even if the threat is just agambit to gain attention, do not rise to the bait. Tell the

person that they will be missed. If, on the other hand, thethreatened outcome is not beneficial to the organization,do not assume that there is no room for negotiation orreconsideration just because a statement is declarative.

Determine What the Other PersonWants

Often people assume that the “obvious” issue is themost important issue or even the only issue. Forexample, employment unhappiness is not always pri-marily about salary. It is often about title, reportingrelationships, acknowledgement, independence, work

Do not assume that there is no roomfor negotiation or reconsideration justbecause a statement is declarative.



environment, or hours, even though the stat-ed issue may have been about salary.

Add ValueThink about what changes will improve

both positions. For example, occasionaltelecommuting may earn the employer greaterproductivity and the employee more freedom.

Learn as Much as You CanDraw the person out by asking probing

questions. Gather as much information aspossible before reaching conclusions or pro-posing solutions. Imagine what the other per-son is thinking.

Do not interrupt the other person. Askopen-ended questions. The more a persontalks, the more she reveals about herself,which will help clarify what concessions willbe most valuable and/or what demandsmost reasonable.

Re-state the Other Person’sPosition

Once a position has been described, re-state it calmly and impartially to the other

person. This strategy confirms that thenegotiating partner has been listening care-fully and offers the opportunity to correctmisunderstandings. In addition, neutralconstruction reduces the other person’sdefensiveness.

There Really is Such a Thing asa Win-Win Negotiation. Thereare Also Lose-Lose Negotiations

Very few real-life situations are zero-sumgames. The object is for everyone to comeaway feeling that they have gotten much ofwhat they want. Negotiating partners fre-quently have an ongoing relationship.Therefore, if every last concession is extractedout of one partner, the other partner may getmore in the short term, but at the expense ofresentment by the first. The long term costmay be unreasonable.

Take Advantage of YourLeverage, but Stay Within aReasonable Range

The negotiating partner who has the upperhand can afford to be ambitious. But staywithin a reasonable range. Everyone has theirlimit, and if a negotiating partner pushesbeyond it, they may risk blowing a negotia-tion that had every chance of resolving totheir advantage.

Concede Where Possible What may come at a small price to one per-

son could have disproportional value to theother. If small issues are conceded, the com-promiser will be better positioned to demandcompromise on bigger issues.

Do not Personalize orGeneralize

Avoid constructions such as “Youalways…”, “You never…” or “You’re so…”.Do not make comments about the other per-

Often people assume that the“obvious” issue is the mostimportant issue or even the only issue.

Very few real-life situations arezero-sum games. The object isfor everyone to come awayfeeling that they have gottenmuch of what they want.

son’s style, habits or personality. Avoid all crit-icism if possible, personal criticism especially.

Although the examples discussed are set atwork, good negotiating skills are essential formany aspects of life. Basic negotiating tacticsare likely to be useful in personal as well asprofessional relationships. !


Everyone has their limit, and ifa negotiating partner pushesbeyond it, they may riskblowing a negotiation that hadevery chance of resolving totheir advantage.

5. LEADERSHIPCreative Mentoring Strategies

Crossing to the Other Side

Dealing with Unstable Colleagues


Creative Mentoring Strategies

Christine H. BlockNortheastern Ohio Universities

College of Medicine

A ll sports have a coach who guides the players,not only through the technical aspects of thegame, but, more importantly, toward the goal

of winning through strategic thinking. Likewise, suc-cess in science requires coaching. Early in a scientist’scareer, there is extensive formal education, with strongemphasis on didactics, technical skills and criticalthinking. During this period, less weight is placed onthe strategic aspects of the career. The maturing scien-tist moves into the next position, perhaps facing anovel requirement, like writing a grant to support theirresearch. Suddenly, the mechanics of being a scientistmust be learned in a crash course. Where was I whenthis was taught in school?, they ask. At this point, thejunior scientist may seek out a coach for the specific sit-uation, such as writing that first grant or addressingand rebutting a reviewer’s comments, and the mentor-mentee relationship is born.

Scientists, in general, are naïve in the practice of sci-ence as business. They think hypothetically and seekanswers through logical reasoning and experimenta-tion. This process isolates them intellectually from theshrewd tactics of politics that pervade the business ofscience. Obtaining funding for a research project withadequate indirect costs, or learning that a well-designed research question and hypotheses are not invogue or fundable, can be perplexing to the neophytescientist. Skills in grantsmanship, ethics, animal wel-fare, traditional careers in science and alternative aca-demic positions are rarely considered in graduateschool. In addition, with keen competition for limited

Where was I when this was taught in school?

CHAPTER 5 • LEADERSHIP 51

positions and research funding, and changesin ethical and animal welfare issues, the needfor guidance in the business of science is great.Mentors who are well-versed in all of theseissues are necessary in the current climate.

In science, the mentor role has beenassigned traditionally to the principal investi-gator of the laboratory. This mentor has vest-ed interest in the junior scientist’s involve-ment in the research program. Often mentor-ing is concentrated in technical aspects of theprogram, while other survival skills neces-sary for success in science and academia arenot on the agenda. The department chair isanother traditional mentor, but he or she maybe more detached from the junior scientist, ormay represent authority that is not comfort-ably approached, thus not suitable to providethe necessary guidance.

From the mentor’s perspective, mentoringrelationships have certain attributes thatmake them effective. Listening effectivelyand being able to identify key issues are nec-essary to provide practical guidance for thejunior scientist. Mentor-mentee relationshipsdo not appear to be gender-specific, althoughit may be necessary to market them to agreater extent to female scientists since theymay be more reluctant to seek guidance andform networks.

As the need for formal mentoring of scien-tists has become evident, training of facultyin academic survival skills has developed1.Further, several institutions have begun toincorporate “mentor-like“ positions inresearch offices, with the purpose of assistingand training faculty in academic skills.

A formal mentor may start by conductingan interview with the junior investigator.Particulars of the research project are dis-cussed but, more importantly, tangentialaspects of the research and academic issuesbecome apparent that might have gone undis-covered in forum that is not one-on-one. Forexample, advice on how to manage criticismfrom peers, be critical of one’s own ideas, oradapt ideas to science trends often emerge.

Seminars on topics that are not a regularcomponent of graduate training, like grants-manship and scientific writing, or are difficultto discuss with a mentor, such as career alter-natives, postdoctoral anticipation, or ethics inresearch, are critical for graduate students.

Academia can be rigid and it can be diffi-cult to modify rules. Instead, one must “thinkoutside the box” and seek advice from some-

one with more experience. The scientific com-munity offers numerous opportunities for awell-trained scientist to excel, be creative, be

Mentor-mentee relationships donot appear to be gender-specific,although it may be necessary tomarket them to a greater extentto female scientists since theymay be more reluctant to seekguidance and form networks.


Scientists, in general, are naïvein the practice of science asbusiness.

Advice on how to managecriticism from peers, be critical ofone’s own ideas, or adapt ideas toscience trends often emerge.

satisfied and, most importantly, be balanced.Finding mentors to assist with the process iscritical and rewarding. !

Reference1. Teaching Survival Skills and Ethics, Beth A. Fischer and

Michael J. Zigmond, University of Pittsburgh,www.edc.gsph.pitt.edu/survival. NIMH funded workshop,2000.


Crossing to the Other Side

Julie Theriot Stanford University

S cientific research is usually a collaborative effort,most successful and most fun when performedby a team of individuals who complement each

others’ knowledge and talents. In academia, small lab-oratories are generally directed by just one person, thefaculty member or principal investigator (the P.I.). Thesuccess and happiness of the lab depends in largemeasure on the ability of the P.I. to keep the team work-ing together smoothly. The relevant people-manage-ment skills are taught in business schools, but are notgenerally part of Ph.D. or postdoctoral training.

In academic research, the transition from team mem-ber to team director is usually sharp. Graduate stu-dents and postdoctoral fellows often get the opportu-nity to train more junior members of their lab, andsome even directly supervise the work of a technician,but it is rare to gain experience in managing a wholegroup at these stages. For most faculty members, thestart of the first appointment as an assistant professormarks a time when the individual stops being one of“us”, the team of postdoctoral fellows, students, andtechnicians that do the bulk of the work, and suddenlybecomes one of “them”, the P.I.’s.

The sharpness and completeness of this transitiontakes many new assistant professors by surprise, andits artificiality makes scientists at this point in their


The start of the first appointment as anassistant professor marks a time whenthe individual stops being one of“us”... and suddenly becomes one of“them,” the P.I.’s.

careers extremely susceptible to the“Impostor Phenomenon” (described inChapter 1). Particularly difficult is the transi-tion to playing the opposite part in the men-tor-student relationship. Science is one of thefew professions that is still entered byapprenticeship, and the dynamic betweengraduate students and faculty is complex. Alittle informal surveying has revealed somecommon themes and experiences on the partof those doing the crossing over:

“Graduate Students Listen TooCarefully to Everything I Say.”

Even though the new P.I. is the same per-son she was a month before as a postdoctoralfellow, with no more wisdom and very littlemore experience, her words suddenly carrydisproportionate weight. Students are muchmore likely to remember an offhand commentor supposition of a P.I. than the P.I. is likely toremember it herself. An off-color remark ormoment of inappropriate public behavior,which would have been laughed at and for-gotten when the P.I. was one of “us,” canbecome a rich source of gossip after she hascrossed over to the other side. And no matterhow hard a P.I. tries to be unobtrusive, herpersonality quirks will be diligently notedand faithfully reproduced in student skits.

The best way to deal with this is to learn tochoose words carefully. We all rememberhow a few cutting words from our own grad-uate advisor could sting, and, likewise, how

justified praise at the right moment couldmean so much. Do not worry too much aboutthe quirks. Students don’t make fun of thefaculty they despise; being lampooned is areal sign of affection.

“Graduate Students Don’t Listento Anything I Say.”

Of course, the P.I. does not get to selectwhich words the students choose to retain. Ina competitive research field, it is often impor-tant to get results quickly; a few weeks ormonths of delay can mean getting scooped.Since the new P.I. has spent so much timelearning to do science, is now so good at it,and has so much riding on the early successof the new lab, the temptation is strong to res-cue a floundering student’s work (in theplanning, experimental or analysis stage) bysaying, “here, let me just do that.” Goodgraduate advisors must develop a balancebetween guiding students and letting themfigure things out for themselves, even if thissometimes takes longer than just doing thework for the students. Many students will besmart and opinionated (maybe like the P.I.once was in graduate school) and will preferto try new things their own way. This can befrustrating for a P.I. who feels that she is usu-ally right. A common and useful solution is tolet the student do things both ways. If the P.I.is right, the student will figure this out, andperhaps take advice more easily in the future.If the student’s way turns out to be better,then everyone is better off anyway.

“Nobody in the Lab Ever TellsMe When There are Problems.”

When the P.I. spends much of the timealone in an office that is separated from thelab, major conflicts can arise among the teamthat do not come to light until weeks ormonths later. It is a shock to many new assis-tant professors to learn that the famous obliv-


Good graduate advisors mustdevelop a balance betweenguiding students and lettingthem figure things out for themselves.



iousness of most faculty is not necessarilyinnate, but happens because people can onlyprocess the available information. Lab citi-zens can carefully and restrictively filter thisrelevant information. A new P.I.’s increasedvisibility as one of “them” means that every-one is aware of her presence. For example,silence will descend when a P.I. enters acrowded and cheerful elevator, and she willprobably hear less swearing than she isaccustomed to in the lab.

In the one-on-one advisor-student rela-tionship, the filtering can be an impedimentto the progress of the research. Many stu-dents are happy to speak to their advisorwhen things are working, but avoid themwhen things are not; they may be reluctantto admit confusion or defeat. A P.I. must,therefore, learn to listen carefully and close-ly to what the student does not say, sincesilence probably indicates perplexity. It isimportant to ferret out the problems, withpatience and compassion.

“My Students Don’t Tolerate My Faults; I am Just a Human Being.”

