Career Advice for Life Scientists

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Career Advice

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Career Advicefor Life Scientists

T H E A M E R I C A N S O C I E T Y F O R C E L L B I O L O G Y

Volumes I & II

Career Advice

EditorElizabeth Marincola

Executive DirectorJoan Goldberg

Director of PublicationsW. Mark Leader

Editorial and Education Senior ManagerThea Clarke

Reprinted with support from the Office of Research on Women’s Health,The National Institutes of Health

Cover photo by Christopher Pappas(See Molecular Biology of the Cell 19: 1837–1847.)

for Life Scientists


©2002, 2004, 2008 The American Society for Cell Biology

Volumes I & II

Table of Contents: Volume I Introduction to Career Advice for Life Scientists . . . . . . . 1

1. THE HEAD GAME. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3The Impostor Phenomenon . . . . . . . 4Saying “No” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8Unwritten Rules for Advancing Your Career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2. TEACHING & LEARNING . . . . . . . . 15The Scholarship of Teaching . . . . 16Teaching Science in High School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19Getting the Most from Your Graduate Experience. . . . . . . . . . 23

3. COMMUNICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . 27Communicating Effectively inDepartmental Meetings . . . . . . . . 28“And Our Next Speaker Is...” . . . 30The Unicorn in the Garden or Why Cell Biologists Should Meet the Press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

4. MANAGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39A Crash Course in Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40Designing Productive Lab Meetings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43Some Tips on Successful Negotiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

5. LEADERSHIP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49Creative Mentoring Strategies . . . . 50Crossing to the Other Side . . . . . 53Dealing with Unstable Colleagues . 56

6. UNDERREPRESENTATION IN SCIENCE CAREERS. . . . . . . . . . . 59Affirmative Action for the NextGeneration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60Increasing Representation of People of Color in Science . . . . . . 64

7. TENURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67The Tenure Process Viewed from the Top . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68Earning Tenure: Ten Recommendations . . . . . . . . . 71The Negative Tenure Decision . . . 75

8. PARENTHOOD & SCIENCE CAREERS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79Juggling Career and Family . . . . . 80Optimizing the Family-Career Balance . . . . . . . . . 82

9. EXPLORING VENUES FOR SCIENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85Breaking into Biotech. . . . . . . . . . 86Research at a Small Institution: Not as Different as You Think . . . 89

10. WOMEN & SCIENCE CAREERS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95Why Women Leave Science . . . . 96Shaping the Future for Women in Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

vi CAREER ADVICE FOR LIFE SCIENTISTS

Table of Contents: Volume IIIntroduction to Career Advice for Life Scientists II . . . . . . . 109

1. THE LAB COMMUNITY . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Confronting the Social Context of Science . . . . . . . . 112

Conflict Management . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Two Cultures and the Revolution in Biotechnology . . . . . . . 119

2. DEALING WITH EVERYTHING AT ONCE 123

Dual(ing) Academic Careers . . . . . . 124

Effective Time Management . . . . . . . 128

On Being a Scientist and Parent . . . . 132

How to “Get a Life” in the Life Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

3. SCIENTIFIC CITIZENSHIP . . . . . . . . . . . 139

The Misconduct of Others: PreventionTechniques for Researchers . . . . . . . 140

Making a Difference: The Three R’s of Public Science Policy . . . . . . . . . 144

Great Expectations or Realistic Expectations? . . . . . . . . . . 148

4. WRITING AND PUBLISHING. . . . . . . . 151

Me Write Pretty One Day: How to Write a Good Scientific Paper . . . 152

How to Read and Respond to a Journal Rejection Letter . . . . . . . 156

The Role of an Editor: A Delicate Balancing Act . . . . . . . . . 161

What Happened to My Figures?! . . . 164

5. POSTDOC ISSUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

To Eurodoc or Not Eurodoc . . . . . . . 168

Making the Most of Your Postdoctoral Experience . . . . . . . . . 172

Pursuing Science across the Pacific Ocean . . . . . . . . 175

6. CAREER TRANSITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

The Art of the Interview . . . . . . . . . . 180

Salary Negotiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

What Else Can I Do?: ExploringOpportunities in Business and Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

Late Career Opportunities and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

7. GRANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

Study Section Service: An Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

Responding to the NIH Summary Statement . . . . . . . . . 203

8. ACADEMIC CAREERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

Teaching Is Good for Research . . . . . 208

Academic Careers without Tenure . . . 210

9. EFFECTIVE PRESENTATION . . . . . . . . . 215

Do’s and Don’t’s of Poster Presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

You Don’t Have to Shout to Be Heard . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

ENDNOTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

viii CAREER ADVICE FOR LIFE SCIENTISTS

Career Advice for Life ScientistsVolume I


Volume EditorElizabeth Marincola

Production ManagerStephanie Dean

WICB Column EditorsMaureen Brandon, 1998–2001Laura Williams, 1996–2000

Published with support fromthe Office of Researchon Women’s Health,The National Institutes of Health

©2002 The American Society for Cell Biology

Introduction to Career Advice for Life Scientists

T he Women in Cell Biology traces its origins to1971, when a small assembly of Yale colleaguesdetermined to organize a gathering of the few

women attending the 11th Annual Meeting of theAmerican Society for Cell Biology in New Orleans thatyear. They posted flyers on the back of bathroom stallsand thirty women showed up.

The first sustained effort of this pick-up group was a“newsletter”—a bimonthly mimeographed job—featuring entries as diverse and important as sexistadvertisements in scientific journals, job opportunities(though the jobs had not been advertised) and ACLUrulings that women should not be required to use theirhusband’s names, and that single women should qual-ify to receive loans and hold mortgages.

In the subsequent thirty years, women in cell biolo-gy and The Women in Cell Biology have achieved suf-ficient progress as to make early concerns seem almostquaint. But the challenges faced by women in sciencetoday are, while more subtle, still real, and still attract-ing the commitment of dedicated cell biologists. We areproud of contributing to that history.

One of the keys to the success of the Women in CellBiology is that its activities and services have servedthe many male members of the ASCB and the scientificcommunity as well as its women. This has never beenso true as in the past several years, when the challengeof students and post-docs in establishing a satisfyingcareer in the life sciences has become acute. Inresponse, the WICB has given high priority to pro-grams, events, publications and awards that supportthe career aspirations of scientists. In its way, theWomen in Cell Biology Committee has become theheart and soul of the cell biology community.

This volume represents selected articles from theacclaimed Women in Cell Biology column of theaward-winning ASCB Newsletter, those ranked by

W. Sue ShaferChair, Women in Cell Biology Committee

The American Society for Cell Biology1994-1997

Zena Werb Chair, Women in Cell Biology Committee

The American Society for Cell Biology1998-2003

CHAPTER 1 • THE HEAD GAME 1

2 CAREER ADVICE FOR LIFE SCIENTISTS

WICB members as providing the most help-ful career advice for life scientists. We trustthat the compilation will prove even morehelpful than the sum of its parts.

At risk of inadvertently excluding deserv-ing colleagues, we can’t let the presses rollwithout acknowledging the many peoplewho together have conspired to make theAmerican Society for Cell Biology Women inCell Biology Committee and its column wide-ly imitated and praised. Virginia Walbot,Mary Clutter and Mary Lake Polan were thatsmall critical mass from Yale that lighted thespark in 1971; Susan Goldhor and ElizabethHarris were early editors of the “Women inCell Biology Newsletter,” whose job includedgathering $1 and $5 contributions from col-leagues to keep it going; chairs before theWICB became an official ASCB Committeewere Ellen Dirksen, Nina Allen, KathrynVogel, Patricia Calarco, Mina Bissell, Jane

Peterson, Susan Gerbi, Mary Lou King andUrsula Goodenough (33% of whom—Gerbi,Goodenough and Bissell—were later electedPresident of the ASCB); Dorothy Skinner,who served as the conscience of the ASCBCouncil in the early years; Laura Williamsand Maureen Brandon, dedicated editors ofthe ASCB Newsletter WICB column (Lauradid much of the research that contributed tothis history); Emma Shelton, DorotheaWilson and Elizabeth Marincola, ASCBExecutive Directors who helped nurturewomen’s activities through the Society, andRosemary Simpson and Trina Armstrong,ASCB executive staff whose passion for thegoals of the women in cell biology has beencritical in turning ideas into action. Finally,but not least, we thank Joyce Rudick andVivian Pinn from the NIH Office of Researchon Women’s Health for the ORWH’s spon-sorship of this publication. ■

1. THE HEAD GAMEThe Impostor Phenomenon

Saying “No”

Unwritten Rules for Advancing Your Career


The Impostor Phenomenon

Sue WickUniversity of Minnesota

Have you ever felt that you did not deserve theprofessional status you have achieved or therecognition you have received for your career

accomplishments? Do you wonder whether beingadmitted to graduate school, being awarded yourPh.D., being offered an exciting postdoc position, orgetting a “real job” was just a mistake on the part ofothers who will eventually figure that out and exposeyour inadequacy? If so, you may be demonstrating aclassic case of the Impostor Phenomenon—you andperhaps as many as half of your colleagues!

The term “Impostor Phenomenon” was coined bypsychology professor Pauline Rose Clance and psy-chotherapist Suzanne Imes in 1978 to describe a sampleof more than 150 high-achieving women. ImpostorPhenomenon (also known as the “ImpostorSyndrome”) has been defined variously as the persist-ent belief in one’s lack of competence, skill or intelli-gence in the face of consistent objective data to the con-trary; an internal experience of intellectual fraudulence,particularly among high-achievers; the belief that one is

not deserving of his/her career success and that othershave been deceived into thinking otherwise; an intensesubjective fear of the inability to repeat past success; aself-concept that one’s record of accomplishments is not

Do you wonder whether being admittedto graduate school, being awarded yourPh.D., being offered an exciting post-doc position, or getting a “real job”was just a mistake on the part of otherswho will eventually figure that out andexpose your inadequacy?

THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR CELL BIOLOGY


due to ability but rather only to luck, fate,charm, attractiveness, or having manipulatedother people’s impressions; the secret convic-tion that one is truly less intelligent and com-petent than he/she appears; and an unrealis-tic sense of one’s competence in which onedownplays strengths and exaggerates or doesnot tolerate any deficiencies or weaknesses.

Numerous doctoral theses and researchpapers have examined the type of personwho tends to fall prey to the ImpostorPhenomenon, and several psychological test-ing instruments have been devised to meas-ure the degree of manifestation. While origi-nally suspected as a problem primarilyafflicting women, subsequent studies havemade it clear that similar numbers of menalso experience impostor feelings. In someprofessions, men experience more severecases of Impostor Syndrome. For example,within a group of faculty members, men

scored higher for the Impostor Phenomenonthan women did, whereas groups of collegestudents showed the opposite results. Peoplein non-professional occupations likewise aresusceptible to the impostor phenomenon.

Some characteristics and tendencies aregenerally correlated with people who feellike impostors. Such people may have feel-ings of depression, anxiety, fear of failure andof being discovered as a fraud; a propensityto feel shame, low self-esteem, and introver-sion as determined by the Myers-Briggs

Personality Type Indicator. (Introversion, asdefined by Myers-Briggs testing, is a charac-teristic of many scientists.) Those who feellike impostors often believe that many deci-sions affecting them are made by other peo-ple (and they may be right—Ph.D. qualifying

exam committees or tenure and promotioncommittees, perhaps?) Those who experiencethe Impostor Phenomenon are likely to seeintelligence as a fixed entity and not a mal-leable quality. They are very achievement-oriented. They are motivated in academic set-tings by the need to look smart; when facedwith learning difficulties, they become anx-ious, shameful, and concerned about lookingbad compared to others.

According to the literature, certain familysituations tend to spawn impostor feelings.These include not receiving encouragementto pursue educational or career aspirationsbecause they conflict with, or at least areatypical of, the gender role, race, or ageexpectations of the family. Particularly forwomen, having goals that will put you out-side your family’s socioeconomic class mayhave the same result. Families that imposeunrealistic standards, those in which there isonly selective validation, or those in whichthere is much conflict and expressed angeralso put children at risk for developing theimpostor phenomenon. Growing up with analcoholic or incestuous parent or in anotherkind of dysfunctional family can lead to highlevels of impostorism. (Such serious factorscan also lead to psychosis such as MultiplePersonality Disorder.)

Those who feel like impostorsoften believe that many decisionsaffecting them are made by otherpeople.

While originally suspected as aproblem primarily afflictingwomen, subsequent studies havemade it clear that similarnumbers of men also experienceimpostor feelings.

Racial identity attitudes apparently haveinfluences also. Research on AfricanAmerican graduate and professional stu-dents reveals that those who had attendedhistorically black undergraduate institutionsand/or who relied strongly on spiritualbeliefs when making decisions about educa-tional or career goals were much less likely tofeel like impostors.

The good news is that the self-deprecat-ing and debilitating feelings associated withthe impostor phenomenon appear todecrease as a person remains in a particularposition or attains a higher rank—that is,unless the person perceives job uncertainty,ambiguous job expectations, or a highdegree of challenge in their position and

does not have a high tolerance for thesesituations. Studies report that, at least forsome people, having a mentor is helpfulfor overcoming the sense of fraudulence.(Presumably, having a mentor who under-stands the impostor phenomenon wouldbe optimal.) Clance and her co-workerssuggest that the most positive results areobtained through regular meetings with agroup of people who can give honest feed-back about their perceptions of your abili-ties. Such groups can be very good atpointing out when your self-perceptionabout talents and achievements is distort-

ed, i.e., out of line with what theyobserve. Thus, they can help you learn toacknowledge your competence. Makingthe effort to find an effective mentor andassemble a support group for yourself maybe the key not only to survival but also toimproving your self esteem during yourgrad school experience, job probationaryperiod, or even the middle or advancedstages of your career.

Clance also recommends a three-pointexercise for those who recognize that theyhave impostor traits, as published in New

Woman magazine:


Families that impose unrealisticstandards, those in which thereis only selective validation, or those in which there is muchconflict and expressed angeralso put children at risk fordeveloping the impostorphenomenon.

...those who had attendedhistorically black undergraduateinstitutions and/or who reliedstrongly on spiritual beliefswhen making decisions abouteducational or career goals weremuch less likely to feel likeimpostors. Making the effort to find an

effective mentor and assemble asupport group for yourself maybe the key...to survival.

...having a mentor is helpful for overcoming the sense offraudulence.


• document both positive feedback and yourdoubts about its authenticity. This exercise“will demonstrate how you discount theopinions of other people,” says Clance;

• examine the messages that you may havereceived about yourself from your familyand others. Understanding where yournegative self-image comes from canempower you to break free, and

• imagine telling your peers and superiorshow you have fooled them. Realize howridiculous you would sound. ■

References

Brown, D. B. (1994). “Are you an impostor?” NewWoman June: 46.

Byrnes, K. D. and D. Lester (1995). “The impostor phe-nomenon in teachers and accountants.” PsychologicalReports 77: 350.

Cherpas, C. C. (1989). The generalizability of the impos-tor phenomenon to adults employed in professional andnonprofessional occupations. Doctoral Dissertation, KentState University. Dissertation Abstracts International.

Clance, P. R., D. Dingman, et al. (1995). “Impostor phe-nomenon in an interpersonal/social context: Origins andtreatment.” Women & Therapy 16: 79-95.

Cohen, E. S. (1990). The impostor phenomenon: An inter-actionist perspective. Doctoral Dissertation, University ofToronto, Doctoral Dissertations International.

Ewing, K. M. (1990). Effect of racial identity attitudes andworld view on African- American graduate and professionalstudents’ experience of the impostor phenomenon style andlocus of control. Doctoral Dissertation, California School ofProfessional Psychology. Dissertation AbstractsInternational.

Hayes, K. M. and S. F. Davis (1993). “Interpersonal flexi-bility, type A individuals, and the impostor phenomenon.”Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 31: 323-325.

Jamail, S. R. (1992). Predicting the impostor phenomenonin successful career women. Doctoral Dissertation, MiamiInst. of Psychology of the Caribbean Ctr. for AdvancedStudies. Dissertation Abstracts International.

King, J. E. and E. L. Cooley (1995). “Achievement orien-tation and the impostor phenomenon among college stu-dents.” Contemporary Educational Psychology 200: 304-312.

Langford, J. (1991). The need to look smart: The impostorphenomenon and motivations for learning. DoctoralDissertation, Georgia State University-College of Arts andSciences. Dissertation Abstracts International.

Langford, J. and P. R. Clance (1993). “The impostor phe-nomenon: Recent research findings regarding dynamics,personality and family patterns and their implications fortreatment.” Psychotherapy 30: 495-501.

Milton, S. and R. J. Mattox (1988). “A study of the impos-tor phenomenon in high achieving college students.” Journalof College Student Development 29: 380-381.

Reinert, L. M. (1991). Influences of family and work onwomen managers exhibiting the impostor phenomenon.Doctoral Dissertation, Temple University. DissertationAbstracts International.

Reis, S. M. (1987). “We can’t change what we don’t rec-ognize: Understanding the special needs of gifted females.”Gifted Child Quarterly 31: 83-89.

Robinson, S. L. and S. K. Goodpaster (1991). “The effectsof parental alcoholism on perception of control and impostorphenomenon.” Current Psychology: Research & Reviews 10:113-119.

Teece, J. K. (1990). Adult children of alcoholics and theexperience of the impostor phenomenon: The developmentof the ‘false self’ in a dysfunctional family system. DoctoralDissertation, University of Maryland College Park.Dissertation International.

Topping, M. E. H. (1983). The impostor phenomenon: Astudy of its construct and incidence in university facultymembers. Doctoral Dissertation, University of South Florida.Dissertation Abstracts International.

Other relevant articles:Author unknown (1986). The impostor syndrome.

Management Solutions 31: 18-19.Clance, P R.. and S.A. Imes (1978). “The impostor phe-

nomenon in high achieving women: Dynamics and thera-peutic intervention.” Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, andPractice 15: 241-247.

Clance, P R.. and M. A. O’Toole (1987). “The impostorphenomenon: An internal barrier to empowerment andachievement. Special Issue: Treating women’s fear of fail-ure.” Women and Therapy 6: 51-64.

Ewing, K. M., T. Q. Richardson, et al. (1996). “The rela-tionship between racial identity attitudes, world view, andAfrican American graduate students’ experience of theimpostor phenomenon.” Journal of Black Psychology 22:53-66.

Harvey, J.C and C. Katz (1985). If I’m so successful, whydo I feel like a fake?, St. Martin’s Press; New York.

MacKay, B. (1988). “The Impostor Syndrome: Why somesuccessful people feel like fakes.” Chatelaine 61: 30.

Miller, D. G. and S. M. Kastburg (1995). “Of blue collarsand ivory towers: Women from blue-collar backgrounds inhigher education. Special Issue: Adult women’s talent devel-opment.” Roeper Review 18: 27-33.



Saying “No”

Zena WerbUniversity of California

San Francisco

A s the countdown to the next millennium drawscloser, it seems that the life of a working cellbiologist grows more hectic everyday: too

many commitments, too many demands, days that aretoo short. How do you manage your time and keepcontrol of your professional and personal life?

“No” is one of the most powerful words in theEnglish language. When I was asked to write this arti-cle, my first inclination was to say “No”. But I said“Yes”, because I felt that I had the responsibility to doso. I have learned to control my life, get satisfactionfrom doing an excellent job, make decisions, takechances, and have fun. So, how do you decide when tosay “No” and, more importantly, when to say “Yes”?

When to Say “Yes” The road to Hell is paved with good intentions.

Saying “Yes” always has a cost, even when there is abenefit. Develop a clear concept of your reasons for say-ing “Yes” or “No” to requests. First ask, “do I have thetime?” There are time-consuming activities that need tobe done for career advancement, personal interest, or

other positive motives. Set career objectives and priori-ties, realizing the inherent obligations. However, recog-nize that there is a fine line between entitlement andhelping out. Try to avoid being exploited.

Secondly, ask, “do I know how to do this?” If you donot have the expertise, then avoid the challenge. A poorjob benefits no one.

Setting priorities helps to develop a set of responses,although not all situations are black and white. Trust

Trust your inner voice that you aredoing things for the right reasons.



your inner voice that you are doing things forthe right reasons. Some examples of these areincluded below.

Being a good citizen. While managingtime is a prime goal, good citizenship isexpected, too. Agreeing to laboratory, univer-sity and public duties is an essential part ofthe scientific and educational endeavor.Science is largely self-motivated and self-governed. We all need to take part, but youdon’t need to be a saint.

Responsibility. Faculty members, stu-dents, post-docs, teachers, researchers, andadministrators have certain duties andresponsibilities to teach, serve on committees,mentor and engage in public service. It is irre-sponsible to shirk these responsibilities, or todo such a bad job that you will not be askedto do them in the future.

Career Advancement. Visibility and recog-nition of research activities and teaching areessential to move ahead in a career as a scien-tist. A career involves investment and sacri-fice, such as agreeing to write review articles,giving research seminars, attending meet-ings, reviewing papers and grants, and get-ting involved in the activities of your schooland professional societies. Be as selective aspossible to achieve the most from the mostefficient expenditure of time. Quality countsmore than quantity.

Interest. Define your specific interestswhen setting priorities. If you are passionateabout encouraging girls to get interested inscience, mentoring graduate students, orinteracting with politicians, then say “Yes” to

activities that have these goals, even at theexpense of other requests.

Why to Say “Yes” Analyze why you say “Yes.” Do you agree

to do things for the wrong reasons? Here is asmall set of examples:

Flattery. Are you seduced into saying“Yes,” because you are told that you are theonly one who would do a stellar job? Are youflattered to be asked to give a lecture by acaller who tells you how wonderful your lastarticle is, and how only you will make theirlecture series complete? Perhaps you areapproached by an old graduate school buddyto review a grant, manuscript, or college pro-gram because you have the unique and perfectqualifications to do a good job. Accept thecompliment graciously, but do not agree to theflatterer’s request as payment for the praise.Recognition that is only of value as a com-modity is not worth the paper it is written on.

Criticism. This is just as effective as praisefor getting people to do things they do notwant to do. The hint that someone is not adedicated teacher or a sensitive mentor low-ers self-esteem and coerces others into mak-ing a commitment for fear of offending some-one. Take time to evaluate your imperfec-tions, the source of the criticism, and its intentbefore agreeing to do something.

Desire for approval. Do you say “Yes” toteaching an additional course during a semes-

Science is largely self-motivatedand self-governed. We all needto take part, but you don’t needto be a saint.

Are you flattered to be asked togive a lecture by a caller whotells you how wonderful yourlast article is, and how only youwill make their lecture seriescomplete?

ter off for research, or sitting on twice as manycommittees as your colleagues, because thedepartment chair will approve of goingbeyond the call of duty? The problem withsaying “Yes” for approval is that soon thoseextra tasks become an expectation. When youtake on more tasks to show how indispensa-ble you are, you eventually burn out.

Intimidation. Do you say “Yes” to unrea-sonable requests out of fear for your profes-sional life? For example, do you do extra shifts,postpone a planned vacation to do another setof experiments, show up at a meeting or revisethe curriculum at two days’ notice because therequester hints that if you don’t you will not geta merit increase, a good letter of recommenda-tion, or a positive recommendation for tenure?Insecurity makes people do unnecessary thingsout of fear of offending a supervisor.

Avoiding conflict. Too often people say“Yes” to avoid conflict at all costs. They endup being a de facto martyr, and see them-selves as powerless to change their lives, timemanagement, space, or salary.

Greed. Do you agree to teach a course inthe summer rather than taking the time to doresearch or write a paper, because you willget paid extra? Do you say “Yes” to give a lec-ture at a boring meeting, because they willgive you a large honorarium? There is noth-ing wrong with being self-serving so long asit is not at the expense of something moreimportant in the long run.

Picking up the slack. Do others takeadvantage of your inability to say “No” todump unpopular tasks on you, such as clear-ing out 50-year-old department files, or

teaching a third introductory course so thatthe department does not have to hire anotherlecturer? If no one else is willing to do thesethings, perhaps they are not worth doing.

Don’t be manipulated because others areirresponsible with their deadlines. Resist thetemptation to do other peoples’ work becausethey are chronically late, or do such a poorjob that they appear to be incompetent andwill not be asked again.

Guilt. If you feel guilty about having goneon vacation, taken a sabbatical, takenparental leave, or made a mistake, wait untilthe guilt subsides before committing to anyadditional responsibilities.

When to Say “No” Saying “No” is essential to achieving your

personal and professional goals. It is an indi-cation that you value your time, energy, tal-ents and experience, and that you controlyour life. Striking a balance between enjoyinglife as a cell biologist and resenting thedemands put upon you is essential to person-al and professional empowerment.

Saying “No” can be a right or an option.You have the right to say “No” if you havequestions about the ethics, professional stan-dards or quality of the request. You have theright to invoke your conscience in makingdecisions. You have the option of decliningcareer-building duties, if the timing is wrong,you can’t do a good job, or meet a deadline.


Resist the temptation to doother peoples’ work because theyare chronically late, or do such apoor job that they appear to beincompetent and will not beasked again.

The problem with saying “Yes”for approval is that soon thoseextra tasks become an expectation.


Your priorities are critical factors in saying“No”. It is essential to have plans for achiev-ing goals. It helps to make a list of everythingto which you say “Yes” and “No” over amonth or year to evaluate how you are doing.Once a pattern emerges, begin planning for ayear, five years, a career.

Once you have learned to say “No,” avoidusing your newfound assertiveness as aweapon to refuse to do tasks with sadisticglee. This can boomerang.

How to Say “No” Learning to say “No” is not negativism. It

actually frees you to say “Yes” to the thingsthat really matter. It is essential to makechoices. There is a world of differencebetween knowing what you do not want todo and refusing to do it, and knowing whatyou want and going for it. Get advice fromfriends and colleagues that seem to have theirpriorities right.

Using “No” is more powerful in decliningthan saying, “I don’t think so.” It helps topractice saying “No” to friends, family or lab-mates. If you resent always doing the order-ing, replenishing the photocopier paper, ortaking a speaker out to dinner, then take astand and say “No!”

Determine whether the answer is, “No”,“Yes” or “Maybe.” It is OK to ask for time tothink it over. Ascertain exactly what therequest entails. Is one lecture or a wholecourse needed?

While it is not necessary to offer an expla-nation for your refusal, it is often useful togive a brief legitimate reason for saying“No”. Avoid a long, drawn-out excuse orexplanation, or you may be argued out ofyour refusal.

You can say “No”, while agreeing to dopart of the request.

Offer alternatives by suggesting someoneelse to do the work, or giving a student orfellow the chance to give the talk or writethe review. However, be careful that super-vising the substitute is not time-consuming.

Sometimes, saying “No” actually post-pones saying “Yes.” Maybe you can’t do itnow because of your teaching schedule, butyou can do it next semester.

Be prepared for people who do not want“No” for an answer to have difficulty get-ting the point. If the person persists afterseveral “No” answers, try silence, or changethe subject.

If you feel that you are being manipulatedor volunteered, verbalize your desire to beconsulted first.

It is OK to change a “Yes” answer to a“No” answer.

Finally, don’t feel guilty. It is not up toyou to solve everyone’s problems or to doeverything. ■

References 1. Helpful Hints for Assertive Behavior: Saying “No”.

Michigan State Counseling Center. http://web.couns.msu.edu/self-help/sk_behav.htm

2. Consulting Skills For Professionals. Murray Hiebertand Colleagues, Inc. How to Say “NO,” with Options.http://www.consultskills.com/sayingno.htm

3. Smith, Manuel J. Yes, I can say no: a parent’s guide toassertiveness training for children. New York: Arbor House,1986.

4. Fensterheim, Herbert and Baer, Jean. Don’t say yeswhen you want to say no: how assertiveness training canchange your life. New York: McKay, 1975.

5. Chenevert, Melodie. STAT: special techniques inassertiveness training for women in the health professions.4th ed. St. Louis: Mosby, 1994.


Don’t feel guilty. It is not up toyou to solve everyone’s problemsor to do everything.


Unwritten Rules for AdvancingYour Career

Maureen BrandonIdaho State University

Unwritten rules: those tidbits of information thatcan make or break a first impression or a repu-tation. How does a cell biologist discover the

unwritten rules of an organization and protect andensure their career advancement by fulfilling unstatedexpectations? Following are some of the most commonunwritten rules and advice on how to address them:

Mentors Are Key Sources ofInformation

It may seem that the role of mentors as the panaceaof a scientist’s career is exaggerated, but they truly areimportant figures. Most successful people, no matterfrom what field, can name at least one person senior tothemselves who was instrumental in their success andwith whom they have had a long-term relationship.But a mentor does not have to be narrowly defined, norrepresent an exclusive relationship. Mentors are thoseindividuals in an organization that have the “neces-sary” knowledge. Seek out colleagues to discuss scien-tific matters, such as how much unpublished informa-tion to reveal to a competitor, as well as more mundanebut still important matters, such as how to dress for aninvited seminar.

Meeting ExpectationsThe first unwritten rule is ‘do not expect the written

rules to cover everything.’ Young scientists shouldmeet regularly with their supervisors to assess theirprogress. Ask for constructive criticism and advice. Inan academic environment, it may be important to clar-ify how many publications (and in which types of jour-nals) are necessary for tenure or promotion, or howmuch time to devote to service at the institutional andnational level. In addition, teaching is usually takenseriously, even at institutions with a heavy emphasison research productivity for promotion.

Caroline Kane University of California

Berkeley



If the written rules at an institution seem tobe in a state of flux, the junior scientist is com-pelled to be in frequent communication withsupervisors and other more senior scientists.Obtain clearly stated guidelines for advance-ment that can be referenced at promotion time.These should be available in writing as they areindeed the written rules. Get a copy of them.

Promote YourselfJunior scientists must take steps to pro-

mote themselves, or no one else will.However, there are ways to accomplish self-promotion without offending others by beingoverly aggressive or compromising your ownpersonality. When an opportunity arises foran award, membership on a prestigious com-mittee or even a choice class schedule,approach the individual making the selectionwith a document delineating your credentials,qualifications and accomplishments thatmake you an attractive candidate. Mentorscan be extremely helpful in this situation byadvising a young scientist about what oppor-tunities to pursue and speaking to selectioncommittees on behalf of their protégé.

Territoriality Never assume that ideas, space or equip-

ment have common ownership. The micro-centrifuge in the third floor cold room mightbelong to the senior research scientist on thefourth floor. The empty shelf in that samecold room may have been cleared by thechair’s graduate students to store preciousclinical samples arriving the next day. If a col-league shares unpublished data, ask permis-

sion before citing it in your manuscript.Always ask before acting: a reputation as atrusted colleague may depend on it.

Managing Employees andStudents

Most scientists are not trained in manage-ment techniques, so learning skills to managestudents and staff may feel like trial by fire.However, classes and books on general man-agement skills that apply to any work situa-tion are easily available. The most efficientway to learn management skills may be toobserve and speak with scientific and busi-

ness colleagues who appear to haveadmirable management styles. From thesediscussions, young scientists need to developtheir own standards and expectations fortheir employees that are then stated and writ-ten clearly and reinforced frequently. Beaware that students and staff may not have

the same career goals as their supervisors, sotheir expectations may need to be determinedas well. These are essential skills for a scien-tist, since one’s career advancement is often

There are ways to accomplishself-promotion withoutoffending others by being overlyaggressive or compromisingyour own personality.

Most scientists are not trainedin management techniques, solearning skills to managestudents and staff may feel liketrial by fire.

Obtain clearly stated guidelinesfor advancement that can bereferenced at promotion time.

directly proportional to the productivity ofstaff and students.

Conflict ResolutionLike management techniques, conflict reso-

lution is an essential skill for which scientistsare not trained specifically. Books or work-shops on conflict resolution are available, buta few simple rules may be enough to defusemost situations. Use time, space and/orhumor to place distance between dissenting

individuals. Obtain another perspective of theproblem by speaking to someone who is famil-iar with the individuals. If necessary, bring ina neutral party to help resolve the issue. Youngscientists would be wise to choose their battlescarefully to avoid being labeled contentious.

Use All Available ResourcesSecretaries, administrative assistants and

staff members of an organization are oftenvast storehouses of information. They canoften help with questions about the general

atmosphere of a department, appropriatedress or behavior, personalities of otherorganization members, and what senior peo-

ple can “get away with” while junior peoplecannot. For questions that are too sensitive tobroach with local colleagues, speaking tomentors at other institutions by phone or e-mail is an excellent solution. In addition, theinternet may be a quick way to obtain infor-mation about management or conflict resolu-tion skills, to name a couple.

Although mastering the unwritten rules ofscientific society may seem daunting, the keyis identifying the few individuals with themost information. After this, mastering thewritten rules will seem like a piece of cake! ■

This article was based on a Women in Cell Biology

Committee presentation of “The Unwritten

Rules” at the ASCB 40th Annual Meeting in San

Francisco in December 2000. Caroline Kane mod-

erated the session, which featured Mina Bissell,

Frank Solomon, Julie Theriot and Donella Wilson.


Secretaries, administrativeassistants and staff members ofan organization are often vaststorehouses of information.

Young scientists would be wiseto choose their battles carefullyto avoid being labeledcontentious.

2. TEACHING & LEARNINGThe Scholarship of Teaching

Teaching Science in High School

Getting the Most from Your GraduateExperience


The Scholarship of Teaching

Christopher DobsonFront Range Community College

New faculty members commonly make theirinstructional debut by diving head-first intoteaching, with little formal training or prepa-

ration in pedagogy, to either sink or swim. Naturally,many instructors adopt a teaching method based pri-marily on how they were taught as students. Thisseems reasonable, but is it effective?

Although effectiveness as a teacher is difficult tomeasure, any such measurement should be based on itsimpact on student learning. The central importance oflearning was highlighted in the seminal article, “FromTeaching to Learning—A New Paradigm forUndergraduate Education” (1995), and more recentlyin the national videoconference, Tools for Transformation:

Making the Learning Paradigm a Reality (1999). The pur-pose of both was to advocate systemic change at anational level that would place the focus of educatorson learning.

Many instructors attempt to improve their teachingover time by adopting ad hoc pedagogical techniques.But without systematic and purposeful implementa-tion, an individual’s teaching method may not changesignificantly over the course of a career. While instruc-tors often measure their teaching effectiveness by thesuccesses of their students after graduation, some stu-dents may succeed in spite of our teaching, notbecause of it.

Instructors at all levels need a formal and compre-hensive treatment, a scholarship of teaching, with the

Effectiveness as a teacher is difficult tomeasure; any such measurementshould be based on its impact onstudent learning.


CHAPTER 2 • TEACHING & LEARNING 17

ultimate goal of increasing student learning.In addition, educators need a working modelthat they can use to guide their professionaldevelopment in a systematic and purposefulmanner over the course of their careers. Sucha model must be general enough to encom-pass as many aspects of teaching as possible,yet specific enough to have practical value.

The model presented here is based on theconcept of scholarship defined by ErnestBoyer in Scholarship Reconsidered: Priorities of

the Professoriate (1990). Boyer’s developmentof scholarship, however, was in relation todiscipline-specific research, rather than teach-ing per se. Our model embraces three distinctyet overlapping elements that coalesce toform the body of one’s teaching. These ele-ments are a scholarly approach, rationale andclassroom practice. In brief, successful teach-ers have a rationale for their teaching meth-ods, based on an adequate knowledge of theirdiscipline and pedagogy that translates intoeffective classroom practice. The scholarlyapproach, which consists of a mindset thatcompels a persistent exploration of one’steaching, serves as the mechanism that con-tinues to inform an educator’s rationale andclassroom practice over time. It is the mostcentral and cohesive element of the model.

Traits that characterize the mindset of ascholarly approach include inquiry, reflectionand receptiveness. Inquisitive scholars con-tinually question teaching methods with thepurpose of improving student learning. They

actively reflect on their teaching, openlyinviting constructive criticism from peers.Scholars are receptive to new ideas anddemonstrate a willingness to try new teach-ing techniques.

This scholarly mindset drives an explo-ration of one’s teaching through activities,such as discovery, integration, applicationand interaction. Discoveries germane toteaching can be made through classroomobservation, experimentation and assess-ment, as well as through activities, such asreviewing the literature and attending con-ferences. Scholars integrate the results of thisexploration with their knowledge of peda-gogy and apply their findings to future teach-ing methods in the classroom. Scholars sharetheir discoveries by interacting with col-leagues through discussion, publications andpresentations.

Since teachers are unique individuals, suc-cess in any component of our model is rela-tive, and subject to continual refinement.Serving as a road map, the model can guidean educator’s professional development bytargeting specific components of the modelfor development.

The scholarly approach is not new.Academic researchers typically employ ascholarly approach when contributing toknowledge in their field. They are inherentlyinquisitive and reflective about their studysubject, engaging in various methods of dis-covery, integration, application and interac-tion. Readily apparent in the sciences,researchers regularly investigate the causal

Traits that characterize themindset of a scholarly approachinclude inquiry, reflection andreceptiveness.

Without systematic andpurposeful implementation, anindividual’s teaching methodmay not change significantlyover the course of a career.

relationships of natural phenomena. Duringthis exploration, it is essential thatresearchers be receptive to new ideas anddemonstrate a willingness to modify theirmethods as needed. Integration of findingswith an existing understanding of their fieldand application of this product is crucial inrealizing the larger implications of theirwork. Interaction with colleagues throughpublications and presentations is the naturalculmination of their efforts.

The scholarly approach, typically seen inresearch, can be directed with the samerigor to developing aspects of one’s teach-ing rationale and classroom practice. Forexample, teachers can approach the class-room as researchers and attempt to assessthe effectiveness of both their teaching andtheir impact on student learning. Based onthis evaluation, educators can modify boththeir rationale and classroom practiceaccordingly.

By practicing a scholarship of teaching,educators can accumulate a number of teach-ing strategies, each based on sound rationaleand intended for specific learning situations.Over time they acquire a portable toolbox ofpedagogical methods and the ability to dis-cern opportunities for employing varioustechniques. In other words, they becomeexcellent classroom practitioners whosemethods are prescribed by a rationale basedon a sound knowledge of their discipline andpedagogy, which is tested and strengthenedover time by a vigorous scholarly approach. ■

Sharolyn Belzer and Stephen Burton were instru-

mental in the development of this model.

References

Barr, Robert B. and John Tagg. 1995. From Teaching toLearning—A New Paradigm for Undergraduate Education.Change, November/ December.

Boyer, Ernest L. 1990. Scholarship Reconsidered: Priorities ofthe Professoriate. The Carnegie Foundation for theAdvancement of Teaching, Princeton, New Jersey.

Tools for Transformation: Making the Learning Paradigm aReality. Produced by Palomar College and presented viasatellite by PBS, February, 4, 1999.


Teachers can approach theclassroom as researchers andattempt to assess the effectivenessof both their teaching and theirimpact on student learning.

Some students may succeed inspite of our teaching, notbecause of it.

Teaching Science in High School

William WallaceGeorgetown Day High School

Acell biologist has the special opportunity topresent science as a living discipline to a highschool biology or chemistry class. The experi-

ences of designing experiments, interpreting results,writing papers, and applying for grants are uniquequalifications that will enrich the understanding andappreciation of science for a biology or chemistry stu-dent. Students will benefit from a teacher who canteach science as a process instead of a simple collectionof facts.

Why Would a Scientist Want to Teach?Abstractly, the intellectual challenge is to present

biology as a unified view of the world, and as an ongo-ing process of inquiry. This view includes presenting“big pictures” of such diverse concepts as ecology, evo-lution, physiology and molecular biology. However,even more important is to guide the students towardan understanding of the connections between each ofthese disciplines. The students are more likely toremember these connections than the specific facts ofany one topic. In addition, there is the challenge ofteaching students to think skeptically, like a scientist,through the scientific method.

On a personal level, teaching can be tremendouslysatisfying for the academic and personal effects that ateacher can have on the development of a student. Thesimple fact that they have done science gives any sci-entist-teacher a number of unique advantages. First,being a participant of the discipline of biology, a scien-


Students will benefit from a teacherwho can teach science as a processinstead of a simple collection of facts.

tist brings a certain enthusiasm for the subjectthat will infect the students, especially if it isa topic that he or she actively researched inthe laboratory. Second, the scientist will havea greater credibility for any point of view. The

speculation of a scientist-teacher has greatweight even if it is a profession of igno-rance. Third, a scientist-teacher can make atopic come alive with anecdotes from his orher own career experiences. Nothingimpresses a student more than to discusspersonal experiences with a scientist who isintroduced in a textbook. Students love tohear of the foibles of scientists, especiallyfamous ones. Great lessons can be taughtabout the process of biology through suchanecdotes. Finally, a scientist-teacher hasspent a career making a network of friends,colleagues and mentors that can be exploit-ed for the benefit of students. These connec-tions can be used as potential research hostsfor motivated students or as expert speak-ers for the whole class.

What Is it Like to Teach?For the first few years, teaching requires a

similar time commitment as does research.This time commitment includes actual con-tact time with students (both in and out of theclassroom), preparation for classes andassessments of the students. However, themanner in which teachers organize their daydiffers from research because they are obli-gated to be prepared and present a lesson atset times during the day: they do not have the

freedom to start an experiment or write amanuscript when they roll into the lab.

Generally, a high school science teacherhas four or five classes (a total of 60 to 150students, depending upon the school) in twoor three different levels (called “preps”).Scientist-teachers need to fight the urge topresent every lesson as a seminar. In fact,talks with slides should be avoided. Instead,introduce the topic and then have the stu-dents take over the discussion. It is amazinghow relatively little time a teacher needs totalk. The teacher does need to become an“expert” in a wide range of various topics,such as ecological succession or punctateequilibrium, so that they can be sure that thestudents extract the important points fromeach of these concepts.

In addition to teaching classes, the obliga-tions of teachers include contributions to thecommunity of the school. This obligation caninclude coaching sports, drama or sponsor-ing a club. It is an important part of theteacher’s job to make this commitment, evenif the school does not officially require it. So atypical day will start at 7:00 AM and finisharound 5:00 PM, excluding any after-schoolactivities such as sports or clubs.


Nothing impresses a studentmore than to discuss personalexperiences with a scientist whois introduced in a textbook.

Teaching can be tremendouslysatisfying for the academic andpersonal effects that a teachercan have on the development ofa student.

It is amazing how relativelylittle time a teacher needs to talk.

Three other important reasons to teach areJune, July and August. The summer is anamazing time for possibilities, academic orotherwise. It is surprising how enjoyable it isto work in a research lab during this timewithout having to produce any papers.

The starting salary for a teacher varieswith experience and level of education. In theFairfax, Virginia public schools, a startingteacher with a Ph.D. can earn about $40,000annually (slightly less with a Master’sdegree), while in private schools the salarywill generally be slightly lower.

How to Get a Teaching PositionThe application process in private schools

is different than in public schools. Privateschools have greater flexibility to judge thequalifications of each teaching candidate.Therefore, applying for a teaching position inprivate schools is much less complicated. Acandidate can simply send a letter of interestand an accompanying resume.

Public schools require a more complicatedapplication process because they requireteaching certification. Each state has its ownqualifications for determining certification.Myra Thayer of the Fairfax County PublicSchools states that the certification processexamines competence in both science content(for example, an understanding of all the con-cepts of biology) and pedagogy (teachingskills). While scientists will have less difficul-ty in proving competence in science content(although a cell biologist will need to know amore diverse view of biology, such as popu-lation ecology and evolution), usually they

will need to take classes in educational tech-niques. Completing the necessary classestakes approximately four semesters, andincludes topics such as child psychology andinstructional methods. Perhaps most impor-tant, classes will include a teaching internshipwith a master teacher in a local school. Manypublic school systems work closely with localcolleges to offer an education program that iscertifiable in that school district. For example,the Fairfax schools cooperate with GeorgeMason University, which offers classes in theevening to interfere as little as possible with acandidate’s day job. Eventually, a competencetest (called a Praxis Examination) must bepassed for certification.

Public school systems are generally willingto give selected candidates who are not yetcertified provisional contracts that last threeto five years. These contracts allow the scien-tist to begin teaching immediately under theprovision that the scientist will undertake theeducation program for certification in thefirst years of teaching.

How to Get StartedAs an applicant for a teaching position,

any school system will be looking for experi-ences with teaching. An application from ascientist should emphasize a commitment toteach. The number of publications and grantswill not impress a school system. Instead, aresume needs to show experience in teachinghigh school students, and an interest in edu-cational issues.

There are numerous opportunities to gainexperience teaching biology to high schoolstudents. For example, a scientist can talk at alocal school — this obligation is very small.As long as the scientist makes an earnesteffort to reach his audience (i.e. do not pres-ent your most recent research seminar), nomatter what is presented, the students will begrateful. A slightly greater obligation is to



Three other important reasonsto teach are June, July andAugust.

mentor a student through a research projectin the laboratory. This mentorship should bean active intellectual involvement of the stu-

dent in the research, not simply having thestudent “shadow” in the lab. The projectshould include a beginning (framing a bio-logical question and hypothesis), a middle(performing the experiments to test thehypothesis), and an end (writing a reportthat summarizes the entire project). The stu-dent does not need to win the Nobel Prizewith the project, nor even produce a publica-tion, but it is cheating the student if a project

does not contain these elements. Other waysthat a scientist can get experience teaching atthe high school level include helping a localschool system with the biology curriculum,or teaching a course in contemporary meth-ods in cellular or molecular biology for highschool teachers.

Local schools (public or private) arealways interested in taking advantage of theexperiences of scientists to teach. For privateschools, it is easier to talk directly with prin-cipals or science department chairs, while inpublic schools, administrators (such as cur-ricular specialists) will be the initial contacts.These officials can be used as sources of infor-mation and advice for an application. Takeadvantage of their knowledge and willing-ness to help.

Teaching high school is a wonderful wayto use your research experiences to influencea child’s life. The satisfaction of having a for-mer student return to tell you that he or she isbecoming a biologist because of your teach-ing matches the thrills of an acceptance letterfrom Nature or a positive pink sheet for anNIH grant application. ■


The satisfaction of having aformer student return to tell you she is becoming a biologistbecause of your teaching matchesthe thrills of an acceptanceletter from Nature or a positivepink sheet for an NIH grantapplication.

Getting the Most from YourGraduate Experience

Leana Topper University of North Carolina

Chapel Hill

T he foundation of a good scientist is built in gradu-ate school. Although at the time progress can seempainfully slow, scientists often look back over their

graduate years and consider how quickly the timepassed. By taking advantage of the many opportunitiesduring graduate training, students can become well-rounded scientists, and potentially avoid regret in lateryears. Following are suggestions to make the paththrough graduate school less rough and more rewarding.

The Technical ChallengeUnlike graduate students in the humanities, who are

required to propose a thesis for admission, graduatestudents in the basic sciences usually have the oppor-tunity to complete several laboratory rotations beforechoosing a thesis advisor and designing a project.These short periods of research in various labs allowstudents to gain knowledge of diverse techniques, tobuild a strong foundation for bench work, and also aidin understanding the literature. Even after choosing anadvisor, it is wise to learn as much as possible about awide range of techniques that will be useful in a post-doctoral or first independent position. In addition, stu-dents with knowledge of diverse techniques are valu-able sources of information for their training lab.

OrganizationOrganization is critical to maintaining sanity.

Although the advisor is a graduate student’s guide, thestudent is accountable for doing the backgroundresearch and pushing the project ahead. Critical exam-inations of the published literature are essential toforming the framework of a project and keeping upwith advancements in the field. It is impossible to reador plan too much. Short and long term organizationwill help determine and retain a clear direction for aproject. Keep a calendar of experiments and other


preparations that need to be done a week inadvance. Planning experiments on a dailybasis will help to avoid frustration and inde-cision. Planning for the long term is more dif-

ficult and requires more flexibility, but can beas simple as listing which parts of a projectshould be accomplished in the next threemonths. Without clear planning, it is all tooeasy to lose direction and, as a result, a senseof self-worth.

Along with a plan to carry out the work,decide how to collect the data in an organizedfashion. Proper documentation can pre-empthaving to re-do work and serves as a poten-tial reference for months, sometimes evenyears later, when a particular technique mayagain be needed. Planning for both the short-and long-term also teaches prioritizingskills—that will be useful later in juggling themany responsibilities of a career.

Getting InvolvedMost graduate programs have some type

of student organization. For departmentswithout this type of council, students canspeak to faculty and the department chair

about forming one and funding it. Studentswith access to this resource should use it. Theacademic gatherings provided through thistype of organization offer a forum to givepresentations and an opportunity to askquestions in an atmosphere that is morerelaxed than a typical department seminar ormeeting presentation. Also, discussionsamong peers help hone critical thinking andscientific thinking skills. These groups mayalso sponsor social events—a great way tobuild friendships. The best support duringgraduate school will most likely come frompeers. Moreover, classmates can be valuableallies in the future.

MentoringThe thesis advisor is considered a graduate

student’s principal mentor, so it is imperativeto develop a good working relationship withthe advisor. However, the members of a stu-dent’s thesis committee can also be valuableguides. Do not wait for a committee meeting todiscuss research directions or other concernswith committee members. In addition, facultymembers both in and outside of the depart-ment may be excellent sources of insight andadvice. Make appointments and visit them.Though it may be intimidating at first, over-come the fear of asking for help. Also, remem-ber that graduate students are in a position tobe mentors to other graduate students or toundergraduates who may be working in thedepartment. Instructing others on techniquescan expand the instructor’s knowledge, whilediscussing thesis projects with others mayrekindle excitement for one’s own work.


Keep a calendar of experimentsand other preparations that needto be done a week in advance.

Discussions among peers helphone critical thinking andscientific thinking skills.

Proper documentation can pre-empt having to re-do work andserves as a potential referencefor months, sometimes evenyears later, when a particulartechnique may again be needed.


NetworkingMeetings and conferences are significant

opportunities to broaden graduate students’knowledge within and beyond their field ofinterest. Attend a meeting or conference eachyear not just to look at posters and listen topresentations, but also to step forward and

ask questions about the research presented.Don’t pass up the timely chance to meet newpeople, discuss projects, and find answers tocommon technical problems. It is also anoccasion to meet future post-doctoral advi-sors and potential employers.

Individual InitiativeCompleting graduate school is a long and,

at times, difficult adventure. Ask yourselfwhat you expect from your graduate trainingand then make a plan for reaching those goals.Your project is unique, which means you mustlearn to think and act independently, take con-trol, and accept the responsibility for the direc-tion of your work. Doing so may lessen someof the worry and pain along the way to obtain-ing a degree, and build a strong foundation forbecoming an exceptional scientist. ■


Instructing others on techniquescan expand the instructor’sknowledge, while discussingthesis projects with others mayrekindle excitement for one’sown work.


3. COMMUNICATIONCommunicating Effectively inDepartmental Meetings

“And Our Next Speaker Is...”

The Unicorn in the Garden or WhyCell Biologists Should Meet the Press


Communicating Effectively inDepartmental Meetings

Maureen Brandon Idaho State University

Virginia Allen Idaho State University

W hy are some individuals effective at pro-moting their projects, while other equallymeritorious ideas are never advanced?

How do you get your own innovative plans acceptedand initiated by your organization? At least part of theanswer may come from understanding the groupdynamics of meetings.

There are many reasons why colleagues do not voicesupporting opinions in a public forum. A few commonones are:

• They may need time to think about the idea beforeforming an opinion.

• They do not want to align themselves with thespeaker.

• They want the meeting to be over.• They are not paying attention.• They are part of the group only to pad their resume

or because it seems un-community-spirited todecline to serve but they never intended to partici-pate fully.

• They are competing with the speaker for position orpower, or have a competing proposal.

One successful strategy to counteract several ofthese problems is to solicit opinions or support fromfellow group members before the meeting, either inperson or by e-mail. This method allows others time toconsider a proposal and formulate support — althoughit also carries an inherent risk of allowing time to for-mulate opposition. In any case, it is likely that whenparticipants are aware of an idea prior to the meeting,they will pay closer attention when it comes up for dis-cussion in a group. Compromises with competing indi-viduals can also be addressed ahead of time, furtherincreasing the chances of success. In general, this is askill that men have developed better than women.

CHAPTER 3 • COMMUNICATION 29

Another strategy to combat the naturalattention loss during lengthy meetings is to vol-unteer to speak first at group meetings. Topicsnear the top of the agenda will get more atten-tion because group members are more alert.

Women often hinder their ability to effective-ly communicate with a group by assigningthemselves roles within the group. For exam-ple, some women view themselves in the tradi-tional, passive role of the group facilitator, mov-ing the meeting toward closure even if it meanswithholding their opinion. A related posture isone of preventing conflict, either because it isuncomfortable to the individual or because shetakes opposing comments personally. In orderto participate fully at meetings, women need torelease themselves from these self-imposedroles. One of the best qualities that women can

bring to a group is the ability to admit mistakesand work to correct them. Women also tend tobe better listeners. Without the full participa-tion of women, group decisions may suffer dueto the loss of these perspectives.

Another reason that individuals do not par-ticipate in group discussions is lack of self-con-

fidence or intimidation by the group. Theseindividuals may find it easier to assert them-selves if they accept that their position withinthe group was earned through their abilities.

Why should anyone express their opinionsat meetings? One very important reason is

that silence is usually viewed as approval.The group decision-making process may bethe only opportunity to express opposition toor reservations concerning a decision.Without these comments, the group may bestuck with a poor choice for a very long time.An equally important reason to fully partici-

pate in groups is visibility. An individualwho never supports fellow group members’proposals or never initiates their own pro-grams is invisible in the group. This is espe-cially detrimental for women and minoritiesseeking to gain acceptance in new fields.

Even if you have planned ahead, polledyour group like a politician, and managed toplace your program at the top of the agenda,do not wait for or depend on others to voicetheir support. Decide which mountains toclimb and be prepared to climb them alone.The penalty for silence is powerlessness. ■

One successful strategy tocounteract several of theseproblems is to solicit opinions orsupport from fellow groupmembers before the meeting,either in person or by e-mail.


Some women view themselves inthe traditional, passive role of thegroup facilitator, moving themeeting toward closure even if itmeans withholding their opinion.

One of the best qualities thatwomen can bring to a group isthe ability to admit mistakesand work to correct them.

An individual who never supportsfellow group members’ proposalsor never initiates their ownprograms is invisible in the group.


“And Our Next Speaker Is...”

Elizabeth J. TaparowskyPurdue University

Y ou have just received notice from the ASCBAnnual Meeting Program Committee and dis-cover that your abstract has been selected for a

symposium presentation. Your initial reaction is one ofjoy, followed rapidly by feelings of fear or even panicas you envision yourself standing in front of severalhundred people and speaking. You have many weeksto prepare, but your mind is racing — hoping that youwill be able to generate new data, wondering how largethe audience will be, and speculating on who may be inattendance at the session. You lie awake at night goingover in your head what may happen — good scenariosand bad. You feel inadequate since you are convincedthat public speaking comes naturally only to reallygood scientists.

What you may not realize is that up to 80% of thegeneral population (and probably the vast majority ofspeakers at the ASCB Annual Meeting) experiencenervousness, trepidation, and anxiety at the prospect ofspeaking in front of an audience. Paradoxically, someexperts believe that controlled nervousness and tensionenhances public speaking performance. But, while youmay find comfort in knowing that the fear you areexperiencing is normal, it does not change the fact thatyou will be expected to speak! Is it possible to imple-ment some strategies now that will help you controlyour nervousness and minimize the effect that this

Your initial reaction is one of joy,followed rapidly by feelings of fear oreven panic as you envision yourselfstanding in front of several hundredpeople and speaking.



physical and emotional state will have on thequality of your presentation? The answer tothat question is ‘yes’.

First of all, it is important to establish ifyour fear of public speaking is a “trait” or a“state”. As defined by Rudolf Verderber inThe Challenge of Effective Speaking, a “trait” is arelatively ongoing characteristic of an indi-vidual, while a state is the “state” of mind aperson experiences from time-to-time. If yousuffer from trait nervousness, all communica-tion tasks you perform — laboratory meet-ings, teaching, even friendly conversations —are impaired by this fear. It is estimated thatup to 20% of the population may experiencetrait communication nervousness, whichmay require formal attention from publicspeaking professionals in order to be con-trolled. If, on the other hand, you handle rou-tine communication tasks with ease, then it islikely that you suffer from a state of nervous-ness, the possible negative consequences ofwhich may be avoided with the followingpreparation strategies:

Select the Content of YourPresentation Carefully

Make an outline of your talk. The first out-line you prepare is likely to contain moreinformation than can be accommodated com-fortably in the time allowed. Prune your datato include the best evidence to support yourconclusions. Unless absolutely necessary, donot present experiments or procedures withwhich you are not thoroughly familiar ordata from new experiments that may be pre-liminary. Likewise, do not use slides that con-

tain extraneous information. Take advantageof the technology available to make slidescustomized for your talk. Presenting clear,informative slides will benefit your audience,and it will make preparing and giving yourtalk much easier. On your slides, label data

with short, descriptive words. Numberinglanes on a gel may be suitable for a manu-script, but, when flashed on a screen, thesenumerals will convey nothing to your audi-ence. More importantly, they will not func-tion as a prompt for you during your talk. Ifyour work involves a new or a modified tech-nology, project a flow diagram of the tech-nique as you are describing it verbally. Lastly,think about including a brief heading foreach slide which will highlight the point youwould like to make.

Prepare a Scripted Beginningand Ending to Your Presentation

Once the content of your presentation hasbeen finalized, the next step is to write one ortwo opening sentences that summarize con-cisely the research question your data willaddress. These sentences should be scripted,memorized and typed legibly on a note cardwhich will accompany you to the podium.Stage fright peaks at the moment immediate-ly before you are introduced and it is not atall uncommon for you to “blank out” on theway to the stage. You can rebound quickly byhaving your introduction readily available.Once you begin to speak, you will calm

...controlled nervousness andtension enhances publicspeaking performance.

...do not present experiments orprocedures with which you arenot thoroughly familiar or datafrom new experiments that maybe preliminary.

down. The remainder of the talk should beorganized around your slides and jotteddown in outline form only. Do not attempt towrite down and memorize the entire talk.However, prepare your conclusion in thesame manner as your introduction, with oneor two summary sentences written on a notecard. This advance planning will insure thatyour ending will be strong and that you sum-marize to your audience exactly what youwanted to say.

Practice, Practice, PracticePractice your presentation several times,

alone and then in front of a group. Invite yourlabmates and friends to be your audience, butalso invite colleagues outside your immedi-ate field since they will be able to commenton whether you have successfully conveyed

your points to a general scientific audience.Hold your practice in a relatively large room,and have your audience critique the visibili-ty, as well as the information content, of yourslides. Make a conscious effort to speak slow-

ly when you practice, because you will sure-ly speed up at your talk. The most effectivespeakers use a strong, expressive voice andspeak slowly in order to allow their audiencetime to absorb the information they present.Another way to enable the audience toabsorb the information is to insert pausesthroughout your talk. Pausing will also pro-vide you with the time necessary to recallyour next slide or remember what you wantto say next. Use your practice sessions withan audience to help you to prepare for ques-tions, but do not spend too much time tryingto predict questions and prepare answers.Your efforts need to be focused on the contentof your talk.

Familiarize Yourself with theRoom and the AudiovisualEquipment Ahead of Time

Sometime before your talk, visit the roomin which you will be speaking and try out thelaser pointer, microphone and visual equip-ment. Request a podium, if there is not oneavailable. A podium provides an anchor forfidgety speakers and a physical barrier tolessen the feeling of being out there on thestage all alone. In selecting what you willwear on the day of your talk, make sure yourclothes are neat and comfortable. You shouldnot have to think of your clothes at all duringyour presentation. Far better to wear your oldstand-by that you know will hold up to reach-ing and bending than to splurge on some-thing new to make you look “great” only tolearn on stage that it has a faulty zipper.

Implement Self-CalmingStrategies Directly Before You Talk

There are a variety of techniques profes-sional speakers use to calm those pre-presen-tation jitters and, as you gain experience inpublic speaking, you will find a routine that


Stage fright peaks at themoment immediately before youare introduced and it is not atall uncommon for you to “blank out.”

... invite colleagues outside your immediate field since theywill be able to comment onwhether you have successfullyconveyed your points to ageneral scientific audience.


works best for you. Make your trip to therestroom well in advance of your scheduledtalk. Available to you on the podium shouldbe a glass of water—without ice, because icemakes it harder to drink, the noise it makesmay be picked up by the microphone, and icecan numb your mouth. A brief walk in theminutes prior to your introduction is veryhelpful, but often is not possible. As an alter-native, while you are seated in the audience,engage in deep, controlled breathing. Closeyour eyes and visualize yourself giving a

great talk. Think about how wonderful youwill feel once your presentation is over. It isimportant that you think positively in thosepreceding minutes so that your nervous ten-

sion will work to your advantage during theopening segment of your presentation.

The ASCB Annual Meeting is rapidlyapproaching. Some attendees will be speak-ing for the first time in front of a large audi-ence; others will have spoken so many timesthey will have lost count! Sharing your obser-vations and discoveries with your colleaguesat professional meetings is one of the mostrewarding components of a scientific career.However, public speaking comes naturally toonly a rare few of us. For most, it is a skill thatis practiced and developed over time.Welcome any opportunity you have to speakpublicly and use your experience to developa preparation strategy and communicationstyle that works best for you. ■


...public speaking comesnaturally to only a rare few ofus. For most, it is a skill that ispracticed and developed overtime.

Close your eyes and visualizeyourself giving a great talk.Think about how wonderful youwill feel once your presentationis over.


The Unicorn in the Garden orWhy Cell Biologists ShouldMeet the Press

John Fleischman The American Society

for Cell Biology

T here is a famous medieval tapestry in New York’sMetropolitan Museum of Art of a great lady in afantastical garden holding up a mirror to the uni-

corn reclining on her lap. Both are fascinated by whatthey behold. The tapestry is a riot of living things;flowers are intricately woven into her dress and allaround the green hummock where they sit are rabbits,foxes, hounds and strange creatures in harmonious co-existence. That garden came to mind with the 2001publication in Nature and Science of the completehuman genome.

The revelation that an organism with only30,000–40,000 genes could be as complex as a humanbeing stunned biologists. But scientists, by and large,are delighted by unexpected discoveries: waking uplast month as a member of a 30,000–40,000-genespecies was for many of us like finding a unicorn inthe garden. The unexpected makes the cellular gardenthat much more interesting to explore with new argu-ments to wage, new reputations to be made, and newfields to open.

However, the public, by and large, is either confusedor annoyed. The confusion is understandable but theannoyance is dangerous. It has its roots in a belief thatscience doesn’t know what it’s talking about and thatmeans it’s out of control.

This dangerous annoyance is affecting cell biology. Itcan be seen in “hot button” political positions that ren-der complex subjects such as genetically modified

The public, by and large, is eitherconfused or annoyed. The confusion isunderstandable but the annoyance isdangerous.



organisms or stem cell research into two-dimensional cartoons. Beyond that, there’s animpatience with basic biomedical researchwhere the answer so often turns out only tobe the next question. In this view, it’s all taxmoney down the lab sink or a plot by money-hungry biotechs to sow Frankenfood orexperiment on defenseless worms.

As a cell biologist, you can shrug this offand get back to the lab where real peopleunderstand what’s at stake. Or can you?Sadly, the more complex, the more powerful,and the more unexpected cell biologybecomes, the more dangerous it is to keep itin the garden like a unicorn on a rope. Youhave to get out there. You have to explain thatwe all live in the cellular garden and thatthese are exciting times in research. Thatmeans you have to deal with the media.

Unfortunately, much of what scientistsbelieve about general journalistic coverage ofscience is true. It’s inadequate, sensationaland simplistic. Scientists are misquoted, their

points distorted, and their work is presentedout of context. Conversely, much of what sci-ence journalists believe about researchers isuntrue: that most scientists are control freaks,personally possessive of what should be pub-lic knowledge, and so caught up in specificsthat they can offer no context to outsiders.

It can be rough, but as a practicing cellbiologist, you need to be out there. TheASCB’s Public Information Committeebelieves that cell biology is too important toleave to cell biologists alone. We must illumi-nate our science before a wider audience. Wemust raise the level of biology literacy in themedia, in government, and in our schools.We must widen the circle of informed publicdiscussion.

For most researchers, their first profession-al contact with the news media is when theypublish something startling that’s considerednews. Often it’s not their most importantpaper that attracts the press calls but thequirkiest one. They have demonstratedsomething interesting in mice and the pressjumps on the “mice get X” angle, missing thewhole point. Or do they? Journalists are con-stantly looking for an “angle” or a news pegto “sell” a particular story to their editors orproducers. An angle can also draw a generalreader into a difficult science story. Morereaders (and editors) know mice than knowintracellular signaling. The mice, though, canbe reader-bait, at least in the hands of askilled reporter who understands the real sig-nificance of a paper.

In this view, it’s all tax moneydown the lab sink or a plot bymoney-hungry biotechs to sowFrankenfood or experiment ondefenseless worms.

The more complex, the morepowerful, and the moreunexpected cell biology becomes,the more dangerous it is to keepit in the garden like a unicornon a rope.

Unfortunately, much of whatscientists believe about generaljournalistic coverage of scienceis true. It’s inadequate,sensational and simplistic.

Making the reporter understand is yourjob. You need to be able to tell a reporter or anassignment editor what your paper means inthe larger context. That goes against the grainfor many scientists. In writing for journals,young scientists are drilled in the profession-al aesthetic of understatement and minimiz-ing implications. If your lab did stumble ontothe fundamental mechanism that causes ALLcancers, the title of your paper to Science isthe last place you would mention that.

Still if your work has significance, try “sell-ing” it first to your institution’s public infor-mation office with a brief one- or two-para-graph “take away message.” Send it alongwith the text of your paper and send it assoon as possible after you get an acceptanceand a publication date. Public informationofficers can embargo a paper until publica-tion but they need time to write a pressrelease and distribute it. Convincing yourpublic information officer that your paperhas news value is the first step in finding outwhat you want to say to a journalist or theRotary Club. Don’t hype a tiny paper todeath but good work has implications.

Journalists come in all shapes, abilities anddeadline schedules. Even science reporterscover a wide range of topics from day to day sodon’t assume that a writer from a big nameoutfit will have background in your field. Don’ttalk down but be prepared to get basic. Get thereporter a copy of your paper to read before theinterview. If there’s an up-to-date review of theliterature in print, get a copy of that. If yourprevious papers will help, have them on hand.

Most journalistic organizations have astrong taboo against showing a subject a

story before it appears or goes on air. Yetwriting about a complicated science subjecton a short deadline is difficult and experi-enced reporters know how easy it is tomake mistakes. Believe it or not, they don’tlike making mistakes. Help journalists to beaccurate without being threatening. Offer toread a draft for factual errors. Offer to listento the reporter read back quotes or individ-ual paragraphs. Offer to listen to a para-phrase of the story. Offer corrections or fur-ther explanations in a calm voice.Remember also that editors and news pro-ducers come behind the reporters. Storieswill be edited. Film will be cut. If the finalresult is, in your opinion, a mess, see if youcan salvage something, a relationship withthe reporter for the next story or an offerfrom an editor to submit an opinion articleto the Editorial page.

Being in the news will help prepare you foryour next assignment—shaping the news as apublic scientist. You want to become what thePIC calls “an unusually reliable source.” Youwant to be the name in a reporter’s Rolodexthat rings the bell, the expert who’s willing tocomment, or the scientist who may not knowa specific answer but can steer a journalist tosomeone who does. You want to contribute toEditorial pages or serve as a “talking head”on Sunday morning. You want to find out if


You want to be the name in areporter’s Rolodex that rings thebell, the expert who’s willing tocomment, or the scientist whomay not know a specific answerbut can steer a journalist tosomeone who does.

Cell biology is too important toleave to cell biologists alone.


your local newspaper has a science or medicalwriter (and sound deeply shocked if you aretold that they do not). You want to introduceyourself to the editors or TV news producerswho coordinate science/health coverage andconvince them that a big amorphous “nation-al” story like the human genome has a localangle and a local face. That face does not haveto be your face. Suggest names and numbers.

Talking on science policy issues requiressupport. Consult websites such as the ASCB’s

that has the Society’s statements and back-grounds on such issues as stem cells, fetal tis-sue and genetically modified foods.

There’s professional danger here and a fairamount of thankless work. You can be mis-understood. You can be ignored. But there’san even greater danger in biologists speakingonly to other biologists. We can make greatand unexpected discoveries in the lab only todiscover that the world doesn’t recognize aunicorn when it sees one. ■



4. MANAGEMENTA Crash Course in Management

Designing Productive Lab Meetings

Some Tips on Successful Negotiation


A Crash Course in Management

Elizabeth MarincolaThe American Society

for Cell Biology

M ost people who are managers — those whoare responsible for the supervision of people,money and/or other resources — have not

been formally trained in management. Many untrainedmanagers rise to the challenge successfully. HaroldVarmus is a stunning example of an untrained manag-er who served a spectacular tenure as Director of a $15billion, 16,000-person federal agency, having nevermanaged anything more extensive than his own lab.

But every successful manager has learned lessonsalong the way. Here are some to consider:

Don’t Act, AskThe first thing a new manager should do, even

before the first day on the job, is to draw out those whoare already there. Ask the previous manager what hisgreatest contribution and biggest mistake was; ask cur-rent employees what they like and dislike about theenvironment; ask the clerical staff how operations canbe improved; ask the supervisor for her expectations;ask the grounds keepers for a good route for a walkand about security concerns. Collecting this importantinformation has the added benefit of signaling that thenew manager values others’ opinions.

Don’t take immediate action. If it is clear thatchanges should be made, for example in personnel, askseveral people in the organization for their advicebefore doing anything. Even after building confidenceand experience, asking others for advice is rarely harm-ful and always helpful, if it is considered seriously.

Sincerity and Equity Are More Effectivethan Flattery and Favoritism

The most enduring working relationships are thosebuilt on honesty and consistency. It is tempting to giveinto insecurities by pandering to others, but the loyaltyit may engender is fickle. Be quick to note when others

CHAPTER 4 • MANAGEMENT 41

have done good work, but don’t feel thateach day must be started by making therounds telling people how nice they look orinquiring about their children or pets. Peoplecan smell insincerity quickly. They respectthose who respect their own time. In a pro-fessional setting it is better to be respectedthan adored; to be trusted than everyone’sbest friend.

Be Specific in Your CriticismIf someone makes a mistake or produces

poor work, it is the manager’s responsibility tolet him know it and why. First, look for aspectsof the work that can be praised. Compare thework to assignments produced by the sameperson that were done better. Praise publicly,but criticize privately. Criticism should beclear and helpful, not punitive. Do not gener-alize criticism: stick to the actual mistakesmade in the case at hand. Do not apologize forhaving to confront someone with their weak-nesses: it is not only the manager’s job, but sheis also helping colleagues improve, which is toeveryone’s benefit.

Don’t ApologizePerhaps having internalized the tradition-

al subordinate mother’s role of an earlier gen-eration, women in particular often have ahard time asking people to do something forthem, even if it is the person’s job, such aswith a secretary or assistant. “Please” shouldbe used abundantly, but “sorry” should beused sparingly. For example, “would you

please copy this paper for me?” is moreappropriate than, “I’m sorry, would youmind copying this paper for me?” if it isindeed the person’s job to perform suchtasks. “Can you do me a favor and...?” isanother form that should be avoided (unlessit is a favor, e.g. something personal). Manywomen are so used to being apologetic about

managing other people that they are not evenconscious of this terminology, which weak-ens them.

Drive Your Own PrioritiesThere is not necessarily a correlation

between how insistent or anxious peopleare for the manager’s attention and theimportance of their projects. Give yourattention to what is most important, notwhat (who) is loudest in demanding yourattention. An exception to this rule is if aquick review by the manager will allow anentire production process to move forward.Managers who are over-responsive to themost insistent demands will not be able toeffectively achieve their most importantobjectives.

Let Others Look GoodResist the instinct to be jealous of col-

leagues. If the organization (lab, department,company) looks good, everyone looks good.Encourage junior colleagues to give a paper,

It is tempting to give intoinsecurities by pandering toothers, but the loyalty it mayengender is fickle.