One graduate student weighs in, “I’veheard this ‘The P. I. is a human being’ schtickbefore. I just don’t buy it.” There may be noimmediate solution to this, but someday thisgraduate student is likely to be running a labof his own. Like new parents who suddenlydevelop an appreciation for the behavior andfoibles of their own parents, new assistantprofessors almost always have retroactivesympathy for their former advisors.

In the end, every new assistant professormust develop her or his own style of mentor-ing and managing a research group. Seniorcolleagues can be an invaluable source ofadvice, and friends in business or other fieldswho manage teams of people may be evenmore helpful. The learning curve is verysteep for the first few years, but when theteam works well together to develop a newbreakthrough, the taste of success is muchsweeter than individual accomplishment. !

Even though the new P.I. is thesame person she was a monthbefore... her words suddenlycarry disproportionate weight.

A P.I. must... learn to listencarefully and closely to what thestudent does not say.


Dealing with Unstable Colleagues

Sara (Sally) TobinStanford University

S cience requires intense dedication, and scien-tists generally tolerate the eccentricities of theirequally intense colleagues. However, some-

times behavior by a colleague can interfere with thework environment. Following are some generalguidelines about how to recognize and deal withunstable colleagues. Symptoms of three levels ofcounterproductive behavior—those that transcendworking styles or eccentricities—are summarized,and actions are suggested.

It is a challenge to distinguish between problemsthat can be resolved by firmness, support and informa-tion, and those that require specialized expertise andresources. Most scientists do not have the necessarymental health training to deal with a person who hassignificant mental health issues. It is always appropri-ate to provide positive mentoring, but not therapy.

Most potential problems can be avoided by takingcare in hiring employees and in taking on studentsand postdoctoral fellows. Talk with previous supervi-sors and review performance records. Be clear aboutexpectations for laboratory conduct, cooperation, pro-fessionalism and safety, and discuss possible conse-quences. Whenever possible, have the person do atrial or rotation in the lab, and give periodic feedbackabout whether standards are being achieved.However, even with these precautions, problembehavior may still appear.

Handling Manipulative BehaviorSometimes behavior patterns can reflect a coping

style designed, perhaps unconsciously, to keep othersoff balance, or to elicit special treatment. Such behaviorcan range from abusive outbursts to a pattern of excus-es or passive inaction. For instance, a colleague mayengage in “inspired incompetence” that results in shift-ing responsibilities to others. Occasionally a student


may lose belief in his or her abilities andbecome overly dependent.

Such behavior patterns can test a supervi-sor’s authority and self-confidence. Thesebehaviors are best dealt with by setting firmlimits, providing encouragement, confirmingmutual roles and responsibilities with cheer-ful chats and e-mails, and calmly holdingground in the face of mild to moderate esca-lation to test the supervisor’s resolve. Once itis clear that standards and consequences arefirm and applied with fairness, the problemmay be minimized. However, if the level ofescalation progresses to an uncomfortablelevel, it may be appropriate to seek adviceand support as discussed below.

Identifying Possible MentalInstability

Signs of mental instability can includeinexplicable mood swings, irrational state-ments, extreme cycles of productivity, unex-plained absences, depression, and violent orabusive behavior. These signs are an order ofmagnitude beyond normal acute disappoint-ment expressed over an intractable experi-ment or a grant application that is not fund-ed. The person may fail to follow laboratorystandards for cooperation or safety. Theymay display an insensitive or overtly cruelattitude toward others or toward laboratoryanimals. They may initiate episodes of inter-personal friction in the laboratory and mayalienate or frighten co-workers. Their state-

ments may seem inconsistent, and they mayreact defensively when asked for clarifica-tion. Obsessive behavior toward other indi-viduals, such as following someone home,can be another important symptom. In manycases, symptoms increase gradually overtime until they reach an intolerable level.However, sometimes stressful workplace orpersonal events can trigger a crisis.

When encouragement, limits on behavior,and standards of performance do not bringimprovements, it may be time to enlist some-one with professional training and experi-ence. Most educational institutions and com-panies have Employee Assistance Programs,which are confidential and professionalsources of help for employees and students.An EAP is equipped to deal with problemsdirectly or to make appropriate referrals formental health issues, family problems, ordrug and alcohol abuse. If the obviousoptions have been exhausted and the bestcourse of action is unclear, consider confer-ring with EAP personnel about your percep-tions and about developing strategies fordealing with the situation.

Recognizing ViolenceViolence includes pounding on walls,

throwing items to the floor, angry damage toequipment, as well as physical threats towardco-workers or supervisors. Threats of vio-lence are especially serious if they appear to

Signs of mental instability caninclude inexplicable moodswings, irrational statements,extreme cycles of productivity,unexplained absences, depression,and violent or abusive behavior.


Sometimes behavior patternscan reflect a coping styledesigned, perhaps unconsciously,to keep others off balance, or toelicit special treatment.

escalate or become more detailed. “I couldjust kill him,” can indicate simple annoyance;“I’m going to get my brother’s ’38 and justwalk into his office some morning and blowhim away,” includes plans of time, place, andmeans, and is cause for immediate action.Violence or threats of violence are unaccept-able and cannot be tolerated, whether theyare directed toward inanimate objects,toward others, or are self-destructive.

In the face of violent behavior, a supervisormight choose to give a single warning, e.g.,for throwing a gel comb to the floor; other-wise, anyone who observes violence shouldinvolve others immediately. Depending onthe episode, such notification might involveany or all or the following: the supervisor, theinstitution’s EAP, the department head, thedean, and/or campus security. In extremecases, confrontation can be dangerous, so letprofessionals handle the situation. If you findyourself in a volatile situation, stay cool,speak more slowly than the potentially vio-lent person, and ask the person to suggestsolutions that would have avoided activatinghis or her anger.

In all interactions, preserve the other per-son’s dignity. Maintain confidentiality andbe humane. If others must be informedabout the situation, do so in private. Thebottom line is that it may be necessary to askan unstable individual to leave your labora-

tory. This may become more difficult withtime, so it is important to be equitable andallow opportunities for resolution, but tomove decisively if these efforts are unsuc-cessful. Ask for advice to make sure that youcomply with relevant personnel policies.However, be aware of the responsibility car-ried by every supervisor to ensure a safeworking environment that enhances every-one’s ability to achieve their personal andscientific goals.

Of course, if the unstable person is anequal or a supervisor, then many of theseoptions would be difficult to implement.However, regardless of the level of one’sposition, it is wise to seek consultation aboutthe best possible strategies, documentepisodes as they occur, solicit support amongother colleagues, and set limits. If the situa-tion becomes intolerable, consider otheractions, such as filing a grievance or lookingfor a position that provides a positive work-ing environment.

Some people feel an overwhelming level ofguilt and uncertainty at finding themselves ina difficult interpersonal situation, even whentheir contribution has been minimal.However, it is more productive to engage inassessment and problem-solving than self-reproach. Every professional benefits fromdeveloping the skills to work productivelywith a wide variety of people, and thisincludes recognizing and taking appropriateaction when behavior patterns disrupt thework environment. Sometimes professionalhelp can be a key element in developing aresolution that benefits everyone involved. !


“I could just kill him,” canindicate simple annoyance; “I’m going to get my brother’s’38 and just walk into his officesome morning and blow himaway,”...is cause for immediateaction.

In all interactions, preserve theother person’s dignity. Maintainconfidentiality and be humane.

6. UNDERREPRESENTATIONIN SCIENCE CAREERS

Affirmative Action for the NextGeneration

Increasing Representation of People ofColor in Science


Affirmative Action for theNext Generation

Donella Wilson The American Cancer Society

W hat has been known for decades as “affir-mative action” is being strongly chal-lenged from a variety of directions, and

the concept is being perceived in a spirit far differentfrom that which was originally intended. In reality,affirmative action has never been precisely defined.Instead, the principle that connotes equitable treatmentand inclusion has evolved as a collection of laws andexecutive orders over the last 60 years in an attempt toremove barriers to opportunities for minorities andwomen. Yet today, there are still glass ceilings in uni-versities, hospitals, law firms and other workplacesdue to vestiges of deliberate exclusion of underrepre-sented populations, as well as to thinly-veiled, but noless real, practices of non-inclusion.

Affirmative action becomes a business issue for acade-mia as colleges and universities attempt to create diversefaculties to serve increasingly diverse student popula-tions, and at the same time compete in the global society.

One reason women have been more successful thanminorities in bridging the gap legislatively is that theirnumbers are greater and their pipeline readily devel-oped. As a result of our country’s history, pipelines forminorities need to be built. However, it is not legal toeven consider race when providing opportunities inuniversities. The 1995 case of Hopwood v. Texas ruled

There are still glass ceilings in univer-sities, hospitals, law firms and otherworkplaces due to vestiges of deliberateexclusion of underrepresented popula-tions, as well as to thinly-veiled, but noless real, practices of non-inclusion.

CHAPTER 6 • UNDERREPRESENTATION IN SCIENCE CAREERS 61

that the University of Texas Law School couldnot take race into consideration when admit-ting students unless such action was neces-sary to remedy past discrimination by theschool. Filling fixed minority quotas is nolonger an acceptable admissions policy.

In 2001, providing specialized opportunityto underserved/underrepresented popula-tions is still acceptable legally, but may not befor long. In March 2001, a White-ownedColorado business complained that smallbusiness bonuses given to contractors whosubcontract to minority businesses discrimi-nate against non-minorities (AdarandConstructors, Inc. v. Pena). In the meantime,Georgia Power Company (April 2001) faces apotential class action discrimination lawsuitdue to lack of fair promotion of African-

Americans in their company. Company exec-utives reported that they were unaware thatthe presence of hangman’s nooses through-out company property was a racial sluragainst African-Americans.

It is sometimes difficult to be fair and hon-est. However, the law is not meant to be fair;it is meant to be just. Equal opportunity willnever be equal as long as selections and deci-sions involve human beings who knowinglyor unknowingly permit familiar favoritismsto creep into decision-making. For example,honesty is compromised when collegialand/or familial networks (the old boy sys-tem), economic status or one’s ability to easi-ly pay, group stereotypes, the way one looks,speaks or walks, or other comfortable famil-iarities influence the decision-makingprocess. We must all deal with this truth,making it incumbent upon us to participate

constructively in decision-making and theformation of the law.

The Shape of the River1, a book by WilliamBowen and Derek Bok, is a good resource forthose studying “the long-term consequencesof considering race in college and universityadmissions.” The authors state, “there is acollective concern that we are failing todevelop to its fullest, the human potential ofthe country and a growing realization thatour society, with its evermore diverse popu-lation, cannot ultimately succeed as ademocracy if we fail to close the gaps inopportunity that continue to be associatedwith race.” These studies conclude thatavoiding a short term lack of insight andmaking provisions to consider underprivi-leged and diversified populations ultimatelystrengthen most experiences and personsinvolved on both sides. That is, it is a posi-tive developmental factor for both Whitesand Non-Whites.

Some scientists don’t want to be botheredwith all this political “stuff.” They just wantto be successful in learning the hows andwhys of the experimental world. However,external obstacles may emerge, providingnon-objective barriers to success that mostscientists have not been adequately trained tohandle. Some scientists who are not like themainstream are faced with special barriers towhich the mainstream must become sensi-tized to even know that such obstacles exist.

The law is not meant to be fair;it is meant to be just.


Some scientists don’t want to bebothered with all this political“stuff.” They just want to besuccessful in learning the howsand whys of the experimentalworld.

Majority scientists who “step out of thebox” to promote overall enhancement of cre-ativity and efficiency for the work environ-ment by recognizing and helping to breakdown barriers for their minority colleaguesmake a significant contribution to science andtechnology in America. Carefully crafted pro-grams for the underserved are still needed todevelop this country’s quest for excellenceand democracy1-4. However, rather thanargue the endless debate on affirmativeaction, following are some suggested behav-iors that anyone can use to raise levels ofawareness despite the challenges that biasedenvironments pose:

Advocate DiversityDiversity does not include just women,

Blacks and Whites, but a wide variety of dif-ferences that we might not readily consideras sources of bias, such as sexual preferenceand age. It also includes the disabled, region-al differences within the U.S., citizen vs. alien,dread-locs vs straight hair, males with one ortwo earrings, Gentile vs. Jew. Advocate diver-sity, not so much to right the wrongs of thepast, but to ensure our nation’s wordly com-petitiveness in science. Be serious minded indeveloping the next generation of talent andleadership pools for the future of our exis-tence. The challenge is to acknowledge diver-sity as enriched, varied perspectives whichincrease the value of all, rather than as anti-

“me” statements. Before the year 2050, overhalf of the U.S. population will be comprisedof persons of color; minorities will becomethe majority. Shall we ignore this inevitability,try to beat it in court, or adequately preparefor it?