Praise publicly, but criticizeprivately. Criticism should beclear and helpful, not punitive.Do not generalize criticism:stick to the actual mistakesmade in the case at hand.

make a presentation, serve on a committee orauthor a memo when appropriate. One per-son cannot pretend to be as knowledgeableabout each aspect of an operation as the sumof all the others. This also satisfies theemployees’ natural need to be recognized fortheir own work, contributing to the retentionof valuable people.

One caveat, though, is that the managerwill ultimately be held accountable for thework of others. Allowing others to take thecredit they deserve does not extend to relin-quishing involvement and control. In theend, the manager is accountable for thequality of work.

It’s the Money, Stupid!In almost any work environment,

whether or not the purpose of the organiza-tion is to make money, the bottom line is...the bottom line. Be certain that the financialaspects of risky and/or creative projects arefully analyzed in advance. Storms areweathered much more successfully if detrac-tors cannot say, “and besides, look at themoney she’s lost us!”

Penny Wisdom is PoundFoolishness

Pay people what they’re worth within theconstraints of the organization. In reviewingsalary, the guiding principle should be howbadly hurt the organization would be in thelong run if the person in question were toleave. For service and knowledge industries,employees are the most valuable assets of anorganization. Turnover is expensive in train-ing, lost productivity, and the uncertainty ofbeing able to recruit a replacement effectively.

Negotiate for the Long TermIn negotiations, leave something on the

table. The most successful negotiations leaveall parties feeling they have “won.” Decidewhich variables are most important and con-cede something of the others. For example,an offer of a lower starting salary to a newemployee may be made more attractive by aflexible start date or a travel allowance.Always assume an ongoing business relation-ship with negotiating partners.

Set an ExampleAcknowledge mistakes, and apologize for

them. Work hard. Perform beyond the levelexpected of employees. Start meetings ontime to avoid a culture of tardiness and con-sequent lost time. Follow through. Activelydefend subordinates when they have beenunfairly accused. Have a sense of humor,especially about yourself. ■


Women in particular often havea hard time asking people to dosomething for them.

Designing Productive Lab Meetings

Beth BurnsideUniversity of California

Berkeley

S cience is not only about discovery; it is aboutcommunicating discovery. Lab meetings aretraining grounds for both. It is here that young

scientists learn about the level of rigor necessary toconvince colleagues of their results, and about how tobehave and communicate effectively. This is accom-plished by instructing students how to evaluate andpresent results, receive and deliver feedback, think ontheir feet, and respect the procedural boundaries andethics of the profession. Ideally they will emerge fromthis process confident of their skills, but respectful ofscience and other scientists.

The benefits of lab meetings are myriad.Presentations at lab meetings demand that each labmember step back to review accumulating data andjustify their experimental plan. This process alone canproduce important shifts in perspective and prioritiza-tion. The actual presentation can be even more usefuldepending on how skillful the lab group is at providingconstructive feedback.

Effective criticism is a fine and delicate art; achievingit in lab meetings is challenging. It is crucial that everymember of the lab group give honest feedback aboutthe science and share any reservation about the validi-ty or interpretation of data. The lab group is the “hometeam” who knows most about the subject. It is their jobto ensure that the speaker gets a harder time at homethan anywhere else. This function is critical to buildingconfidence in a young scientist’s presentation skills.Everyone in the group should give and expect toreceive this kind of feedback from all other lab mem-


Science is not only about discovery; itis about communicating discovery.

bers. The content of the criticism shouldaddress both the science and the effectivenessof the communication.

How the feedback is given is of paramountimportance. Criticism must be directed atprocedural or scientific issues. The challengefor lab members is to learn how to expose theweak points in the science and experimentaldetail without attacking the speaker person-ally. Sarcasm and condescension have noplace in a lab meeting. Even a little of this willcause people to become taciturn and poisonthe cooperative atmosphere of a laboratory,enormously reducing its effectiveness andproductivity. The principal investigator andsenior people in the lab group serve as rolemodels for group meeting behavior, settingthe standards not only for rigor and ethicsbut also for manners.

The details of lab meeting organization arevariable among labs, although several con-cepts recur. Food is crucial. Blood sugar andcreativity must surely be associated.Attendance at lab meetings by all lab mem-bers is usually mandatory (possibly also cor-related to food). The time period reserved forlab meetings is generally one to two hours,

but some presentations stimulate large groupdiscussions which cause time limits to beignored. Most lab meetings occur in confer-ence rooms, but some groups meet in the lab.The lab setting allows the speaker to quicklyretrieve additional data, demonstrate aunique piece of equipment or experimentalarrangement, or view a computer image.

Most principal investigators plan somecombination of regular short progress reportsand less frequent formal presentations whichinclude literature review, research strategy,and critical evaluation of results. Theprogress reports keep the group informed of

each member’s progress, and permit feed-back critical to keeping the research strategyon track. Formal presentations provide anopportunity for maturing scientists to honetheir speaking skills. Often the formal pre-sentations occur in group meetings sharedwith another laboratory with similar inter-ests. This permits speakers to practice withina strict time limit in front of a larger group.Some groups alternate these two types ofmeetings from week to week: one week withdata presentation, in which each lab memberuses five to fifteen minutes to briefly discusstheir successes and failures, followed the nextweek by a journal club presentation or com-prehensive research presentation by onespeaker.

For progress report presentations, speak-ers use prepared overheads or slides to pres-ent actual data. If no experiments have beendone since the last presentation, the speakercan present future plans, ideas, or hypothe-ses. Some principal investigators require thespeakers to write a summary of the presenta-tion and distribute it to lab members before


Food is crucial.

The challenge...is to learn howto expose the weak points in thescience and experimental detailwithout attacking the speakerpersonally.

Effective criticism is a fine anddelicate art; achieving it in labmeetings is challenging.


or at the meeting. This practice stimulatesthe speaker to organize data for presenta-tion, allows colleagues to consider sub-stance in advance and generates a writtenrecord of progress. Other principal investi-gators require annual or biannual writtenprogress reports, complete with literaturereview, research progress, discussion, andfuture plans.

These are reviewed by the principal inves-tigator, revised in response to the criticisms,then collected into a laboratory notebook.

These lab presentation notebooks or progressreports are important historical documentsfor the laboratory as well as helpful startingpoints for papers or theses.

Journal clubs are common adjuncts to reg-ular research lab meetings. An analysis of arecent paper provides additional opportunityfor young scientists to practice formal pres-entation. Journal clubs also keep the entirelab current with the relevant literature andprovide an opportunity to practice criticalevaluation of other scientists’ observationsand interpretations.

As integral features of the culture of aca-demic science, lab meetings help train youngscientists and push each laboratory towardoptimal research performance. At the sametime, lab meetings set the tone for each labo-ratory’s style of doing science. An emphasison discovery and constructive feedback in labmeetings can enhance everyone’s effective-ness and productivity, and make doing sci-ence much more fun. ■


The lab group is the “hometeam” who knows most aboutthe subject. It is their job toensure that the speaker gets aharder time at home thananywhere else.


Some Tips on SuccessfulNegotiation

Elizabeth Marincola The American Society

for Cell Biology

T here is much pop-wisdom associated with nego-tiation. For example, seating your negotiatingpartner in a broken chair or an overheated room,

because increasing the other’s discomfort is believed toreduce one’s own perceived advantage. In contrast tothis frivolous pseudo-science, basic, time-proven nego-tiating skills are important and useful across industriesand a variety of personal and professional situations.Following are some basic negotiating tactics:

Recognize When to Negotiate Take control of framing the negotiation. For example,

if an employee receives a competitive job offer, determinefirst if the threatened outcome would be advantageous ordisadvantageous to the organization. If the changewould be mutually beneficial, even if the threat is just agambit to gain attention, do not rise to the bait. Tell the

person that they will be missed. If, on the other hand, thethreatened outcome is not beneficial to the organization,do not assume that there is no room for negotiation orreconsideration just because a statement is declarative.

Determine What the Other PersonWants

Often people assume that the “obvious” issue is themost important issue or even the only issue. Forexample, employment unhappiness is not always pri-marily about salary. It is often about title, reportingrelationships, acknowledgment, independence, work

Do not assume that there is no roomfor negotiation or reconsideration justbecause a statement is declarative.



environment, or hours, even though the stat-ed issue may have been about salary.

Add ValueThink about what changes will improve

both positions. For example, occasionaltelecommuting may earn the employer greaterproductivity and the employee more freedom.

Learn as Much as You CanDraw the person out by asking probing

questions. Gather as much information aspossible before reaching conclusions or pro-posing solutions. Imagine what the other per-son is thinking.

Do not interrupt the other person. Askopen-ended questions. The more a persontalks, the more she reveals about herself,which will help clarify what concessions willbe most valuable and/or what demandsmost reasonable.

Re-state the Other Person’sPosition

Once a position has been described, re-state it calmly and impartially to the other

person. This strategy confirms that thenegotiating partner has been listening care-fully and offers the opportunity to correctmisunderstandings. In addition, neutralconstruction reduces the other person’sdefensiveness.

There Really Is Such a Thing asa Win-Win Negotiation. ThereAre Also Lose-Lose Negotiations

Very few real-life situations are zero-sumgames. The object is for everyone to comeaway feeling that they have gotten much ofwhat they want. Negotiating partners fre-quently have an ongoing relationship.Therefore, if every last concession is extractedout of one partner, the other partner may getmore in the short term, but at the expense ofresentment by the first. The long term costmay be unreasonable.

Take Advantage of YourLeverage, but Stay Within aReasonable Range

The negotiating partner who has the upperhand can afford to be ambitious. But staywithin a reasonable range. Everyone has theirlimit, and if a negotiating partner pushesbeyond it, they may risk blowing a negotia-tion that had every chance of resolving totheir advantage.

Concede Where Possible What may come at a small price to one per-

son could have disproportional value to theother. If small issues are conceded, the com-promiser will be better positioned to demandcompromise on bigger issues.

Do Not Personalize orGeneralize

Avoid constructions such as “Youalways…”, “You never…” or “You’re so…”.Do not make comments about the other per-

Often people assume that the“obvious” issue is the mostimportant issue or even the only issue.

Very few real-life situations arezero-sum games. The object isfor everyone to come awayfeeling that they have gottenmuch of what they want.

son’s style, habits or personality. Avoid all crit-icism if possible, personal criticism especially.

Although the examples discussed are set atwork, good negotiating skills are essential formany aspects of life. Basic negotiating tacticsare likely to be useful in personal as well asprofessional relationships. ■


Everyone has their limit, and ifa negotiating partner pushesbeyond it, they may riskblowing a negotiation that hadevery chance of resolving totheir advantage.

5. LEADERSHIPCreative Mentoring Strategies

Crossing to the Other Side

Dealing with Unstable Colleagues


Creative Mentoring Strategies

Christine H. BlockNortheastern Ohio Universities

College of Medicine

A ll sports have a coach who guides the players,not only through the technical aspects of thegame, but, more importantly, toward the goal

of winning through strategic thinking. Likewise, suc-cess in science requires coaching. Early in a scientist’scareer, there is extensive formal education, with strongemphasis on didactics, technical skills and criticalthinking. During this period, less weight is placed onthe strategic aspects of the career. The maturing scien-tist moves into the next position, perhaps facing anovel requirement, like writing a grant to support theirresearch. Suddenly, the mechanics of being a scientistmust be learned in a crash course. Where was I whenthis was taught in school?, they ask. At this point, thejunior scientist may seek out a coach for the specific sit-uation, such as writing that first grant or addressingand rebutting a reviewer’s comments, and the mentor-mentee relationship is born.

Scientists, in general, are naïve in the practice of sci-ence as business. They think hypothetically and seekanswers through logical reasoning and experimenta-tion. This process isolates them intellectually from theshrewd tactics of politics that pervade the business ofscience. Obtaining funding for a research project withadequate indirect costs, or learning that a well-designed research question and hypotheses are not invogue or fundable, can be perplexing to the neophytescientist. Skills in grantsmanship, ethics, animal wel-fare, traditional careers in science and alternative aca-demic positions are rarely considered in graduateschool. In addition, with keen competition for limited

Where was I when this was taught in school?

CHAPTER 5 • LEADERSHIP 51

positions and research funding, and changesin ethical and animal welfare issues, the needfor guidance in the business of science is great.Mentors who are well-versed in all of theseissues are necessary in the current climate.

In science, the mentor role has beenassigned traditionally to the principal investi-gator of the laboratory. This mentor has vest-ed interest in the junior scientist’s involve-ment in the research program. Often mentor-ing is concentrated in technical aspects of theprogram, while other survival skills neces-sary for success in science and academia arenot on the agenda. The department chair isanother traditional mentor, but he or she maybe more detached from the junior scientist, ormay represent authority that is not comfort-ably approached, thus not suitable to providethe necessary guidance.

From the mentor’s perspective, mentoringrelationships have certain attributes thatmake them effective. Listening effectivelyand being able to identify key issues are nec-essary to provide practical guidance for thejunior scientist. Mentor-mentee relationshipsdo not appear to be gender-specific, althoughit may be necessary to market them to agreater extent to female scientists since theymay be more reluctant to seek guidance andform networks.

As the need for formal mentoring of scien-tists has become evident, training of facultyin academic survival skills has developed.1

Further, several institutions have begun toincorporate “mentor-like“ positions inresearch offices, with the purpose of assistingand training faculty in academic skills.

A formal mentor may start by conductingan interview with the junior investigator.Particulars of the research project are dis-cussed but, more importantly, tangentialaspects of the research and academic issuesbecome apparent that might have gone undis-covered in a forum that is not one-on-one. Forexample, advice on how to manage criticismfrom peers, be critical of one’s own ideas, oradapt ideas to science trends often emerge.

Seminars on topics that are not a regularcomponent of graduate training, like grants-manship and scientific writing, or are difficultto discuss with a mentor, such as career alter-natives, postdoctoral anticipation, or ethics inresearch, are critical for graduate students.

Academia can be rigid and it can be diffi-cult to modify rules. Instead, one must “thinkoutside the box” and seek advice from some-

one with more experience. The scientific com-munity offers numerous opportunities for awell-trained scientist to excel, be creative, be

Mentor-mentee relationships donot appear to be gender-specific,although it may be necessary tomarket them to a greater extentto female scientists since theymay be more reluctant to seekguidance and form networks.


Scientists, in general, are naïvein the practice of science asbusiness.

Advice on how to managecriticism from peers, be critical ofone’s own ideas, or adapt ideas toscience trends often emerge.

satisfied and, most importantly, be balanced.Finding mentors to assist with the process iscritical and rewarding. ■

Reference1. Teaching Survival Skills and Ethics, Beth A. Fischer and

Michael J. Zigmond, University of Pittsburgh,www.edc.gsph.pitt.edu/survival. NIMH funded workshop,2000.


Crossing to the Other Side

Julie Theriot Stanford University

S cientific research is usually a collaborative effort,most successful and most fun when performedby a team of individuals who complement each

others’ knowledge and talents. In academia, small lab-oratories are generally directed by just one person, thefaculty member or principal investigator (the P.I.). Thesuccess and happiness of the lab depends in largemeasure on the ability of the P.I. to keep the team work-ing together smoothly. The relevant people-manage-ment skills are taught in business schools, but are notgenerally part of Ph.D. or postdoctoral training.

In academic research, the transition from team mem-ber to team director is usually sharp. Graduate stu-dents and postdoctoral fellows often get the opportu-nity to train more junior members of their lab, andsome even directly supervise the work of a technician,but it is rare to gain experience in managing a wholegroup at these stages. For most faculty members, thestart of the first appointment as an assistant professormarks a time when the individual stops being one of“us”, the team of postdoctoral fellows, students, andtechnicians that do the bulk of the work, and suddenlybecomes one of “them”, the P.I.’s.

The sharpness and completeness of this transitiontakes many new assistant professors by surprise, andits artificiality makes scientists at this point in their


The start of the first appointment as anassistant professor marks a time whenthe individual stops being one of“us”... and suddenly becomes one of“them,” the P.I.’s.

careers extremely susceptible to the“Impostor Phenomenon” (described inChapter 1). Particularly difficult is the transi-tion to playing the opposite part in the men-tor-student relationship. Science is one of thefew professions that is still entered byapprenticeship, and the dynamic betweengraduate students and faculty is complex. Alittle informal surveying has revealed somecommon themes and experiences on the partof those doing the crossing over:

“Graduate Students Listen TooCarefully to Everything I Say.”

Even though the new P.I. is the same per-son she was a month before as a postdoctoralfellow, with no more wisdom and very littlemore experience, her words suddenly carrydisproportionate weight. Students are muchmore likely to remember an offhand commentor supposition of a P.I. than the P.I. is likely toremember it herself. An off-color remark ormoment of inappropriate public behavior,which would have been laughed at and for-gotten when the P.I. was one of “us,” canbecome a rich source of gossip after she hascrossed over to the other side. And no matterhow hard a P.I. tries to be unobtrusive, herpersonality quirks will be diligently notedand faithfully reproduced in student skits.

The best way to deal with this is to learn tochoose words carefully. We all rememberhow a few cutting words from our own grad-uate advisor could sting, and, likewise, how

justified praise at the right moment couldmean so much. Do not worry too much aboutthe quirks. Students don’t make fun of thefaculty they despise; being lampooned is areal sign of affection.

“Graduate Students Don’t Listento Anything I Say.”

Of course, the P.I. does not get to selectwhich words the students choose to retain. Ina competitive research field, it is often impor-tant to get results quickly; a few weeks ormonths of delay can mean getting scooped.Since the new P.I. has spent so much timelearning to do science, is now so good at it,and has so much riding on the early successof the new lab, the temptation is strong to res-cue a floundering student’s work (in theplanning, experimental or analysis stage) bysaying, “here, let me just do that.” Goodgraduate advisors must develop a balancebetween guiding students and letting themfigure things out for themselves, even if thissometimes takes longer than just doing thework for the students. Many students will besmart and opinionated (maybe like the P.I.once was in graduate school) and will preferto try new things their own way. This can befrustrating for a P.I. who feels that she is usu-ally right. A common and useful solution is tolet the student do things both ways. If the P.I.is right, the student will figure this out, andperhaps take advice more easily in the future.If the student’s way turns out to be better,then everyone is better off anyway.

“Nobody in the Lab Ever TellsMe When There Are Problems.”

When the P.I. spends much of the timealone in an office that is separated from thelab, major conflicts can arise among the teamthat do not come to light until weeks ormonths later. It is a shock to many new assis-tant professors to learn that the famous obliv-


Good graduate advisors mustdevelop a balance betweenguiding students and lettingthem figure things out for themselves.


iousness of most faculty is not necessarilyinnate, but happens because people can onlyprocess the available information. Lab citi-zens can carefully and restrictively filter thisrelevant information. A new P.I.’s increasedvisibility as one of “them” means that every-one is aware of her presence. For example,silence will descend when a P.I. enters acrowded and cheerful elevator, and she willprobably hear less swearing than she isaccustomed to in the lab.

In the one-on-one advisor-student rela-tionship, the filtering can be an impedimentto the progress of the research. Many stu-dents are happy to speak to their advisorwhen things are working, but avoid themwhen things are not; they may be reluctantto admit confusion or defeat. A P.I. must,therefore, learn to listen carefully and close-ly to what the student does not say, sincesilence probably indicates perplexity. It isimportant to ferret out the problems, withpatience and compassion.

“My Students Don’t Tolerate My Faults; I Am Just a Human Being.”

One graduate student weighs in, “I’veheard this ‘The P. I. is a human being’ schtickbefore. I just don’t buy it.” There may be noimmediate solution to this, but someday thisgraduate student is likely to be running a labof his own. Like new parents who suddenlydevelop an appreciation for the behavior andfoibles of their own parents, new assistantprofessors almost always have retroactivesympathy for their former advisors.

In the end, every new assistant professormust develop her or his own style of mentor-ing and managing a research group. Seniorcolleagues can be an invaluable source ofadvice, and friends in business or other fieldswho manage teams of people may be evenmore helpful. The learning curve is verysteep for the first few years, but when theteam works well together to develop a newbreakthrough, the taste of success is muchsweeter than individual accomplishment. ■


Even though the new P.I. is thesame person she was a monthbefore... her words suddenlycarry disproportionate weight.

A P.I. must... learn to listencarefully and closely to what thestudent does not say.


Dealing with Unstable Colleagues

Sara (Sally) TobinStanford University

S cience requires intense dedication, and scien-tists generally tolerate the eccentricities of theirequally intense colleagues. However, some-

times behavior by a colleague can interfere with thework environment. Following are some generalguidelines about how to recognize and deal withunstable colleagues. Symptoms of three levels ofcounterproductive behavior—those that transcendworking styles or eccentricities—are summarized,and actions are suggested.

It is a challenge to distinguish between problemsthat can be resolved by firmness, support and informa-tion, and those that require specialized expertise andresources. Most scientists do not have the necessarymental health training to deal with a person who hassignificant mental health issues. It is always appropri-ate to provide positive mentoring, but not therapy.

Most potential problems can be avoided by takingcare in hiring employees and in taking on studentsand postdoctoral fellows. Talk with previous supervi-sors and review performance records. Be clear aboutexpectations for laboratory conduct, cooperation, pro-fessionalism and safety, and discuss possible conse-quences. Whenever possible, have the person do atrial or rotation in the lab, and give periodic feedbackabout whether standards are being achieved.However, even with these precautions, problembehavior may still appear.

Handling Manipulative BehaviorSometimes behavior patterns can reflect a coping

style designed, perhaps unconsciously, to keep othersoff balance, or to elicit special treatment. Such behaviorcan range from abusive outbursts to a pattern of excus-es or passive inaction. For instance, a colleague mayengage in “inspired incompetence” that results in shift-ing responsibilities to others. Occasionally a student


may lose belief in his or her abilities andbecome overly dependent.

Such behavior patterns can test a supervi-sor’s authority and self-confidence. Thesebehaviors are best dealt with by setting firmlimits, providing encouragement, confirmingmutual roles and responsibilities with cheer-ful chats and e-mails, and calmly holdingground in the face of mild to moderate esca-lation to test the supervisor’s resolve. Once itis clear that standards and consequences arefirm and applied with fairness, the problemmay be minimized. However, if the level ofescalation progresses to an uncomfortablelevel, it may be appropriate to seek adviceand support as discussed below.

Identifying Possible MentalInstability

Signs of mental instability can includeinexplicable mood swings, irrational state-ments, extreme cycles of productivity, unex-plained absences, depression, and violent orabusive behavior. These signs are an order ofmagnitude beyond normal acute disappoint-ment expressed over an intractable experi-ment or a grant application that is not fund-ed. The person may fail to follow laboratorystandards for cooperation or safety. Theymay display an insensitive or overtly cruelattitude toward others or toward laboratoryanimals. They may initiate episodes of inter-personal friction in the laboratory and mayalienate or frighten co-workers. Their state-

ments may seem inconsistent, and they mayreact defensively when asked for clarifica-tion. Obsessive behavior toward other indi-viduals, such as following someone home,can be another important symptom. In manycases, symptoms increase gradually overtime until they reach an intolerable level.However, sometimes stressful workplace orpersonal events can trigger a crisis.

When encouragement, limits on behavior,and standards of performance do not bringimprovements, it may be time to enlist some-one with professional training and experi-ence. Most educational institutions and com-panies have Employee Assistance Programs,which are confidential and professionalsources of help for employees and students.An EAP is equipped to deal with problemsdirectly or to make appropriate referrals formental health issues, family problems, ordrug and alcohol abuse. If the obviousoptions have been exhausted and the bestcourse of action is unclear, consider confer-ring with EAP personnel about your percep-tions and about developing strategies fordealing with the situation.

Recognizing ViolenceViolence includes pounding on walls,

throwing items to the floor, angry damage toequipment, as well as physical threats towardco-workers or supervisors. Threats of vio-lence are especially serious if they appear to

Signs of mental instability caninclude inexplicable moodswings, irrational statements,extreme cycles of productivity,unexplained absences, depression,and violent or abusive behavior.


Sometimes behavior patternscan reflect a coping styledesigned, perhaps unconsciously,to keep others off balance, or toelicit special treatment.

escalate or become more detailed. “I couldjust kill him,” can indicate simple annoyance;“I’m going to get my brother’s ’38 and justwalk into his office some morning and blowhim away,” includes plans of time, place, andmeans, and is cause for immediate action.Violence or threats of violence are unaccept-able and cannot be tolerated, whether theyare directed toward inanimate objects,toward others, or are self-destructive.

In the face of violent behavior, a supervisormight choose to give a single warning, e.g.,for throwing a gel comb to the floor; other-wise, anyone who observes violence shouldinvolve others immediately. Depending onthe episode, such notification might involveany or all of the following: the supervisor, theinstitution’s EAP, the department head, thedean, and/or campus security. In extremecases, confrontation can be dangerous, so letprofessionals handle the situation. If you findyourself in a volatile situation, stay cool,speak more slowly than the potentially vio-lent person, and ask the person to suggestsolutions that would have avoided activatinghis or her anger.

In all interactions, preserve the other per-son’s dignity. Maintain confidentiality andbe humane. If others must be informedabout the situation, do so in private. Thebottom line is that it may be necessary to askan unstable individual to leave your labora-

tory. This may become more difficult withtime, so it is important to be equitable andallow opportunities for resolution, but tomove decisively if these efforts are unsuc-cessful. Ask for advice to make sure that youcomply with relevant personnel policies.However, be aware of the responsibility car-ried by every supervisor to ensure a safeworking environment that enhances every-one’s ability to achieve their personal andscientific goals.

Of course, if the unstable person is anequal or a supervisor, then many of theseoptions would be difficult to implement.However, regardless of the level of one’sposition, it is wise to seek consultation aboutthe best possible strategies, documentepisodes as they occur, solicit support amongother colleagues, and set limits. If the situa-tion becomes intolerable, consider otheractions, such as filing a grievance or lookingfor a position that provides a positive work-ing environment.

Some people feel an overwhelming level ofguilt and uncertainty at finding themselves ina difficult interpersonal situation, even whentheir contribution has been minimal.However, it is more productive to engage inassessment and problem-solving than self-reproach. Every professional benefits fromdeveloping the skills to work productivelywith a wide variety of people, and thisincludes recognizing and taking appropriateaction when behavior patterns disrupt thework environment. Sometimes professionalhelp can be a key element in developing aresolution that benefits everyone involved. ■


“I could just kill him,” canindicate simple annoyance; “I’m going to get my brother’s’38 and just walk into his officesome morning and blow himaway,”...is cause for immediateaction.

In all interactions, preserve theother person’s dignity. Maintainconfidentiality and be humane.

6. UNDERREPRESENTATIONIN SCIENCE CAREERS

Affirmative Action for the NextGeneration

Increasing Representation of People ofColor in Science


Affirmative Action for theNext Generation

Donella Wilson The American Cancer Society

W hat has been known for decades as “affir-mative action” is being strongly chal-lenged from a variety of directions, and

the concept is being perceived in a spirit far differentfrom that which was originally intended. In reality,affirmative action has never been precisely defined.Instead, the principle that connotes equitable treatmentand inclusion has evolved as a collection of laws andexecutive orders over the last 60 years in an attempt toremove barriers to opportunities for minorities andwomen. Yet today, there are still glass ceilings in uni-versities, hospitals, law firms and other workplacesdue to vestiges of deliberate exclusion of underrepre-sented populations, as well as to thinly veiled, but noless real, practices of non-inclusion.

Affirmative action becomes a business issue for acade-mia as colleges and universities attempt to create diversefaculties to serve increasingly diverse student popula-tions, and at the same time compete in the global society.

One reason women have been more successful thanminorities in bridging the gap legislatively is that theirnumbers are greater and their pipeline readily devel-oped. As a result of our country’s history, pipelines forminorities need to be built. However, it is not legal toeven consider race when providing opportunities inuniversities. The 1995 case of Hopwood v. Texas ruled

There are still glass ceilings in univer-sities, hospitals, law firms and otherworkplaces due to vestiges of deliberateexclusion of underrepresented popula-tions, as well as to thinly veiled, but noless real, practices of non-inclusion.

CHAPTER 6 • UNDERREPRESENTATION IN SCIENCE CAREERS 61

that the University of Texas Law School couldnot take race into consideration when admit-ting students unless such action was neces-sary to remedy past discrimination by theschool. Filling fixed minority quotas is nolonger an acceptable admissions policy.

In 2001, providing specialized opportunityto underserved/underrepresented popula-tions is still acceptable legally, but may not befor long. In March 2001, a White-ownedColorado business complained that smallbusiness bonuses given to contractors whosubcontract to minority businesses discrimi-nate against non-minorities (Adarand

Constructors, Inc. v. Pena). In the meantime,Georgia Power Company (April 2001) faces apotential class action discrimination lawsuitdue to lack of fair promotion of African-

Americans in their company. Company exec-utives reported that they were unaware thatthe presence of hangman’s nooses through-out company property was a racial sluragainst African-Americans.

It is sometimes difficult to be fair and hon-est. However, the law is not meant to be fair;it is meant to be just. Equal opportunity willnever be equal as long as selections and deci-sions involve human beings who knowinglyor unknowingly permit familiar favoritismsto creep into decision-making. For example,honesty is compromised when collegialand/or familial networks (the old boy sys-tem), economic status or one’s ability to easi-ly pay, group stereotypes, the way one looks,speaks or walks, or other comfortable famil-iarities influence the decision-makingprocess. We must all deal with this truth,making it incumbent upon us to participate

constructively in decision-making and theformation of the law.

The Shape of the River,1 a book by WilliamBowen and Derek Bok, is a good resource forthose studying “the long-term consequencesof considering race in college and universityadmissions.” The authors state, “there is acollective concern that we are failing todevelop to its fullest, the human potential ofthe country and a growing realization thatour society, with its evermore diverse popu-lation, cannot ultimately succeed as ademocracy if we fail to close the gaps inopportunity that continue to be associatedwith race.” These studies conclude thatavoiding a short term lack of insight andmaking provisions to consider underprivi-leged and diversified populations ultimatelystrengthen most experiences and personsinvolved on both sides. That is, it is a posi-tive developmental factor for both Whitesand Non-Whites.

Some scientists don’t want to be botheredwith all this political “stuff.” They just wantto be successful in learning the hows andwhys of the experimental world. However,external obstacles may emerge, providingnon-objective barriers to success that mostscientists have not been adequately trained tohandle. Some scientists who are not like themainstream are faced with special barriers towhich the mainstream must become sensi-tized to even know that such obstacles exist.

The law is not meant to be fair;it is meant to be just.


Some scientists don’t want to bebothered with all this political“stuff.” They just want to besuccessful in learning the howsand whys of the experimentalworld.

Majority scientists who “step out of thebox” to promote overall enhancement of cre-ativity and efficiency for the work environ-ment by recognizing and helping to breakdown barriers for their minority colleaguesmake a significant contribution to science andtechnology in America. Carefully crafted pro-grams for the underserved are still needed todevelop this country’s quest for excellenceand democracy.1-4 However, rather thanargue the endless debate on affirmativeaction, following are some suggested behav-iors that anyone can use to raise levels ofawareness despite the challenges that biasedenvironments pose:

Advocate DiversityDiversity does not include just women,

Blacks and Whites, but a wide variety of dif-ferences that we might not readily consideras sources of bias, such as sexual preferenceand age. It also includes the disabled, region-al differences within the U.S., citizen vs. alien,dread-locs vs. straight hair, males with one ortwo earrings, Gentile vs. Jew. Advocate diver-sity, not so much to right the wrongs of thepast, but to ensure our nation’s wordly com-petitiveness in science. Be serious minded indeveloping the next generation of talent andleadership pools for the future of our exis-tence. The challenge is to acknowledge diver-sity as enriched, varied perspectives whichincrease the value of all, rather than as anti-

“me” statements. Before the year 2050, overhalf of the U.S. population will be comprisedof persons of color; minorities will becomethe majority. Shall we ignore this inevitability,try to beat it in court, or adequately preparefor it?

An enriched cultural make-up in the cur-rent environment permits several benefits,like seeing a panoramic picture from differentangles. In business, as in life, the input of con-cepts from various sides of the whole sceneyields a more complete view of the situation.Increased clarity of the total picture oftenleads to creative solutions and more rapidadvancements.

Bring Biased Incidents to anIndividual’s Attention in a Non-confrontational Manner

Barriers can be overcome with healthy dis-cussion about group-sensitive practices in anon-confrontational manner. Some who areoppressors are not even aware of their actionsbecause others do not speak up against it, orthink of expressing prejudices as acceptablebehavior. Try to analyze the situation fromboth points of view.

Recommend Choices that CanHelp Individuals Grow Awayfrom Biases

First and foremost, try to constantly bemindful of being inclusive. Often people inmajority environments, in an effort to befocused and decisive, do not think aboutbeing inclusive because it is not at the top of


Advocate diversity, not so muchto right the wrongs of the past,but to ensure our nation’s wordlycompetitiveness in science.

Some scientists who are not likethe mainstream are faced withspecial barriers to which themainstream must becomesensitized to even know thatsuch obstacles exist.


their immediate priorities. People in theseenvironments often do not take time to seehow it would be beneficial. For example, peerreview committees are often reminded to beless biased with minority applications just bythe presence of a minority reviewer on the

committee. Diversity is not a program, it is aprocess for growth and development of talentfor the next century. It may require in-houseawareness training seminars and/or ques-tioning of managers’ practices. Ideally, inclu-sivity will become an automatic process,something that just “is.”

If an individual’s work environment is notconducive to development of personal goalsdue to negative biases, the individual has thechoice to leave, or to stay and fight. If oneleaves with no compromises due to unheardor irreconcilable differences or biases, it maybe unfortunate for the entire community. Inaddition, the institution may ultimately loseby failing to embrace a long-term commit-ment to listen and ponder carefully the issuesand benefits of diversity. Such issues must bebrought to a fair resolution to promote a pro-ductive work environment.

The American Society for Cell Biology hasbeen assertive and productive in efforts toeducate members on the true meaning ofdiversity by its strong support of theMinorities Affairs and Women in Cell Biologycommittees, and has even incorporated aninclusive clause for minorities and women inthe ASCB Statement of Objectives. And yetmore action is needed to grow successfullydiverse pools and break glass ceilings. ■

References

1. W. Bowen and D. Bok. The Shape of the River (PrincetonUniversity Press, Princeton, NJ, 1998)

2. S. Malcom. Science and Diversity: A Compelling NationalInterest. Science 271:1817-1819, 1996

3. G. Stephanopoulos and E. Edley Jr. Review of FederalAffirmative Action Programs, Report to the President, July 19,1995.

4. M. Rossiter. Women Scientists in America: BeforeAffirmative Action 1940-1972. (Johns Hopkins UniversityPress, 1995)


Often people in majorityenvironments, in an effort to befocused and decisive, do notthink about being inclusivebecause it is not at the top oftheir immediate priorities.

Diversity is not a program, it isa process for growth anddevelopment of talent for thenext century.


Increasing Representation ofPeople of Color in Science

Lydia Villa-KomaroffNorthwestern University

I n the influential 1945 report Science – the Endless

Frontier, Vannevar Bush observed, “there are talent-ed individuals in every segment of the population,

but with few exceptions, those without the means ofbuying higher education go without it. Here is atremendous waste of the greatest resource of a nation –the intelligence of its citizens.” Since that report, overhalf a century ago, there have been substantial effortsto increase the participation of both women andminorities in the scientific endeavor. In at least somefields, including cell biology, substantial progress hasbeen made with respect to the participation of women,but the participation of minority individuals continuesto be disappointingly low.

To increase the number of underrepresented minori-ties in science, there are three areas that must beaddressed: getting children through high school withthe expectation of going to college, maintaining interestin science throughout college, and increasing the num-ber of students who enter graduate programs in science.

In an attempt to recruit and retain minority individ-uals in scientific fields, a large number of programsaimed at undergraduates have been implemented.These programs are designed to retain interestedundergraduates in science and recruit them into grad-uate programs. As a whole, these programs can be con-sidered a modest success, since the number of minori-ty individuals obtaining degrees in science, math and

It may be that the only way to make asubstantial difference in the number ofminority individuals in science is tointervene in early childhood.



engineering has increased very slightly, whilethe overall number of students graduatingwith science degrees has declined. However,if the status quo is only sustained, there willbe no substantial change in the representa-tion of minority individuals in science.

It may be that the only way to make a sub-stantial difference in the number of minorityindividuals in science is to intervene in earlychildhood. Particularly with underrepresent-ed individuals, children must be given theopportunity to envision a future beyond thatof their immediate circumstances. There isnot a child under six who is not intenselyinterested in the way the world works.Unfortunately, most children lose this interestbefore they leave elementary school. If thenatural interest that every child has in sciencecould be maintained, many more childrenfrom all backgrounds would enter science. Inaddition, children seem to conclude veryearly that there are some professions that arenot open to them. This is vividly illustratedby a comment made by a 4-year-old to hismother, a lawyer, after visiting with his aunts,one a banker, one a scientist. “Oh, Mom,” hesaid, “I can’t be a lawyer, I can’t be a banker,and I can’t be a scientist, because those aregirls’ jobs!” Children need to see images ofpeople they can identify with as scientists togive them a sense of possibility and the beliefthat they belong in the mainstream world.

One highly successful program aimed atelementary-aged minority children is theMother–Daughter Program in El Paso, Texas.This program was established in 1986 byJosefina Villamil Tinajero, Professor of

Bilingual Education and Acting Dean in theCollege of Education at the University ofTexas at El Paso, who is also a child of a Texasbarrio. Tinajero began the program in anattempt to reduce the high level of teen preg-nancy, increase high school graduation rates,and increase college enrollment which hadbeen essentially nonexistent, among childrengrowing up in the poor neighborhoods of ElPaso. In these families English is spoken poor-ly if at all, there is no family history of highereducation, and both the children and theirparents have low expectations of themselves.

There are four key approaches instrumen-tal to the success of the Mother–DaughterProgram. First, children and parents areinvolved when the children are young.Tinajero reasoned that intervention mustoccur before the children enter adolescence,when peer pressure and hormonal changesmake outside influence difficult, so the pro-gram focuses on sixth graders. Second, atleast one parent is required to be heavilyinvolved in the program. Third, the programprovides experiences that instill childrenwith the feeling that they are both capable ofand entitled to a college education. Finally,the program provides adult role models.

Potential program participants are identi-fied by fifth grade teachers as those girls whoshow great promise but are at risk because ofeconomic, family or neighborhood problems.When a group of candidates is identified, aninvitation to participate in the Mother–Daughter Program is extended to both moth-

Children seem to conclude veryearly that there are some profes-sions that are not open to them.

In the first cohort of 33 girls, 32graduated from high school, 10as honor students, and all of the32 enrolled in college.

ers and their daughters. Participants enter aone-year program where they visit theUniversity of Texas campus several times,including at least one overnight visit in adorm. They have the opportunity to meetand talk to students. They also meet andquestion Mexican-American women in avariety of professions including police-women, lawyers, judges, accountants, scien-tists, writers and airline pilots. At the end-of-the-year ceremony, the mothers and daugh-ters make pledges to each other. The daugh-ters pledge to do their homework every day,to finish high school, to not get pregnantuntil after marriage. The mothers pledge tohelp the daughters find a place to do home-work, and to support their daughters’ ambi-tions. Participants decide on the pledgesthey wish to make and write the pledges ondecorative paper provided by the program.The handwritten pledges are often framedand placed prominently in homes. The pro-gram has recently been expanded to includegrades 7–12.

In the first cohort of 33 girls, 32 graduatedfrom high school, 10 as honor students, andall of the 32 enrolled in college. Three moth-ers in this cohort have graduated from theUniversity of Texas at El Paso, and many oth-ers are pursuing their education. Over 2400daughters and their mothers have participat-ed in the program since its inception in 1986.

Many of the former participants who are cur-rently in college are acting as “big sisters” fornew sixth graders entering the program. Inaddition, the rate of teen pregnancy in theprogram participants is far lower than fortheir classmates.

The Mother–Daughter Program has beenso successful that it has been extended to fiveUniversity of Texas systems as well as insti-tutions in other parts of the Southwest andCalifornia. In 1998, Tinajero began a similarprogram for boys and their fathers, and she isdeveloping programs to enhance the mathand science skills of teachers. The programshave been supported by AT&T, the RotaryClub, the Kellogg Foundation, the FreedomForum, Meadow Foundation, SouthwesternBell and the U.S. Department of Education.

Margaret Mead once observed that it tookthree generations of education before awoman would aspire to and obtain anadvanced degree. Only 1% of Hispanicwomen have advanced degrees, and fewerthan 7% of PhDs in the sciences are awardedto minority individuals. These disappointingnumbers represent several generations of losttalent. Unless we expand the availability ofprograms such as Mother–Daughter, we willcontinue to lose the talent of a significant por-tion of our population. ■


Over 2400 daughters and theirmothers have participated in theprogram since its inception in1986.

Margaret Mead once observedthat it took three generations ofeducation before a womanwould aspire to and obtain anadvanced degree.

7. TENUREThe Tenure Process Viewed from the Top

Earning Tenure: Ten Recommendations

The Negative Tenure Decision


The Tenure Process Viewed from the Top

Martha D. Berliner Retired

T he department chairperson is instrumental inshaping the outcome of tenure applications.Following are some considerations for those who

aspire to tenure, before they join a department andafter they’ve arrived, from the Chair’s point of view:

Department CompositionDoes the department recruiting you consist of one

or two professors, a few associate professors, and manyuntenured assistant professors and instructors? If so,ask if the university and/or the department has atenure cap. This is a way for university budget officialsto limit promotions, while legitimately advertisingtenure-track positions. It is also important to rememberthat there is no mandatory retirement age for faculty.Unless attractive early retirement packages are offeredto older, tenured faculty, slots for promotion may openup only rarely. The combination of a relatively youngtenured faculty and tenure caps may create a situationwhere obtaining tenure is unrealistic.

Tenure History and CompetitionLearn when the last time was that tenure was grant-

ed, how many tenure requests have been denied andhow many tenure-track positions are being filled cur-rently. Many schools hire scientists on the tenure-trackin order to keep the money-making basic and servicecourses staffed, with only occasional teaching responsi-bilities in specialty courses. However, there usually are

The combination of a relatively youngtenured faculty and tenure caps maycreate a situation where obtainingtenure is unrealistic.

CHAPTER 7 • TENURE 69

not enough permanent positions for all ofthese scientists. Therefore, if more than twopeople in the department are waiting fortenure at the same time you are, your chancesfor obtaining tenure are probably slim.

Government InfluenceFor state institutions, how much does the

state legislature influence tenure trends? Becautious if the position for which you areapplying is not a budget line item. Withoutthis protection, the position could be cutwithout any consideration of your qualifica-tions or productivity.

Influence from Outside theDepartment

A department chairperson is responsible todeans and other administrators who havedifferent agendas. While the chairpersons maymake promises in good faith, there are exter-nal factors over which they have no control,such as budgets and enrollments. These fac-tors may prevent them from fulfilling promis-es made to their faculty. One way to under-stand better the external factors influencingpersonnel decisions is to request appoint-ments on one or two meaningful departmentand university committees. The seats of powerand knowledge are on budget, facilities, futureplanning and curriculum committees.

Where Do You Want to Be?Is the institution a place where you want to

spend the rest of your personal and profes-

sional life? A person with tenure can becomefrozen at an institution and communitybecause it then is very difficult to competefor new faculty positions at higher levels,unless you are willing to become an admin-istrator or to change fields.

Joint AppointmentsAvoid accepting a joint appointment with

a department with different standards fortenure and promotion. The result of jointappointments is that neither departmentgives the joint appointee its full support orconsiders them a full-fledged member. Inaddition, the joint appointee is often expect-ed to perform two full-time jobs. Suchappointments are often driven by budgetproblems and cobbled together out ofnecessity rather than career development.This is a serious conundrum for cell biolo-gists with joint appointments in basic sci-ence and clinical departments, where tenureexpectations are often incompatible.

All Politics Are LocalWhile e-mail and other forms of

telecommunications have eased profes-sional and social isolation, tenure and pro-motion decisions are made by the small cir-cle of colleagues with whom you interactevery day, not predominantly by the worldoutside the university. At the same time, itis important to become part of the outsidecommunity life, and not focus solely oninternal politics.

Support StaffSecretaries, bookkeepers, lab personnel,

maintenance and repair people can be ofimmense help behind the scenes. Respecttheir work and get your grades, budgets, pro-posals and purchase orders in on time and inthe format required, no matter how arcane.This advice also applies to other professional


If more than two people in thedepartment are waiting fortenure at the same time you are,your chances for obtaining tenureare probably slim.

personnel such as librarians and computerspecialists. This is not a time to cut cornersand by-pass established procedures.

CollaborationGraduate school and postdoctoral fellow-

ships tend to see people as narrow special-ists. Now is the time to explore new areas

with a knowledgeable colleague who has anestablished lab, funding sources and gradu-ate students in the pipeline. In return, gen-erously share your experience and net-works. Become a mentor, rather than need-ing a mentor yourself. One of the principalcriteria for tenure is demonstration of intel-lectual growth and leadership.

InnovationOne of the worst things to do is to restrict

your research to what you did as a graduatestudent or postdoctoral fellow, because itmakes you a competitor for the same grantfunds as your previous mentors.

Although a tenure-track position is theobjective for many academic scientists,tenure should not be your sole goal. Initself, it does not assure personal or scientif-ic success, fame or fortune. ■


Tenure and promotion decisionsare made by the small circle ofcolleagues with whom youinteract every day, notpredominantly by the worldoutside the university.

Earning Tenure: TenRecommendations

Sara (Sally) TobinStanford University

T enure is a pivotal evaluation in the career of anacademic scientist. The tenure process can be agratifying recognition of achievement that

emerges easily from one’s scientific successes, or itcan be energy-draining, stressful, and full of conflicts.Many factors influence the process, some of whichcan be anticipated in advance, while others mayemerge unexpectedly. On the basis of a broad sam-pling of tenure histories, ten recommendations areoffered to smooth the path of a candidate through theprocess. Ideally, preparation for tenure begins beforearrival on campus.

Find Out What the Tenure RequirementsAre and Plan to Meet Them

After the welcome phone call offering you theposition, you will eventually receive a letter ofappointment from the Dean or other officer. It willsummarize the terms of the appointment and willspecify the academic year in which you will be con-sidered for tenure. For a typical initial academicappointment, it is probably best to request as muchtime as possible before the tenure decision; if your

work goes especially well, the timeline can be movedforward. Write a formal response summarizing theconditions under which the offer is accepted, such assalary, teaching responsibilities, start-up funds, andlaboratory renovations with the target date for com-


The tenure clock does not stop if themaintenance crew is delayed byemergency remodeling of the Provost’sconference room.

pletion. The tenure clock does not stop ifthe maintenance crew is delayed by emer-gency remodeling of the Provost’s confer-ence room.

Request a copy of the faculty manual atthis time because it will specify the generalrequirements, the timing of the process andthe potential for flexibility in the tenureclock to accommodate parenthood or familyemergencies. In addition to the general pro-cedures outlined in the faculty manual, thedepartment, school and/or college mayhave additional written tenure policies. Itmakes sense to know the rules.

Create a Record of ProductivityLong before Tenure

Write grant applications before you moveto the new institution so that they will be inreview during the disruption of establishingthe new laboratory. Design some “bread-and-butter” approaches that are sure to

yield publishable results and will documentyour ability to complete scientific projectssuccessfully. Do not abandon your scientificstandards, but it will not hurt to carry outsome lower risk projects also, perhaps withthe help of undergraduate students. If all ofyour projects are high-risk, your chances ofobtaining tenure are high-risk. Even if youare able to pull off a late-breaking scientificcoup, you will still be vulnerable to theaccusation of uneven performance that

many consider a poor predictor of futureproductivity.

Gain the Support of YourDepartment Chair

The support of your chair is an importantfactor in ensuring a smooth transitionthrough the tenure process. The chair almostalways makes a separate tenure recommen-dation to the school and college and, becausehe or she is presumed to be familiar withyour performance, this evaluation carries sig-nificant weight within the department and athigher administrative levels.

The chair who hired you often has a stakein promoting your success and values yourarea of expertise. However, sometimes a newchair with a different vision of the depart-ment will take charge, and the prospect of anadditional faculty position to be filled withsomeone in a favorite specialty area can betempting. Educate your chair and depart-ment about your field by inviting well-known scientists for seminars.

In some departments, the question oftenure is not presented for a full departmen-tal vote. Instead, a committee (appointed bythe chair or elected by the department) makesa recommendation. This can mean that yourfile is not open to the full department and canwork to your disadvantage if your chair isnot supportive.

The moral: make your chair’s life easy.Make progress with your science, teach well,do your fair share of work and let your chairknow of your successes.


Design some “bread-and-butter”approaches that are sure to yield publishable results andwill document your ability tocomplete scientific projectssuccessfully.

The chair who hired you oftenhas a stake in promoting yoursuccess and values your area ofexpertise.

research and draw on their perspectives andexperience.

Get to Know Others on Campus It is wise to limit participation in campus

committees and concentrate on your exper-iments, but a few selected activities may behelpful because they permit you to get toknow people in other departments. Suchconnections can expand your networkingcapabilities, enhance the identification ofmentors, provide support at tenure timeand fulfill the modest consideration of serv-ice that is included in a tenure evaluation.Women and minorities need to be especial-ly careful about overload because they willbe highly visible and in demand for com-mittee service and often feel a specialresponsibility to assume a role in shapinginstitutional policy. Ask your mentors foradvice in optimizing choices that will allowyou to make a meaningful contributionwithout jeopardizing the research andteaching activities that are key to yourachievement of tenure.

Know the Procedures for Tenureat Your Institution

Who assembles your file? Do you get tosee it? Do you have the opportunity torespond to the evaluation of your file by yourchair or departmental committee? Are yourequested to be available for information atthe time your file is discussed? Who com-piles the list of those from whom letters ofrecommendation will be requested? Whochooses which ones get included in yourdossier? Is there a departmental committeethat evaluates your credentials and, if so, isthere a mechanism to ensure the accuracy ofboth the verbal and written information theyare given? Are you notified as your tenureapplication is acted upon at each successiveadministrative level?


Maintain Cordial Relationshipswithin Your Department

Ideally, your position will be in a cohesiveand pleasant department that will make iteasy for you to concentrate on your sciencewhile participating in departmental goals.However, this is not always the case and, ifschisms develop, you may be pressured tochoose sides. Such a no-win situation can bea big problem for support at tenure timewhether or not you tactfully avoid allyingyourself with a particular party. One assayfor such schisms (devised by Betty Craig ofthe University of Wisconsin) is to ask eachfaculty member during the job interview,“Where do you see this department going inthe next 5-10 years?”

Recruit MentorsMuch has been written about the impor-

tance of mentors in ensuring a successfulcareer path, especially for members of under-represented minority groups and women.You will need guides to the unfamiliar terri-tory represented by your new position andinstitution. Some institutions assign mentorsbecause they want their young faculty to dowell. Even if you are in such an enlightenedatmosphere, recruit other campus mentors sothat you have access to a variety of advice.Take them to lunch. Chat. It is a complimentto them that you value their expertise, but beconsiderate of the other demands on theirtime. Recruit external mentors in your field of


Women and minorities need tobe especially careful about over-load because they will be highlyvisible and in demand forcommittee service.

Ask for Supportive LettersAs a tenure candidate, you will usually be

invited to contribute names of leading scien-tists in your field who will be able to placeyour scientific work in context and evaluateits quality. If it is permitted, you should con-tact these eminent scientists and ask whetherthey would be willing to write a letter of eval-uation in the necessary time frame. Ideally,you are already acquainted with them andthey admire your work. Letters about yourteaching and service may also be requestedfrom local faculty. This is a chance to draw onyour mentors. If you have doubts, it is notinappropriate to ask whether the person feelsthey can write you a strong letter. Be sure thatthey are told whether or not their letter willbe confidential, and make certain that theywill be sent copies of all your papers andmanuscripts.

Assemble CompleteDocumentation

When you walk into your office as abrand-new faculty member, your first officialact should be to grab a file folder, label it“Tenure,” and put it in the file drawer of yourdesk (not that filing cabinet across the room).EVERY time you give a talk at the local high

school, organize a meeting, serve on a com-mittee or receive an award, make a note ofthe date and event and put it into the file.Otherwise, you will never remember themany contributions you have made whenyou are under pressure to assemble yourtenure file five years later.

Be aware of your own tendency to be self-effacing. This is the time to highlight yourachievements. Include documentation ofyour papers’ citations and a summary of sci-entific achievements.

Don’t Be Afraid to Fight If something goes wrong and you feel

that you are not being evaluated equitably,use the institutional appeal processes avail-able to you, as outlined in the faculty man-ual. Let others in the department knowwhat is going on and you may be surprisedat the help and support that you receive. Itmay also be appropriate to seek legal adviceor to apply for positions elsewhere. If theavailable administrative remedies do notresolve the issue (this may take 1-2 years),you will need to think long and hard aboutwhether to engage in the stress and expenseof a protracted legal battle that will affectyour family and your science regardless ofthe outcome.

Tenure is a form of acceptance of one’sprofessional merit and is an important land-mark in the life of an academic scientist. Itmakes sense to prepare for the process sothat it will run smoothly and provide a fairevaluation of the successes you have workedso hard to achieve. ■


Be aware of your own tendencyto be self-effacing. This is thetime to highlight yourachievements.

The Negative Tenure Decision

Sally Amero The National Institutes of Health

Maureen Brandon Idaho State University

I t happens — some of us don’t get tenure, few of usdiscuss not getting it, and nobody is prepared to dealwith an unfavorable outcome. Although the reasons

vary with each individual, a negative tenure decisioncan evolve in one of two ways. First, the departmentalchairperson or promotions committee may be unwill-ing to support the application for tenure, particularly ifcertain aspects are weak in comparison to other tenurepackets. Second, the request may be denied by admin-istrative officials or committees after it leaves thedepartment. In either case, the negative decision canpresent a major stumbling block to your career, or anew beginning — the choice is yours. This article sug-gests strategies for a new beginning.

Collect InformationThe first thing a faculty member who learns of a neg-

ative tenure decision needs to do is gather reliableinformation and formulate a course of action. If theoutcome is a surprise, explanations should be soughtfrom the departmental chairperson, other senior facul-ty, and administration officials.

Consider AppealAn appeal with a reversed decision is possible in the

year following a negative tenure decision, if the deficitsare appropriately addressed. Was the candidate’s fund-ing level comparable to those of other junior faculty? Isthe publication record acceptable? Were letters of refer-ence favorable? Do not overlook the value of informalsupport systems. Senior colleagues in other depart-


Do not overlook the value of informalsupport systems.

ments and previous mentors often have addi-tional insight or can speak on the candidate’sbehalf. Legal action should be consideredonly if gross injustice can be documented andif the candidate is willing to see it through.

Set the ToneThe candidate denied tenure must func-

tion for a while in the system that terminatedhim or her, and it is best to actively pre-emptpotential ill will. Establishing a cordial tone iscritical, because this period becomes thespringboard to the next, and gossip travels in

the scientific community as in any other.Whether or not co-workers are listed as offi-cial contacts on job applications, assume theycould be contacted. Formulate a noncommit-tal response to questions, and acknowledgeconcern and sympathy courteously. Be pre-pared for allegiances to shift: those who wereonce trusted may be aloof, while mereacquaintances may rush to “help”. Quite pos-sibly, the candidate’s allies took a beating inhis or her defense; on the other hand, miseryloves company — it’s easy to become fuel forsomeone else’s fire.

Download! Ironically, the candidate denied tenure is

faced with even greater pressure than beforethe tenure decision because she or he mustfind a job and also maintain ongoing faculty

obligations. Distractions should be mini-mized: resign from committees, re-assignrotating students, reduce your lecture bur-den. If another shot at academia is the goal,then manuscript submissions and the grantproposal of a lifetime are essential. A seniorlab member can be appointed as field com-mander; a remote location can be chosen foruninterrupted concentration, and telephoneor e-mail messages can pile up temporarily.

Each person in the candidate’s laboratoryalso needs an exit plan with defined timelines. New graduate students may switch toother laboratories; senior graduate studentsmay finish ahead of schedule or follow thecandidate to another institution; postdocsand technicians may seek employment else-where. As difficult as it is to watch a careful-ly constructed team disintegrate, the facultymember has a responsibility to ensure thatdamage to the careers of students, post-docsand staff is minimized.

Seek Positive Reinforcement A positive approach is essential to a suc-

cessful job search, but the candidate deniedtenure may well lack self-esteem. Consciouseffort must be expended to find creative out-lets and fortify one’s self-image. Listing trans-ferable skills is a good place to start. A facultymember must possess excellent problem-solv-ing skills, an ability to prioritize and reachgoals, good writing and computer skills, andmanagement experience — all highly valuedin the business world. Also, now is the perfect


Establishing a cordial tone iscritical, because this periodbecomes the springboard to thenext, and gossip travels in thescientific community as in any other.

The faculty member has aresponsibility to ensure thatdamage to the careers ofstudents, post-docs and staff is minimized.


time to resurrect those outside interests thatwere sacrificed for the faculty position. Join ahealth club or enroll in an evening class.Outside activities can be deeply rewardingand enhance self-confidence.

Look before Leaping The candidate denied tenure is entitled to

a terminal contract following the decision,barring extenuating circumstances such asgross unethical conduct. A quick departuremay be possible if a new position awaits.However, if there was no time (or perceivedneed) for job searching prior to the decision,the terminal contract can provide twelve toeighteen months to find another. Some greatacademic positions open up in the springand summer, but this job market typicallypeaks in autumn. Thus, the spring semestercan be spent preparing for the upcomingapplication cycle.

Every academic department has a uniquecharacter, so it is advisable to carefullyresearch a new academic position to avoid asimilar tenure situation down the road.Before responding to an advertisement, checkout the department’s web site to get a senseof the faculty’s interests and activities. Then,prepare an application that highlights yourspecial strengths and matches the needs ofthat department. Once an interview has been

arranged, formulate a set of questions toprobe the environment of the departmentsuch as: What is its goal? What kind of infra-structure is available to support teachingand/or research activities? What is the tenuresuccess rate of junior faculty? During yourvisit ask each faculty member these questionsand look for similar answers.

Do not assume that a denial of tenure willbe viewed unfavorably by another institu-tion. Every institution has unique tenurerequirements, and many are delighted toidentify a faculty candidate with proventeaching and/or research skills.

Consider other OptionsIf academia is no longer attractive, take

this time — the terminal contract year — toexplore new avenues. In many respects, anegative tenure decision provides opportuni-ties for greater professional freedom than atany other time of your career. If you allow it,the world can truly be your oyster. ■

Do not assume that a denial of tenure will be viewedunfavorably by anotherinstitution.



8. PARENTHOOD &SCIENCE CAREERS

Juggling Career and Family

Optimizing the Family-Career Balance


Juggling Career and Family

Mary Ann SteppGeorge Washington University

How can a person learn to juggle family life withchildren, run a research team at a medicalschool, and teach graduate and medical stu-

dents? There are ways to learn to handle it all and stayhappy, but it takes acknowledging the reality of somenot-so-simple truths:

Having It All Is a Fantasy; HavingEnough Can Be Reality

Learn to accept the fact that none of the tasks will bedone to the level of perfection that would be possible ifthere were more hours in a day or fewer responsibili-ties to manage.

Be Prepared to Spend All IncomeManaging family, a category which can include chil-

dren, house, and aging parents, demands flexibilitycoupled with enough money to allow the purchase ofgood support for the family’s needs. Good childcare isworth the cost and will allow parents to feel goodabout their time at work. When children are very

young, especially if there is more than one child in thefamily, childcare costs can exceed one parent’s income.Despite this, most scientists would never consider notworking. Flexibility in childcare arrangements isimportant since different solutions to the need forquality childcare arise in response to the differingneeds of the children as they grow. For example, overtime, childcare arrangements may evolve from a

Good childcare is worth the cost andwill allow parents to feel good abouttheir time at work.


CHAPTER 8 • PARENTHOOD & SCIENCE CAREERS 81

European au pair to a progressive day carecenter to family day care. In addition, specialneeds of two-career couples or of the chil-dren may dictate a particular arrangement. Achild who is chronically ill with ear infec-tions contracted in a day care setting makesit difficult for parents to work consistenthours. A live-in childcare provider may bethe best solution in this case.

Do Not Micromanage theFamily

Many women tend to believe that theyhave to run the house the way their mothersdid: take total responsibility for raising thechildren and doing all the housework. Thatmodel simply does not work. Fathers deserveto play as important a role as mothers do inthe lives of the children. If mothers allow thisto happen, it will free up their time and buildclose relationships between children anddad. Take pleasure in knowing that the chil-dren and their dad can get along fine whenmom has to work extra hours. Many mothersresent spending home time cleaning andcooking, rather than playing with the chil-dren and doing school projects and home-work. If this is the case, hire a housekeeper,learn to be more tolerant of the messes, orboth. If there isn’t time to cook, order takeoutor go out to eat. Homework can be startedafter the meal has been ordered and beforethe food arrives at the table.

While the Family Is Young,Keep the Research Focused onOne or Two Central Problems

Realize that laboratory expansion andpublication rates will be less than those ofcolleagues without young children. The

challenge while the children are young is tostay active and in the game. The researchprograms of many scientists often experi-ence dramatic expansions after their chil-dren are grown.

Set Limits on Hours Spent onTeaching-related Activities

In collaboration with a supervisor orchairperson, determine how much timeteaching responsibilities should take andstick to that budget. Teaching is often thehardest activity to compartmentalize andjuggle successfully. No matter how well pre-pared a lecture is, there is always anotherpaper to read or a better way to organizeand present the lecture material. Also, adultstudents are demanding, and they requireand deserve mentoring. It is hard to closethe door and focus on research when active-

ly teaching a course or mentoring a studentin the lab. But, just as parents have to learnto let their children grow up, teachers haveto learn to let students solve some of theirown problems and identify additionalresource people.

Teaching assistants and secretaries canhandle some of the students’ academic andpersonal questions; let them.

If you keep in mind these not-so-simpletruths, you will be able to keep all those ballsin the air and stay sane. ■

The challenge while the childrenare young is to stay active andin the game.


Optimizing the Family-Career Balance

Elizabeth Marincola The American Society

for Cell Biology

People in general, but perhaps mothers more thananyone, are phenomenal self-rationalizers. Thus,if a woman voluntarily foregoes a profession to

raise her children without conflict of a demandingcareer, she will believe passionately that this choice,and the personal, financial, marital, and moral sacri-fices it entails was the correct one for her family. Noless passionate is the woman who believes that contin-uing to invest in her career as she raises her family is inthe best interest of her family. This should not be sur-prising, since all parents love their children more thananything and put their welfare first.

For those of us who have the choice to work, a cau-tion: if you ever hear the expression “Super Mom” or“Super Dad,” you should immediately reject it andfocus on reality. The Superhuman Parent is an accoladeearned exclusively by women and men who have nochoices. These are parents for whom working is not asocial statement nor a feminist right, but an economicnecessity and often a monotonous burden.

Those who have the luxury of choosing to develop acareer and who are passionate about their work willfind a way to maintain and build it while raising theirfamily. Conversely, those who are fearful of how chil-dren will fit into their impossible life won’t regret find-ing the courage of their conviction: parenthood will

Talk about the day’s excitement orproblem in a way your children canunderstand. This allows them to getcloser to you by sharing your realfrustrations and satisfactions... Asktheir advice; it may be good.

CHAPTER 8 • PARENTHOOD & SCIENCE CAREERS 83

make the importance of everything else fadein comparison.

Simultaneously building a career and rais-ing a family demands tradeoffs among time,money and intimacy. For example, parentsmay wish to be the one to take their children tothe pediatrician or participate in school fieldtrips. However, if others do the laundryand/or grocery shopping, there is little emo-tional “expense” to the family. Invest in thebest possible childcare and homecare you canfind. Even if one entire income is devoted tothese needs in the early years, it should be con-sidered an investment in career and family.

Work hard, long and efficiently when pos-sible in order to be free of guilt when the chil-dren need you. Conversely, go on every fieldtrip you can so when you can’t, you won’thear, “but Mom, you never come!” Try toavoid regularly constraining both ends of theworkday. Many partners develop a patternwhereby one goes to work early, even beforethe children wake up, while the other gets thechildren to school or daycare before going towork. The partner on the early shift may beable to get home correspondingly early, andsupervise homework while cooking dinner,allowing the late shift partner to work intothe evening. In this way, each can take advan-tage of precious quiet work time, while max-imizing the hours in the day that children canenjoy parental attention.

All parents are anxious to maximize timewith their children. Scientists may be moreanxious than most, because time is particu-larly precious, and maybe because anxiety isin their nature. Here are some nuts-and-bolts

suggestions from one mother’s thirty child-years of experience:

• If just those and all those for whom you aredirectly responsible (typically children andspouse) are at home, don’t answer thephone. That’s why God invented voicemail. There’s nothing that can’t wait. Aninvolved conversation easily derails anactivity or conversation.

• Eat dinner together every possible night.This may mean late dinners and/or resum-ing work (preferably from home) after chil-dren are in bed. As my grandfather the Rabbiused to say, “there’s no greater blessing thaneight [or ten or six] feet under the table.”

• Eliminate music, telephone or other dis-tractions when your children are in the car.The conversation it can inspire is amazing.A typical moment: total silence from yourfive-year-old for three blocks, followed by avoice from the backseat: “when people die,the world still stays here... right?”

“Quality time” is defined by acommon focus and the opportu-nity for satisfying conversation.


If those for whom you aredirectly responsible (typicallychildren and spouse) are athome, don’t answer the phone.That’s why God invented voice mail.

As my grandfather the Rabbiused to say, “there’s no greaterblessing than eight [or ten orsix] feet under the table.”

• “Quality time” is defined by a commonfocus and the opportunity for satisfyingconversation. Thus, pulling weeds can berichly rewarding; conversely, the circus orballpark may contribute little to your rela-tionship with your children if other adultsdemand your attention and the children arereduced to an annoyance.

• Involve your children in your work inappropriate ways as they grow. The less ofa black hole the office or lab, the less mys-tery and resentment it engenders. Talkabout the day’s excitement or problem in away your children can understand. Thisallows them to get closer to you by sharing

your real frustrations and satisfactions, andalso helps cultivate their skills of listening,empathy and analysis. Ask their advice; itmay be good.

The key to sanity may be to eliminateeverything imaginable that serves neitheryour family relationship nor your career. Thismay include activities which seemed indis-pensible previously, like regular routines ofreading the newspaper or working out.

A career in science is a noble investment insociety but it is also an economic and moralinvestment in your family. Parents who active-ly seek to peel away expendable burdens, andaccount aggressively for their expendability,may be pleasantly surprised that even a careerin science, as demanding as it may be, canleave significant time for the family, as long asthere are no illusions that there will be muchtime for anything else. But, then again, noth-ing else will seem as fun and satisfying. ■

Adapted from the Fae Golden Kass Lecture by

the author, Harvard Medical School, May 1999.


Eliminate music, telephone orother distractions when yourchildren are in the car. Theconversation it can inspire isamazing.

9. EXPLORING VENUESFOR SCIENCE

Breaking into Biotech

Research at a Small Institution:Not as Different as You Think


Breaking into Biotech

Leslie Holsinger Sugen Inc.

Qualifications for employment in the biotech-nology industry can vary. For a scientist-levelposition, most biotech companies want some-

one with either a PhD or an MD, and at least threeyears of postdoctoral experience. You don’t need previ-ous experience in industry such as an internship. Somecompanies do offer postdoctoral positions. This can bea wonderful avenue into a company and can lead to apermanent position as a staff scientist after a few years.However, some companies have specific protocolsabout permanent hiring of internal postdoctoral fel-lows. You need to ask about the company’s policiesbefore taking a postdoctoral position.

Job openings can occur at any time, but manybiotech companies do their annual review and budg-eting in December. New positions are often createdthen and hiring begins in January. A few companiesalso do budgeting in July, with subsequent hiringcycles in the fall.

Apply for as many jobs as interest you! It’s impor-tant to mount a wide job search that lets you interviewat a number of places in parallel within a short periodof time. That way, you can compare positions andcompare companies. Equally important, biotech com-panies move fast, much faster than your average uni-versity. You can expect a hiring decision within a fewweeks. However, if you are offered a position, they’llexpect an acceptance from you within two or three

Postdoctoral positions...can be awonderful avenue into a company andcan lead to a permanent position as astaff scientist after a few years.


CHAPTER 9 • EXPLORING VENUES FOR SCIENCE 87

weeks. You need to be prepared to makeyour decision fairly rapidly. That’s why youwant all the offers on the table within a shortperiod of time.

Send your CV and cover letter to “HR”—Human Resources. However, personal con-tacts are extremely important in biotech. Sosend a copy to a contact within the compa-ny as well. This could be a personalacquaintance or just a friend of a friend butfind a name if you can. Be creative. Theimportant thing is to bring your CV to theattention of the hiring manager, the personyou’ll be working for, and nothing helpslike a referral from someone already in thecompany.

Conferences are an excellent place to makebiotech contacts. Look for poster abstractsand presentations by scientists from particu-lar companies. Approach them with com-ments and questions, and leave them a CV.

You can also go to the web sites of interest-ing companies. Most biotech companies put alot of effort into their sites. They’ll tell you alot about what the company does plus therewill be up-to-date job listings. At the veryleast, you can get the HR departmentaddress. There are also biotech job web sitessuch as www.biospace.com. Read the ads inscientific journals. If you find a company thatinterests you that isn’t hiring, it’s still a goodidea to send a CV to HR. Biotech is dynamicand new openings can appear at any time.

To a certain extent, companies seek scien-tists with specialized skills and interests. Ifyou are a graduate student now but planningon a career in biotech, it might be a good idea

to see what specific skills are in demand inbiotech and consider widening your skill set.However, the nature of the biotech industryis that things change quickly. Projects andpriorities can be restructured overnight. Thebest candidate is still a well-rounded scientistwith a wide breadth of skills and experiencesthat can be applied to many problems. Youalso need to be someone who likes change.

In the interview process, candidates are typ-ically invited to spend a day at a company, usu-ally at the company’s expense. You’ll be askedto give a seminar, and then to meet with thehiring manager for that position. You’ll meetthe other researchers with whom you wouldbe working. Be prepared for a long, exhaustingday, from early in the morning and on through

dinner. You’ll probably meet with someonefrom Human Resources who will discusssalary and benefits. Salary should not be afocus of an interview, but come prepared witha range for an acceptable salary. This is impor-tant. A company wants to know if your expec-tations are in line with that particular position.Job candidates are only invited back for a sec-ond interview if it’s close between candidates.

There are four components of a successfulinterview. First: communication. You have to

Conferences are an excellentplace to make biotech contacts.Look for poster abstracts andpresentations by scientists fromparticular companies.

Send your CV to HR but send acopy to a contact within thecompany as well.

Companies are more focusednow, and often look for someonewith specific qualifications.

be able to communicate your scientificknowledge and interests. Biotech puts a bigemphasis on teamwork, and interviewers arelooking for someone who communicateseffectively within the team. Get a colleagueto give you a mock interview and pretendshe doesn’t know anything about your work.Prepare and practice clear and conciseanswers to common interview questionsahead of time, such as “what is the most sig-nificant thing you have done in your scien-tific career?” or “what is the reason you havechosen to look for a career in biotech?”Second: plan a good seminar. Your presenta-tion should be well-prepared and executedbut also tailored to your audience. Don’t

assume they know your patch of science.Find out from the hiring manager prior toyour interview who the audience will be,and try to assess their interests. Make sureyou give them a good introduction to yoursubject and don’t bog down in details or sideissues. In addition, try to relate your work tothe company’s objectives. This is a differentkind of seminar than you might be used to.You are the real subject and your audiencewants to know how you and your workrelate to them. That’s the third thing:research the company before the interview.