An enriched cultural make-up in the cur-rent environment permits several benefits,like seeing a panoramic picture from differentangles. In business, as in life, the input of con-cepts from various sides of the whole sceneyields a more complete view of the situation.Increased clarity of the total picture oftenleads to creative solutions and more rapidadvancements.

Bring Biased Incidents to anIndividual’s Attention in a Non-confrontational Manner

Barriers can be overcome with healthy dis-cussion about group-sensitive practices in anon-confrontational manner. Some who areoppressors are not even aware of their actionsbecause others do not speak up against it, orthink of expressing prejudices as acceptablebehavior. Try to analyze the situation fromboth points of view.

Recommend Choices that CanHelp Individuals Grow Awayfrom Biases

First and foremost, try to constantly bemindful of being inclusive. Often people inmajority environments, in an effort to befocused and decisive, do not think aboutbeing inclusive because it is not at the top of


Advocate diversity, not so muchto right the wrongs of the past,but to ensure our nation’s wordlycompetitiveness in science.

Some scientists who are not likethe mainstream are faced withspecial barriers to which themainstream must becomesensitized to even know thatsuch obstacles exist.



their immediate priorities. People in theseenvironments often do not take time to seehow it would be beneficial. For example, peerreview committees are often reminded to beless biased with minority applications just bythe presence of a minority reviewer on the

committee. Diversity is not a program, it is aprocess for growth and development of talentfor the next century. It may require in-houseawareness training seminars and/or ques-tioning of managers’ practices. Ideally, inclu-sivity will become an automatic process,something that just “is.”

If an individual’s work environment is notconducive to development of personal goalsdue to negative biases, the individual has thechoice to leave, or to stay and fight. If oneleaves with no compromises due to unheardor irreconcilable differences or biases, it maybe unfortunate for the entire community. Inaddition, the institution may ultimately loseby failing to embrace a long-term commit-ment to listen and ponder carefully the issuesand benefits of diversity. Such issues must bebrought to a fair resolution to promote a pro-ductive work environment.

The American Society for Cell Biology hasbeen assertive and productive in efforts toeducate members on the true meaning ofdiversity by its strong support of theMinorities Affairs and Women in Cell Biologycommittees, and has even incorporated aninclusive clause for minorities and women inthe ASCB Statement of Objectives. And yetmore action is needed to grow successfullydiverse pools and break glass ceilings. !

References

1. W. Bowen and D. Bok. The Shape of the River (PrincetonUniversity Press, Princeton, NJ, 1998)

2. S. Malcom. Science and Diversity: A Compelling NationalInterest. Science 271:1817-1819, 1996

3. G. Stephanopoulos and E. Edley Jr. Review of federalAffirmative Action Programs, Report to the President, July 19,1995.

4. M. Rossiter. Women Scientists in America: BeforeAffirmative Action 1940-1972. (Johns Hopkins UniversityPress 1995)

Often people in majorityenvironments, in an effort to befocused and decisive, do notthink about being inclusivebecause it is not at the top oftheir immediate priorities.

Diversity is not a program, it isa process for growth anddevelopment of talent for thenext century.


Increasing Representation ofPeople of Color in Science

Lydia Villa-KomaroffNorthwestern University

I n the influential 1945 report Science – the EndlessFrontier, Vannevar Bush observed, “there are talent-ed individuals in every segment of the population,

but with few exceptions, those without the means ofbuying higher education go without it. Here is atremendous waste of the greatest resource of a nation –the intelligence of its citizens.” Since that report, overhalf a century ago, there have been substantial effortsto increase the participation of both women andminorities in the scientific endeavor. In at least somefields, including cell biology, substantial progress hasbeen made with respect to the participation of women,but the participation of minority individuals continuesto be disappointingly low.

To increase the number of underrepresented minori-ties in science, there are three areas that must beaddressed: getting children through high school withthe expectation of going to college, maintaining interestin science throughout college, and increasing the num-ber of students who enter graduate programs in science.

In an attempt to recruit and retain minority individ-uals in scientific fields, a large number of programsaimed at undergraduates have been implemented.These programs are designed to retain interestedundergraduates in science and recruit them into grad-uate programs. As a whole, these programs can be con-sidered a modest success, since the number of minori-ty individuals obtaining degrees in science, math and

It may be that the only way to make asubstantial difference in the number ofminority individuals in science is tointervene in early childhood.



engineering has increased very slightly, whilethe overall number of students graduatingwith science degrees has declined. However,if the status quo is only sustained, there willbe no substantial change in the representa-tion of minority individuals in science.

It may be that the only way to make a sub-stantial difference in the number of minorityindividuals in science is to intervene in earlychildhood. Particularly with underrepresent-ed individuals, children must be given theopportunity to envision a future beyond thatof their immediate circumstances. There isnot a child under six who is not intenselyinterested in the way the world works.Unfortunately, most children lose this interestbefore they leave elementary school. If thenatural interest that every child has in sciencecould be maintained, many more childrenfrom all backgrounds would enter science. Inaddition, children seem to conclude veryearly that there are some professions that arenot open to them. This is vividly illustratedby a comment made by a 4-year-old to hismother, a lawyer, after visiting with his aunts,one a banker, one a scientist. “Oh, Mom,” hesaid, “I can’t be a lawyer, I can’t be a banker,and I can’t be a scientist, because those aregirls’ jobs!” Children need to see images ofpeople they can identify with as scientists togive them a sense of possibility and the beliefthat they belong in the mainstream world.

One highly successful program aimed atelementary-aged minority children is theMother–Daughter Program in El Paso, Texas.This program was established in 1986 byJosefina Villamil Tinajero, Professor of

Bilingual Education and Acting Dean in theCollege of Education at the University ofTexas at El Paso, who is also a child of a Texasbarrio. Tinajero began the program in anattempt to reduce the high level of teen preg-nancy, increase high school graduation rates,and increase college enrollment which hadbeen essentially nonexistent, among childrengrowing up in the poor neighborhoods of ElPaso. In these families English is spoken poor-ly if at all, there is no family history of highereducation, and both the children and theirparents have low expectations of themselves.

There are four key approaches instrumen-tal to the success of the Mother–DaughterProgram. First, children and parents areinvolved when the children are young.Tinajero reasoned that intervention mustoccur before the children enter adolescence,when peer pressure and hormonal changesmake outside influence difficult, so the pro-gram focuses on sixth graders. Second, atleast one parent is required to be heavilyinvolved in the program. Third, the programprovides experiences that instill childrenwith the feeling that they are both capable ofand entitled to a college education. Finally,the program provides adult role models.

Potential program participants are identi-fied by fifth grade teachers as those girls whoshow great promise but are at risk because ofeconomic, family or neighborhood problems.When a group of candidates is identified, aninvitation to participate in the Mother–Daughter Program is extended to both moth-

Children seem to conclude veryearly that there are some profes-sions that are not open to them.

In the first cohort of 33 girls, 32graduated from high school, 10as honor students, and all of the32 enrolled in college.

ers and their daughters. Participants enter aone-year program where they visit theUniversity of Texas campus several times,including at least one overnight visit in adorm. They have the opportunity to meetand talk to students. They also meet andquestion Mexican-American women in avariety of professions including police-women, lawyers, judges, accountants, scien-tists, writers and airline pilots. At the end-of-the-year ceremony, the mothers and daugh-ters make pledges to each other. The daugh-ters pledge to do their homework everyday,to finish high school, to not get pregnantuntil after marriage. The mothers pledge tohelp the daughters find a place to do home-work, and to support their daughters’ ambi-tions. Participants decide on the pledgesthey wish to make and write the pledges ondecorative paper provided by the program.The handwritten pledges are often framedand placed prominently in homes. The pro-gram has recently been expanded to includegrades 7–12.

In the first cohort of 33 girls, 32 graduatedfrom high school, 10 as honor students, andall of the 32 enrolled in college. Three moth-ers in this cohort have graduated from theUniversity of Texas at El Paso, and many oth-ers are pursuing their education. Over 2400daughters and their mothers have participat-ed in the program since its inception in 1986.

Many of the former participants who are cur-rently in college are acting as “big sisters” fornew sixth graders entering the program. Inaddition, the rate of teen pregnancy in theprogram participants is far lower than fortheir classmates.

The Mother–Daughter Program has beenso successful that it has been extended to fiveUniversity of Texas systems as well as insti-tutions in other parts of the Southwest andCalifornia. In 1998, Tinajero began a similarprogram for boys and their fathers, and she isdeveloping programs to enhance the mathand science skills of teachers. The programshave been supported by AT&T, the RotaryClub, the Kellogg Foundation, the FreedomForum, Meadow Foundation, SouthwesternBell and the U.S. Department of Education.

Margaret Mead once observed that it tookthree generations of education before awoman would aspire to and obtain anadvanced degree. Only 1% of Hispanicwomen have advanced degrees, and fewerthan 7% of PhDs in the sciences are awardedto minority individuals. These disappointingnumbers represent several generations of losttalent. Unless we expand the availability ofprograms such as Mother–Daughter, we willcontinue to lose the talent of a significant por-tion of our population. !


Over 2400 daughters and theirmothers have participated in theprogram since its inception in1986.

Margaret Mead once observedthat it took three generations ofeducation before a womanwould aspire to and obtain anadvanced degree.

7. TENUREThe Tenure Process Viewed From the Top

Earning Tenure: Ten Recommendations

The Negative Tenure Decision


The Tenure Process Viewed From the Top

Martha D. Berliner Retired

T he department chairperson is instrumental inshaping the outcome of tenure applications.Following are some considerations for those who

aspire to tenure, before they join a department andafter they’ve arrived, from the Chair’s point of view:

Department CompositionDoes the department recruiting you consist of one

or two professors, a few associate professors, and manyuntenured assistant professors and instructors? If so,ask if the university and/or the department has atenure cap. This is a way for university budget officialsto limit promotions, while legitimately advertisingtenure-track positions. It is also important to rememberthat there is no mandatory retirement age for faculty.Unless attractive early retirement packages are offeredto older, tenured faculty, slots for promotion may openup only rarely. The combination of a relatively youngtenured faculty and tenure caps may create a situationwhere obtaining tenure is unrealistic.

Tenure History and CompetitionLearn when the last time was that tenure was grant-

ed, how many tenure requests have been denied andhow many tenure-track positions are being filled cur-rently. Many schools hire scientists on the tenure-trackin order to keep the money-making basic and servicecourses staffed, with only occasional teaching responsi-bilities in specialty courses. However, there usually are

The combination of a relatively youngtenured faculty and tenure caps maycreate a situation where obtainingtenure is unrealistic.

CHAPTER 7 • TENURE 69

not enough permanent positions for all ofthese scientists. Therefore, if more than twopeople in the department are waiting fortenure at the same time you are, your chancesfor obtaining tenure are probably slim.

Government InfluenceFor state institutions, how much does the

state legislature influence tenure trends? Becautious if the position for which you areapplying is not a budget line item. Withoutthis protection, the position could be cutwithout any consideration of your qualifica-tions or productivity.

Influence from Outside theDepartment

A department chairperson is responsible todeans and other administrators who havedifferent agendas. While the chairpersons maymake promises in good faith, there are exter-nal factors over which they have no control,such as budgets and enrollments. These fac-tors may prevent them from fulfilling promis-es made to their faculty. One way to under-stand better the external factors influencingpersonnel decisions is to request appoint-ments on one or two meaningful departmentand university committees. The seats of powerand knowledge are on budget, facilities, futureplanning and curriculum committees.