Find out who will be at your seminar andlook up their publications. Read about thecompany in the business and scientific press.Find out if they have competitors andresearch them. Outside the seminar, be pre-pared to ask questions about the day-to-dayoperations of the division where you wouldbe working. Ask about the culture at thecompany, and whether you will be encour-aged to publish your work and attend con-ferences. In addition, you need to have yourcareer goals in mind. Your interviewers willwant to know where you see yourself goingat the company. Are you strictly a researcheror does the business or management side ofbiotech interest you? Fourth: Follow-up.After the interview, send thank you notes toeveryone with whom you interviewed.Thank them for having given you the oppor-tunity to speak and for the chance to inter-view. Good follow-up shows you have it all:communication, planning, research andenthusiasm. ■

This article is based on an interview of Holsinger

by Maureen Brandon.


Get a colleague to give you amock interview and pretend shedoesn’t know anything aboutyour work.

Try to relate your work to thecompany’s objectives. This is adifferent kind of seminar thanyou might be used to. You arethe real subject and youraudience wants to know how youand your work relate to them.

Research at a Small Institution:Not as Different as You Think

What do you mean research at a small insti-tution? Isn’t that an oxymoron?They only teach at small schools, don’t

they? Rest assured you won’t be the only one askingthese questions. But a research career at a small institu-tion can become a career alternative that isn’t really,well... all that alternative.

Why Choose a Smaller Institution?What would possess someone who had spent a

decade in training to actively choose to work at a small-er institution? The general consensus of the small insti-tution faculty interviewed cite these critical factors: 1)they enjoy teaching; 2) they like the job security and thefact that their salaries are derived from 100% hardmoney, and/or 3) they prefer the reduced pressure topublish at smaller institutions, but rejoice in the oppor-tunity to maintain a research program.

These faculty consider their teaching ability astrength and couldn’t imagine not having daily stu-dent contact. They also feel that teaching is taken

more seriously at smaller institutions and rewardedmore appropriately. “I get jazzed from teaching,”says Yolanda Cruz of Oberlin College. “When I waslooking for a job, I applied to several different kindsof institutions. During an interview at the NIH I wasassured that if I took the job, I would never have toteach again, as though this were a great perk. This


Dianna BourkeUniversity of Charleston

During an interview at the NIH I wasassured that if I took the job, I wouldnever have to teach again, as thoughthis were a great perk.

really upset me because I like to teach!”Elisa Konieczko, Assistant Professor atGannon University in Erie, Pennsylvania,indicated that, “although I was happydoing research as a postdoc at Yale, itbecame very clear to me that only doingresearch would not be enough. I had to getback to teaching.”

Job stability was often cited as an attrac-tion to smaller schools. This is based on theassumption that it is easier to get tenure at asmaller place because of decreased publish-ing demands. Though tenure is beginning tobe more of a moving target in some cases,this is often the case. Cruz recalls that, “whenI asked in the NIH interview what wouldhappen after the initial six-year appoint-ment, I was given the vague answerthat hopefully another position would openup. I didn’t really want to be searching for anew job at the age of 41.” Kathryn Loesser-Casey of Mary Washington College inFredericksburg, Virginia, had other con-cerns: “when I was looking for a job, my hus-band said, ‘I will follow you wherever youchoose, but plan to make it permanentbecause that will be where I set up my med-ical practice.’” All the faculty interviewedagreed that not having to derive any of theirsalary from grant monies was an attraction.Limited travel support from the institutionfor scholarly endeavors was even includedin some recruitment offers.

Research at a SmallerInstitution

What about research at smaller schools?Faculty agree that research publishingrequirements for tenure and promotion attheir institutions are considerably moremodest in numbers of papers than in theschools where they had trained. But all cau-tion that quality of work was still an impor-tant issue in tenure review. After having wit-

nessed the daily routine of their advisorsand colleagues, most indicate that they hadactively chosen a place where researchoccurred at a different pace. At the sametime they accept that effective research in asmall school environment can be a chal-lenge. It is critical to keep in mind the mainfocus of your school to avoid frustrationwhen, for example, students don’t work asintensely as university graduate students orwhen the school refuses to buy equipment.

SupportAn increasing number of small institutions

are beginning to set aside realistic funds tosupport space, equipment and faculty-releasetime. While this transition is positive, it alsoironically increases pressure to meet newlyintensified research requirements for the

most junior faculty members. Echoing con-cerns typical at research-intensive institu-tions, some indicate that this is resulting inunrealistic tenure expectations.


After having witnessed the dailyroutine of their advisors andcolleagues, most indicated thatthey had actively chosen a placewhere research occurred at adifferent pace.

An increasing number of smallinstitutions are beginning to setaside realistic funds to supportspace, equipment and faculty-release time.



The level of support for such things asfacilities, equipment and money for con-sumables varies widely from school toschool. The more exclusive liberal arts col-leges have more money. “It’s the cash-strapped privates and the old teachers’ col-leges or branch campuses that have thesesorts of [funding] issues,” observes DeborahCook of Clark Atlanta University in Atlanta,Georgia. Of the faculty polled, start-upfunds were reported from high four-figureamounts to a comparatively generous$50,000. Continuing funds are oftenobtained by intramural competitive propos-als for small amounts of $1,000 to as much asthe low five figures. Clearly, very little in theway of equipment can be bought for suchamounts while still allowing anything leftover for experiments, so obtaining equip-ment is often left as a complicated dance

with administration. My first Director ofAcademic Affairs was a historian, and thefigures I quoted for laboratory equipmentboggled his mind. “Faculty at smaller insti-tutions are caught in a frustrating cyclewhen competing for external support: review-ers often respond to such requests by indi-cating that the item should be provided byone’s institution. But the institutiondepends on faculty to get equipment bywriting grants!”, notes Cynthia Galloway ofTexas A&M’s Kingsville campus. Fortunately,more grants for smaller institutions arebeing offered both by the NIH and the NSF.An old standby for obtaining equipment is

to write a grant for educational purposesand use it during non-class time for yourresearch.

PersonnelIf you like hands-on science, small colleges

may be the perfect opportunity, because usu-ally there is no one else around to do thework. Unless you manage to get a majorgrant with money for a technician, the mostconsistent workforce for the lab is under-graduate students. Some places may have

master’s degree programs, but the majoritydo not. “You need to pick [undergraduates]out early and grow them up,” half-jokesCruz. Of course it takes a lot of time to trainand supervise undergraduates; often justwhen they become productive, they move on.Many institutions have student stipends tosupport research during the school year orover the summer. A consistent comment wasthat research must be divided into small, dis-crete, do-able units that the students can han-dle within the school calendar. Despite thedifficulties, working with undergraduatescan prove invigorating.

Isolation and Alienation“So when are you going to get a real job?”

“You aren’t planning on staying there, areyou?” These questions are familiar to small-school faculty. How does the ego handle theperception by some colleagues that taking ajob at a small institution is opting out of sci-ence, failing, or even worse? The answer is

Fortunately, more grants forsmaller institutions are beingoffered both by the NIH and the NSF.

Research must be divided intosmall, discrete, do-able unitsthat the students can handlewithin the school calendar.

sometimes not very well, but it is hoped thatthis perception will soon change. Several fac-ulty interviewed expressed feelings not ofalienation from their research colleagues, butmore of isolation and feeling left out of main-stream research. They fear that they will beperceived as doing minor league science.

A few years ago at a Keystone SymposiumI found myself standing in the middle of a seaof posters where all kinds of interesting exper-iments were being presented, but I had noposter of my own. I had the most profoundfeeling that I would never be able to do thiskind of work again. Donald Kimmel ofDavidson College in Davidson, NorthCarolina, who made the transition fromBrown to Davidson in 1971, comments, “I hadto change my research completely when Icame to Davidson, to adjust to what was avail-able and to what the students could do.”

Lack of name recognition can also lead to afeeling of isolation. At a national meeting,after a quick look at my badge, the first com-ment I get is, “Charleston, South Carolina,what a lovely town.” I agree, except that I’min West Virginia. I have developed a sense ofhumor and learned to carry a map. Karen Leefrom the University of Pittsburgh atJohnstown is frequently asked, “is that wherethey had the flood?” She claims to get sym-pathy, but that is not what she is after.

A problem that many scientists face is dis-cipline isolation. In a four-person depart-ment, one colleague might be a marine biolo-gist, one an environmental biologist, anotheran invertebrate physiologist and another abiomedically oriented cell biologist. “You just

have to make your own rules,” notes Cruz. Amentor may not be as near as the next office,but as near as the Internet instead.

Many departments have never dealt withbench-type cell biologists before and all arehaving to make adjustments. Many of theolder faculty at smaller schools were fieldbiologists who gathered their data in the sum-mer and crunched it for the rest of the year.This is assuming they did any research at all;many did not. This dichotomy may inevitablylead to tension between modern and tradi-tional scientists in the same department.

Finding a New CollegialityHow does one make research in a small

school work? Adapt to your environment,find a way to change what must be changed,compromise where possible, ask for help,have extreme patience... and win the lottery.Asking for help is possibly the most criticaladvice, but it is often the most difficult thingto do. Reviving old research ties can open

doors ranging from full-scale collaborationsto simply borrowing equipment. Try to makenew contacts with people you admire.


A mentor may not be as near asthe next office, but as near asthe Internet instead.

A good scientist shouldn’t carewhere you work as long as yourwork is creative and good.

Many of the older faculty atsmaller schools were fieldbiologists who gathered theirdata in the summer andcrunched it for the rest of the year.


Sometimes it is difficult not to feel like a poorrelation at a holiday dinner, but pride will getyou nowhere. It is surprising how receptivepeople can be to ideas as long as you knowyour science and pull your weight. A goodscientist shouldn’t care where you work aslong as your work is creative and good.

The emergence of highly trained cell biolo-gists with extensive training who have estab-lished their research careers at smaller

schools is creating a new breed of cell biolo-gist, with needs and concerns that are differ-ent from their peers at research-intensive uni-versities or from those at schools that requireno research at all. A note to university-basedinvestigators: ads for jobs at smaller institu-tions outnumber those at high profile institu-tions by a considerable margin, so treat thisnew breed of scientists with the respect theydeserve. They are coming out of your labs! ■



10. WOMEN & SCIENCE CAREERSWhy Women Leave Science

Shaping the Future for Women in Science


Why Women Leave Science

Caroline M. KaneUniversity of California

Berkeley

Consider the following statistics from the recent past1:

• Women were 51% of the U.S. population and 46% ofits labor force, yet they comprised only 22% of thescience and engineering labor force.

• Women were 44% of the total number of graduatestudents in all the sciences, and 48% of the totalnumber of graduate students in the biological sci-ences.

• Women earned 40% of the Ph.D.s in the biologicalsciences (compared to 33% ten years before).

• Women comprised only 24% of the faculty in scienceand engineering and only 27% in the biosciences(while they comprised 44% of the faculty in non-sci-ence and engineering disciplines).

• Of all women who were science and engineering fac-ulty, 36.5% were at public, 2-year institutions, while17.5% were at research institutions.

What contributes to the contrast between the nearly50% representation of women at the undergraduate andgraduate levels to their 26% representation in the lifesciences labor force? Why are women leaving science?

More women than men begin leaving science evenas undergraduates. Many women (and men) enter uni-versity or college from a supportive high school back-ground where teachers and advisors have encouragedthe students’ interests and developed the students’skills in science. Once at the college level, many womenin the sciences feel “pressure, isolation, powerlessnessand the constant need to prove themselves” in the faceof an educational “system designed to induct youngmen into an adult male social structure.”2 That is, the


CHAPTER 10 • WOMEN & SCIENCE CAREERS 97

socialization of white males is well served,but the different expectations and require-ments of women are often misunderstood,ignored or belittled. These include issues ofself-confidence; for example, admitting dif-

ficulty in a subject may be interpreted as aweakness rather than an interest in sharinginformation in the process of learning. Inone study,2 many undergraduate womendid not think that they were doing as well orwere as well qualified as others in the class-es, even in cases where the grades receivedsaid just the opposite! Also, organized helpfor academic work may be viewed by somefaculty as remedial rather than as an impor-tant means for students to more thoroughlyintegrate information. Many of the expecta-tions and requirements may also be sharedby men, although the culture of science andengineering has been more focused on a

make-it-or-break-it, win-lose dichotomy.Learning as a competition instead of as anend in itself can often get in the way of suc-cess in the classroom, and having to fightagainst other students for a grade can be

very discouraging when understanding isthe overall goal.

Even given different perceptions amongmen and women, the top five reasons givenby both men and women for switching out ofscience and engineering majors are thesame.2 Thus, both men and women whoswitched majors felt that their original reasonfor choosing the major proved inappropriate,that there was poor teaching by the faculty,that there was inadequate advising or helpwith academic problems, that other majorsoffered a better education or more interest,and that they were “turned off science.” Menand women defined “good teaching” and“good academic performance” differently,however. For women, good teaching includ-ed being able to establish a personal relation-ship with a faculty member; the faculty mem-ber needed to be interested in the student aswell as the course material. For men, goodteaching focused on presentation of material.For women, “good academic performance”based on tests and scores was not sufficient todoing well. They were doing well if they feltmore integrated into the discipline by estab-lishing the relationship with the professor(s).Networking and mentoring with the facultyare valuable routes to learning about a pro-fession and about others who are successfulin that profession.

In contrast, perpetuating the idea that sci-ence is “hard” and therefore only available toan “elite” with the inherent ability to dealwith the material provides permission forfaculty to continue to “weed out” rather thaneducate students with a genuine interest and

aptitude for biology, and its predecessorcourses, math, chemistry and physics. Onthis particular point, switchers and non-switchers were found to be of similar apti-tude and ability, whether men or women.2

Women are more likely to internalize criti-cism and negative feedback as indicators that

The socialization of white malesis well served, but the differentexpectations and requirements ofwomen are often misunderstood,ignored or belittled.

Learning as a competitioninstead of as an end in itself canoften get in the way of successin the classroom.

they are less capable, less on top of the classwork, and perhaps the only ones having dif-ficulty with the material. The message to stu-dents is that the less effort needed for navi-gating the system, the more savvy you are.

When women enter a system in the sciencesthat has been developed for and has workedwell for white men for years, they often getthe message that they are outsiders—not thatthey are overtly unwelcome, but that theydon’t know the rules. Having guides, advi-sors, older peers, and faculty who validatetheir concerns and work with them to findlearning strategies that work for them are allessential. Note that this applies as well tomen, and that many men also leave the sci-ences for reasons having little to do withchanges in interest or a lack of ability. Morewomen, proportionately, leave perhapsbecause the system is not designed to inductthem into the adult world of women as muchas it is, as suggested by Seymour andHewitt,2 an extension of the system thatyoung men have been experiencing theirentire lives. Perhaps the “underlying cause ofwomen’s difficulties lies in the structuredincapacity of the traditional science, math,and engineering system to meet the educa-tional needs of a diverse student popula-tion.”2 Indeed, many similar issues impactminority students and scientists.

However, college and university faculty,both men and women, are not the sole expla-nation for why women leave science. Indeed,many faculty men and women are encourag-

ing young women to continue to pursue theirinterests in biology careers and to considerand pursue careers in secondary and highereducation and research. Nearly 50% of theundergraduate degrees in the biological sci-ences are awarded to women; so, manywomen are not switching to other majors,despite the challenges of working within thebiological sciences. Indeed, nearly 50% of thegraduate student population in biology arewomen and 40% of the awarded Ph.D.’s inthe biological sciences go to women. But ifwomen are only 26% of the life sciences laborforce, then where are these women going?Three recent articles in Science addressedwhat happens to women during the develop-ment of their professional careers.3,4,5

Many women choose careers considered“alternative” (read, “non-research” ) becausethey find them more compatible with havinga family, more intellectually rewarding, evenmore financially remunerative and personal-ly satisfying than independent researchcareers. Men now are catching on to thesealternatives as well. When a larger number ofmen and women with advanced degrees inthe biological sciences enter business, law,journalism and the media, environmentalwork, consulting, primary and secondary


Women are more likely tointernalize criticism andnegative feedback as indicatorsthat they are less capable.

Many women choose careersconsidered “alternative” (read,“non-research” ) because theyfind them more compatible withhaving a family, moreintellectually rewarding, evenmore financially remunerativeand personally satisfying thanindependent research careers.


education, science education, government,and the myriad of other professions, perhapsthe word “alternative” will be dropped.

Yet, independent research careers in aca-demia, research institutions, or industry inwhich one develops approaches to decipherthe workings of biological processes certain-ly are considered quite prestigious anddesirable. Many women have this career asan aspiration upon entering graduateschool. What happens to them once theyhave taken the first step to an independentresearch career?

Perhaps these research positions are lesscompatible with a variety of personal andfamily concerns. Very few women have apartner whose career revolves around coordi-nating house and home and family in orderto allow her to pursue her professional career.With more two-career couples in researchcareers, there are many more examples ofsuccessful sharing of parenting and homeresponsibilities; yet, again and again, basedon survey after survey, the larger share isassumed by the woman. This disproportionmay be fully appropriate for individual rela-tionships, but the issue is one of balancingcareer and personal issues to ensure that thepleasure of “doing science” remains fullyworth the effort to do it.

Another problem women often encounteris how their behavior is perceived and accept-ed. Successful women very often have won-derful aggressive and persistent behaviors, as

do their male colleagues, that allow them tofollow their curiosity into scientific questions.These behaviors on their part are sometimesviewed as negative by colleagues unaccus-tomed to women savoring fully the gusto ofscientific discovery. On the other hand, a veryfeminine woman scientist (redundancynoted) might not be taken seriously regard-less of the creativity and productivity of herresearch because her appearance and behav-ior are beyond the experience of the other“serious” scientists in her department. Anincreasing number of women faculty andresearchers can contribute to eliminating theinterpretation of these behaviors as unusual.Certainly there are many unusual behaviorsobserved among men scientists, but they are“diluted” by the numbers of men representedin biology departments. The presence of morewomen in the profession and their speakingat meetings can condition and teach men col-leagues about inaccurate stereotypes and pre-conceived notions that interfere with whatmight be their legitimate efforts to welcomewomen into the academy.

Finally, a reason consistently mentioned bymany women who choose not to pursue orcontinue a career in the biological sciences isthe competitive environment. However, it isnot competition per se that sours the profes-sional experience, as many women enjoycompetition and the rewards and personalsatisfaction that come from “winning.” Thecrux for the sciences is the disconnectbetween a reward system in an intellectualendeavor that relies on “beating one’s com-petition to the finish line” rather than work-ing with others to try to derive the answers tobiological questions in a rapid, efficient, andcollaborative fashion that highlights the joyof learning about life’s mysteries. The notionof winners and losers in scientific research islimited since scientific discoveries are basedon years of prior work by many others.


Very few women have a partnerwhose career revolves aroundcoordinating house and homeand family in order to allow herto pursue her professional career.

Recognition of a new insight is important andextremely worthwhile, but an ethos based onhaving a loser rather than upon making a sig-nificant positive contribution requires settingup battlegrounds. These types of engage-ments have far too much impact on the defi-nition of success in the sciences, and the logic,or lack thereof, of this behavior is often loston successful professional women.

From experiences during education toexperiences in the professions, women andmen are confronted with positive and nega-tive feedback regarding careers in the biologi-cal sciences. Earlier networking and mentor-ing advice to students and junior colleagueswould serve to help women determine

whether biological science is indeed the pas-sion of their professional lives. The network-ing and mentoring that help in that decisionmaking need to continue as the young profes-sionals, and senior professionals, progress intheir careers and encounter new issues unre-lated to the passion for the discipline, butdirectly related to their ability to be successfulin pursuing that discipline. From introduc-tions at a national meeting to appointmentsonto powerful institutional committees,engaging women in the positive process ofscience as well as the pleasure of science mayencourage more women to commit their ener-gies to staying rather than leaving. ■

References1. NSF Report NSF 96-311, “Women, Minorities, and

Persons with Disabilities in Science and Engineering: 1996.”2. Seymour, E. and Hewitt, N. M., 1994 Talking about

Leaving, Final report to the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation on anethnographic inquiry at seven institutions

3. Science 255, 1365-1388 (1992) Women in Science, FirstAnnual Survey.

4. Etzkowitz et al., Science 266, 51-54 (1994) The Paradox ofCritical Mass for Women in Science.

5. Science 271, 1901-1921 (1996) Maintaining Diversity inScience.


The notion of winners andlosers in scientific research islimited since scientific discoveriesare based on years of prior workby many others.

Shaping the Future forWomen in Science

Maxine Singer The Carnegie Institution

of Washington

B right and early one morning in the mid-1960s, thetelephone rang in my laboratory; it was the exec-utive secretary (as Scientific Review

Administrators were then known) of an NIH study sec-tion. Would I become a member of a biochemistrystudy section? I chuckled, and said, “no thank you, youhaven’t wanted me or thought me qualified before,”and as far as I knew nothing much had changed sincethe previous afternoon except that President LyndonJohnson had decreed that all Federal Government advi-sory committees would, henceforth, have a substantialnumber of female members. I’d been getting alongquite well without all that additional work and mightjust as well stick to the laboratory. But in the end, myego or the promise of influence or the argument thatmy service would be good for female scientists got tome. I succumbed and did agree to be the token on var-ious committees, though not a study section. I accom-plished some interesting and important work for sci-ence — but also wasted many hours.

Many female colleagues from my generation can tellsimilar stories. Often, we served on even more com-mittees and boards than our male colleagues because,given our small numbers and the mandated require-ments for representation by women, we were needed,or so it was said. Some of us served on too many suchbodies, giving up a great deal of time that could havebeen spent in the laboratory, the clinic, with our fami-lies, or walking on a beach.

In 1990, 25 years after President Johnson’s directive,I was completing a term on an influential interdiscipli-nary committee of the National Academy of Sciences.Members were discussing possible replacements forthose about to rotate off the group. Physicists suggest-ed physicists, biochemists suggested biochemists, andso forth. They turned to me and said that, with mydeparture, the committee would be without a female

CHAPTER 10 • WOMEN & SCIENCE CAREERS

member and would I please offer some ideasfor women who might be appointed? I point-ed out that people carrying two X chromo-somes did not constitute a particular branchof science, and I thought that they wouldknow the women in their own fields betterthan I would, so why didn’t they come upwith the names. It was, I said, their responsi-bility, not mine, to be sure that women werepart of the committee.

Since then, a great deal of progress hasbeen made and the opportunities for womenin research are substantially improved. Whenthe New York Times Science Times featured astory about telomeres, all the major contribu-tors credited were women, starting withBarbara McClintock’s studies on chromo-some stability right through to the work ofElizabeth Blackburn and Carol Greider.

Yet, we have to face up to the fact that affir-mative action, no matter how laudable it is,has worked at a snail’s pace. Many superb,accomplished female scientists have beentrained in the last 25 years, but so few havereached the professorial ranks, and so manyare still being discouraged. A 1992 Science

magazine issue on women in sciencedescribed the situation as so dismal that evenchemistry was characterized as a field thatwas middling on opportunities for women,somewhere between neurobiology, seen aspretty good, and mathematics, which was the

pits. Yet, at how many chemistry depart-ments do women abound and feel as thoughthey belong?

We can wait around for a while longer inthe hope that progress will slowly continue.In the meanwhile, a lot of money that couldbe used for good science will be spent onstudies that try to determine why affirmativeaction has not worked more rapidly, and why

young female scientists disappear some-where between their Ph.D. or M.D. degreesand the assistant professor positions.Ultimately, all the “old school” men who stillcall us “honey” will age sufficiently to retireand maybe, just maybe, the younger men willbe different.

But it seems to me that waiting around isinsufficient. Current strategies have animportant flaw. No matter how hard we maywork to have them succeed, they depend ulti-mately on other people, mainly men, chang-ing their attitudes and expectations. At aGordon Conference organized by Princetonbiochemist [later president] Shirley Tilghman


Would I become a member of abiochemistry study section? I chuckled, and said, “no thankyou, you haven’t wanted me orthought me qualified before,”and as far as I knew nothingmuch had changed...

...except that President LyndonJohnson had decreed that allFederal Government advisorycommittees would, henceforth,have a substantial number offemale members.

I pointed out that peoplecarrying two X chromosomesdid not constitute a particularbranch of science.


in 1988, fully 33% of speakers were women;two years later, at another conference on thesame subject organized by men, there weretwo female speakers. The contrast is power-ful. Yet, when we speak of recruitment, reten-tion, and reentry, we mean getting the currentresearch institution hierarchies to be respon-sible for the advancement of women; theworkplace climate is set by the current facul-ties, overwhelmingly men.

We need a strategy that depends onwomen. One that assumes we will expendour energies on improving the opportunityfor women to succeed in biomedical careers,not on complaining about the failure of oth-ers to do so. At their best, our networks helpall of us cope with problems and disappoint-ments. But how will effective connections bemade between the best of networks and theplaces where decisions are being made?Networks can provide sympathetic ears, butthey cannot easily provide a laboratory ofone’s own. And who really wants to be partof the “old boys’ network”?

We have to stop expecting that our malecolleagues will change. The fact is, many ofthem are, understandably and appropriately,much more concerned about their ownresearch than about the status of women. Weneed to face the reality of our colleagues’ambitions, recognize our own, and acknowl-

edge that ours will not change theirs. Indeed,ambition and competition are mostly con-structive contributors to good science. AsWallace Stegner puts it in his novel Crossing

to Safety, “unconsidered, merely indulged,ambition becomes a vice; it can turn a maninto a machine that knows nothing but howto run. Considered, it can be something else— pathway to the stars, maybe.” We cannotexpect that our male colleagues will becomemore collegial, less ambitious, or less compet-itive to meet our needs, and it is probably notdesirable from the point of view of science.

There is another flaw in our current strate-gies. They address the world as it is, not as itwill be. Our energies should go into makingsure that the future gets shaped to fosterwomen’s contributions to science. A newstrategy, therefore, must have three essentialelements. First, we must strive to do the bestscience that we can: the most original, the

Current strategies have animportant flaw. No matter howhard we may work to have themsucceed, they depend ultimatelyon other people, mainly men,changing their attitudes andexpectations.

Many superb, accomplishedfemale scientists have beentrained in the last 25 years, butso few have reached theprofessorial ranks, and so manyare still being discouraged.

We have to stop expecting thatour male colleagues willchange...We need to face thereality of our colleagues’ambitions, recognize our own,and acknowledge that ours willnot change theirs.


most rigorous, the most interesting. Second,we must depend on ourselves and not onothers to enable us to contribute to scienceand, thus, to human welfare. Third, we mustmake certain that we have a substantial say inthe shape of the future. To achieve this, wecan gather some clues from our male col-leagues who have, in the past 40 years, builtan extraordinarily successful research enter-prise in our country. They, like the scientistsconcerned with telomeres, have chosenavenues of inquiry that opened new fieldsand expanded our very sense of what thequestions are. We should emulate that butwith our own agenda. In so doing we willmove from the periphery, from being suppli-cants for fair treatment, to being the shapersof the future.

Consider the phenomenon of menopause.What fundamental aspects of living thingswill be revealed when we understand thisprofound change? What will the implicationsbe for understanding aging in general?Consider contraception. Adolescents in theUnited States become sexually active at aboutthe same age and rate as teens in Canada andSweden, but the U.S. leads the industrializedworld in teen pregnancy. Clearly, more choic-es among effective contraceptives are desper-

ately needed. Work in this area is likely toproduce a substantial, fundamental under-standing of the processes of ovulation, oocyte

and sperm maturation, and fertilization. Asuccessful effort might also yield innovativeroutes out of a political issue that is tearingour country apart: access to abortion. Ourmale colleagues have not insisted that contra-ception be on the active research agenda, butwe should be strongly motivated to guaran-tee that it is.

This area of research is important for yetanother reason: the increasing world-wideconcern for the environment. We all decry theextinction of uncounted, even unknownspecies. We need to face the fact that theunchecked expansion of our own species is aroot cause of the loss of biological diversity.

The agenda I am proposing will not be easyto achieve. In our country, there are powerfulpolitical forces that would prefer to forget thatthe ramifications of sex are central to all ourlives. At least in part, such views reflect adeep denial of women and women’s legiti-mate rights and interests. Menopause embar-rasses people; contraception not only embar-rasses but also gravely troubles many. Indeed,there are indications that if the antiabortionforces succeed in turning back the clock byoverturning Roe v. Wade, they will then active-ly pursue an anticontraception agenda. Butsolid biomedical research in these areas willincreasingly legitimize these fields and willmake it more and more difficult to ignore theassociated societal and cultural realities.


There is another flaw in ourcurrent strategies. They addressthe world as it is, not as it willbe. Our energies should go intomaking sure that the future gets shaped to foster women’scontributions to science.

We need a strategy that dependson women. One that assumes wewill expend our energies onimproving the opportunity forwomen to succeed in biomedicalcareers, not on complaining aboutthe failure of others to do so.


A sound scientific agenda, based on vitalissues of concern to women, is one way topromote the role and status of female scien-tists. We must also ensure a healthy presenceof women in Congress. Just as our male lead-ers have cultivated the interest of senatorsand representatives in biomedical research toextraordinarily good effect, female scientists,too, can cultivate the interest of women in

Congress to assure the promotion of awomen’s health agenda. The availability ofgrants in research of interest to women andthe excellent science they can support willnot only contribute to the ability of womento capture faculty positions, but they alsowill strengthen bargaining positions duringrecruitment negotiations. Carl Djerassi sug-gested in a letter to Science that extra help forchildcare should be considered comparableto the mortgage support that is used as arecruitment device in academic institutions.In families where one spouse’s benefits pro-vide for a family’s health insurance, theother spouse could be offered childcare sup-

port as an employment benefit. There aremany possibilities to think about. The impor-tant thing is to seize the opportunities thatare being offered and to use them to definenew scientific agendas that have the poten-tial for major contributions to knowledgeand alleviate societal problems. From thiscan come a vitality that cannot be ignoredand that will place women at the center ofthe research enterprise. ■

Modified and reproduced with permission from

the NIH Office of Research on Women’s Health

(Proceedings of the Workshop on Women in

Biomedical Careers: Dynamics of Change, Vol. 1,

pp. 49-53, 1992).

References

1. New York Times. Science Times. 9 June 1992. 2. American Association for the Advancement of Science

(AAAS), Science 1992:255(13): 1325-1480. 3. Stegner W. Crossing to Safety. New York: Random

House,1987. 4. C. Djerassi, “My Mom, the Professor,” Science, Vol. 239,

10 (1988).


We will move from the periphery,from being supplicants for fairtreatment, to being the shapersof the future.

In our country, there arepowerful political forces thatwould prefer to forget that theramifications of sex are centralto all our lives.


Career Advice for Life ScientistsVolume II


Volume EditorElizabeth Marincola

Production ManagerRaymond Everngam

Editorial AssistantRachel Altemus

Published with support from the Office of Research on Women’s Health of the National Institutes of Healthand the Burroughs Wellcome Fund

©2004 The American Society for Cell Biology

Introduction to Career Advice for Life Scientists II

T he Women in Cell Biology Committee traces itsorigins to 1971, when a small assembly of Yalecolleagues determined to organize a gathering of

the few women attending the 11th Annual Meeting ofthe American Society for Cell Biology in New Orleansthat year. They posted flyers on the back of bathroomstalls and thirty women showed up.

The first sustained effort of this pick-up group was a“newsletter”—a bimonthly mimeographed job—fea-turing entries as diverse and important as sexist adver-tisements in scientific journals, job opportunities(though the jobs had not been advertised), and ACLUrulings that women should not be required to use theirhusband’s names and that single women should quali-fy to receive loans and hold mortgages.

In the subsequent thirty-plus years, The Women inCell Biology Committee has, in its way, become theheart and soul of the cell biology community. Womenin cell biology and The Women in Cell BiologyCommittee have achieved sufficient progress as tomake early concerns seem almost quaint. But the chal-lenges faced by women in science today are, whilemore subtle, still real and still attracting the commit-ment of dedicated cell biologists. We are proud of con-tributing to that history.

One of the keys to the success of The ASCB Womenin Cell Biology Committee is that its activities and serv-ices have served the many male members of the ASCBand the scientific community as well as its women. Thishas never been so true as in the past several years,when the challenge of students and post-docs in estab-lishing a satisfying career in the life sciences hasbecome acute. In response, The Women in Cell BiologyCommittee has given high priority to programs,events, publications and awards that support the careeraspirations of scientists. The Career Advice for Life

Scientists series is offered in that spirit.

INTRODUCTION 109

Ursula W. GoodenoughChair, ASCB Women in Cell Biology Committee

Elizabeth MarincolaExecutive Director,

The American Society for Cell Biology

This is the second volume of selected articles from the acclaimed “Women in CellBiology” column of the award-winning ASCB Newsletter, those ranked by TheWomen in Cell Biology Committee membersas providing the most helpful career advicefor life scientists. The first volume was pub-lished in 2002 during the chairwomanship ofZena Werb, who served as committee Chairfrom 1998 through 2001, following the suc-cessful leadership of W. Sue Shafer, whoserved in the same role from 1994 through1997. Based on the success of the monthlyASCB Newsletter columns and the over-whelming popularity of Career Advice for Life

Scientists, Volume I, we trust that this compila-tion will prove even more helpful than thesum of its parts.

At risk of inadvertently excluding deserv-ing colleagues, we acknowledge proudlysome of the many people who together haveconspired to make The American Society forCell Biology Women in Cell BiologyCommittee and its column widely imitatedand praised. Virginia Walbot, Mary Clutterand Mary Lake Polan made up that smallcritical mass from Yale that lit the spark in

1971; Susan Goldhor and Elizabeth Harriswere early editors of The Women in Cell

Biology Newsletter, whose job included gath-ering $1 and $5 contributions from colleaguesto keep it going; chairs before The Women inCell Biology Committee became an officialASCB committee were Ellen Dirksen, NinaAllen, Kathryn Vogel, Patricia Calarco, MinaBissell, Jane Peterson, Susan Gerbi, Mary LouKing and Ursula Goodenough (33% ofwhom—Gerbi, Goodenough and Bissell—were later elected President of the ASCB, aswas Zena Werb); Dorothy Skinner, whoserved as the conscience of the ASCB Councilin the early years; Laura Williams andMaureen Brandon, dedicated editors of theASCB Newsletter “Women in Cell Biology”column (Laura did much of the research thatcontributed to this history), and EmmaShelton, Dorothea Wilson, RosemarySimpson and Elizabeth Marincola, ASCBexecutives who helped nurture women’sactivities through the Society. Finally, but notleast, we thank the NIH Office of Research onWomen’s Health and the BurroughsWellcome Fund, without the support ofwhich we could not offer this resource. ■

110 CAREER ADVICE FOR LIFE SCIENTISTS II

1. THE LAB COMMUNITYConfronting the Social Context of Science

Conflict Management

Two Cultures and the Revolution in Biotechnology

Confronting the Social Context of Science


Carl CohenScience Management

Associates

Much of biological science both in academiaand in the for-profit sector is done in com-plex group and organizational settings.

Collaborative efforts are increasingly common andoften result in spectacular contributions. But manypartnerships do not succeed or are hampered by issuesthat transcend the scientific. Chief among these issuesare those that fall into the social dimension of science,encompassing interpersonal conflict, poor teamdynamics, and dysfunctional organizations.

American universities do a superb job of teachingscientific and technical skills to those who choose sci-ence as a profession. While there will continue to bedebate as to whether we are producing too many or toofew scientifically trained professionals, those that wedo train are generally thought to be reasonably wellprepared to pursue their careers. Are they?

Scientists are typically well trained in the technolo-gies and academic subjects of their discipline.However, they are missing a set of skills that handicapsthem both in academic and for-profit environments.These are the interpersonal, social, and organizationalskills needed to practice science in a social context.

Many partnerships do not succeed orare hampered by issues that transcendthe scientific. Chief among these issuesare those that fall into the socialdimension of science, encompassinginterpersonal conflict, poor teamdynamics, and dysfunctionalorganizations.

They include conflict management and nego-tiation skills, working in and managingteams, understanding and working withincomplex scientific organizations, and com-munication skills.

Every first-year graduate student canrelate stories of projects stymied or collabora-tions hampered by principal investigatorswho fail to communicate clear objectives,simmering conflicts gone unaddressed, andteam members who function more as antago-nists than supporters. The private sector isafflicted by all of the problems encounteredin academe (interpersonal conflicts, poorteam dynamics, turf issues, etc.) and a few ofits own. As the barrier between academe andthe private sector, especially biotechnology,becomes more porous, the problems willbecome indistinguishable.