Where Do You Want to Be?Is the institution a place where you want to

spend the rest of your personal and profes-

sional life? A person with tenure can becomefrozen at an institution and communitybecause it then is very difficult to competefor new faculty positions at higher levels,unless you are willing to become an admin-istrator or to change fields.

Joint AppointmentsAvoid accepting a joint appointment with

a department with different standards fortenure and promotion. The result of jointappointments is that neither departmentgives the joint appointee its full support orconsiders them a full-fledged member. Inaddition, the joint appointee is oftenexpected to perform two full-time jobs.Such appointments are often driven bybudget problems and cobbled together outof necessity rather than career develop-ment. This is a serious conundrum for cellbiologists with joint appointments in basicscience and clinical departments, wheretenure expectations are often incompatible.

All Politics are LocalWhile e-mail and other forms of telecom-

munications have eased professional andsocial isolation, tenure and promotionsdecisions are made by the small circle ofcolleagues with whom you interact everyday, not predominantly by the world out-side the university. At the same time, it isimportant to become part of the outsidecommunity life, and not focus solely oninternal politics.

Support StaffSecretaries, bookkeepers, lab personnel,

maintenance and repair people can be ofimmense help behind the scenes. Respecttheir work and get your grades, budgets, pro-posals and purchase orders in on time and inthe format required, no matter how arcane.This advice also applies to other professional


If more than two people in thedepartment are waiting fortenure at the same time you are,your chances for obtaining tenureare probably slim.

personnel such as librarians and computerspecialists. This is not a time to cut cornersand by-pass established procedures.

CollaborationGraduate school and postdoctoral fellow-

ships tend to see people as narrow special-ists. Now is the time to explore new areaswith a knowledgeable colleague who has an

established lab, funding sources and gradu-ate students in the pipeline. In return, gener-ously share your experience and networks.Become a mentor, rather than needing amentor yourself. One of the principal criteriafor tenure is demonstration of intellectualgrowth and leadership.

InnovationOne of the worst things to do is to restrict

your research to what you did as a graduatestudent or postdoctoral fellow, because itmakes you a competitor for the same grantfunds as your previous mentors.

Although a tenure-track position is theobjective for many academic scientists,tenure should not be your sole goal. In itself,it does not assure personal nor scientific suc-cess, fame nor fortune. !


Tenure and promotions decisionsare made by the small circle ofcolleagues with whom youinteract every day, notpredominantly by the worldoutside the university.

Earning Tenure: TenRecommendations

Sara (Sally) TobinStanford University

T enure is a pivotal evaluation in the career of anacademic scientist. The tenure process can be agratifying recognition of achievement that

emerges easily from one’s scientific successes, or itcan be energy-draining, stressful, and full of conflicts.Many factors influence the process, some of whichcan be anticipated in advance, while others mayemerge unexpectedly. On the basis of a broad sam-pling of tenure histories, ten recommendations areoffered to smooth the path of a candidate through theprocess. Ideally, preparation for tenure begins beforearrival on campus.

Find Out What the Tenure Requirementsare and Plan to Meet Them

After the welcome phone call offering you theposition, you will eventually receive a letter ofappointment from the Dean or other officer. It willsummarize the terms of the appointment and willspecify the academic year in which you will be con-sidered for tenure. For a typical initial academicappointment, it is probably best to request as muchtime as possible before the tenure decision; if your

work goes especially well, the timeline can be movedforward. Write a formal response summarizing theconditions under which the offer is accepted, such assalary, teaching responsibilities, start-up funds, andlaboratory renovations with the target date for com-


The tenure clock does not stop if themaintenance crew is delayed byemergency remodeling of the Provost’sconference room.

pletion. The tenure clock does not stop ifthe maintenance crew is delayed by emer-gency remodeling of the Provost’s confer-ence room.

Request a copy of the faculty manual atthis time because it will specify the generalrequirements, the timing of the process andthe potential for flexibility in the tenureclock to accommodate parenthood or familyemergencies. In addition to the general pro-cedures outlined in the faculty manual, thedepartment, school and/or college mayhave additional written tenure policies. Itmakes sense to know the rules.

Create a Record of ProductivityLong Before Tenure

Write grant applications before you moveto the new institution so that they will be inreview during the disruption of establishingthe new laboratory. Design some “bread-and-butter” approaches that are sure to

yield publishable results and will documentyour ability to complete scientific projectssuccessfully. Do not abandon your scientificstandards, but it will not hurt to carry outsome lower risk projects also, perhaps withthe help of undergraduate students. If all ofyour projects are high-risk, your chances ofobtaining tenure are high-risk. Even if youare able to pull off a late-breaking scientificcoup, you will still be vulnerable to theaccusation of uneven performance that

many consider a poor predictor of futureproductivity.

Gain the Support of YourDepartment Chair

The support of your chair is an importantfactor in ensuring a smooth transitionthrough the tenure process. The chair almostalways makes a separate tenure recommen-dation to the school and college and, becausehe or she is presumed to be familiar withyour performance, this evaluation carries sig-nificant weight within the department and athigher administrative levels.

The chair who hired you often has a stakein promoting your success and values yourarea of expertise. However, sometimes a newchair with a different vision of the depart-ment will take charge, and the prospect of anadditional faculty position to be filled withsomeone in a favorite specialty area can betempting. Educate your chair and depart-ment about your field by inviting well-known scientists for seminars.

In some departments, the question oftenure is not presented for a full departmen-tal vote. Instead, a committee (appointed bythe chair or elected by the department) makesa recommendation. This can mean that yourfile is not open to the full department and canwork to your disadvantage if your chair isnot supportive.

The moral: make your chair’s life easy.Make progress with your science, teach well,do your fair share of work and let your chairknow of your successes.


Design some “bread-and-butter”approaches that are sure to yield publishable results andwill document your ability tocomplete scientific projectssuccessfully.

The chair who hired you oftenhas a stake in promoting yoursuccess and values your area ofexpertise.

research and draw on their perspectives andexperience.

Get to Know Others on Campus It is wise to limit participation in campus

committees and concentrate on your exper-iments, but a few selected activities may behelpful because they permit you to get toknow people in other departments. Suchconnections can expand your networkingcapabilities, enhance the identification ofmentors, provide support at tenure timeand fulfill the modest consideration of serv-ice that is included in a tenure evaluation.Women and minorities need to be especial-ly careful about overload because they willbe highly visible and in demand for com-mittee service and often feel a specialresponsibility to assume a role in shapinginstitutional policy. Ask your mentors foradvice in optimizing choices that will allowyou to make a meaningful contributionwithout jeopardizing the research andteaching activities that are key to yourachievement of tenure.

Know the Procedures for Tenureat Your Institution

Who assembles your file? Do you get tosee it? Do you have the opportunity torespond to the evaluation of your file by yourchair or departmental committee? Are yourequested to be available for information atthe time your file is discussed? Who com-piles the list of those from whom letters ofrecommendation will be requested? Whochooses which ones get included in yourdossier? Is there a departmental committeethat evaluates your credentials and, if so, isthere a mechanism to ensure the accuracy ofboth the verbal and written information theyare given? Are you notified as your tenureapplication is acted upon at each successiveadministrative level?



Maintain Cordial RelationshipsWithin Your Department

Ideally, your position will be in a cohesiveand pleasant department that will make iteasy for you to concentrate on your sciencewhile participating in departmental goals.However, this is not always the case and, ifschisms develop, you may be pressured tochoose sides. Such a no-win situation can bea big problem for support at tenure timewhether or not you tactfully avoid allyingyourself with a particular party. One assayfor such schisms (devised by Betty Craig ofthe University of Wisconsin) is to ask eachfaculty member during the job interview,“Where do you see this department going inthe next 5-10 years?”

Recruit MentorsMuch has been written about the impor-

tance of mentors in ensuring a successfulcareer path, especially for members of under-represented minority groups and women.You will need guides to the unfamiliar terri-tory represented by your new position andinstitution. Some institutions assign mentorsbecause they want their young faculty to dowell. Even if you are in such an enlightenedatmosphere, recruit other campus mentors sothat you have access to a variety of advice.Take them to lunch. Chat. It is a complimentto them that you value their expertise, but beconsiderate of the other demands on theirtime. Recruit external mentors in your field of

Women and minorities need tobe especially careful about over-load because they will be highlyvisible and in demand forcommittee service.

Ask for Supportive LettersAs a tenure candidate, you will usually be

invited to contribute names of leading scien-tists in your field who will be able to placeyour scientific work in context and evaluateits quality. If it is permitted, you should con-tact these eminent scientists and ask whetherthey would be willing to write a letter of eval-uation in the necessary time frame. Ideally,you are already acquainted with them andthey admire your work. Letters about yourteaching and service may also be requestedfrom local faculty. This is a chance to draw onyour mentors. If you have doubts, it is notinappropriate to ask whether the person feelsthey can write you a strong letter. Be sure thatthey are told whether or not their letter willbe confidential, and make certain that theywill be sent copies of all your papers andmanuscripts.

Assemble CompleteDocumentation

When you walk into your office as abrand-new faculty member, your first officialact should be to grab a file folder, label it“Tenure,” and put it in the file drawer of yourdesk (not that filing cabinet across the room).EVERY time you give a talk at the local high

school, organize a meeting, serve on a com-mittee or receive an award, make a note ofthe date and event and put it into the file.Otherwise, you will never remember themany contributions you have made whenyou are under pressure to assemble yourtenure file five years later.

Be aware of your own tendency to be self-effacing. This is the time to highlight yourachievements. Include documentation ofyour papers’ citations and a summary of sci-entific achievements.

Don’t be Afraid to Fight If something goes wrong and you feel

that you are not being evaluated equitably,use the institutional appeal processes avail-able to you, as outlined in the faculty man-ual. Let others in the department knowwhat is going on and you may be surprisedat the help and support that you receive. Itmay also be appropriate to seek legal adviceor to apply for positions elsewhere. If theavailable administrative remedies do notresolve the issue (this may take 1-2 years),you will need to think long and hard aboutwhether to engage in the stress and expenseof a protracted legal battle that will affectyour family and your science regardless ofthe outcome.

Tenure is a form of acceptance of one’sprofessional merit and is an important land-mark in the life of an academic scientist. Itmakes sense to prepare for the process sothat it will run smoothly and provide a fairevaluation of the successes you have workedso hard to achieve. !


Be aware of your own tendencyto be self-effacing. This is thetime to highlight yourachievements.

The Negative Tenure Decision

Sally Amero The National Institutes of Health

Maureen Brandon Idaho State University

I t happens — some of us don’t get tenure, few of usdiscuss not getting it, and nobody is prepared to dealwith an unfavorable outcome. Although the reasons

vary with each individual, a negative tenure decisioncan evolve in one of two ways. First, the departmentalchairperson or promotions committee may be unwill-ing to support the application for tenure, particularly ifcertain aspects are weak in comparison to other tenurepackets. Second, the request may be denied by admin-istrative officials or committees after it leaves thedepartment. In either case, the negative decision canpresent a major stumbling block to your career, or anew beginning — the choice is yours. This article sug-gests strategies for a new beginning.

Collect InformationThe first thing a faculty member who learns of a neg-

ative tenure decision needs to do is gather reliableinformation and formulate a course of action. If theoutcome is a surprise, explanations should be soughtfrom the departmental chairperson, other senior facul-ty, and administration officials.

Consider AppealAn appeal with a reversed decision is possible in the

year following a negative tenure decision, if the deficitsare appropriately addressed. Was the candidate’s fund-ing level comparable to those of other junior faculty? Isthe publication record acceptable? Were letters of refer-ence favorable? Do not overlook the value of informalsupport systems. Senior colleagues in other depart-


Do not overlook the value of informalsupport systems.

ments and previous mentors often have addi-tional insight or can speak on the candidate’sbehalf. Legal action should be consideredonly if gross injustice can be documented andif the candidate is willing to see it through.