Scientists who enter the biotechnologyindustry spend their first three or more yearsadapting with difficulty to new reward struc-tures and new work paradigms. In academia,rewards come largely on the basis of individ-ual achievement (although much of the work

is done in teams). In the private sector, well-meaning attempts are made to reward on thebasis of team performance. Under such con-ditions, young scientists may hoard informa-

tion or ideas and use them as currency toenhance their individual status. In biotech-nology especially, projects begin and end forreasons that are often opaque to bench scien-tists. Because scientists become intellectuallybonded to projects, they often react to thisexperience with feelings of frustration and ofbeing manipulated. In some cases they mayavoid fully committing themselves to proj-ects to minimize disappointment. Thesebehaviors hamper productivity and are typi-cally attributed to individual personalityissues. In fact, they are a direct result of thepoor preparation that scientists receive forfunctioning as a member of a team and of thefailure of scientific leaders to anticipate anddeal with the human consequences of scien-tific and business decisions. In short, both themembers and leaders of science efforts aredeficient in skills that extend beyond thetechnical discipline of their specialty.

Traditionally, scientists have believedstrongly that if you get the science right,everything else is irrelevant. While this viewmay be harmless in a scientist working by

In academia, rewards comelargely on the basis ofindividual achievement(although much of the work isdone in teams). In the privatesector, well-meaning attemptsare made to reward on the basisof team performance.


CHAPTER 1 • THE LAB COMMUNITY 113

Traditionally, scientists havebelieved strongly that if you getthe science right, everything elseis irrelevant. While this viewmay be harmless in a scientistworking by him- or herself,it is detrimental when adoptedin a social or organizationalscientific context andconstitutes a fatal conceptualerror when adopted by scientistsin the private sector.

him- or herself, it is detrimental when adoptedin a social or organizational scientific contextand constitutes a fatal conceptual error whenadopted by scientists in the private sector.

Scholarly studies in other disciplinesreveal that biological scientists are no morelikely to fall into the trap of focusing only onthe technical aspects of their discipline thanothers. Analysis of catastrophic failures in thechemical industry,1 in the space program,2

and in military contexts3 is instructive. Theprincipal cause of failure to learn from mili-tary disasters lies in the tendency of analyststo focus exclusively on technical and logisti-cal explanations.3 This narrow focus betrays anaive indifference to the roles of leadershipstyle, command structure, and of the organi-zation as a whole. By the same token, becausethe business of biotechnology is one that isdeeply rooted in science, what post hoc analy-ses of success and failures there are tend tofocus on the science, technology, and eco-nomics and fail to include the organizationaland managerial context in which the sciencewas applied.

It is a tribute to the individuals and organ-izations involved that despite managerialand organizational problems, science, andoften superb science, gets done. Scientists intraining will bear an enormous amount ofconflict, ambiguity, and heavy-handedmanipulation in order to achieve their educa-tional and professional goals. Unfortunately,

in addition to acquiring superb technicalskills, trainees frequently are imprinted withthe same dysfunctional managerial skills astheir mentors. If we take the view that workstyle is as important for scientific and busi-ness success as technological methods andapproaches, this is a serious deficiency.

The scope of scientific training should beincreased in the service of improved commu-nication, greater productivity, and, from theperspective of the private sector, greaterreturn on investment. Seizing the opportuni-ty requires an explicit recognition that muchcurrent biological science is inherently ateam, group, or organizational activity donein the context of economic, business, andsocial constraints. Training scientists withoutattention to this larger context makes nomore sense than training soldiers in the use ofautomatic weapons without simultaneoustraining in teamwork and group tactics. ■


Training scientists withoutattention to this larger contextmakes no more sense thantraining soldiers in the use ofautomatic weapons withoutsimultaneous training inteamwork and group tactics.

Lynne RichardsonMt. Sinai School

of Medicine

Conflict Management

Conflict is part of life: an inevitable consequenceof interacting with other people. In both ourprofessional lives and in our personal lives, we

are constantly faced with statements, actions, needs,drives, wishes, demands, or positions that are incom-patible with or opposed to our own. Conflict can create stress, produce anxiety, adversely affect per-formance, decrease productivity, and disrupt the work(or home) environment. It can be difficult to decidehow to respond when faced with conflict. We oftenreact emotionally or reflexively, without thought orconscious decision. Learning to deal effectively withconflict requires that we learn to control our response,choosing the most appropriate strategy for the partic-ular situation.

Responses to ConflictResponse to conflict can be described along two dimen-sions: assertiveness and cooperativeness. Assertivenessis the extent to which you attempt to satisfy your ownconcerns. Cooperativeness is the extent to which youattempt to satisfy another person’s concerns. There arefive well-described strategies for managing conflict,which comprise varying combinations of assertivenessand cooperativeness. They are competing, accommodat-

ing, avoiding, collaborating, and compromising. Competing is assertive and uncooperative; you

pursue your own concerns or interests exclusively. This is frequently characterized as “I win/you lose.”


Learning to deal effectively with conflictrequires that we learn to control ourresponse, choosing the most appropriatestrategy for the particular situation.

Accommodating is the opposite of competing;it is cooperative and unassertive. You pursuethe interests or concerns of the other partyand ignore your own: “I lose/you win.”Avoiding is both unassertive and uncoopera-tive. You pursue neither the other party’sinterest nor your own. You do not pursue theissue at all; you disengage from theencounter or situation. Extending the gamemetaphor, avoiding means, “I won’t play.”Collaborating is both assertive and coopera-tive; you simultaneously attempt to satisfyyour own concerns and those of the otherparty. This is the “win/win” scenario.Collaborating is often the most difficult of thestrategies to employ. It may require signifi-cant time and effort from both parties.Compromising may be described as unsuccess-fully assertive or reluctantly cooperative; it isa trade-off, each party gets part of what theywant. Depending on the quality of the com-promise, this may be a low form of“win/win” or, in particularly acrimoniousconflicts, it may be “lose/lose.”

To clarify the differences among theseapproaches, let us look at an example. It is eighto’clock, the regular bedtime for a nine-year-oldgirl. Her mother wants her to go to bed; shewants to stay up until nine o’clock. A “compet-ing” response would be to send her to bedwithout further discussion; Mom wins, sheloses. An “accommodating” response would beto allow her to stay up until nine o’clock; Momloses, she wins. If the mother wants to “avoid”the conflict, she might say, “Ask your father.”She thus avoids enforcing the rule and grantingan exception to it; she doesn’t play.“Compromising” might mean that the childgoes to bed at 8:30 p.m., or she goes to bed butcan leave the lights on and read, or she stays uplate tonight but goes to bed early tomorrownight, etc. The mother can employ any of theseapproaches, immediately and unilaterally, toresolve the bedtime conflict.

A “collaborating” response is harder todevelop; how can the child simultaneouslygo to bed at eight o’clock and stay up untilnine o’clock? To collaborate, we must under-stand the reasons behind the positions, notjust the positions themselves. The mother

wants her daughter to go to bed at eighto’clock because she has to get up at 6:00 a.m.and she needs ten hours of sleep or shebecomes cranky and inattentive in school.The daughter wants to stay up until 9:00 p.m.because she desperately wants to watch aparticular television program that airs from8:00 p.m. to 9:00 p.m. Equipped with thisinformation, they can now craft “win/win”solutions: she goes to bed at 8:00 p.m. andMom videotapes the program so her daugh-ter can see it tomorrow; or she stays up until9:00 p.m. to see the program but she puts outher clothes, makes her lunch, and trades hermorning chores with her sister so that she cansleep an hour later in the morning—she stillgets ten hours of sleep. This is why collabo-rating takes time: the parties must communi-cate openly, giving the reasons behind theirpositions, each actively trying to understandand satisfy the concerns of the other.

None of these responses is always correct;each has advantages and disadvantages. Wehave a tendency to default to whicheverstrategy reflects our emotions or personality.Some people become relentlessly assertivewhen faced with conflict; they will always tryto “win.” Some will always seek to accommo-date others, even to their own significant


To collaborate, we mustunderstand the reasons behindthe positions, not just thepositions themselves.

detriment. Others will do almost anything to avoid conflict. Still others are always readyto compromise. Strategies that are guided byour personal feelings rather than the specificsof the situation are often dysfunctional. Thekey to effective conflict management is learn-ing to use the appropriate strategy for eachsituation. The choice is determined by thesubstance of the conflict, the time available to resolve it and the relationship between the parties.

Managing ConflictThe first rule in managing conflict is to ascer-tain that an actual conflict exists. There aremany situations where incomplete informa-tion, misunderstanding, or unwarrantedassumptions create an apparent conflictwhen the parties involved do not actually

have incompatible or opposing interests.Whenever you encounter what appears to bea conflict, the first response should be to clar-ify your position and that of the other party.It may become clear that no conflict exists. If

you do determine that an actual conflictexists, you may have gained enough informa-tion to make a deliberate choice of strategies.

When to Compete. The “I win/you lose”approach is not the exclusive province ofcompetitive sports and games. There aretimes when you must insist on having it yourway: when quick, decisive action is vital andthe decision is yours to make; when enforcingunpopular rules; and when you know youare right. Using this approach, especially ifthere is little time for discussion, may dam-age your relationship with the other party. Ifthis is your primary method of resolving con-flict you may be perceived as dogmatic,unreasonable and inflexible. Sometimes youmay be forced to use this approach to protectagainst people who take advantage of non-competitive behavior.

When to Accommodate. Giving in grace-fully may be the right thing to do when yourrelationship with the other party is moreimportant than the conflict at hand.Accommodating can be used to preserveharmony or to build up social credit for laterissues. Managers or teachers may use thisapproach to aid in the development of subor-dinates or students. You may choose to accede to someone else’s wishes to showthat you are reasonable and can learn fromothers. If you recognize that you are out-matched and losing, accommodating may beprudent. Most of us have had the experienceof realizing, in the midst of an argument, that

Incomplete information,misunderstanding, orunwarranted assumptionscreate an apparent conflict whenthe parties involved do notactually have incompatible oropposing interests.


We have a tendency to defaultto whichever strategy reflectsour emotions or personality.

Giving in gracefully may be theright thing to do when yourrelationship with the other partyis more important than theconflict at hand.


we are wrong. Needless to say, when youknow you are wrong, accommodating is theappropriate choice.

When to Avoid. Conflict should be avoid-ed when there is no chance of satisfying yourconcerns or when the potential damage (tothe relationship or to you) of confronting theconflict outweighs the benefits of resolution.Avoiding can be a useful temporizing strate-gy to let people, including you, calm down. Itmay be appropriate to avoid a conflict untilmore information can be gathered, either toclarify whether or not a conflict exists or towork toward a collaborative solution.Sometimes it is appropriate to choose avoid-ing when others can resolve the conflict moreeffectively. This is often true when you are amember of a team, particularly if you are ajunior member, engaged in a conflict with apowerful external entity.

When to Collaborate. Identifying a“win/win” solution usually requires timeand effort but yields tremendous dividends.Not only do you satisfy your own concerns,you create or enhance a positive relationshipwith the other party. Collaborating can allowyou to test your own assumptions and oftenresults in significant learning on all sides.This method of resolving conflict allows youto merge insights and experience to find anintegrative solution. The process also allowsboth parties to gain commitment to the solu-tion. This approach may be used to protect orenhance important relationships; it also maybe used to work through hard feelings in thecase of previous competitive, uncooperativeor even hostile dealings. This approach to

resolving conflict, when successful, is by farthe most rewarding. However, it does requirethat you truly value and are willing to pursuethe interests of the other party, and that youforego an easy win or a quick compromise.

When to Compromise. While less satisfy-ing than collaborating, compromising is usu-ally quicker and easier. This approach maybe used to find expedient solutions undertime pressure or to achieve temporary settle-ments for complex issues. It may be anappropriate choice when the goals are mod-erately important: too important to avoid or accommodate, but insufficiently impor-tant to merit a collaborative effort.Compromising may be the only option whentwo opponents with equal power are strong-ly committed to mutually exclusive goals. Itmay also be the fallback strategy when com-petition or collaboration fails.

When faced with a conflict, the challengeis to consider, as dispassionately as we can,which approach is appropriate given thenature and importance of the conflict, thenature and importance of our relationshipwith the other party and the time availablefor resolution. If we can control our emotion-al reaction, we can think through the conse-quences of various choices. If we are awareof our default preference, we can monitorourselves to make sure we make the bestchoice, not necessarily the one that comesmost easily for us. Conflict management isan important professional skill, one that willalso serve us well in our personal relation-ships. Like all skills, it can be learned and itimproves with practice. ■


Harvey F. LodishWhitehead Institute for

Biomedical Research

Two Cultures and theRevolution in Biotechnology

The two cultures of science are not those of C. P.Snow who 40 years ago articulated the growinggulf between the humanists and ascendant scien-

tists in the post-war period.1 They are the two groups ofscientists who work in academe and in industry.Bridging the considerable gulfs between these groupsis important for the benefit of industry as well as for thesupport of university research.

One major problem is that basic science research fac-ulty in general often undervalue the work done inindustry and can make it difficult for their students andfellows to pursue careers there. When groups of gradu-ate students and postdocs at a wide range of universi-ties and research institutes are asked about where theysee themselves in ten years, their answers are remark-ably similar. Only a handful see themselves directingtheir own research program in an academic laboratory,and well over half plan to work in a pharmaceutical orbiotech company.

We do a fair job educating students and postdocsabout the various career opportunities available to them.Many institutions have career days where alumni orlocal colleagues describe their careers in industrialresearch, patent law, scientific editing, laboratoryadministration, and many other professions that requirea strong background in science.

However, a critical problem exists between stu-dents/postdocs and their PIs. When asked if theywould feel comfortable asking their PI for help oradvice in seeking employment outside of academia,


One major problem is that basic scienceresearch faculty in general oftenundervalue the work done in industry.

students and postdocs respond with a uni-versal and emphatic “no.” Part of this nega-tivism results from the strong if outmodednotion that the research faculty are trainingpeople only for careers in academicresearch—in essence to become their succes-sors. Another part may result from the histor-ically strong but equally outmoded notionthat the top students and postdocs go intoacademic careers and that only less qualifiedindividuals take industrial jobs.

The negative attitude is largely attributedto the fact that only a handful of academicshave even a basic knowledge of what goes onin a biotech or pharmaceutical company.Most have only vague notions of howresearch in a for-profit lab is organized andconducted and the kinds of career paths onecan have there.

To solve this problem, companies them-selves need to take the lead by holdingresearch days or open houses to specifically

target the faculty, not the students and fellows they are trying to recruit. Theseevents could include scientific talks focusedon the company’s research. Tours of industri-

al labs are also very useful. Most academicswould be startled at the lab equipment inroutine use in for-profit research labs, muchof which is simply unavailable even in topacademic labs. These can open the way formutually profitable collaborations, assumingboth sides can overcome the other gulfs thatseparate them. Interactions like these couldalso make faculty realize the many advan-tages of non-academic careers for their ownstudents. They can result in significant

research support for an academic laboratory,but also in true collaborative partnerships in which both sides derive the benefits fromthe beginning.

Industrial collaborations with academeare most likely to succeed when both sides


Companies need to lighten upand understand the free andopen culture of researchuniversities. The intellectualproperty restrictions on a well-written contract generate norestrictions and only minimaldelays in publishing the results.

Industrial collaborations withacademe are most likely tosucceed when both sides have a real interest in the results ofthe project, and when thecontact is PI to PI.

Companies should learn to seeknot-for-profit labs in their fieldsof interest and develop long-termrelationships with the key leaders.

The negative attitude is largelyattributed to the fact that only a handful of academics haveeven a basic knowledge of what goes on in a biotech orpharmaceutical company.

have a real interest in the results of the proj-ect, and when the contact is PI to PI. (In com-panies, PI’s are often called group leaders.)While the company may very much want toknow the result, it may not have the in-houseexpertise to work on the project or more like-ly, may not want to hire extra people just fora specialized short-term project. Companiesshould learn to seek not-for-profit labs intheir fields of interest and develop long-termrelationships with the key leaders.Companies need to lighten up and under-stand the free and open culture of researchuniversities. All too frequently they try toplace unreasonable restrictions on intellectu-al property and publications that conse-

quently prevent the important research frombeing conducted.

Academic leaders should realize that thereare many potential advantages to industrialcollaborations additional to research fund-ing. Companies can provide reagents andequipment that are unavailable elsewhere.Also, the intellectual property conditions ona well-written contract do not generate sig-nificant restrictions and only create minimaldelays in publishing the results. Finally,increases in these activities should helpmake it easier for fellows and students tolearn more about industry, and to be lessintimidated about approaching their PI foradvice in non-academic careers. ■




2. DEALING WITHEVERYTHING AT ONCE

Dual(ing) Academic Careers

Effective Time Management

On Being a Scientist and Parent

How to “Get a Life” in the Life Sciences


Dual(ing) Academic Careers

Liz GavisPrinceton University

Fred HughsonPrinceton University

When life partners both choose careers inacademic science, tough issues arise.Balancing the conflicting demands of

work, relationship, and sometimes children is dauntingfor everyone, but dual academic careers bring this chal-lenge into particularly sharp focus. Because time issuch a strong constraint, setting both career and rela-tionship priorities is essential. Certainly there is nooptimal strategy for every couple, but some strategy isrequired and the only way to reach one is by communi-cating to forge agreement on core principles.

A primary factor in the equation for many couples isthe decision to start a family. While it is widelyacknowledged that “there is no good time to have chil-dren,” the corollary that “any time is as good as anyother” is just as true. The integration of family withdual academic careers will require additional multi-tasking, whenever it occurs.

The first step in launching dual academic careers islanding two academic positions. There are at least twobasic possibilities and many variations. Both partnerscan look for academic positions simultaneously, or onepartner can find a position and the second can post-pone the process, attempting at a later time to findsomething compatible. When possible, a synchronousstrategy makes sense for one key reason: the job candi-date holds the cards during the interval betweenreceiving and accepting a job offer. A synchronous

While it is widely acknowledged that“there is no good time to havechildren,” the corollary that “any timeis as good as any other” is just as true.

strategy can take advantage of this principle.Specifically, both partners carry out large-scale simultaneous but independent jobsearches. Each partner—in his or her dealingswith prospective employers—maintainswhat amounts to a “Don’t ask, don’t tell”approach regarding the other partner. Joboffers received by either person allow thatperson to bargain from a position of strengthin attempting to place the partner. Somedepartments may, however unethically, hesi-tate to make a job offer to a candidate with a“spouse problem.” Increasingly, however,many institutions recognize the prevalence ofthis issue and, having made an offer to a can-didate in this situation, will be eager to dealwith it creatively. Some institutions may evensee a benefit in being assured of acquiringtwo excellent faculty or may be able to joinforces with a neighboring institution to theadvantage of both.

To anticipate this process, both partnersshould apply, whenever possible, to searchesat the same or neighboring institutions. Thisis worth doing even when the perceivedmatch between applicant and job search isimperfect, because institutions may be ableto bend the goals of a job search to fit the can-didate, but be unable to offer a position to acandidate who did not apply at all. Includinginstitutions that may not initially seem liketop choices is essential to maximize thechance of overlapping offers; because pre-conceptions about institutions are oftenchanged during interview visits anyway, too

narrow a focus may eliminate what couldturn out to be a golden opportunity.Geographic areas rich in job opportunitieswithin reasonable commuting distance ofone another can be particularly promisingfor dual career couples. Obtaining positionsin the same department has certain advan-tages: less commuting, opportunities forsharing equipment and supplies, and noneed to play phone tag in arranging daycarepickup. The main caveat is that issues ofindependence may arise if both partnersplan to dedicate their laboratories to similarresearch areas. In that case, and if the optionis available, it is worth considering whetherbeing in different departments is preferable.

An asynchronous job search can be moredifficult. The first partner to take a positionhas already committed to that institution,and although one hopes the institution hasreason to want to retain him or her, theincentive can seem less urgent outside thecontext of the initial recruiting effort. Inaddition to efforts to add a second positionlocally, casting a wider net and being willingto consider moving together could be bothnecessary and desirable.

In the end, reality dictates that no matterhow the job search is run, compromises willhave to be made. Even if two offers at thesame institution are secured, couples in verydifferent research areas may find disparitiesin the offers or in the scientific environment


CHAPTER 2 • DEALING WITH EVERYTHING AT ONCE 125

A synchronous strategy makessense for one key reason: the jobcandidate holds the cards duringthe interval between receivingand accepting a job offer.

Each partner—in his or herdealings with prospectiveemployers—maintains whatamounts to a “Don’t ask, don’ttell” approach regarding theother partner.

of a particular institution. Because compro-mise, especially if it entails substantial sacri-fice, will weigh heavily on a relationship,open lines of communication are essential.It’s hard to overestimate the importance ofchoosing a situation where the needs of bothpartners are taken into account. In caseswhere there is significant asymmetry in thecompromise, it is easy for the favored partnerto become comfortable, while the disfavoredpartner feels underappreciated. Therefore, itmay be better to accept more equivalent posi-tions in less desirable settings or for one part-ner to move in order to improve the other’sprospects, than to create a situation in whichone partner feels resentful.

The transition from postdoc to an inde-pendent academic position is a big one. Newtasks and responsibilities join research inconstant competition for one’s attention.Balancing research with teaching, commit-tees, grant writing, mentoring, and travel areespecially challenging for a dual career cou-ple, particularly if children are also part ofthe mix. Indeed, many in this position havebeen heard to remark that they wish theyhad a spouse! But until polygamy becomesmore widely accepted, other strategies areneeded. The default approach among aca-demic couples is to split everything 50/50—from shopping, child care, and taking out the

garbage to weekend work schedules, meet-ing travel, participating in department jobs,dinners with seminar speakers and facultycandidates, even exercise. There areinevitable exceptions, of course. One partnermay need to borrow time from the other tomeet a grant deadline. (Most dual-careercouples scrupulously avoid trying to meetthe same grant deadline, a grueling ordealone couple refers to as “emotional PCR.”)Nonetheless, an almost obsessive fairness individing up time and responsibilities is onegood strategy for maintaining balanceamong conflicting demands.

Couples with children can only build aca-demic careers on an underlying foundationof high-quality, reliable, and flexible childcare. Therefore, time spent choosing the rightsituation is extremely worthwhile. Since thedemands of two full-time jobs can becomeoverwhelming at times, especially when onepartner is traveling, the couple mustinevitably take advantage of friends and rel-atives, daycare providers, and others whocan be called into service. Such support net-works can be life savers and are worth culti-vating. Paying for help with house cleaningand participating in carpools provide other

ways to optimize time. But, in the end, therewill inevitably be days where things fallapart. On those days, one can be thankfulthat academic careers do provide a certaindegree of flexibility.


It may be better to accept moreequivalent positions in lessdesirable settings, or for onepartner to move in order toimprove the other’s prospects,than to create a situation inwhich one partner feels resentful.

There will inevitably be dayswhere things fall apart. Onthose days, one can be thankfulthat academic careers do providea certain degree of flexibility.

Promotion and tenure are stressful issuesfor everyone. Although it might seem pru-dent for a couple to choose an institutionwhere tenure is relatively assured, considera-tions of academic quality, colleagues, facili-ties, and financial support—all of which cancontribute to launching a successful career—may be more important in the long run. Bothtenure and biological clocks can seem to tickparticularly fast for couples who plan to havechildren during this time. Many institutionsnow recognize that the pre-tenure years andthe childbearing years overlap. They mayallow faculty who have children during thisperiod to postpone their tenure considera-tion, typically by one year. Since the laborato-ry continues to mature even in one’s absence,this extra year can be extremely helpful in off-setting the inevitable time lost during the pre-and post-natal months.

Many dual-academic career couples com-ment on the benefit of being able to under-stand each other’s work and relate to eachother’s needs. Both members of an academiccouple have first-hand experience with theoften-intense work schedules, the grant writ-

ing, the department politics; they canempathize vividly with bad news like paperrejections and experimental setbacks andeven offer educated advice to help get thingsback on track. On the other hand, it is alsoimportant to be able to back off and take abreak from work. When children start to

complain that grants are the only thing theirparents ever talk about, it’s probably a signthat rebalancing is needed.

In the end, communication is everything.Partners who are friends, parents, and co-conspirators in the academic game can forgea very rewarding life together. Just not anuncomplicated one. ■


When children start to complainthat grants are the only thingtheir parents ever talk about, it’sprobably a sign that rebalancingis needed.



Effective Time Management

Suzanne PfefferStanford University

Why is it so easy to become overwhelmed by all of the projects that face us each day?The world of email was supposed to make

life more efficient. It has made communication andinteraction much easier, but only encourages morecommunication and interaction. Below are a few effective approaches to time management for the busy researcher.

My Work versus Their WorkAn important aspect of time management is prioritiza-tion. As a faculty member you will be asked to reviewmanuscripts, serve on grant review panels, and serveon departmental, university, and extramural commit-tees. As a graduate student or a postdoc, you may beasked to teach others a new technique or to guide a jun-ior protégé. All of these activities are important, but ifyou fill your days with this category of work, your ownprojects will surely suffer. No one gets tenure or aresearch grant for excellence in committee service, andoriginal research findings are prerequisite for a Ph.D.or successful postdoc experience.

A useful approach for faculty is to reserve most workdays (Monday through Friday, 9–6) for their ownwork—doing experiments or helping lab members dothem, writing research papers, submitting grants, orpreparing lectures for courses. Of course it is importantto review manuscripts—this is an excellent way to keepup with the latest findings. It is important to serve ongrant-review panels, after you are established. Thesecan be rich and wonderful opportunities for scientific

No one gets tenure or a research grantfor excellence in committee service.

interaction among a diverse set of colleagues,and the success of peer review depends uponbroad participation. Try to review manu-scripts and grant applications in the eveningsor on weekends to ensure that work days arereserved, within reason, for your own work.

The most important activities for graduatestudents and postdoctoral fellows are experi-ment planning and data generation. A deliber-ate approach is required to keep up with theliterature, attend seminars and courses, andoversee the work of others while carrying outyour own research project. At the end of each

day, have a plan for what you hope to do the next morning. Write out your protocols,make up your solutions, and reserve cen-trifuges/microscopes etc. at least one daybefore. When you get to the lab in the morn-ing, you will be ready to go and able to makethe best use of the day. During incubations orwhile gels are running, think ahead about thenext experiment or use this time to read a

research article or catch up on class assign-ments. Evenings and weekends are ideal timesto catch up on reading, complete coursework,and plan ahead for upcoming experiments.The most effective students and postdocs takefull advantage of their time in the lab and con-sider themselves professional experimental-ists. Indeed, most cell biological discoveriesare made by students and postdocs.

Lists Can Help Lists help all of us keep track of commit-ments. By writing down what you need totake care of, you will be sure to accomplishmore than you might otherwise. Also, someitems require five minutes whereas othersmay require days. You might wish to keep acolumn reserved for the small things that youcan cross off in between other activities.

Stay on Top of the GamePeople who feel especially overwhelmedoften face email overload. Their inboxes growdaily, and their ability to distinguish mes-sages that require immediate action fromthose that don’t degrades every day. Respondquickly to messages and throw out anythingunessential and you will find email to bemore manageable. It is also essential toorganize your email using folders for differ-

ent projects. Someone needs a plasmid? File itunder collaborators. Faculty meeting? File itunder department business. Email spam is anirritating time-waster and an unfortunatepart of our current world. Create a filter and

Graduate students andpostdoctoral fellows need toremember that their mostimportant activities areexperiment planning and datageneration.



Try to review manuscripts andgrant applications in theevenings or on weekends toensure that work days arereserved for your own work.

Respond quickly to messages andthrow out anything unessentialand you will soon find email tobe more manageable.

remove your name from mailing lists to pro-tect yourself whenever possible. By keepingyour inbox list of messages short, you willhave an easier time finding what you need tocomplete your own projects and to be able tohelp others. Make quick work of smallrequests so you have more time for moreimportant projects.

For those still lucky enough to be able towork at the bench each day, staying on top ofthe game includes keeping your lab notebookin good order. Much time is saved when labnotebooks are maintained in a clear andorganized manner. It is essential to put thegels/films/counts in the notebook and labeland/or graph them out before doing the next

experiment. Sometimes you will notice some-thing in the data that you wouldn’t have ifyou didn’t take the time to fully documentthe experiment. Get the most from eachexperiment by keeping pristine records.When it comes time to write up the work forpublication, the details will be essential andthe writing will also be expedited.

Organize Your WorkspaceMany people think more clearly when theiroffice (or desk area) is clean. Letters andmemos can’t get lost under massive piles. Aday spent clearing off the desk and organiz-ing files is time well spent and will enhancethe ability to tackle more. Lab workers oftenfind that it is much easier to work and to gen-erate clean results working at a clean labbench. As mentioned earlier, keep your deskclean by keeping up with your lab notebookand keeping “idea lists” in a defined location.

All of us are more efficient on some daysthan others. It is important to acknowledgethis and make progress on more mindlessprojects (doing the references on a manu-script or grant, for example, or updating yourfiles) on a day when the more creative juicessimply aren’t flowing. Grad students andpostdocs will find that a day spent planningexperiments, writing protocols and preparingsolutions can also be a day well spent. Thenthere are days that are best reserved for vol-unteering to defrost the lab freezer or to cleanout the tissue culture incubators.

Take Care of Yourself No one gets much work done if they haven’tslept well or aren’t feeling well. Work isimportant, but we all have more energy whenwe are able to maintain a regular and variedexercise program and we eat regular meals.Some people ride their bikes to the lab, whichguarantees that they’ll get exercise every day.If you find it hard to fit exercise into yourschedule, use the stairs instead of elevators atwork, or park your car at a location thatrequires you to walk a longer distance to getto the lab (if weather and safety issues per-mit). Also remember that more time at workdoes not equal more work accomplished. It isessential to get away from the lab or the officeso that when you return, you feel fresh andready to tackle all that awaits you. “Burn out”is endemic among biological researchers andeducators, between grant writing and manu-script revising and lecture preparation and soon. Balance is essential and will help youaccomplish more.

Good Time ManagementIncludes Managing DeadlinesMany of us work best under the threat of adeadline. Yet last-minute efforts can’t benefitfrom the input and comments of others, andthey exhaust us emotionally and physically. If


Get the most from eachexperiment by keeping pristinerecords.

you have a major grant to write, set aside aminimum of two weeks and do nothing elseduring that time. If the deadline is the first ofthe month, use the first two weeks of the pre-vious month for your dedicated time. Allwriting projects benefit from a rest for a fewdays. When you return to them, you will havea fresh perspective and be able to improve onthe ideas and language significantly. Writingdeadlines can make one feel like they arebeing squeezed like a tube of toothpaste.

Know When to Say, “No” It is always an honor to be asked to serve ona committee, review panel, or editorial boardor to be asked to review manuscripts, writereview articles, or give lectures. If you do agood job, you will be asked to do more. Onehas to find a balance between helping othersand doing your own work. If you are a juniorfaculty member, wait until you have tenurebefore agreeing to serve on study sectionsand grant review panels. Even more valuable

is participating in research conferences whereyou are invited to present your own originalresearch. Spend as much time as you can onyour research program. The quality of yourteaching is important, and your citizenship asdemonstrated by committee service will benoted at the time of your promotion andwhen salaries are determined. But don’t over-do it—keep a list of the committees on whichyou serve to remind yourself not to committo more than you realize. Choose committeeassignments that interest you so that the time you contribute is meaningful to you. Atthe same time, remember that others canserve in your place and that your own workmust come first. This also holds true for stu-dents and postdocs. We all benefit from com-munity service, and we should contribute toour communities locally, nationally, andinternationally. But we have the most to con-tribute in all of these activities when wedevote most of our time to the science thatmakes us true scientists. ■




On Being a Scientist and Parent

Ursula GoodenoughWashington University

Parent–scientists may hope to be remembered fortheir science, teaching, and/or public service, butthe most enduring memories of their own are like-

ly to be those of being a parent. As a mother of five andgrandmother of three, I’m often asked to offer advicethat might be helpful to those starting out. Herewithare some maxims.

1. The key move is to embrace the following mantra:Of course I’m going to have kids and of course I’m goingto have a scientific career. Neither is contingent ornegotiable. They are both going to happen.

2. It turns out that kids aren’t all that interested inwhat we do when we aren’t with them, and are veryadept at moving back and forth between parent timeand nonparent time. If you’re pipetting at the benchand missing your baby, it’s actually pretty unlikely thatyour baby is missing you.

3. Like most of the rest of us, kids like to know what toexpect. Try to find and maintain a family rhythm, eventhough there are of course times when things have tobe arranged differently. A ritual time for us was the din-ner meal—home-cooked, conversational, centered—which continued throughout adolescence. Another wasSunday-afternoon walks in the woods at a nearbynature preserve, coming to know the same trees and

Parent-scientists may hope to beremembered for their science, teaching,and/or public service, but the mostenduring memories of their own arelikely to be those of being a parent.

glades in different seasons. These walks alsocontinued throughout adolescence, albeitparental insistence was sometimes neededwhen other options beckoned. But by andlarge we all found the time to go because weall wanted to be there.

4. Your new babies are already persons andnot blank slates whose personhoods you willsomehow be creating. You get to know themby paying attention to who they are. Your jobis to help them best become comfortable withand good at who they are.

5. It’s much more important to encouragekids to be intense about what they’re interest-ed in than to try to influence what those inter-ests are. One son, for example, went throughdeep preoccupations with action figures,Ninja Turtles, Gameboys, skateboarding,rock climbing, and hanging out with friends.He’s now an orchestral conductor. The com-mon denominator is the passion.

6. Sometimes a parent–scientist can turn offthe science and “just” be with the kids, butlots of times that doesn’t happen. No reasonto get hung up on this. Instead, figure outhow to read Winnie the Pooh and think aboutyour data at the same time. You can restassured that your kids are probably thinkingabout Winnie the Pooh and something else aswell. The core event is that you’re readingPooh together, snuggling and giggling.

7. Choosing the people and schools thatyour kids experience when you’re at the lab is all-important. Make these choicescarefully; find contexts that you feel deeplycomfortable with, and be ready to switch ifyour decisions prove to be unwise. But it’snot essential that these contexts be replicasof your own modus operandi. My kids spentmuch of their lives with a woman of limitedformal education and of profound wisdom,intuition, and warmth. When she was present and we parents were absent, her modus prevailed, and everyone wasgreatly enriched.

8. All working parents are vulnerable toanxiety that child-caretaker bonds mightsomehow interfere with child-parentalbonds. But this turns out to be a misguidedfear. Your bonds with your children willalways be primary, and the additional lovethat they also experience with others has theeffect of expanding their capacity to formmeaningful relationships.



It’s much more important toencourage kids to be intenseabout what they’re interested inthan to try to influence whatthose interests are.

Choosing the people and schoolsthat your kids experience whenyou’re at the lab is all-important.

Your bonds with your childrenwill always be primary, and the additional love that they also experience with others has the effect of expanding their capacity to formmeaningful relationships.

9. When to have kids? Obviously it’s easierwhen you see a coherent career path beforeyou, and don’t feel you need to rush it—youcan be a great first-time parent in your late 30’s to early 40’s. But having babies earlier can work out fine also: it’s just dicierto pull off.

10. As in doing good science, it’s essential inparenthood to reach out for input and collab-oration from those who are helping you raiseyour kids, including family and friends, par-

ticularly when your kids are having difficul-ties (which they all have). What can mostflummox this process is to adopt the conceitthat the difficulties are somehow the conse-quence of your also having pursued yourown career. As they say, get over it. Yourcareer is not that big a deal in the big picture.

11. Keep in mind that your children areblessed by the fact that you are their parents,fired up with intellectual drive and curiosity.My parents were both academics, and evenhad I not chosen their career track, my mem-ories are filled with their intense interactionsand the colleagues who showed up for thoseanimated after-dinner conversations. Bringyour life to your kids, not with the intent thatthey follow in your footsteps, but becauseyou want them to experience the lives ofthose in quest. They may not seem all thatinterested, but they’ll take it with them. ■


[Don’t] adopt the conceit that[your kids’] difficulties aresomehow the consequence of youralso having pursued your owncareer. As they say, get over it.