Set the ToneThe candidate denied tenure must func-

tion for a while in the system that terminatedhim or her, and it is best to actively pre-emptpotential ill will. Establishing a cordial tone iscritical, because this period becomes thespringboard to the next, and gossip travels in

the scientific community as in any other.Whether or not co-workers are listed as offi-cial contacts on job applications, assume theycould be contacted. Formulate a noncommit-tal response to questions, and acknowledgeconcern and sympathy courteously. Be pre-pared for allegiances to shift: those who wereonce trusted may be aloof, while mereacquaintances may rush to “help”. Quite pos-sibly, the candidate’s allies took a beating inhis or her defense; on the other hand, miseryloves company — it’s easy to become fuel forsomeone else’s fire.

Download! Ironically, the candidate denied tenure is

faced with even greater pressure than beforethe tenure decision because she or he mustfind a job and also maintain ongoing faculty

obligations. Distractions should be mini-mized: resign from committees, re-assignrotating students, reduce your lecture bur-den. If another shot at academia is the goal,then manuscript submissions and the grantproposal of a lifetime are essential. A seniorlab member can be appointed as field com-mander; a remote location can be chosen foruninterrupted concentration, and telephoneor e-mail messages can pile up temporarily.

Each person in the candidate’s laboratoryalso needs an exit plan with defined timelines. New graduate students may switch toother laboratories; senior graduate studentsmay finish ahead of schedule or follow thecandidate to another institution; postdocsand technicians may seek employment else-where. As difficult as it is to watch a careful-ly constructed team disintegrate, the facultymember has a responsibility to ensure thatdamage to the careers of students, post-docsand staff is minimized.

Seek Positive Reinforcement A positive approach is essential to a suc-

cessful job search, but the candidate deniedtenure may well lack self-esteem. Consciouseffort must be expended to find creative out-lets and fortify one’s self-image. Listing trans-ferable skills is a good place to start. A facultymember must possess excellent problem-solv-ing skills, an ability to prioritize and reachgoals, good writing and computer skills, andmanagement experience — all highly valuedin the business world. Also, now is the perfect


Establishing a cordial tone iscritical, because this periodbecomes the springboard to thenext, and gossip travels in thescientific community as in any other.

The faculty member has aresponsibility to ensure thatdamage to the careers ofstudents, post-docs and staff is minimized.


time to resurrect those outside interests thatwere sacrificed for the faculty position. Join ahealth club or enroll in an evening class.Outside activities can be deeply rewardingand enhance self-confidence.

Look Before Leaping The candidate denied tenure is entitled to

a terminal contract following the decision,barring extenuating circumstances such asgross unethical conduct. A quick departuremay be possible if a new position awaits.However, if there was no time (or perceivedneed) for job searching prior to the decision,the terminal contract can provide twelve toeighteen months to find another. Some greatacademic positions open up in the springand summer, but this job market typicallypeaks in autumn. Thus, the spring semestercan be spent preparing for the upcomingapplication cycle.

Every academic department has a uniquecharacter, so it is advisable to carefullyresearch a new academic position to avoid asimilar tenure situation down the road.Before responding to an advertisement, checkout the department’s web site to get a senseof the faculty’s interests and activities. Then,prepare an application that highlights yourspecial strengths and matches the needs ofthat department. Once an interview has been

arranged, formulate a set of questions toprobe the environment of the departmentsuch as: what is its goal? What kind of infra-structure is available to support teachingand/or research activities? What is the tenuresuccess rate of junior faculty? During yourvisit ask each faculty member these questionsand look for similar answers.

Do not assume that a denial of tenure willbe viewed unfavorably by another institu-tion. Every institution has unique tenurerequirements, and many are delighted toidentify a faculty candidate with proventeaching and/or research skills.

Consider Other OptionsIf academia is no longer attractive, take

this time — the terminal contract year — toexplore new avenues. In many respects, anegative tenure decision provides opportuni-ties for greater professional freedom than atany other time of your career. If you allow it,the world can truly be your oyster. !

Do not assume that a denial of tenure will be viewedunfavorably by anotherinstitution.



8. PARENTHOOD &SCIENCE CAREERS

Juggling Career and Family

Optimizing the Family-Career Balance


Juggling Career and Family

Mary Ann SteppGeorge Washington University

How can a person learn to juggle family life withchildren, run a research team at a medicalschool, and teach graduate and medical stu-

dents? There are ways to learn to handle it all and stayhappy, but it takes acknowledging the reality of somenot-so-simple truths:

Having It All is a Fantasy; HavingEnough Can be Reality

Learn to accept the fact that none of the tasks will bedone to the level of perfection that would be possible ifthere were more hours in a day or fewer responsibili-ties to manage.

Be Prepared to Spend All IncomeManaging family, a category which can include chil-

dren, house, and aging parents, demands flexibilitycoupled with enough money to allow the purchase ofgood support for the family’s needs. Good childcare isworth the cost and will allow parents to feel goodabout their time at work. When children are very

young, especially if there is more than one child in thefamily, childcare costs can exceed one parent’s income.Despite this, most scientists would never consider notworking. Flexibility in childcare arrangements isimportant since different solutions to the need forquality childcare arise in response to the differingneeds of the children as they grow. For example, overtime, childcare arrangements may evolve from a

Good childcare is worth the cost andwill allow parents to feel good abouttheir time at work.


CHAPTER 8 • PARENTHOOD & SCIENCE CAREERS 81

European au pair to a progressive day carecenter to family day care. In addition, specialneeds of two-career couples or of the chil-dren may dictate a particular arrangement. Achild who is chronically ill with ear infec-tions contracted in a day care setting makesit difficult for parents to work consistenthours. A live-in childcare provider may bethe best solution in this case.

Do Not Micromanage theFamily

Many women tend to believe that theyhave to run the house the way their mothersdid: take total responsibility for raising thechildren and doing all the housework. Thatmodel simply does not work. Fathers deserveto play as important a role as mothers do inthe lives of the children. If mothers allow thisto happen, it will free up their time and buildclose relationships between children anddad. Take pleasure in knowing that the chil-dren and their dad can get along fine whenmom has to work extra hours. Many mothersresent spending home time cleaning andcooking, rather than playing with the chil-dren and doing school projects and home-work. If this is the case, hire a housekeeper,learn to be more tolerant of the messes, orboth. If there isn’t time to cook, order takeoutor go out to eat. Homework can be startedafter the meal has been ordered and beforethe food arrives at the table.

While the Family is Young,Keep the Research Focused onOne or Two Central Problems

Realize that laboratory expansion andpublication rates will be less than those ofcolleagues without young children. The

challenge while the children are young is tostay active and in the game. The researchprograms of many scientists often experi-ence dramatic expansions after their chil-dren are grown.

Set Limits on Hours Spent onTeaching-Related Activities

In collaboration with a supervisor orchairperson, determine how much timeteaching responsibilities should take andstick to that budget. Teaching is often thehardest activity to compartmentalize andjuggle successfully. No matter how well pre-pared a lecture is, there is always anotherpaper to read or a better way to organizeand present the lecture material. Also, adultstudents are demanding, and they requireand deserve mentoring. It is hard to closethe door and focus on research when active-

ly teaching a course or mentoring a studentin the lab. But, just as parents have to learnto let their children grow up, teachers haveto learn to let students solve some of theirown problems and identify additionalresource people.

Teaching assistants and secretaries canhandle some of the students’ academic andpersonal questions; let them.

If you keep in mind these not-so-simpletruths, you will be able to keep all those ballsin the air and stay sane. !

The challenge while the childrenare young is to stay active andin the game.


Optimizing the Family-Career Balance

Elizabeth Marincola The American Society

for Cell Biology

People in general, but perhaps mothers more thananyone, are phenomenal self-rationalizers. Thus,if a woman voluntarily foregoes a profession to

raise her children without conflict of a demandingcareer, she will believe passionately that this choice,and the personal, financial, marital, and moral sacri-fices it entails was the correct one for her family. Noless passionate is the woman who believes that contin-uing to invest in her career as she raises her family is inthe best interest of her family. This should not be sur-prising, since all parents love their children more thananything and put their welfare first.

For those of us who have the choice to work, a cau-tion: if you ever hear the expression “Super Mom” or“Super Dad,” you should immediately reject it andfocus on reality. The Superhuman Parent is an accoladeearned exclusively by women and men who have nochoices. These are parents for whom working is not asocial statement nor a feminist right, but an economicnecessity and often a monotonous burden.

Those who have the luxury of choosing to develop acareer and who are passionate about their work willfind a way to maintain and build it while raising theirfamily. Conversely, those who are fearful of how chil-dren will fit into their impossible life won’t regret find-ing the courage of their conviction: parenthood will

Talk about the day’s excitement orproblem in a way your children canunderstand. This allows them to getcloser to you by sharing your realfrustrations and satisfactions... Asktheir advice; it may be good.

CHAPTER 8 • PARENTHOOD & SCIENCE CAREERS 83

make the importance of everything else fadein comparison.

Simultaneously building a career and rais-ing a family demands tradeoffs among time,money and intimacy. For example, parentsmay wish to be the one to take their children tothe pediatrician or participate in school fieldtrips. However, if others do the laundryand/or grocery shopping, there is little emo-tional “expense” to the family. Invest in thebest possible childcare and homecare you canfind. Even if one entire income is devoted tothese needs in the early years, it should be con-sidered an investment in career and family.

Work hard, long and efficiently when pos-sible in order to be free of guilt when the chil-dren need you. Conversely, go on every fieldtrip you can so when you can’t, you won’thear, “but Mom, you never come!” Try toavoid regularly constraining both ends of theworkday. Many partners develop a patternwhereby one goes to work early, even beforethe children wake up, while the other gets thechildren to school or daycare before going towork. The partner on the early shift may beable to get home correspondingly early, andsupervise homework while cooking dinner,allowing the late shift partner to work intothe evening. In this way, each can take advan-tage of precious quiet work time, while max-imizing the hours in the day that children canenjoy parental attention.

All parents are anxious to maximize timewith their children. Scientists may be moreanxious than most, because time is particu-larly precious, and maybe because anxiety isin their nature. Here are some nuts-and-bolts

suggestions from one mother’s thirty child-years of experience:

• If just those and all those for whom you aredirectly responsible (typically children andspouse) are at home, don’t answer thephone. That’s why God invented voicemail. There’s nothing that can’t wait. Aninvolved conversation easily derails anactivity or conversation.

• Eat dinner together every possible night.This may mean late dinners and/or resum-ing work (preferably from home) after chil-dren are in bed. As my grandfather the Rabbiused to say, “there’s no greater blessing thaneight [or ten or six] feet under the table.”

• Eliminate music, telephone or other dis-tractions when your children are in the car.The conversation it can inspire is amazing.A typical moment: total silence from yourfive-year-old for three blocks, followed by avoice from the backseat: “when people die,the world still stays here... right?”

“Quality time” is defined by acommon focus and the opportu-nity for satisfying conversation.


If those for whom you aredirectly responsible (typicallychildren and spouse) are athome, don’t answer the phone.That’s why God invented voice mail.

As my grandfather the Rabbiused to say, “there’s no greaterblessing than eight [or ten orsix] feet under the table.”

• “Quality time” is defined by a commonfocus and the opportunity for satisfyingconversation. Thus, pulling weeds can berichly rewarding; conversely, the circus orballpark may contribute little to your rela-tionship with your children if other adultsdemand your attention and the children arereduced to an annoyance.

• Involve your children in your work inappropriate ways as they grow. The less ofa black hole the office or lab, the less mys-tery and resentment it engenders. Talkabout the day’s excitement or problem in away your children can understand. Thisallows them to get closer to you by sharing

your real frustrations and satisfactions, andalso helps cultivate their skills of listening,empathy and analysis. Ask their advice; itmay be good.

The key to sanity may be to eliminateeverything imaginable that serves neitheryour family relationship nor your career. Thismay include activities which seemed indis-pensible previously, like regular routines ofreading the newspaper or working out.

A career in science is a noble investment insociety but it is also an economic and moralinvestment in your family. Parents who active-ly seek to peel away expendable burdens, andaccount aggressively for their expendability,may be pleasantly surprised that even a careerin science, as demanding as it may be, canleave significant time for the family, as long asthere are no illusions that there will be muchtime for anything else. But, then again, noth-ing else will seem as fun and satisfying. !

Adapted from the Fae Golden Kass Lecture bythe author, Harvard Medical School, May 1999.


Eliminate music, telephone orother distractions when yourchildren are in the car. Theconversation it can inspire isamazing.

9. EXPLORING VENUESFOR SCIENCE

Breaking Into Biotech

Research at a Small Institution:Not as Different as You Think


Breaking Into Biotech

Leslie Holsinger Sugen Inc.

Qualifications for employment in the biotech-nology industry can vary. For a scientist-levelposition, most biotech companies want some-

one with either a PhD or an MD, and at least threeyears of postdoctoral experience. You don’t need previ-ous experience in industry such as an internship. Somecompanies do offer postdoctoral positions. This can bea wonderful avenue into a company and can lead to apermanent position as a staff scientist after a few years.However, some companies have specific protocolsabout permanent hiring of internal postdoctoral fel-lows. You need to ask about the company’s policiesbefore taking a postdoctoral position.

Job openings can occur at any time, but manybiotech companies do their annual review and budg-eting in December. New positions are often createdthen and hiring begins in January. A few companiesalso do budgeting in July, with subsequent hiringcycles in the fall.

Apply for as many jobs as interest you! It’s impor-tant to mount a wide job search that lets you interviewat a number of places in parallel within a short periodof time. That way, you can compare positions andcompare companies. Equally important, biotech com-panies move fast, much faster than your average uni-versity. You can expect a hiring decision within a fewweeks. However, if you are offered a position, they’llexpect an acceptance from you within two or three

Postdoctoral positions...can be awonderful avenue into a company andcan lead to a permanent position as astaff scientist after a few years.


CHAPTER 9 • EXPLORING VENUES FOR SCIENCE 87

weeks. You need to be prepared to makeyour decision fairly rapidly. That’s why youwant all the offers on the table within a shortperiod of time.

Send your CV and cover letter to “HR”—Human Resources. However, personal con-tacts are extremely important in biotech. Sosend a copy to a contact within the compa-ny as well. This could be a personalacquaintance or just a friend of a friend butfind a name if you can. Be creative. Theimportant thing is to bring your CV to theattention of the hiring manager, the personyou’ll be working for, and nothing helpslike a referral from someone already in thecompany.

Conferences are an excellent place to makebiotech contacts. Look for poster abstractsand presentations by scientists from particu-lar companies. Approach them with com-ments and questions, and leave them a CV.

You can also go to the web sites of interest-ing companies. Most biotech companies put alot of effort into their sites. They’ll tell you alot about what the company does plus therewill be up-to-date job listings. At the veryleast, you can get the HR departmentaddress. There are also biotech job web sitessuch as www.biospace.com. Read the ads inscientific journals. If you find a company thatinterests you that isn’t hiring, it’s still a goodidea to send a CV to HR. Biotech is dynamicand new openings can appear at any time.

To a certain extent, companies seek scien-tists with specialized skills and interests. Ifyou are a graduate student now but planningon a career in biotech, it might be a good idea

to see what specific skills are in demand inbiotech and consider widening your skill set.However, the nature of the biotech industryis that things change quickly. Projects andpriorities can be restructured overnight. Thebest candidate is still a well-rounded scientistwith a wide breadth of skills and experiencesthat can be applied to many problems. Youalso need to be someone who likes change.

In the interview process, candidates are typ-ically invited to spend a day at a company, usu-ally at the company’s expense. You’ll be askedto give a seminar, and then to meet with thehiring manager for that position. You’ll meetthe other researchers with whom you wouldbe working. Be prepared for a long, exhaustingday, from early in the morning and on through

dinner. You’ll probably meet with someonefrom Human Resources who will discusssalary and benefits. Salary should not be afocus of an interview, but come prepared witha range for an acceptable salary. This is impor-tant. A company wants to know if your expec-tations are in line with that particular position.Job candidates are only invited back for a sec-ond interview if it’s close between candidates.

There are four components of a successfulinterview. First: communication. You have to

Conferences are an excellentplace to make biotech contacts.Look for poster abstracts andpresentations by scientists fromparticular companies.

Send your CV to HR but send acopy to a contact within thecompany as well.

Companies are more focusednow, and often look for someonewith specific qualifications.

be able to communicate your scientificknowledge and interests. Biotech puts a bigemphasis on teamwork and interviewers arelooking for someone who communicateseffectively within the team. Get a colleagueto give you a mock interview and pretendshe doesn’t know anything about your work.Prepare and practice clear and conciseanswers to common interview questionsahead of time, such as “what is the most sig-nificant thing you have done in your scien-tific career?” or “what is the reason you havechosen to look for a career in biotech?”Second: plan a good seminar. Your presenta-tion should be well-prepared and executedbut also tailored to your audience. Don’t

assume they know your patch of science.Find out from the hiring manager prior toyour interview who the audience will be,and try to assess their interests. Make sureyou give them a good introduction to yoursubject and don’t bog down in details or sideissues. In addition, try to relate your work tothe company’s objectives. This is a differentkind of seminar than you might be used to.You are the real subject and your audiencewants to know how you and your workrelate to them. That’s the third thing:research the company before the interview.

Find out who will be at your seminar andlook up their publications. Read about thecompany in the business and scientific press.Find out if they have competitors andresearch them. Outside the seminar, be pre-pared to ask questions about the day-to-dayoperations of the division where you wouldbe working. Ask about the culture at thecompany, and whether you will be encour-aged to publish your work and attend con-ferences. In addition, you need to have yourcareer goals in mind. Your interviewers willwant to know where you see yourself goingat the company. Are you strictly a researcheror does the business or management side ofbiotech interest you? Fourth: Follow-up.After the interview, send thank you notes toeveryone with whom you interviewed.Thank them for having given you the oppor-tunity to speak and for the chance to inter-view. Good follow-up shows you have it all:communication, planning, research andenthusiasm. !

This article is based on an interview of Holsingerby Maureen Brandon.


Get a colleague to give you amock interview and pretend shedoesn’t know anything aboutyour work.

Try to relate your work to thecompany’s objectives. This is adifferent kind of seminar thanyou might be used to. You arethe real subject and youraudience wants to know how youand your work relate to them.

Research at a Small Institution:Not as Different as You Think

What do you mean research at a small insti-tution? Isn’t that an oxymoron?They only teach at small schools, don’t

they? Rest assured you won’t be the only one askingthese questions. But a research career at a small institu-tion can become a career alternative that isn’t really,well... all that alternative.

Why Choose a Smaller Institution?What would possess someone who had spent a

decade in training to actively choose to work at a small-er institution? The general consensus of the small insti-tution faculty interviewed cite these critical factors: 1)they enjoy teaching; 2) they like the job security and thefact that their salaries are derived from 100% hardmoney, and/or 3) they prefer the reduced pressure topublish at smaller institutions, but rejoice in the oppor-tunity to maintain a research program.

These faculty consider their teaching ability astrength and couldn’t imagine not having daily stu-dent contact. They also feel that teaching is taken

more seriously at smaller institutions and rewardedmore appropriately. “I get jazzed from teaching,”says Yolanda Cruz of Oberlin College. “When I waslooking for a job, I applied to several different kindsof institutions. During an interview at the NIH I wasassured that if I took the job, I would never have toteach again, as though this were a great perk. This


Dianna BourkeUniversity of Charleston

During an interview at the NIH I wasassured that if I took the job, I wouldnever have to teach again, as thoughthis were a great perk.

really upset me because I like to teach!”Elisa Konieczko, Assistant Professor atGannon University in Erie, Pennsylvania,indicated that, “although I was happydoing research as a postdoc at Yale, itbecame very clear to me that only doingresearch would not be enough. I had to getback to teaching.”

Job stability was often cited as an attrac-tion to smaller schools. This is based on theassumption that it is easier to get tenure at asmaller place because of decreased publish-ing demands. Though tenure is beginning tobe more of a moving target in some cases,this is often the case. Cruz recalls that, “whenI asked in the NIH interview what wouldhappen after the initial six-year appoint-ment, I was given the vague answerthat hopefully another position would openup. I didn’t really want to be searching for anew job at the age of 41.” Kathryn Loesser-Casey of Mary Washington College inFredericksburg, Virginia, had other con-cerns: “when I was looking for a job, my hus-band said, ‘I will follow you wherever youchoose, but plan to make it permanentbecause that will be where I set up my med-ical practice.’” All the faculty interviewedagreed that not having to derive any of theirsalary from grant monies was an attraction.Limited travel support from the institutionfor scholarly endeavors was even includedin some recruitment offers.

Research at a SmallerInstitution

What about research at smaller schools?Faculty agree that research publishingrequirements for tenure and promotion attheir institutions are considerably moremodest in numbers of papers than in theschools where they had trained. But all cau-tion that quality of work was still an impor-tant issue in tenure review. After having wit-

nessed the daily routine of their advisorsand colleagues, most indicate that they hadactively chosen a place where researchoccurred at a different pace. At the sametime they accept that effective research in asmall school environment can be a chal-lenge. It is critical to keep in mind the mainfocus of your school to avoid frustrationwhen, for example, students don’t work asintensely as university graduate students orwhen the school refuses to buy equipment.

SupportAn increasing number of small institutions

are beginning to set aside realistic funds tosupport space, equipment and faculty-releasetime. While this transition is positive, it alsoironically increases pressure to meet newlyintensified research requirements for the

most junior faculty members. Echoing con-cerns typical at research-intensive institu-tions, some indicate that this is resulting inunrealistic tenure expectations.


After having witnessed the dailyroutine of their advisors andcolleagues, most indicated thatthey had actively chosen a placewhere research occurred at adifferent pace.

An increasing number of smallinstitutions are beginning to setaside realistic funds to supportspace, equipment and faculty-release time.



The level of support for such things asfacilities, equipment and money for con-sumables varies widely from school toschool. The more exclusive liberal arts col-leges have more money. “It’s the cash-strapped privates and the old teachers’ col-leges or branch campuses that have thesesorts of [funding] issues,” observes DeborahCook of Clark Atlanta University in Atlanta,Georgia. Of the faculty polled, start-upfunds were reported from high four-figureamounts to a comparatively generous$50,000. Continuing funds are oftenobtained by intramural competitive propos-als for small amounts of $1,000 to as much asthe low five figures. Clearly, very little in theway of equipment can be bought for suchamounts while still allowing anything leftover for experiments, so obtaining equip-ment is often left as a complicated dance

with administration. My first Director ofAcademic Affairs was a historian, and thefigures I quoted for laboratory equipmentboggled his mind. “Faculty at smaller insti-tutions are caught in a frustrating cyclewhen competing for external support: review-ers often respond to such requests by indi-cating that the item should be provided byone’s institution. But the institutiondepends on faculty to get equipment bywriting grants!”, notes Cynthia Galloway ofTexas A&M’s Kingsville campus. Fortunately,more grants for smaller institutions arebeing offered both by the NIH and the NSF.An old standby for obtaining equipment is

to write a grant for educational purposesand use it during non-class time for yourresearch.

PersonnelIf you like hands-on science, small colleges

may be the perfect opportunity, because usu-ally there is no one else around to do thework. Unless you manage to get a majorgrant with money for a technician, the mostconsistent workforce for the lab is under-graduate students. Some places may have

master’s degree programs, but the majoritydo not. “You need to pick [undergraduates]out early and grow them up,” half-jokesCruz. Of course it takes a lot of time to trainand supervise undergraduates; often justwhen they become productive, they move on.Many institutions have student stipends tosupport research during the school year orover the summer. A consistent comment wasthat research must be divided into small, dis-crete, do-able units that the students can han-dle within the school calendar. Despite thedifficulties, working with undergraduatescan prove invigorating.

Isolation and Alienation“So when are you going to get a real job?”

“You aren’t planning on staying there, areyou?” These questions are familiar to small-school faculty. How does the ego handle theperception by some colleagues that taking ajob at a small institution is opting out of sci-ence, failing, or even worse? The answer is

Fortunately, more grants forsmaller institutions are beingoffered both by the NIH and the NSF.