William WicknerDartmouth College

How to “Get a Life” in the Life Sciences

For most of us humanoids, “a life” is a melange offriendship, love, loyalty, consideration, compro-mise, kids, a profession where you excel and find

joy, hobbies, reading books, exercise, laughter, andeight hours of sleep a night. Can you find it in the lifesciences? I think so.

The pathway begins with graduate school. Choose aresearch advisor who’s passionate about science, not toodistracted by companies or administration, with a labthat’s happy, hard-working and productive, where folksget along well, and where graduates have gone on to“have a life.” There, choose a research project with anearly “decision point” (not when it’s done, but when youknow whether it’ll work), of general interest in biology,

and at the heart of the lab’s direction. Develop some novelassets as a scientist: learn to enjoy criticism when offeredin a positive spirit; the critic is helping you to hone yourideas, and this can actually be an avenue to developingfriendships. Read with “an attitude,” not only critical butalso appreciative. For each article, ask yourself what dif-ferent direction you’d take in your lab. From this reading,from gazing wide-eyed at histology texts, and throughlate night bull sessions with friends, build a fantasy “sta-ble” of hobby-horse ideas, and take ‘em out for frequentrides! Find a friend to be your partner in this fantasygame—it’s the groundwork for realities to follow.

Should you stick with it? Well, do you love benchscience, teaching, and/or reading? If not, switch! In


Learn to enjoy criticism when offered ina positive spirit; the critic is helping youto hone your ideas, and this can actuallybe an avenue to developing friendships.

your 20’s, strive to find your passions, per-sonal and professional. If you do love it, workhard in the lab (I like 6 a.m. to 6 p.m., fivedays a week; arrive knowing the experimentsyou’ll do that day), but evenings and weekends are for dinner, family, friends,reading (science and novels), music, andhikes. What should you accomplish in gradschool? Publish quality papers telling acoherent story. Learn to present science clear-ly, for audiences at different levels, with con-fidence and charm, orally and in writing. Allthe while, build the stable of hobby-horseideas for your own future research.

Postdocing. It’s for everyone—your salaryalmost doubles, you sample another region,or country and culture, and no “hoops” oftests to jump through! Think about it early (bythe end of year three of grad school), and planto complement, not extend, your graduatetraining. Of organism, scientific problem, and

technical approach (genetics, enzymology,structural biology, or informatics), keep onebut change two between grad school andpostdocship. Change universities! Seek a pro-ductive lab doing exciting research where thepostdocs go on to jobs you’d like. Ask yourgraduate department faculty about the per-sonality and reputation of prospective post-doc advisors. Spend a few hours readingrecent lab papers, write a serious and warmletter with a few new project ideas, includeyour CV and publications, and apply to onelab only at a time (and, tell this to the labchief). During postdocship, develop a creativebut practical plan for your own lab, built onthe technical approaches you’ve mastered as astudent and fellow but embarking into a newarea, chosen from your “stable” of excitingideas. For example, during graduate studiesof the enzymology of yeast membrane traf-ficking, you may dream of understandinghow Sec proteins work in neuronal networks.Your postdoctoral studies of worm apoptosisthen teach you worm genetics and physiolo-gy, and you establish your own lab to unravelthe connections and functions of the ~300worm neurons, pioneering in worm enzymol-ogy, cell culture, and other frontier areas.

How to interview for postdocships and forthat dream job? Read a paper, and have ques-tions and ideas for each scientist you’ll meet


What should you accomplish in grad school? Publish qualitypapers telling a coherent story.Learn to present science clearly,for audiences at different levels,with confidence and charm,orally and in writing.

How to interview, forpostdocships and for that dreamjob? Read a paper, and havequestions and ideas, for eachscientist you’ll meet during theinterview. Be confident but notarrogant; give a dynamite talk.

Of organism, scientific problem,and technical approach (genetics,enzymology, structural biology,or informatics), keep one butchange two between grad schooland postdocship.


during the interview. Be confident but notarrogant; give a dynamite talk. Ask each per-son about their work and spend most of thetime talking about their science. Pay atten-tion, ask germane questions, establish com-mon areas of interest. Show enthusiasm, andthat you’ll “pull your oar.” Say “please” and“thank you,” and above all Never Negotiatethe Job You Haven’t Been Offered.

What careers lie ahead; in biotech and phar-maceutical companies, doing science of funda-mental importance that also creates usefulproducts; in academia, blending teaching withbasic science, at research institutes if teaching isnot for you, at liberal arts colleges or highschools if teaching is your passion, and possi-bly in a life of letters and ideas, be it law, busi-ness, administration, or journalism. The primedirective is that you must do what you’re good

at and will find fulfilling (usually, the samething). Let no one tell you otherwise.

If you do start your own lab, in academiaor industry, remember that you’re the bestdamn postdoc you’ll likely see for a decadeor more, and ruthlessly keep yourself at thebench! Seek one project, leading to one love-ly paper, each year, and success will crownyour efforts.

Are there special considerations for womenin science? There are several. One is that theburdens of childbearing and early childrear-ing fall disproportionately on women.Furthermore, some folks are still being told1950’s fairy tales about women’s “supportiveroles” by their mom and dad. Does yourSignificant Other truly love you for you, andstand ready for the difficult give and take of asuccessful relationship? Find friends andloved ones with the right attitude. Above all,don’t drop out, don’t quit. Half the graduatestudents are women, but fewer of the postdocapplicants, and fewer yet of the job applicants.When offered a job, check how women havefared at that institution, and childcare policiesand facilities if relevant. Be among those whostay with it, if you too find that science is a joy-ful part of your life. ■


Say “please” and “thank you,”and above all Never Negotiatethe Job You Haven’t BeenOffered.


3. SCIENTIFIC CITIZENSHIPThe Misconduct of Others: Prevention Techniques for Researchers

Making a Difference: The Three R’s of Public Science Policy

Great Expectations or Realistic Expectations?


The Misconduct of Others:Prevention Techniques for Researchers

Jane A. SteinbergThe National Institute

of Mental Health

Few people can distinguish between the smell ofday-old fish and the paper in which it waswrapped. That’s just how it is with scientific mis-

conduct. The misconduct of those working with youmay become yours. In the worst case, your lab is shutfor the investigation, your publications are retracted,and your name becomes suspect. Even if you reportedthe suspected misconduct and the investigation is fair,the accuser and the accused may become intertwinedas the investigation proceeds. All too often, the reporterand the reported blame each other, making the investi-gation protracted and contentious until the allegation issustained or not.

The good news is that you can protect yourselfagainst the misconduct of others by prevention tech-niques that are consistent with good supervision.

Exactly what are you trying to prevent? Federal reg-ulations define scientific misconduct as fabrication, fal-sification, plagiarism, or other practices that seriouslydeviate from those that are commonly accepted withinthe scientific community for proposing, conducting, orreporting research.1 It does not include honest error orhonest differences in interpretations or judgments ofdata. Other types of misconduct can occur in the

Few people can distinguish between thesmell of day-old fish and the paper inwhich it was wrapped.

The good news is that you can protectyourself against the misconduct of others.

research setting, but these are addressedthrough other laws and regulations and arenot considered scientific misconduct (e.g.,theft, harassment, and discrimination).

Prevention StrategiesSome believe that if staff or colleagues wantto dupe you, they will. This is not necessari-ly true; prevention can work. Simply letyour staff and partners know that you per-sonally verify data and any corrections.Then do it, and let them see you doing it.

Ask questions about stray marks or era-sures. If electronic data are written over orcorrected, find out why. The expectation ofmonitoring lets potential fabricators knowthat they are likely to be caught withouteven mentioning misconduct.

Encourage the immediate entry of allinformation into notebooks, and doublecheck data entered after a significant delay.Discuss tardy write-ups with the team anddetermine if the study should be repeated tominimize selective recall or reporting of pro-cedures or results.

Arrange a consultation with your institu-tion’s computer expert to learn about datasecurity options for your lab. Explore mark-ing electronic lab notebook entries with date,time, and user identification. Regularly back-up these and other electronic files, then dateand save the historic versions in a separatesecure area. These procedures protect youagainst computer crashes and natural disas-ters, as well as simultaneously providing a

data trail to discourage or document inappro-priate changes. Consider limiting access tocertain electronic files so they may be readand used, but not copied or altered. Theseprotections could avoid unauthorizedchanges and distribution. Similarly, don’t letstaff members install idiosyncratic or undoc-umented security options that could jeopard-ize your appropriate access. If that teammember became incapacitated through ill-ness or accident, you could be locked out ofyour own files.

Not all labs are ready for electronic note-books, so the old standby of using notebookswith bound spines or binders with distinctivepaper can make the substitution of pages onthe sly very onerous. Careful individuals alsokeep dated copies of these notebooks in a sec-ond secure location.

Set a tone of respect for the research proto-col. Avoid hyperbole and jokes about gettingthe results no matter what. Someone couldconfuse your humor with pressure to gener-ate findings through falsification, skimpingon animal or biohazard protections, improp-er analyses, or misleading interpretations ofresults.

Inoculate staff against the temptation tofind a “better” way to run the study mid-stream. Let them know you want to hear theirideas for the next study, but that fidelity tothe current design is essential. Remind themthat the current design is the only oneapproved by the institution’s animal care anduse committee. Explain what an unrecog-nized or unreported shift in procedures doesto the study’s analysis and interpretation.

Someone could confuse yourhumor with pressure to generatefindings.


CHAPTER 3 • SCIENTIFIC CITIZENSHIP 141

Let your staff and partners knowthat you personally verify dataand any corrections. Then do it,and let them see you doing it.

Watch for individuals who are working tooquickly or too well. Most protocols have anaverage run time—is anyone collecting dataat a suspiciously fast rate? If so, find out why.Some people just have the knack, but youmay want confirmation.

Learn about Research IntegrityThe Office of Research Integrity2 provideseasy-to-use guidance. On its website, you willfind published reports of completed investi-gations. In reviewing these cases, notice that

fabricators exist at all levels of science—datacollectors, graduate students, colleagues, andsupervisors. There is also a wide range ofsophistication in carrying out the fabrication.Each case report is a free lesson for you, whichcame at great personal and professionalexpense to the named individuals.

ORI staff use the website to explain inves-tigational techniques, some of which mayprovide early detection of problems in yourlab. For instance, there is a demonstration of statistical forensics using human biases in generating numbers as a telltale sign of

fabrication. It turns out it isn’t so easy tomake up convincing data. Also posted isguidance on making an allegation and onprotecting yourself against an allegation.

Read these suggestions now so you canensure that your first reaction to an allega-tion is the best one.

The website also links you to the emergingfield of research on understanding scientificmisconduct. There are reports on the percep-tions of exonerated individuals regardinghow they were treated during and after aninvestigation. You also can find applicationguidelines for grants in this area.

Another way to learn about misconduct at arm’s distance is to say “yes” when askedto consult on an investigation. Whether conducted by your institution or another orby the ORI, you will see what is consideredsuspicious and how suspicions are handled.You will help decide what is fair to the personunder suspicion, the individual making theallegation, and to science.

Promote Research IntegrityFinally, and most positively, promoteresearch integrity. Do so by teaching it inyour classes, through your mentoring, and inthe lab. Explicitly teach the standards of con-duct in research. Review cases of scientificfraud and the ramifications for theresearchers, the field, and the public trust. Besure that you explain what to do if miscon-duct is suspected at your institution.

Hold lab meetings to explain that somerules are not identical across labs or disci-plines (e.g., authorship, ownership of data,and conflicts of interest) and present the rulesthat your lab follows. These shifting areas allrequire discussion at the beginning of a col-laboration so new staff members know whatto expect for their degree of contribution.Some entering graduate students may neverhave had such a discussion, resulting inunwarranted expectations about authorshipor unlimited use of a data set. By making themeeting a discussion rather than a lectureabout your lab’s standards, you can learn


Fabricators exist at all levels ofscience—data collectors,graduate students, colleagues,and supervisors.

It turns out it isn’t so easy tomake up convincing data.

about conventions from other labs and canincorporate desirable changes immediately.Such shared expectations avoid mispercep-tions over breaches in authorship and data

access, which, although less serious than alle-gations of falsification, are much more preva-lent and generate plenty of hard feelings.

Documented scientific misconduct is rare,but a little goes a long way. With each findingof misconduct, researchers across science askif it could happen in their lab. They look foreasy tip-offs to wrongdoing, but by the timethere is reason to be suspicious, the damagemay be done. By the time someone has madean unauthorized copy of your data set, youare in the thick of it. The smart move is to incorporate preventive strategies into your everyday business practices so staff andcolleagues know what is expected of themand of you. ■


Shared expectations avoidmisperceptions over breaches inauthorship and data access,which although less serious thanallegations of falsification, aremuch more prevalent andgenerate plenty of hard feelings.



Making a Difference: The Three R’s of Public Science Policy

Lawrence S.B. GoldsteinUniversity of California,

San Diego

B iomedical research and its applications are hav-ing an unprecedented impact on our world andsociety. The issues raised are thought-provoking

and controversial, not only among scientists, but evenmore so to the public who greet each new break-through with equal parts wonder, fear, hope, and mis-

understanding. How can our nonscientist friends andlawmakers sort through the scientific debates, informa-tion, and ideas without specialized training? Moreimportant, how can we help them to make wise andinformed decisions about how to proceed and where toinvest valuable resources?

A big part of the answer is us. As professional scien-tists, we have a special role to play in educating thepublic about what we and our colleagues do and itspotential impact and value. While many bemoan thestate of scientific understanding at large, we must hold

The issues raised are thought-provoking and controversial, not onlyamong scientists, but even more so tothe public who greet each newbreakthrough with equal parts wonder,fear, hope, and misunderstanding.

A big part of the answer is us. Asprofessional scientists, we have a specialrole to play in educating the publicabout what we and our colleagues do,and its potential impact and value.

ourselves partially responsible. Who else can,or will, explain what we do, why it has value,and what its possible uses and implicationsmay be?

There are three principles that define whyit makes sense for all practicing scientists todevote some personal effort to educating thepublic and our lawmakers about the sciencethat they conduct. These are the three R’s:Responsibility, Reputation, and Reward.

ResponsibilityWe each have a responsibility to the scientificcommunity to help the public understandwhat we do, and to help build and maintainsupport for scientific research and education.In addition, we have a responsibility to thenonscientific public to explain why what wedo has value if we expect them to pay for iteither with tax dollars or charitable dona-tions. Finally, we have a responsibility toexplain how the results of our research mightbe used, particularly when controversial dis-coveries are unleashed on a sometimesunsuspecting public.

ReputationEach of us, regardless of level of seniority, hasa special reputation as an active scientistbased on our experience and education.Thus, we all carry an earned respect and the

benefit of the doubt on many science issues.For example, many congressional officeshave never talked to a scientist and manystaffers and Members of Congress have nevermet one. I continue, however, to be surprised

and gratified by the welcome and respect wereceive when we meet with these nonscien-tists. In addition, each of us helps demon-strate that we are not mad scientists or Dr.Frankensteins, that we have children andfamilies, lives and pursuits not so dissimilarfrom our neighbors, and that we approachscience with restraint and ethical understand-ing. Finally, all of us have special expertise,not only about our precise focus area, but alsoabout much of biology in general, which wecan use to inform and educate.

RewardThere are many individual rewards toinvolvement in science policy and publiceducation. First, there is the satisfaction ofhaving a personal impact on our lawmakers’opinions and votes. Second, there is the real-ization that our special knowledge and view-point can make a difference in society. Forexample, if you write an op-ed, you will besurprised at your neighbors’ responses. Theywill appreciate it, you, and your profession.



Each of us, regardless of level ofseniority, has a special reputationas an active scientist based onour experience and education.

Each of us helps demonstratethat we are not mad scientistsor Dr. Frankensteins, that wehave children and families, livesand pursuits not so dissimilarfrom our neighbors, and that weapproach science with restraintand ethical understanding.

If you write an op-ed, you willbe surprised at your neighbors’responses.

Finally, there is the impact on our own sci-ence. Preparing oneself to discuss issues thatare current (e.g., genetically modified organ-isms and stem cells) can have a positiveimpact on one’s own research and teaching.It helps us to stay current with related areas,to think about concerns of the public at large,and to think more broadly about how ourbasic research can be used to help under-stand human disease. Such meetings withnonexperts also sharpen teaching and speak-ing skills as one learns how to translate spe-cialized knowledge into generally accessibleconcepts.

There are also some persistent myths aboutadvocacy for biomedical research and sciencepublic policy. For example, sometimes, whenscience advocacy comes up in conversationwith friends and colleagues, the concern isexpressed that advocating for science has anegative impact on other priorities for taxdollars such as education or the environment.But, it is a mistake to assume that it is alwaysa zero-sum game. Also, remember that youhave specialized knowledge of scientific pro-grams, but not necessarily about other socialprograms. These other programs have theirown expert advocates. Advocating for sci-ence is not advocating against other pro-grams and it is not taken that way. Our repre-sentatives are getting input from othersources, and it is their job to try to weigh therelative merits to society of each.

There is also the perception that scientificadvocacy must take a lot of time. But it neednot. One or two letters per year advocatingfor a particular position on funding or policy,the periodic thank you letter for supportingsound science policy, or a yearly congression-al visit, especially in one’s home district,doesn’t take that much time. In addition,when compared to how much time it takes towrite a grant, doesn’t it make sense to spenda little bit of time helping to make sure thatfunds continue to be available? Finally, thereare 435 congressional districts and 100 sena-tors; each of us has one congressperson andtwo senators whom we can inform andengage as constituents. Thus, if we each do a little, our impact can be broad-based and extensive.

One also hears concerns on the order of:“I’m not senior (or famous) enough,” or, “I’monly a junior faculty member/a postdoc/astudent.” But, we all vote, we all have theright of free speech, and congressionaloffices are always happy to hear from con-stituents with special knowledge or experi-

ence. A young graduate student generallyhas more scientific expertise than most con-gressional staffers or Members. It is quitevaluable if they talk about what they knowin a letter or congressional visit, why they areexcited about what they do, and why itmight be useful, even in the long-term. Asense of excitement about science can beinfectious—use it!


Preparing oneself to discussissues that are current (e.g.,genetically modified organismsand stem cells) can have apositive impact on one’s ownresearch and teaching.

Think of the congressperson as aPI, with a staff of eight to tenyoung, smart, well-educatedpeople comparable in age tograduate students and postdocs.

Most congressional offices are small, andthe staff have great influence. A comparisonto a typical medium-sized lab is not off themark. Think of the congressperson as a PI,with a staff of eight to ten young, smart, well-educated people comparable in age to gradu-ate students and postdocs. The congressper-son sets general policy and direction and vetsthe final language of bills and statements,but, the staff often write drafts, and haveinput into final language. When you write orappear, you are data! Your views, even iftransmitted first to staff, inform the generalpolicy that the office and Member will set. Inaddition, staff can be incredibly valuable, areeasy to establish a long-term relationshipwith, and are often friendly, bright, knowl-edgeable people trying to do a good job inwildly chaotic circumstances. Ten or twentyletters on one subject from informed con-stituents are noticed—particularly if they arethoughtful, brief, and to the point.

What if your congressperson is not on oneof the “right” committees such asAppropriations? That could be true today,but think long-term. Committee assignmentschange as Members retire or are defeated, orthe majority control of committees shifts. Myown congressman was not originally on theAppropriations subcommittee that handles

the NIH, but he is now, and several years ofeducation by me and my colleagues about thevalue of biomedical research has paid off. Hehas gone from thinking that the NIH couldpossibly be privatized to thinking that it is avaluable government agency.

Finally, people sometimes say, “My con-gressman is too liberal/too conservative/already supportive.” In fact, Congressionalservice is a daily process of weighing costsand benefits of different programs and proposed laws. Issues and votes on cloning,stem cells, genetically modified organisms,and funding happen every year, and the fiscal tradeoffs and issues are shifting as well. Reminding your elected representativesthat they have many constituents who careabout biomedical research and science isalways helpful.

How to get the biggest bang for your time?There are many simple and non time-con-suming things you can do: join theCongressional Liaison Committee,1 take per-sonal action by writing a letter, writing an op-ed, making a phone call, or paying a visitwhen in Washington or at home during a congressional recess. Don’t be afraid—the road out of the ivory tower is fascinatingand rewarding, and your efforts will help allof us. ■




Great Expectations orRealistic Expectations?


Biomedical Research

R esearch scientists must help our elected represen-tatives help them. They must share anecdotesabout how basic NIH-supported research on cul-

tured mammalian cells and on model organisms suchas yeasts and worms have led to major insights intohuman health. They must continue to advocate forFederal support for important biomedical researchsuch as on human embryonic stem (ES) cells that willlead to advances in human health and new treatmentsfor human disease.

What is more difficult to explain to elected represen-tatives—and to the public at large—is the slow yetdetermined process by which science advances, andthe multitude of steps that must intervene before a newdrug or a new therapy can be released to the public. Itis all too easy to suggest that practical applications willcome immediately and to underrepresent the underly-ing basic science required.

Few nonscientists realize the slow pace of basic sci-ence and many are understandably impatient to havepractical applications. When interested laypeoplehave a direct interest for themselves or for loved onesin a “breakthrough,” the belief that a cure is imminentcan be particularly intense. Sometimes this optimism

When laypeople have a direct interestfor themselves or for loved ones in a“breakthrough,” the belief that a cure isimminent can be particularly intense.Sometimes this optimism can beexploited for political reasons—remember Nixon’s “War on Cancer?”

can be exploited for political reasons—remember Nixon’s “War on Cancer?” Nocures for cancer emerged during the “war.”But much basic science was initiated thatultimately led to the development of newtypes of drugs for specific cancers that wehave seen in the past years.

For example, in trying to justify the enor-mous expense of the International SpaceStation, NASA claimed that by growing pro-tein crystals under microgravity conditions,the quality of the resultant X-ray structureswould be vastly improved. This, in turn,would greatly enhance the pace of drug dis-covery. But the scientific community recog-nized that, “No serious contributions toknowledge of protein structure or to drugdiscovery or design have yet been made inspace. Thus, there is no justification for aNASA protein crystallization program.”1

Enormous sums of money were wasted on an“applied” project that had no meaning.NASA could have used the money to supportland-based basic science in areas such asplant development and detection of gravityby animals. Gene modified plants could pro-vide for human needs during space explo-ration. An understanding of the cellular anddevelopmental biology of the vestibular sys-tem, and of how humans perceive gravity,

could help astronauts during long flights.Sadly, these basic studies were deferred inpreference to short-term “applications” thatnever materialized.

History may repeat itself. We are told that,while Federal support for basic research byNIH and NSF will be cut in real terms, theDepartments of Defense and HomelandSecurity are expecting increases in fundingfor “research.”2 Will development of high-tech devices for detection of chemical or bio-logical warfare agents really make us safer asa nation? Would much of the HomelandSecurity research budget be better spent onbasic research on the cellular immunology ofhost-pathogen interactions and on identify-ing new targets for antibiotics that could leadto totally new forms of therapies?

Sadly, it is not only government bureau-crats who are to blame for promoting unrea-sonable expectations. Scientists and clini-cians (not to mention venture capitalists)share much of the responsibility for the pre-mature rush to clinical trials of gene thera-pies without understanding the underlyingbasic science. Retroviruses have long beenknown to integrate more-or-less randomly inthe cell’s DNA; powerful LTR enhancersoften activate transcription of nearby genes.As a supposed therapy for Severe CombinedImmune Deficiency (SCID), hematopoieticstem and progenitor cells were infected witha retroviral vector encoding the missing pro-tein. Was it really a surprise that two of thefirst patients developed a leukemia due to



Enormous sums of money werewasted on an “applied” projectthat had no meaning. NASAcould have used the money tosupport land-based basic sciencein areas such as plantdevelopment and detection ofgravity by animals.

Will development of high-techdevices for detection of chemicalor biological warfare agentsreally make us safer as a nation?

insertion—in a single cell—of the retrovirusnear a particular oncogene? Perhaps more tothe point, despite over a decade of hypeabout the potential for gene therapy for treat-ment of literally dozens of infectious andother diseases, not one has yet entered themarketplace.

This brings us to human embryonic stemcells. Indeed they have the potential to gen-erate any human cell type or tissue, andundoubtedly they will be the foundation ofnew effective treatment for a host of plagues,including diabetes, blood cell disorders andneurodegenerative diseases. But we mustkeep clear in our own mind—and make thepoint when we discuss this in public—thatthere are immense gaps in cell and develop-mental biology that need to be filled beforethese cells can be converted into therapies.Human ES cells are thought to be polypotentin large measure because they can form mul-tiple types of differentiated cells in culture orin a mouse transplant. But coaxing ES cells todifferentiate into a specific type of cells, andassuring that these cells are “normal,” areformidable tasks. Some progress has beenmade—particular combinations of growthfactors and surfaces can induce mouse EScell lines to become functional motor neu-rons. Ectopic expression of a certain tran-scription factor in mouse ES cells will induceformation of hematopoietic stem cells thatcan repopulate the blood system of an irradi-ated mouse.

ES cells can also generate cells that secreteinsulin, but coaxing them to make normalamounts of insulin and to secrete insulin nor-mally in response to changes in glucose levelshas yet to be achieved. Is the problem theabsence of the correct extracellular matrix pro-tein or hormone signal or appropriate cell-cellcontact? What is known of these multiple fac-tors in normal development of pancreatic islets?

The scientific community is largely opti-mistic that we indeed will be conducting tri-als of human ES-derived islet cells for dia-betes and hematopoietic stem cells for sever-al cancers in the foreseeable future. As withmany advances in human therapies, the keydiscoveries likely will come from areas of bio-logical research that at present seem unrelat-ed. Scientists have a responsibility to let thepublic know what a long-term propositionthis is; this can be delicate, especially whendealing with individuals and families whoare desperate and hopeful. ■


We also have a responsibility to let the public know what along-term proposition this is.This can be delicate, especiallywhen dealing with individualsand families who are desperateand hopeful.

4. WRITING AND PUBLISHINGMe Write Pretty One Day: How to Write a Good Scientific Paper

How to Read and Respond to a Journal Rejection Letter

The Role of an Editor: A Delicate Balancing Act

What Happened to My Figures?!


Me Write Pretty One Day:How to Write a GoodScientific Paper

William A. WellsRockefeller University Press

The scientific literature is exploding in quantityeven as it stands still in literary quality. Followingare a few small steps that the individual can take

to make his or her writing clear, straightforward, anddigestible.

So….What Was Your Point?The first step with any manuscript is to define yourbottom line. Be realistic about how much the averagereader will take away from an article. Nonexperts willretain at most a single message. Make sure you haveone, then repeat it over and over again—at the end ofthe Abstract, in the Introduction, in the Results, and inthe Discussion. In contrast, everything but this singlesentence belongs in one section (Introduction, Results, orDiscussion) only.

To uncover your bottom line, ask some questions:What was the mystery that you wanted to answer atthe start? Have you answered it? What first got youexcited about this area of research? With any luck, itwas more than the idea that proteins X and Y mightbind to each other—there was probably a bigger ideathat motivated and intrigued you. Make sure you con-vey that reason and that excitement.

What is new? Break up the story into “It was previ-ously shown that…” and “Now it is shown that….”

Nonexperts will retain at most asingle message. Make sure you haveone, and then repeat it over and overagain—at the end of the Abstract, inthe Introduction, in the Results, and in the Discussion.

Is there a significant difference between thetwo statements? Justify the interest of yourwork verbally to someone outside of yourfield. Your explanation should be compellingon a general, conceptual level, not groundedin minutiae with which your volunteer hasno familiarity or interest.

Does the reader need help understandingthe significance? If you think your discoverymight (in the future) prove to be the explana-tion for mystery X, don’t make the reader fig-ure out the identity of mystery X. State itexplicitly, make clear that the link is onlyspeculation, and explain any basis for mak-ing the speculation. Remember that yourreaders are busy in their own fields, and willnot necessarily make the jumps in logic thatare glaringly obvious to you. Make the jumpsfor them.

Show; don’t tell. Not “Our results are excit-ing…” but “Our results double the number ofknown penguin species….” If your readers

don’t think that is exciting, they won’t beconvinced by you stating that it is.

Finally, include different levels at whichyour results are significant (e.g., [a] we havefound a stem cell repressor, and [b] this maybe one of many repressors for maintaining agenerally dormant state in stem cells). This isparticularly important for papers that you aretrying to get into top-tier journals.

The Anatomy of a PaperNow that you have your bottom line, youneed a roadmap for writing the paper.Remember throughout that everyone, even ascientist, thinks in narrative. Science is astory. Tell it.

To draft a paper, simply work out what thefigures and tables would look like. Give eachfigure a simple, declarative title in the form ofa sentence. Most of the content of the papershould be evident from reading these fewsentences alone. When the sentences look asif they both tell a story and have a bottomline, it’s time to start writing.

A good paper is not a random accumula-tion of facts. Give your paper a narrativestructure that links from one finding toanother. This can be the logical order of whyone experiment was done in response to another, or you can describe from the

Show; don’t tell. Not “Ourresults are exciting…” but “Our results double the numberof known penguin species….” If your readers don’t think that isexciting, they won’t be convincedby you stating that it is.


CHAPTER 4 • WRITING AND PUBLISHING 153

If you think your discoverymight (in the future) prove to bethe explanation for mystery X,don’t make the reader figure outthe identity of mystery X.

To draft a paper, simply workout what the figures and tableswould look like.

Everyone, even a scientist,thinks in narrative. Science is a story. Tell it.

beginning to the end of a pathway. Build up this structure by writing notes, in anyorder, then rearranging them so that thereare logical links.

Start by drafting a title that is strong, direct,and as big-picture as the data can justify. Butdon’t claim more than you have shown.

An abstract can and must pack in manyelements: background, a question, what wasdone, what was found, the conclusion/answer, and implications. Make it clearwhere the background ends and the newwork begins.

Arrange Results either chronologically (asthey unfolded in the lab) or put the mostimportant result first and secondary resultslater. The latter organization works bestwhen organizing each paragraph.

Describe the data with only enough inter-pretation so that the reader can see what log-ical path the writer is taking—how oneexperiment prompts the next—and under-stand what spin the writer is trying to put onthe data so that the reader can agree or dis-agree with this spin.

Start the Discussion with a brief one-para-graph summary of the main results: first statethe answer to the question, then conciselyadd a broad-brush version of the supportingevidence. Organize subsequent topics frommost to least important (i.e., start with topicsmost closely related to the answer). The firstsentence of each paragraph should indicatethe structure of the discussion.

Do NOT just repeat the Results (orIntroduction) section, but discuss how theresults affect the field. Reveal any large areasthat remain a complete mystery.

The Introduction sets up the backgroundfor what we are about to learn (the bottomline) and why it matters. Funnel from known(the big picture significance of the field) tounknown (the specific gaps in knowledge) tothe specific question being asked by you. The

introduction is not a literature review but ameans to set up the question.

How to Write ClearlyNow that the text is down in rough form,tackle style issues. Think about each elementused to construct the paper. Sentences shouldhave an active construction, address onethought at a time, and generally be kept shortand to the point. Treat each paragraph as athought, with a single, clear message.

More general style issues include signposts,flow, editing, and specificity. Signposts tell thereader where you’re going with the argumentthat follows. Many authors mistakenly feel thatthey have to build the entire case before tellingus the conclusion. They list all their evidencebefore stating: “Thus, X = Y.” But this leavesreaders scratching their heads for sentenceupon sentence. Put a preview first.

Flow comes about when the writer makesconnections between the end of each sen-tence, paragraph or section and the next.Make all transitions so there are no gaps inlogic. Don’t presume that the reader will doany work. Do the work for them.

The main route to clarity is to cut, cut, cut.Chop out everything from single words to


Don’t presume that the readerwill do any work. Do the workfor them.

Many authors mistakenly feelthat they have to build theentire case before telling us the conclusion.

entire thoughts. “In spite of the fact that…”becomes “Although….” Only after choppingout text will the average reader make itthrough your words without drowning.

Specificity means using only words with pre-cise meanings. Replace lazy phrases such as

“gives important insight into…” with words thatactually mean something. Use the specific (dognot animal) but simple (girl not female child;used not utilized) and necessary (“X was exam-ined and found to vary” becomes “X varied”).

Stuffy writing is frequently used to dis-guise intellectual fuzziness. Think aboutwhat you really want to say. Be exact.

There is one Golden Rule when dealingwith journals: be polite to editors, no matterhow you are provoked. Editors are trying todo a good job, and screaming at them will notadvance your cause, and could well damageit. Be forceful, but civil. And good luck! ■



The main route to clarity is to cut, cut, cut. Chop outeverything from single words to entire thoughts.


How to Read and Respondto a Journal Rejection Letter

Vivian SiegelPublic Library of Science

Zena WerbUniversity of California,

San Francisco

A fter putting your best work and thoughts andefforts into a manuscript and sending it off forpublication, the day of decision arrives. As you

open the letter a wave of anger sweeps through yourbody. Your paper has been rejected! Or has it?

WAIT 24 HOURS. It is almost impossible to read arejection letter or critical reviews objectively while stillsmarting from the rejection. It is important to be (rela-tively) calm when trying to understand the nature ofthe rejection.

The DecisionFirst read the letter carefully. Was the rejection editorial(without review) or was your manuscript rejected afterreview by several experts? Here are some translations:

The paper is not acceptable in its present form: Thisessentially means that the manuscript is likely to beaccepted, subject to satisfactory revisions. Most jour-nals have the pro forma policy to reject manuscripts thatrequire more than cosmetic corrections or shortening.The journal may be interested in your study, but willnot commit itself until the editors and reviewers see theadded data or corrections. This type of rejection letterwill usually say that should you choose to resubmit,the manuscript would need to be received within a rea-sonable period of time (usually 2–3 months) to be con-sidered as a revision.

The paper did not get a high enough priority: Only afew journals have the policy of publishing all manu-scripts that are scientifically sound. Most scientific

Only a few journals have the policy ofpublishing all manuscripts that arescientifically sound.

journals publish a predetermined and limitednumber of pages annually. As a result, theyset priorities, based on the perceived interestsof their readership. If the rejection was edito-rial, then the manuscript was viewed as notbeing a likely candidate for acceptance evenif reviewed favorably. With electronic sub-mission, the editorial rejection can occurwithin a few hours, and thus allows you toturn it around quickly for another journal.

The study is interesting but too prelimi-

nary: Here the editor indicates that the man-uscript is interesting, but is not a completestory. This is an opening for a revised manu-script. The main question is whether youactually have the data. Were you saving thedata for another manuscript, perhaps withother authors, or is this the first step in a longseries of studies? Will the complete story takefive more years of work?

The study is interesting but is technically

flawed: Here the editor indicates that thereviewers have serious reservations aboutsome of the data. What is perceived as a seri-ous problem may require showing data thatyou omitted or a simple experiment. If youcan address these issues, the paper may bereconsidered.

The work is more appropriate for a spe-

cialized journal: This statement says that themanuscript seems specialized for the journalin question. This also means that a revision isunlikely to be considered.

The reviewers’ comments will help you

prepare the manuscript for another journal:

This statement implicitly indicates that the journal will not consider a revised manuscript.

The CritiqueThe reason for writing papers is to communi-cate your science. The most important thingto communicate is the excitement and the sig-nificance of the work in a broad context.Next, the question being addressed must beconsidered to be interesting and matched tothe journal. The reviewers’ comments indi-cate whether they were able to understandthe logic and believe the conclusions of thestudy and whether they find those conclu-sions interesting and significant. Most studieshave some imperfections. The question is thenature and severity of those flaws.

The study is descriptive: This is the deathknell of reviews. All research by its naturedescribes observations. When this is used ascriticism, the reviewers are indicating that thestudy reads as a collection of data that do notcome together into a clear, hypothesis-drivenstudy.

The study is incremental: All sciencebuilds on the work of others. But how far doyou need to go to be publishable? If the studyrepeats experiments in a slightly different celltype with essentially the same outcome, itmay not be of great interest. Did you researchthe literature thoroughly to find out if yourstudy is an original contribution?