Research must be divided intosmall, discrete, do-able unitsthat the students can handlewithin the school calendar.

sometimes not very well, but it is hoped thatthis perception will soon change. Several fac-ulty interviewed expressed feelings not ofalienation from their research colleagues, butmore of isolation and feeling left out of main-stream research. They fear that they will beperceived as doing minor league science.

A few years ago at a Keystone SymposiumI found myself standing in the middle of a seaof posters where all kinds of interesting exper-iments were being presented, but I had noposter of my own. I had the most profoundfeeling that I would never be able to do thiskind of work again. Donald Kimmel ofDavidson College in Davidson, NorthCarolina, who made the transition fromBrown to Davidson in 1971, comments, “I hadto change my research completely when Icame to Davidson, to adjust to what was avail-able and to what the students could do.”

Lack of name recognition can also lead to afeeling of isolation. At a national meeting,after a quick look at my badge, the first com-ment I get is, “Charleston, South Carolina,what a lovely town.” I agree, except that I’min West Virginia. I have developed a sense ofhumor and learned to carry a map. Karen Leefrom the University of Pittsburgh atJohnstown is frequently asked, “is that wherethey had the flood?” She claims to get sym-pathy, but that is not what she is after.

A problem that many scientists face is dis-cipline isolation. In a four-person depart-ment, one colleague might be a marine biolo-gist, one an environmental biologist, anotheran invertebrate physiologist and another abiomedically-oriented cell biologist. “You

just have to make your own rules,” notesCruz. A mentor may not be as near as the nextoffice, but as near as the Internet instead.

Many departments have never dealt withbench-type cell biologists before and all arehaving to make adjustments. Many of theolder faculty at smaller schools were fieldbiologists who gathered their data in the sum-mer and crunched it for the rest of the year.This is assuming they did any research at all;many did not. This dichotomy may inevitablylead to tension between modern and tradi-tional scientists in the same department.

Finding a New CollegialityHow does one make research in a small

school work? Adapt to your environment,find a way to change what must be changed,compromise where possible, ask for help,have extreme patience... and win the lottery.Asking for help is possibly the most criticaladvice, but it is often the most difficult thingto do. Reviving old research ties can open

doors ranging from full-scale collaborationsto simply borrowing equipment. Try to makenew contacts with people you admire.


A mentor may not be as near asthe next office, but as near asthe Internet instead.

A good scientist shouldn’t carewhere you work as long as yourwork is creative and good.

Many of the older faculty atsmaller schools were fieldbiologists who gathered theirdata in the summer andcrunched it for the rest of the year.



Sometimes it is difficult not to feel like a poorrelation at a holiday dinner, but pride will getyou nowhere. It is surprising how receptivepeople can be to ideas as long as you knowyour science and pull your weight. A goodscientist shouldn’t care where you work aslong as your work is creative and good.

The emergence of highly trained cell biolo-gists with extensive training who have estab-lished their research careers at smaller

schools is creating a new breed of cell biolo-gist, with needs and concerns that are differ-ent from their peers at research-intensive uni-versities or from those at schools that requireno research at all. A note to university-basedinvestigators: ads for jobs at smaller institu-tions outnumber those at high profile institu-tions by a considerable margin, so treat thisnew breed of scientists with the respect theydeserve. They are coming out of your labs! !


10. WOMEN & SCIENCE CAREERSWhy Women Leave Science

Shaping the Future for Women in Science


Why Women Leave Science

Caroline M. KaneUniversity of California

Berkeley

Consider the following statistics from the recent past1:

• Women were 51% of the U.S. population and 46% ofits labor force, yet they comprised only 22% of thescience and engineering labor force.

• Women were 44% of the total number of graduatestudents in all the sciences, and 48% of the totalnumber of graduate students in the biological sci-ences.

• Women earned 40% of the Ph.D.s in the biologicalsciences (compared to 33% ten years before).

• Women comprised only 24% of the faculty in scienceand engineering and only 27% in the biosciences(while they comprised 44% of the faculty in non-sci-ence and engineering disciplines).

• Of all women who were science and engineering fac-ulty, 36.5% were at public, 2-year institutions, while17.5% were at research institutions.

What contributes to the contrast between the nearly50% representation of women at the undergraduate andgraduate levels to their 26% representation in the lifesciences labor force? Why are women leaving science?

More women than men begin leaving science evenas undergraduates. Many women (and men) enter uni-versity or college from a supportive high school back-ground where teachers and advisors have encouragedthe students’ interests and developed the students’skills in science. Once at the college level, many womenin the sciences feel “pressure, isolation, powerlessnessand the constant need to prove themselves” in the faceof an educational “system designed to induct youngmen into an adult male social structure”.2 That is, the


CHAPTER 10 • WOMEN & SCIENCE CAREERS 97

socialization of white males is well served,but the different expectations and require-ments of women are often misunderstood,ignored or belittled. These include issues ofself-confidence; for example, admitting dif-

ficulty in a subject may be interpreted as aweakness rather than an interest in sharinginformation in the process of learning. Inone study2, many undergraduate womendid not think that they were doing as well orwere as well qualified as others in the class-es, even in cases where the grades receivedsaid just the opposite! Also, organized helpfor academic work may be viewed by somefaculty as remedial rather than as an impor-tant means for students to more thoroughlyintegrate information. Many of the expecta-tions and requirements may also be sharedby men, although the culture of science andengineering has been more focused on a

make-it-or-break-it, win-lose dichotomy.Learning as a competition instead of as anend in itself can often get in the way of suc-cess in the classroom, and having to fightagainst other students for a grade can be

very discouraging when understanding isthe overall goal.

Even given different perceptions amongmen and women, the top five reasons givenby both men and women for switching out ofscience and engineering majors are thesame.2 Thus, both men and women whoswitched majors felt that their original reasonfor choosing the major proved inappropriate,that there was poor teaching by the faculty,that there was inadequate advising or helpwith academic problems, that other majorsoffered a better education or more interest,and that they were “turned off science.” Menand women defined “good teaching” and“good academic performance” differently,however. For women, good teaching includ-ed being able to establish a personal relation-ship with a faculty member; the faculty mem-ber needed to be interested in the student aswell as the course material. For men, goodteaching focused on presentation of material.For women, “good academic performance”based on tests and scores was not sufficient todoing well. They were doing well if they feltmore integrated into the discipline by estab-lishing the relationship with the professor(s).Networking and mentoring with the facultyare valuable routes to learning about a pro-fession and about others who are successfulin that profession.

In contrast, perpetuating the idea that sci-ence is “hard” and therefore only available toan “elite” with the inherent ability to dealwith the material provides permission forfaculty to continue to “weed out” rather thaneducate students with a genuine interest andaptitude for biology, and its predecessorcourses, math, chemistry and physics. Onthis particular point, switchers and non-switchers were found to be of similar apti-tude and ability, whether men or women.2

Women are more likely to internalize criti-cism and negative feedback as indicators that

The socialization of white malesis well served, but the differentexpectations and requirements ofwomen are often misunderstood,ignored or belittled.

Learning as a competitioninstead of as an end in itself canoften get in the way of successin the classroom.

they are less capable, less on top of the classwork, and perhaps the only ones having dif-ficulty with the material. The message to stu-dents is that the less effort needed for navi-gating the system, the more savvy you are.

When women enter a system in the sciencesthat has been developed for and has workedwell for white men for years, they often getthe message that they are outsiders—not thatthey are overtly unwelcome, but that theydon’t know the rules. Having guides, advi-sors, older peers, and faculty who validatetheir concerns and work with them to findlearning strategies that work for them are allessential. Note that this applies as well tomen, and that many men also leave the sci-ences for reasons having little to do withchanges in interest or a lack of ability. Morewomen, proportionately, leave perhapsbecause the system is not designed to inductthem into the adult world of women as muchas it is, as suggested by Seymour andHewitt2, an extension of the system thatyoung men have been experiencing theirentire lives. Perhaps the “underlying cause ofwomen’s difficulties lies in the structuredincapacity of the traditional science, math,and engineering system to meet the educa-tional needs of a diverse student popula-tion”2. Indeed, many similar issues impactminority students and scientists.

However, college and university faculty,both men and women, are not the sole expla-nation for why women leave science. Indeed,many faculty men and women are encourag-

ing young women to continue to pursue theirinterests in biology careers and to considerand pursue careers in secondary and highereducation and research. Nearly 50% of theundergraduate degrees in the biological sci-ences are awarded to women; so, manywomen are not switching to other majors,despite the challenges of working within thebiological sciences. Indeed, nearly 50% of thegraduate student population in biology arewomen and 40% of the awarded Ph.D.’s inthe biological sciences go to women. But ifwomen are only 26% of the life sciences laborforce, then where are these women going?Three recent articles in Science addressedwhat happens to women during the develop-ment of their professional careers.3,4,5

Many women choose careers considered“alternative” (read, “non-research” ) becausethey find them more compatible with havinga family, more intellectually rewarding, evenmore financially remunerative and personal-ly satisfying than independent researchcareers. Men now are catching on to thesealternatives as well. When a larger number ofmen and women with advanced degrees inthe biological sciences enter business, law,journalism and the media, environmentalwork, consulting, primary and secondary


Women are more likely tointernalize criticism andnegative feedback as indicatorsthat they are less capable.

Many women choose careersconsidered “alternative” (read,“non-research” ) because theyfind them more compatible withhaving a family, moreintellectually rewarding, evenmore financially remunerativeand personally satisfying thanindependent research careers.



education, science education, government,and the myriad of other professions, perhapsthe word “alternative” will be dropped.

Yet, independent research careers in aca-demia, research institutions, or industry inwhich one develops approaches to decipherthe workings of biological processes certain-ly are considered quite prestigious anddesirable. Many women have this career asan aspiration upon entering graduateschool. What happens to them once theyhave taken the first step to an independentresearch career?

Perhaps these research positions are lesscompatible with a variety of personal andfamily concerns. Very few women have apartner whose career revolves around coordi-nating house and home and family in orderto allow her to pursue her professional career.With more two-career couples in researchcareers, there are many more examples ofsuccessful sharing of parenting and homeresponsibilities; yet, again and again, basedon survey after survey, the larger share isassumed by the woman. This disproportionmay be fully appropriate for individual rela-tionships, but the issue is one of balancingcareer and personal issues to ensure that thepleasure of “doing science” remains fullyworth the effort to do it.

Another problem women often encounteris how their behavior is perceived andaccepted. Successful women very often havewonderful aggressive and persistent behav-

iors, as do their male colleagues, that allowthem to follow their curiosity into scientificquestions. These behaviors on their part aresometimes viewed as negative by colleaguesunaccustomed to women savoring fully thegusto of scientific discovery. On the otherhand, a very feminine woman scientist(redundancy noted) might not be taken seri-ously regardless of the creativity and produc-tivity of her research because her appearanceand behavior is beyond the experience of theother “serious” scientists in her department.An increasing number of women faculty andresearchers can contribute to eliminating theinterpretation of these behaviors as unusual.Certainly there are many unusual behaviorsobserved among men scientists, but they are“diluted” by the numbers of men representedin biology departments. The presence ofmore women in the profession and theirspeaking at meetings can condition and teachmen colleagues about inaccurate stereotypesand preconceived notions that interfere withwhat might be their legitimate efforts to wel-come women into the academy.

Finally, a reason consistently mentioned bymany women who choose not to pursue orcontinue a career in the biological sciences isthe competitive environment. However, it isnot competition per se that sours the profes-sional experience, as many women enjoycompetition and the rewards and personalsatisfaction that come from “winning.” Thecrux for the sciences is the disconnectbetween a reward system in an intellectualendeavor that relies on “beating one’s com-petition to the finish line” rather than work-ing with others to try to derive the answers tobiological questions in a rapid, efficient, andcollaborative fashion that highlights the joyof learning about life’s mysteries. The notionof winners and losers in scientific research islimited since scientific discoveries are basedon years of prior work by many others.

Very few women have a partnerwhose career revolves aroundcoordinating house and homeand family in order to allow herto pursue her professional career.

Recognition of a new insight is important andextremely worthwhile, but an ethos based onhaving a loser rather than upon making a sig-nificant positive contribution requires settingup battlegrounds. These types of engage-ments have far too much impact on the defi-nition of success in the sciences, and the logic,or lack thereof, of this behavior is often loston successful professional women.

From experiences during education toexperiences in the professions, women andmen are confronted with positive and nega-tive feedback regarding careers in the biologi-cal sciences. Earlier networking and mentor-ing advice to students and junior colleagueswould serve to help women determine

whether biological science is indeed the pas-sion of their professional lives. The network-ing and mentoring that help in that decisionmaking need to continue as the young profes-sionals, and senior professionals, progress intheir careers and encounter new issues unre-lated to the passion for the discipline, butdirectly related to their ability to be successfulin pursuing that discipline. From introduc-tions at a national meeting to appointmentsonto powerful institutional committees,engaging women in the positive process ofscience as well as the pleasure of science mayencourage more women to commit their ener-gies to staying rather than leaving. !

References1. NSF Report NSF 96-311, “Women, Minorities, and

Persons with Disabilities in Science and Engineering: 1996.”2. Seymour, E. and Hewitt, N. M., 1994 Talking about

Leaving, Final report to the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation on anethnographic inquiry at seven institutions

3. Science 255, 1365-1388 (1992) Women in Science, FirstAnnual Survey.

4. Etzkowitz et al., Science 266, 51-54 (1994) The Paradox ofCritical Mass for Women in Science.

5. Science 271, 1901-1921 (1996) Maintaining Diversity inScience.


The notion of winners andlosers in scientific research islimited since scientific discoveriesare based on years of prior workby many others.

Shaping the Future forWomen in Science

Maxine Singer The Carnegie Institution

of Washington

B right and early one morning in the mid-1960s, thetelephone rang in my laboratory; it was the exec-utive secretary (as Scientific Review

Administrators were then known) of an NIH study sec-tion. Would I become a member of a biochemistrystudy section? I chuckled, and said, “no thank you, youhaven’t wanted me or thought me qualified before,”and as far as I knew nothing much had changed sincethe previous afternoon except that President LyndonJohnson had decreed that all Federal Government advi-sory committees would, henceforth, have a substantialnumber of female members. I’d been getting alongquite well without all that additional work and mightjust as well stick to the laboratory. But in the end, myego or the promise of influence or the argument thatmy service would be good for female scientists got tome. I succumbed and did agree to be the token on var-ious committees, though not a study section. I accom-plished some interesting and important work for sci-ence — but also wasted many hours.

Many female colleagues from my generation can tellsimilar stories. Often, we served on even more com-mittees and boards than our male colleagues because,given our small numbers and the mandated require-ments for representation by women, we were needed,or so it was said. Some of us served on too many suchbodies, giving up a great deal of time that could havebeen spent in the laboratory, the clinic, with our fami-lies, or walking on a beach.

In 1990, 25 years after President Johnson’s directive,I was completing a term on an influential interdiscipli-nary committee of the National Academy of Sciences.Members were discussing possible replacements forthose about to rotate off the group. Physicists suggest-ed physicists, biochemists suggested biochemists, andso forth. They turned to me and said that, with mydeparture, the committee would be without a female

CHAPTER 10 • WOMEN & SCIENCE CAREERS

member and would I please offer some ideasfor women who might be appointed? I point-ed out that people carrying two X chromo-somes did not constitute a particular branchof science, and I thought that they wouldknow the women in their own fields betterthan I would, so why didn’t they come upwith the names. It was, I said, their responsi-bility, not mine, to be sure that women werepart of the committee.

Since then, a great deal of progress hasbeen made and the opportunities for womenin research are substantially improved. Whenthe New York Times Science Times featured astory about telomeres, all the major contribu-tors credited were women, starting withBarbara McClintock’s studies on chromo-some stability right through to the work ofElizabeth Blackburn and Carol Greider.

Yet, we have to face up to the fact that affir-mative action, no matter how laudable it is,has worked at a snail’s pace. Many superb,accomplished female scientists have beentrained in the last 25 years, but so few havereached the professorial ranks, and so manyare still being discouraged. A 1992 Sciencemagazine issue on women in sciencedescribed the situation as so dismal that evenchemistry was characterized as a field thatwas middling on opportunities for women,somewhere between neurobiology, seen aspretty good, and mathematics, which was the

pits. Yet, at how many chemistry depart-ments do women abound and feel as thoughthey belong?

We can wait around for a while longer inthe hope that progress will slowly continue.In the meanwhile, a lot of money that couldbe used for good science will be spent onstudies that try to determine why affirmativeaction has not worked more rapidly, and why

young female scientists disappear some-where between their Ph.D. or M.D. degreesand the assistant professor positions.Ultimately, all the “old school” men who stillcall us “honey” will age sufficiently to retireand maybe, just maybe, the younger men willbe different.

But it seems to me that waiting around isinsufficient. Current strategies have animportant flaw. No matter how hard we maywork to have them succeed, they depend ulti-mately on other people, mainly men, chang-ing their attitudes and expectations. At aGordon Conference organized by Princetonbiochemist [later president] Shirley Tilghman


Would I become a member of abiochemistry study section? I chuckled, and said, “no thankyou, you haven’t wanted me orthought me qualified before,”and as far as I knew nothingmuch had changed...

...except that President LyndonJohnson had decreed that allFederal Government advisorycommittees would, henceforth,have a substantial number offemale members.

I pointed out that peoplecarrying two X chromosomesdid not constitute a particularbranch of science.


in 1988, fully 33% of speakers were women;two years later, at another conference on thesame subject organized by men, there weretwo female speakers. The contrast is power-ful. Yet, when we speak of recruitment, reten-tion, and reentry, we mean getting the currentresearch institution hierarchies to be respon-sible for the advancement of women; theworkplace climate is set by the current facul-ties, overwhelmingly men.

We need a strategy that depends onwomen. One that assumes we will expendour energies on improving the opportunityfor women to succeed in biomedical careers,not on complaining about the failure of oth-ers to do so. At their best, our networks helpall of us cope with problems and disappoint-ments. But how will effective connections bemade between the best of networks and theplaces where decisions are being made?Networks can provide sympathetic ears, butthey cannot easily provide a laboratory ofone’s own. And who really wants to be partof the “old boys’ network”?

We have to stop expecting that our malecolleagues will change. The fact is, many ofthem are, understandably and appropriately,much more concerned about their ownresearch than about the status of women. Weneed to face the reality of our colleagues’ambitions, recognize our own, and acknowl-

edge that ours will not change theirs. Indeed,ambition and competition are mostly con-structive contributors to good science. AsWallace Stegner puts it in his novel Crossingto Safety, “unconsidered, merely indulged,ambition becomes a vice; it can turn a maninto a machine that knows nothing but howto run. Considered, it can be something else— pathway to the stars, maybe.” We cannotexpect that our male colleagues will becomemore collegial, less ambitious, or less compet-itive to meet our needs, and it is probably notdesirable from the point of view of science.

There is another flaw in our current strate-gies. They address the world as it is, not as itwill be. Our energies should go into makingsure that the future gets shaped to fosterwomen’s contributions to science. A newstrategy, therefore, must have three essentialelements. First, we must strive to do the bestscience that we can: the most original, the

Current strategies have animportant flaw. No matter howhard we may work to have themsucceed, they depend ultimatelyon other people, mainly men,changing their attitudes andexpectations.

Many superb, accomplishedfemale scientists have beentrained in the last 25 years, butso few have reached theprofessorial ranks, and so manyare still being discouraged.

We have to stop expecting thatour male colleagues willchange...We need to face thereality of our colleagues’ambitions, recognize our own,and acknowledge that ours willnot change theirs.


most rigorous, the most interesting. Second,we must depend on ourselves and not onothers to enable us to contribute to scienceand, thus, to human welfare. Third, we mustmake certain that we have a substantial say inthe shape of the future. To achieve this, wecan gather some clues from our male col-leagues who have, in the past 40 years, builtan extraordinarily successful research enter-prise in our country. They, like the scientistsconcerned with telomeres, have chosenavenues of inquiry that opened new fieldsand expanded our very sense of what thequestions are. We should emulate that butwith our own agenda. In so doing we willmove from the periphery, from being suppli-cants for fair treatment, to being the shapersof the future.

Consider the phenomenon of menopause.What fundamental aspects of living thingswill be revealed when we understand thisprofound change? What will the implicationsbe for understanding aging in general?Consider contraception. Adolescents in theUnited States become sexually active at aboutthe same age and rate as teens in Canada andSweden, but the U.S. leads the industrializedworld in teen pregnancy. Clearly, more choic-es among effective contraceptives are desper-

ately needed. Work in this area is likely toproduce a substantial, fundamental under-standing of the processes of ovulation, oocyte

and sperm maturation, and fertilization. Asuccessful effort might also yield innovativeroutes out of a political issue that is tearingour country apart: access to abortion. Ourmale colleagues have not insisted that contra-ception be on the active research agenda, butwe should be strongly motivated to guaran-tee that it is.

This area of research is important for yetanother reason: the increasing world-wideconcern for the environment. We all decry theextinction of uncounted, even unknownspecies. We need to face the fact that theunchecked expansion of our own species is aroot cause of the loss of biological diversity.

The agenda I am proposing will not be easyto achieve. In our country, there are powerfulpolitical forces that would prefer to forget thatthe ramifications of sex are central to all ourlives. At least in part, such views reflect adeep denial of women and women’s legiti-mate rights and interests. Menopause embar-rasses people; contraception not only embar-rasses but also gravely troubles many. Indeed,there are indications that if the antiabortionforces succeed in turning back the clock byoverturning Roe v. Wade, they will then active-ly pursue an anticontraception agenda. Butsolid biomedical research in these areas willincreasingly legitimize these fields and willmake it more and more difficult to ignore theassociated societal and cultural realities.


There is another flaw in ourcurrent strategies. They addressthe world as it is, not as it willbe. Our energies should go intomaking sure that the future gets shaped to foster women’scontributions to science.

We need a strategy that dependson women. One that assumes wewill expend our energies onimproving the opportunity forwomen to succeed in biomedicalcareers, not on complaining aboutthe failure of others to do so.


A sound scientific agenda, based on vitalissues of concern to women, is one way topromote the role and status of female scien-tists. We must also ensure a healthy presenceof women in Congress. Just as our male lead-ers have cultivated the interest of senatorsand representatives in biomedical research toextraordinarily good effect, female scientists,too, can cultivate the interest of women in

Congress to assure the promotion of awomen’s health agenda. The availability ofgrants in research of interest to women andthe excellent science they can support willnot only contribute to the ability of womento capture faculty positions, but they alsowill strengthen bargaining positions duringrecruitment negotiations. Carl Djerassi sug-gested in a letter to Science that extra help forchild care should be considered comparableto the mortgage support that is used as arecruitment device in academic institutions.In families where one spouse’s benefits pro-vide for a family’s health insurance, theother spouse could be offered childcare sup-

port as an employment benefit. There aremany possibilities to think about. The impor-tant thing is to seize the opportunities thatare being offered and to use them to definenew scientific agendas that have the poten-tial for major contributions to knowledgeand alleviate societal problems. From thiscan come a vitality that cannot be ignoredand that will place women at the center ofthe research enterprise. !

Modified and reproduced with permission fromthe NIH Office of Research on Women’s Health(Proceedings of the Workshop on Women inBiomedical Careers: Dynamics of Change, Vol. 1,pp. 49-53, 1992).

References

1. New York Times. Science Times. 9 June 1992. 2. American Association for the Advancement of Science

(AAAS), Science 1992:255(13): 1325-1480. 3. Stegner W. Crossing to safety. New York: Random

House,1987. 4. C. Djerassi, “My Mom, the Professor,” Science, Vol. 239,

10 (1988).


We will move from the periphery,from being supplicants for fairtreatment, to being the shapersof the future.

In our country, there arepowerful political forces thatwould prefer to forget that theramifications of sex are centralto all our lives.

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THE AMERICANTHHEEAAMA SOCIETY FORSOSOCIEETTY …...2 CAREER ADVICE FOR LIFE SCIENTISTS WICB members as providing the most help-ful career advice for life scientists. We trust that