What is perceived as a seriousproblem may require showingdata that you omitted, or asimple experiment. If you canaddress these issues, the papermay be reconsidered.

Most studies have someimperfections. The question isthe nature and severity of thoseflaws.

The manuscript lacks important controls:

With limitations on manuscript length, con-trol experiments are often left out. If these arecritical they should have been part of themanuscript. If it is important to show thesecontrols, they may be supplied as supple-mental data for the reviewers and later pub-lished online.

The data are not convincing: You have not provided enough compelling data toconvince the reviewer of your conclusions.Did you use several ways to come to theconclusion? Did you do the experiment suf-ficient times to get statistical validity? Is thequality of the data (gels, photographs, andscatter in the data points) good enough to beconvincing?

Are the criticisms fair? Poor writing, poororganization of the manuscript, inadequateknowledge of the literature, poor quality orpoorly labeled figures and tables, repetition,spelling and grammar errors, inconclusiveresults, and lack of controls are also reasonsthat the reviewers may not find your study

compelling. If the reviewers misread yourmanuscript or missed a point, chances arethat your writing style confused them. Ifyour conclusions go against conventional

wisdom, then you need to explain and convince the reviewers why your view is thevalid one.

The ResponseNow consider whether to fight the rejection orto move on. Do the Title, Abstract, andIntroduction communicate the points that you

think are the most significant about yourwork? Can you respond to all the reasonablecriticisms? Some of the responses will result inadditions, deletions, or changes in the manu-script. Other responses are only directed to theeditor or reviewers. Merely arguing about thecriticisms does little good. If you disagree withthe reviewer, the burden is on you to convincethe reviewer, not to dismiss him or her. If thereviewer misinterpreted your study, the wayyou wrote about it is the likely culprit.

Contacting the editor. Journals will recon-sider rejected manuscripts if you can makecompelling arguments. If, after reading the let-ter and evaluating the reviews, you feel thatyou can respond in a way that may make themanuscript acceptable, it is a good idea to con-tact the editor in writing, asking if the journalwill reconsider the paper on the grounds thatyou can respond to the critique, and send withit your rewritten Abstract and a brief list of thechanges that you intend to make.

The Next TimeDid You Target the Right Journal for

the Study? Often authors choose journalsbased on their citation index rather than amore rational analysis of suitability. Whereare comparable studies in your field pub-


If the reviewers misread yourmanuscript or missed a point,chances are that your writingstyle confused them.

If your conclusions go againstconventional wisdom, then youneed to explain and convincewhy your view is the valid one.

If you disagree with the reviewer,the burden is on you to convincethem, not to dismiss them.

lished? Is the study of broad interest ormore specialized? Be realistic in targetingspecific journals.

Did the Manuscript Conform to the Style

of the Journal to which it Had Been

Submitted? Nothing annoys reviewers morethan a sloppy manuscript. If you cannot bebothered to make sure you write the manu-script according to the journal style guide, or

if you are submitting a manuscript previous-ly rejected by another journal and did notmake the effort to change the style to that ofthe current journal, you are sending a nega-tive message to the reviewers.

Did the Title and Abstract Communicate

the Major Findings Accurately? Once apaper has been rejected, it is time to critical-ly evaluate whether you really communicat-ed your enthusiasm for your own study.Your letter of response will often outline themajor points of your study better than youroriginal summary. Rewrite the Abstract withthis in mind.

Did You Accurately Point Out What Was

Novel in Your Study that Makes it a

Significant Advance over Previous Work?

Often in their desire to be comprehensive,authors make it sound as if previous studieshave already shown what their study nowshows. It takes care in writing to make clearwhat is new about your study.

Did You Accurately Point Out Controls

and Shortcomings of the Observations? Justas you do not want to understate your study,you do not want to hype it either, especiallyat the cost of ignoring controls and alterna-tive explanations for the data. The datashould never lie. Interpretations may change.

Did You Submit the Work Prematurely?

Rushing into publication means that thestudy may not be complete or the manuscriptmay not have had the time to pass the “shelftest.” If you can let the manuscript sit for aweek or so, a fresh view may reveal flawsthat should be changed.

Did You Submit a “Least Publishable

Unit?” The pressure for productivity (for grant renewal, promotions, etc.) meansthat you need to publish with reasonablefrequency. Cutting studies into multiplemanuscripts can be risky. Reviewers stillexpect each manuscript to be a completestudy. Short papers are not necessarily minimal studies.

Did You Accurately Cite Previous

Literature? Those who do not know the pastare doomed to repeat it. You need to cite liter-ature fairly. Exclusive self-citation carrieswith it the danger that uncited competitorsmay review your manuscript.

Did You Have Colleagues or a Scientific

Editor Read and Critique the Manuscript?

You should send your best effort to journals.The review process should not be an alterna-tive to careful writing and editing of yourmanuscript.

Exclusive self-citation carrieswith it the danger that uncitedcompetitors may review yourmanuscript.


Nothing annoys reviewers morethan a sloppy manuscript.

The data should never lie.Interpretations may change.


Did You Get a Presubmission Decision?

Journals that can publish only some of thescientifically valid manuscripts that theyreceive will usually give you an indication ifa manuscript is of interest if you send a letteroutlining the point of your study and theabstract. Since you can do this while yourpaper is still in preparation, you can find outif the paper is likely to be viewed as low pri-ority without losing time.

Did You Suggest Appropriate Reviewers?

A recurring complaint of the review processis that the reviewers do not have the expert-

ise to judge the work. One way to help over-come this problem is to suggest two to fivescientists who would be appropriate review-ers. Chances are that the editors will use atleast one of your suggestions.

Did You Assess the Value and Impact of

Your Research Correctly? Did you target thepaper to the correct level of journal in yourfield? If you overvalue your work, it willalways be rejected. If you undervalue yourwork, you may be publishing in less visiblejournals than you deserve. In between, some-times you will prevail, but not always. ■


Randy SchekmanUniversity of California,

Berkeley

The Role of an Editor: A Delicate Balancing Act

A cademic and professional journal editors arehonest and hard-working people who havebusy days and much more important things to

do than to hatch plots to suppress the careers of eager,young authors. Why is it, then, that a colleague who onthe one hand is a collaborator or friend becomes an

opponent to be vanquished when he/she conveys badtidings of critical referee reports on a manuscript forpublication? In fact, in spite of near universal grouchi-ness, particularly about the most selective journals, thesystem works quite well to promote the publication ofthe fruits of our labor.

Perhaps a few words of advice to budding authors,referees, and editorial board members will help smoothsome of the wrinkles that add unnecessarily to the bur-den of publication.

Editorial Advice to the AuthorEven a perfect article, one that reports an originalobservation clearly and concisely, suffers if an editor isunable to understand the significance of the work. Aneditor will almost always rely on the title and abstractof a manuscript to make a preliminary decision aboutthe appropriateness of the work for the journal in ques-tion and to choose referees. The title and abstract mustconvey the experimental approach, key results, andnovel conclusions of the work. Excessively long and


Journal editors are honest and hard-working people who have busy daysand much more important things to dothan to hatch plots to suppress thecareers of eager, young authors.

comprehensive titles and abstracts make theeditor’s job more difficult.

Help guide the editor to the most appro-priate members of the editorial board and ref-erees. Do not assume that an editor is famil-iar with all research areas covered in his/herjournal. A short list of expert board membersand referees is an essential part of a good

introductory letter. Potential conflicts ofinterest should be mentioned, but a long listof referees to be excluded (or even all expertsfrom a particular country!) alerts the editor topotential problems with a submission.

Advice to a Monitoring EditorNot-for-profit journals usually employ busyacademics to serve as monitoring editorswhose charge is to establish whether a manu-script is appropriate for the journal, to selectexpert referees, and to render a final editorialdecision on the fate of the work. Some papersare rejected without review when the moni-toring editor decides that the work is not

within the scope of a journal or if it seemsunlikely that a manuscript will pass musterwith critical referees. Many journals, includ-ing Molecular Biology of the Cell, have the pol-icy of not publishing work that describes agene or protein in no greater depth than pre-viously published work on an ortholog fromanother organism. Similarly, many journalswill not publish the modification of an exist-ing technique if the application does notreach a novel conclusion. Obviously, for themost competitive journals, the criteriabecome quite subjective. Prospective authorsshould consult an editor in advance of sub-mitting a manuscript to such a journal toestablish if the work has a chance of success.It is the monitoring editor’s responsibility tospare the author and potential reviewerswasted time and effort in considering a man-uscript that is inappropriate for the journal.

Referees also have day jobs, and it is themonitoring editor’s role to identify appropri-ate and responsible reviewers. Most col-leagues are honest and fair and can be count-ed on for a timely return of a constructive cri-tique. Editors will often cultivate groups ofsuch cooperative reviewers who are appropri-ate for the areas for which the editor is respon-sible. Unfortunately, some colleagues cannotbe counted on for fair and impartial judg-ments. Typical antisocial behaviors include

excessive delays in returning critiques, vagueand judgmental decisions, impossible andexcessively detailed demands, and even theoccasional breach of confidentiality where the


A short list of expert boardmembers and referees is anessential part of a goodintroductory letter.

An editor will almost alwaysrely on the title and abstract of a manuscript to make apreliminary decision about theappropriateness of the work forthe journal in question and tochoose referees.

Some of the most competitivejournals have the unfortunatehabit of consulting far too manyreferees.

referee transmits privileged information to acolleague or student. Referees who displaysuch behavior must be avoided.

Some of the most competitive journalshave the unfortunate habit of consulting toomany referees. Whereas two opinions shouldsuffice, three or more are sought by editorswho seem unwilling to exercise independentjudgment in weighing the merits of twodivergent opinions. This has the effect of increasing the burden on responsiblereviewers who are deluged with requests,and it increases the prospect that an antisocialreferee will be consulted.

When the critiques are in, the monitoringeditor must weigh the opinions and make adetermination of the prospects for publishingan amended version of the work. Some deci-sions are clearly positive or negative, butmost rely on the editor’s judgment. Manyreviewers prioritize their criticisms. The edi-tor must determine if the most serious flawsin a manuscript can be rectified by experi-ments that are well within the scope of theauthor’s laboratory. Although some decisionsrest on one or more flaws identified by bothreviewers, usually this is not the case, andone reviewer may identify a serious issue notconsidered by the other. For this reason, aconscientious editor will read and weigh themerits of each opinion, and then decidewhich will form the basis of a final decision.Some difficult decisions are best left to theday after the critiques are first considered. Agood rule of thumb is that both refereesshould be consulted when the revisions takemore than three months to complete.

The decision letter is an opportunity forthe monitoring editor to place reviewers’criticisms in the context of a field or thescope of the journal. Conscientious editorswill interpret and not merely repeat the bottom line of a referee. Key criticismsshould be highlighted and an honestappraisal of the prospects for favorable con-sideration of an amended manuscript shouldbe spelled out. Authors are not well servedby false encouragement. If a manuscript is inprinciple publishable, but not in the journalunder consideration, the editor should sug-gest an alternative venue.

In a minority of cases, the author choosesto contest the decision of a monitoring editor.These cases can usually be handled by apolite response from the monitoring editoror, in the event of an irreconcilable difference,through the intervention of a senior editor.Experienced authors avoid invective in pos-ing questions to the editor. In some cases theeditor may choose to forward commentsdirectly to the reviewer; thus, it is wise toavoid questioning the integrity or intelli-

gence of someone whose judgment you wishto challenge. Some authors’ first reaction is tophone the editor to secure some promise ofcompromise. However, a written record ofcommunications between an author and aneditor is an essential element of any success-ful negotiation.

Authors and editors are often friends andcolleagues. A healthy relationship ensures thevigor of our peer review system. ■

It is wise to avoid questioningthe integrity or intelligence ofsomeone whose judgment youwish to challenge.


Conscientious editors willinterpret and not merely repeatthe bottom line of a referee.



What Happened to My Figures?!

Liana HolmbergPublic Library of Science

After all the work you put into your research andgetting your article published, it’s a shock tocrack open that journal and find the printed fig-

ures bear little resemblance to the images you thoughtyou submitted. Here are some suggestions to help min-imize such unpleasant surprises.

A Few Tips to Take the Headache Out of Graphics PrepDo Your Homework. Before you start preparing yourfigures, read the graphics specifications published by thejournals you’re most likely to submit to. Specs vary fromjournal to journal, and they are often available onlineand can be quite instructive. Some important things tolook for are resolution requirements for each type ofgraphic, preferred file formats, and page dimensions.

Learn to Use Your Software. Even if it means readingthe dreaded manual. Whether it’s Illustrator, Corel-Draw, or something else, most of the best graphics pro-grams perform similar tasks at comparable quality: theimportant thing is to learn to use what you have well.Any program worth the price will have instructions forconverting your graphics to the file formats required bypublishers. Learning to use professional graphics-prepsoftware can be time consuming, but if you use anotherkind of program because you’re more familiar with it,you’ll be disappointed. Programs like Microsoft Wordautomatically downsample your images and embed

Most of the best graphics programsperform similar tasks at comparablequality: the important thing is to learnto use what you have well.

them in the document as screen-resolutiongraphics (usually 72 dots per inch [dpi]). Thatmeans the images are now at a resolution toolow for professional off-set printing. Manypeople run into similar trouble when theymake figures in PowerPoint. PowerPoint hasa “Compress Pictures” wizard that downsam-ples the embedded figures to a lower resolu-tion (96-200 dpi) in order to decrease the filesize. If you use this feature, make a low-rescopy for presentations and keep another ver-sion for publishing that has the figuresembedded at their highest resolution.

Keep Your Originals. Some file formats,like JPEGs, are “lossy,” which means thatevery time you re-save a JPEG, you lose reso-lution. Always keep an unadulterated, high

resolution original version of each element ofyour figures; when you want to manipulatethe image, make a copy first.

Size for Print. More than likely, your fig-ures will be reduced to fit the column width ofthe journal, so it’s a good idea to create figuresas near to that size as possible. Be sure yourfonts are neither too big nor too small and thevisual information is readable at that size—and don’t forget to embed the fonts. Also, con-sider how your figures will look as a group,and size the elements relative to one another.For example, make sure stains have the samedimensions from one figure to the next.

Plan Ahead. Be aware that convertinggraphics from one format to another cancause color changes, among other problems.It’s best to choose the correct software for thetype of image you want and create it in thatsoftware from the start.

Image TypesThe three most common image types arehalftones, line art, and combination figures.Each type is processed differently during print-ing and therefore has different specifications.

Halftones. The best example of a halftoneis a photograph, but halftones include anyimage that uses continuous shading or blend-ing of colors or grays, such as gels, stains,microarrays, brain scans, and molecularstructures. Most publishers require thathalftone images have a resolution of 300 dpi.Some software will measure ppi (pixels perinch) rather than dpi, but for all intents andpurposes ppi and dpi are interchangeable. Toprepare and manipulate halftone images, usePhotoshop or a comparable photo-editingprogram, and save the files in TIFF format.

Line Art. The distinguishing feature of lineart is that it has sharp, clean lines and geo-metrical shapes, usually against a white back-ground, such as tables, charts, graphs, andgene sequences. Line art can be color or black



Learning to use professionalgraphics-prep software can betime consuming, but if you useanother kind of program becauseyou’re more familiar with it,you’ll be disappointed.

Programs like Microsoft Wordautomatically downsample your images and embed them in the document as screen-resolution graphics (usually 72 dots per inch [dpi]). Thatmeans the images are now at a resolution too low forprofessional off-set printing.

and white; color fills are solid, without grada-tion or fades. To prepare and manipulate lineart graphics, use Illustrator or a comparablevector drawing program, and save the files inEPS format. Line art resolution should bevery high—around 1200 dpi—in order tomaintain the crisp edges of the lines andshapes. Note that text placed in an image isfor all practical purposes line art, whichbrings us to…

Combination Figures. These are the mostcommon type of scientific figure becausemost images combine halftones with text.While the former only needs to be at 300 dpiresolution, the latter needs 1200 dpi—other-wise text ends up looking soft, and lines canbe faint and/or pixilated. Most publisherssplit the difference and require a resolutionbetween 600 and 900 dpi. Depending on whattype of image dominates the figure, you’llwant to prepare it in the program that besthandles that type—Photoshop for halftones,Illustrator for line art—and save it in the cor-responding file format.

ColorThe two biggest problems encountered whenconverting graphics from one file format toanother are loss of resolution and changes incolor output. The first can be ameliorated byusing the steps described above; the seconddeserves further discussion. Color reproduc-

tion is a fuzzy science, and what you see inyour office is not necessarily what you get inprint, since colors vary widely from one mon-itor to the next, from one printer to another.One thing you can do to preserve the colorsof your original file is to put the imagethrough as few conversion steps as possible.Once again, that means planning ahead andknowing before you make the image whatkind of output you want in the end.

CMYK versus RGB. If the journal youintend to publish in is a print journal, thenchoose a CMYK color space for your graph-ics; if it’s an online journal, choose RGB; if it’sboth, find out from the journal which formatis preferred. Switching back and forthbetween CMYK and RGB will cause the col-ors to change, sometimes dramatically.Similarly, changing from one file format toanother can cause color changes. For exam-ple, opening an EPS of a microarray inPhotoshop can result in a loss of severaldegrees of green—and thus some of yourvisual data. You can reduce the risk of colorloss by sending high-quality images in a fileformat that is as close as possible to theirnative format, carefully reviewing yourproofs for accurate color, and saving youroriginal, unadulterated images in case youneed to remake the figure from scratch orsend the originals to the publisher for them toremake or use to match color.

Perhaps Most Important: Ask Questions.

Scientific publishing is a service industry, andonce your paper is accepted by a journal, theproduction staff should be available to helpyou with the technical details of preparingfigures that meet the journal’s specifications.You need to prepare the figures, but the pub-lisher has a responsibility to ensure theirprint quality, so don’t be shy about asking fortechnical assistance. ■


The two biggest problemsencountered when convertinggraphics from one file format to another are loss of resolutionand changes in color output.

5. POSTDOC ISSUESTo Eurodoc or Not Eurodoc

Making the Most of Your Postdoctoral Experience

Pursuing Science across the Pacific Ocean


To Eurodoc or Not Eurodoc?

Sigrid ReinschNational Aeronautics and

Space Administration

Why go abroad for training when there are so many opportunities here in theUnited States? Perhaps you would like to

finally capitalize on your wild success with high schoolFrench and can’t seem to nip the urge for wanderlust.Maybe you gravitate naturally to Europeans in a crowd.

Whatever the reasons, you can buck the trend of theEuropean “brain-drain.” European scientists are frus-trated by the tendency for European postdocs to headto the United States—often permanently. Europeangovernments and scientists believe this adverselyaffects the quality of European science. The European

Union has several organizations whose mission is toincrease pan-European mobility so that scientists willchoose other European countries for training alterna-tives rather than the United States. Does this brain-drain mean that European postdoc training is “worse”than in the United States? The Eurodocs I queriedbelieved their European training was as good as that oftheir U.S.-trained counterparts, and claimed innumer-able benefits from their overall experience.

Planning Your Eurodoc It’s relatively easy to plan a European postdoc. E-mailmakes communication with potential sponsors rapid

European labs are happy to host Americanpostdocs, especially those with a goodpedigree. Having a native English speakerin the lab can also boost the overallproductivity of the lab simply by having aready editor for manuscripts. Be preparedto serve as such.

and inexpensive, and the Internet facilitatesan in-depth investigation into the lab, theinstitute, the successes of former lab mem-bers, and the local amenities. European labsare happy to host American postdocs, espe-cially those with a good pedigree. Having anative English speaker in the lab can alsoboost the overall productivity of the lab sim-ply by having a ready editor for manuscripts.Be prepared to serve as such.

Choosing a SponsorThe same tactics apply when choosing a men-tor in Europe as when choosing one in theUnited States.1 Successful Eurodocs consis-tently indicate that they seek internationallyknown labs. They choose sponsors with ademonstrated ability to recruit and train for-eign postdocs. Consider how many foreignpostdocs are currently in the lab. Assess thepotential sponsor’s track record for helpingthem to become independent. Find out howthe lab is funded. Is there technical supportfor postdocs? How about teaching opportu-nities? Contact former postdocs for recom-mendations. If your ultimate goal is to headyour own lab, you will need to know howyour sponsor deals with postdocs when theyleave; is it easy to take reagents and projects?

If you are considering several potentialEuropean sponsors, you probably want moredirect exposure to facilitate your decision. AEuropean tour may be especially important ifyou are including a spouse and/or childrenin your adventure. This might seem prohibi-tively expensive, but outside funding is

sometimes available. One way to do this is toprepare a seminar that highlights your grad-uate work. Diplomatically inquire whetherthe institute would provide partial reim-bursement if you give a formal seminar dur-ing your visit to the institute. A sponsor mayconsider funding a part of the trip and pro-viding accommodations. You can fund theentire trip with several sponsors.

Not All Institutes Are Created EqualChoose an institute with a large internationalpresence. Some examples are the EuropeanMolecular Biology Labs (EMBL) inHeidelberg, universities like Cambridge orBasel, or national institutes (Pasteur, MaxPlanck) that regularly train foreign scientistsfrom Europe and other countries. Such insti-tutes may greatly ease and streamline helpwith immigration, visas, housing, bankingand language courses. Some operate withEnglish as the official scientific language: this is a must for those individuals that carryforeign language null alleles.

FundingIt is easy to find sponsors that have fundingfor a postdoc position, but it is always prefer-able to have your own funding in hand. If youare going to a top lab and have a decent proj-ect with the backing of your sponsor, yourchances of obtaining an internationally

If you are going to a top lab andhave a decent project with thebacking of your sponsor, yourchances of obtaining aninternationally portablefellowship are very good.


CHAPTER 5 • POSTDOC ISSUES 169

A European tour may beespecially important if you areincluding a spouse and childrenin your adventure.

portable fellowship are very good.2 In additionto fellowships, find out whether the institutionprovides additional funds for foreign nation-als. Such funding may include “topping-upfunds” so that all postdocs at the institute arefunded at the same level. Additional fundsmay also be available to help support spousesand/or children. Apply for as many fellow-ships as possible to increase your chances andoptions. Some provide much higher levels offunding or longer tenures than others.

Bringing Along the FamilyA European adventure can be enriched bybringing your family. Find contacts at your institute for questions on childcare,schools, work options for your spouse, andsupport. Make sure you understand localschool and daycare schedules and holidaytimes before you go, as these factors mayaffect your decision.

Children learn foreign languages andassimilate into foreign society quickly. Theycan open doors to social interactions withinyour host country. If they attend publicschools, this will force you to learn enough ofthe local language to help with homework,host birthday parties, attend parent/teacherconferences and doctor visits.

Protection of personal time pervades thesociety here: spending time with your kids and not at work is accepted, encour-aged, and made easy in many ways bothconcrete and intangible.3

Make Connections One of the greatest lifelong benefits of aEurodoc is international connections. Usethis experience to develop world contactsfor future jobs, sabbatical experiences andespecially for collaborations. You neverknow where you will end up, so it is veryuseful to make as many contacts as possible.You will establish many friendships as well.Your global understanding will ultimatelymake you a better mentor when you startyour own lab. Your international colleagueswill more readily recommend you as mentorto their own protégés that seek a UnitedStates position. Attend and present atEuropean meetings as often as possible.Investigate other European institutes andpresent your work. Be vocal and visiblewithin your own institute so that scientistsget to know you and your strengths. In theend you will find yourself more self-reliant,independent, and better connected withworld leaders than your North American-trained colleagues.

Keep the Home Embers Burning Just as important as developing internation-al connections is not to let your colleagues inthe United States forget you. Attend theASCB Annual Meeting. As you near the timeof your return, also go to smaller meetingsin the United States. Write regularly to yourNorth American scientific colleagues to keepthem abreast of your training successes orfor advice.


Protection of personal timepervades the society here: spendingtime with your kids and not atwork is accepted, encouraged, andmade easy in many ways bothconcrete and intangible.

Use this experience to developworld contacts for future jobs,sabbatical experiences andespecially for collaborations.

Enjoy the ViewTake some time to get involved in local activi-ties so that you can mingle with yourEuropean community. Most of all, enjoy yourEuropean life. Sports, dance, singing groups,and community or neighborhood events pro-vide easy access to your European hosts.While you might initially feel overwhelmedby differences in simple things like food choic-es or shop schedules, adaptation doesn’t takelong; you may ultimately celebrate the differ-ences and miss them dearly once you leave. Itcan be refreshing to see the value Europeansput on their free time and on nature. The atti-tude that you can only work effectively if youalso take time out for other activities seemsmuch more healthy than the U.S. attitude ofwork, work, work (regardless of how mind-less it becomes). Europeans also tend to gravi-tate toward nonsynthetic foods and some levelof self-propulsion (walking/biking) instead ofthe American penchants for fast food anddriving everywhere.4

The Transition HomeAn easy transition back to the United States isa second postdoc. This allows a less stressfulreturn to the United States and a moreleisurely search for an independent position.But if you are ready for independence and area competitive candidate with an impressiveCV and publications record, you will succeedin the U.S. job market. If not, then applying toendless ads in Science and Nature is definitely

not the route. Creating contacts is the mostimportant step either in small meetings or bygoing on your own “job tour.” Contact a fewof the world experts in your field, ask to visittheir labs and give a seminar, and mentionthat if there are positions available, youwould be interested in applying.5

Or Settling in Europe?The European experience can be especiallyattractive to women scientists with children.There is an idea in the United States that theEuropean lifestyle does not support a womanworking. Rather the opposite may be the case.For example, because you don’t have the com-muting lifestyle in Europe, life is simpler. Onecan take their child by bike to school. TheEuropean lifestyle is by nature very support-ive.6 People may be offered independence andpromotion to tenure earlier in the U.K. thanthey would have been in the United States.7

And Finally…Faculty who served as Eurodocs often tell stu-dents that if they have the slightest inkling todo a postdoc abroad, they should. They canfind a superb mentor and it would likely be abroadening experience. The postdoc years areoften the ideal time in someone’s life and careerto spend a significant amount of time abroad.8

While a European postdoc is sure toexpand your mind and your horizons, oneotherwise fabulously successful Eurodoccame away disappointed on one front: “I thought I would get to hang out with cool Italians, but they wanted nothing to dowith me....” ■


While you might initially feeloverwhelmed by differences insimple things like food choicesor shop schedules, adaptationdoesn’t take long.


The postdoc years are often theideal time in someone’s life andcareer to spend a significantamount of time abroad.


Making the Most of YourPostdoctoral Experience

Thea D. TlstyUniversity of California,

San Francisco

Ahhh, when I was a postdoc…” sighs many asenior scientist, dreaming of what theyremember as a simpler time. While many have

forgotten the pressures and uncertainties, it is true thatthe time following graduate school can be one of the best times of a scientific career. Ideally, graduatestudents have learned some of the basic skills ofresearch and are entering a period of refining thoseskills and preparing for entry into a career path. Whilethere are many different career paths that trained sci-entists can enter today, a common set of skills lies atthe heart of preparing for most of them. In general, aworking knowledge and mastery of scientific processand practices are crucial to careers as diverse as jour-nal editor, teacher, grants administrator, principalinvestigator/professor, career scientist, scientificreporter, and public policy administrator.

The postdoctoral fellowship is an apprenticeshipand should be tailored to the specific needs of a partic-ular career. While it is not necessary to know the exactcareer destination, since many of the skills are applica-ble to a broad range of opportunities, it is helpful tohave a career goal identified so that the postdoctoralexperience will be successful and productive.

It is also helpful to identify the areas where addition-al experience is needed and to arrange for the fellow-ship to address those areas. This requires an accurateassessment of goals accomplished during graduate

The postdoctoral fellowship is an apprenticeship and should betailored to the specific needs of aparticular career.

study and what additional goals are neces-sary for the chosen career path. In the best ofall worlds, graduate students learn the suc-cessful practices of asking a scientific ques-tion, designing and executing a set of experi-ments to obtain the answer, reporting resultsto the scientific community, and identifyingfuture areas of pursuit. However, if anyaspect of this experience is lacking, the post-doctoral fellowship is where this is remediedand refined.

Choosing the proper postdoctoral environ-ment is important for a successful postdoc-toral experience. Individuals who work bestwith a minimal amount of guidance or whoprefer a small lab group should find situa-tions that meet those needs. Those whosefuture plans include teaching should find asetting where that experience can beobtained. In most cases, it is beneficial tochange fields and institutions for postgradu-ate education for exposure to differentapproaches to science and new groups ofpeople and ideas. Often, advancements inscience are made when two previouslyuncoupled areas come together. Adding newapproaches and perspectives to the graduate

experience optimizes a new scientist’s abili-ties to contribute to new areas of research.

A postdoctoral fellow should extend thescientific way of thinking and problem solv-ing learned in graduate school to a new prob-lem and level of involvement. In choosingexperimental projects, it is often beneficial tochoose two projects, each of which providedifferent educational experiences. One projectmay be a continuation of ongoing work in thenew laboratory, while the second projectextends the work in directions that provide anopportunity for novel creative approaches.

In the first type of project, a new scientistquickly learns the basic techniques in thelaboratory and has an opportunity to devel-op teamwork skills. This “bread and butter”type of project should be designed to gener-ate useful data no matter what the outcomeof technically solid, individual experiments.As this work comes to fruition, it providesthe opportunity to work with the senior scientists of the group in all aspects of publishing a manuscript, such as choosingthe appropriate journal, preparing the draftand final version of the manuscript, com-municating with journal editors, respond-ing to reviewers’ critiques, and proofread-ing final galleys.

In addition to providing experience in sci-entific writing, this “bread and butter” projectalso provides opportunities for oral or posterpresentations at department, local or nationalmeetings. Lessons in seminar preparation andpresentation that were not absorbed as agraduate student can be addressed as a postgraduate researcher. Participation in a unit ofwork that contributes to a larger ongoingstudy in the laboratory also positions the newscientist to aid in the preparation of grantapplications that include this work. Lessonsin grantsmanship as a fellow are invaluablefor those individuals who plan to developtheir own laboratories.



In the best of all worlds,graduate students learn thesuccessful practices of asking ascientific question, designingand executing a set ofexperiments to obtain theanswer, reporting results to the scientific community,and identifying future areas of pursuit.

The second type of project should bedesigned to develop the skills of determiningwhich scientific questions are important,timely and approachable. Not all questionscan be addressed with present techniques orcontemporary insights. How does one deter-mine when to pursue a line of investigationand when to terminate experiments if theyare not producing interpretable data?Developing a “nose” for important questionsand novel approaches is a more risky line ofexperimentation because these scoutingefforts can terminate in a dead end. However,scientists who wish to lead an area of investi-gation rather than simply follow approachesthat others have opened must hone theseskills for the future. This skill is also essentialfor scientists in careers other than bench sci-ence. For example, journal editors and scien-tific reporters need to be able to recognizeblossoming areas of inquiry, just as the appli-cant for scientific funding needs to identifynew areas of research. This type of projectoften requires a more extended period of timebefore it is productive and, therefore, is notoptimal for exercising the basic skillsobtained in the “bread and butter” project.For those individuals interested in pursuing acareer as an independent investigator, tack-

ling this type of project often identifies futureareas of expertise and research.

Preparation for the future does not endwith addressing the technical aspects of sci-ence. As with most careers, the social aspectsof a profession are also of great importance.Science is increasingly a team endeavor,requiring the input of many colleagues toaccomplish a goal. The postdoctoral fellow-ship period is a time when many aspects ofscientific interactions can be practiced. Ifgraduate work did not offer the opportunityto work with others in the laboratory or teachtechniques to others, the fellowship is anexcellent time to extend those experiences. Inaddition to the interactions within the labora-tory group, networking with other laboratorygroups within and among institutions isimportant. Discussions and interactions withother groups lay the basis for future letters ofrecommendation, opportunities, friendshipsand potential mentors.

Obtaining a graduate degree opens thedoor to many professions, some of whichmay not even exist at the present time.Acquiring a basic set of skills as an investiga-tor will position a new scientist for thesecareer opportunities and provide a solid plat-form to launch an exciting future. ■


Demonstrate productivity and creativity.

Refine your scientific way of thinkingand problem-solving.

Learn skills in writing papers andshepherding them to publication.

Learn oral presentation skills.

Extend technical skills.

Learn grantsmanship.

Learn teaching and supervisory skills.

Learn how to work effectively withothers within the group.

Learn how to collaborate with peers.

Learn how to network.

Stay balanced and have fun.

ELEVEN GOALS FOR A SUCCESSFUL POSTDOCTORAL EXPERIENCE

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Liqun LuoStanford University

Pursuing Science across the Pacific Ocean

S cientists born and educated in Asia have con-tributed significantly to life sciences research inthe United States. Read any leading journal and

one will find first authors—and increasingly seniorauthors—whose names are hard to pronounce fornative English speakers. Applications to graduateschool, postdoctoral and faculty positions are increas-

ingly coming from Asian-born scientists. A significantproportion of this surge is contributed by scientistsborn in the People’s Republic of China, which openedthe door to scientific as well as student exchange about20 years ago. Given that one in five people living onthis planet is born in China and assuming a roughlyproportional distribution of talent and interest in bio-logical research, it is not surprising that the suddenavailability of this talent pool should contribute to theabove phenomenon.

By many measures, scientists born and educated inAsia, usually through college, have been successful as agroup in the development of their scientific careers in theUnited States (or going back to Asia after they are trainedin the United States). However, behind these successesare many difficulties that Asian-born scientists have toovercome in pursuing science across the Pacific Ocean.In this essay I will focus on the special challenges facingscientists from China, although many of these challengesalso apply to those from other Asian countries.


Read any leading journal and onewill find first authors—andincreasingly senior authors—whosenames are hard to pronounce fornative English speakers.

First, Chinese students need to find anappropriate graduate school to accept themfor advanced education. Most top graduateschools need to interview their applicantsbefore offering a place. This can be difficultto arrange for applicants from China. Inaddition, many schools have limited slotsfor international students because of NIHtraining grant restrictions. Having benefitedfrom talented Asian students, some U.S. uni-versities have started to send professors toAsia to interview candidates there, which isa good idea.

After they get admitted, Chinese studentsmust overcome visa problems. This hasbecome much more problematic since 9/11.Often multiple interviews are required atAmerican embassies or consulates, and eventhen, visa requests are frequently declined. Forthose that are successful in gaining permissionto study in U.S. graduate schools, Asian stu-dents have to face many challenges includinglanguage, communication and socialization

skills, and learning through critical evaluationof existing knowledge, probably in increasingorder of difficulty. The last is especially prob-lematic for many Chinese students, becausethe culture of the educational system in Chinais quite different from the United States: whatthe textbooks say is regarded as absolute truth;respecting authority (professors) is an impor-tant virtue. Asian students are not used togroup discussions and critiquing textbooks,lectures, published papers, or what professorshave to say. In addition, a general lack of labo-ratory training in the undergraduate curricu-lum in China makes students’ laboratory rota-tions disorienting.

The help they receive from their Americanclassmates and professors is invaluable. Forstudents who are newly exposed to the envi-ronment and culture, an off-hand, carelessremark could be devastating at such a fragilestage. On the other hand, a kind gesture orword from a fellow student or professor canencourage a student immeasurably and maywell change the destiny of his or her life.

The many students who are successful asgraduate students move on to postdoctoralfellowships, and many of them then to facul-ty or other senior positions. Often the limit-ing factors are presentation skills and theability to engage in interesting and effectivescientific exchanges with their colleagues,both of which are important determinants inevaluations for these higher positions. Thesedeficiencies stem from the original differ-


Often multiple interviews are required at Americanembassies or consulates, andeven then visa requests arefrequently declined.

The culture of the educationalsystem in China is quitedifferent from the United States:what the textbooks say isregarded as absolute truth;respecting authority (professors)is an important virtue.

A kind gesture or word from a fellow student or professor can encourage a studentimmeasurably and may wellchange the destiny of their life.

ences in language, culture, social and com-munication skills, and become all the moreprominent as one’s career advances. Some getthrough this bottleneck by truly exceptionalresearch accomplishments, others by con-sciously training themselves throughoutgraduate school and postdoc years. It cannotbe overemphasized how important commu-nication skills are, both oral and written. Thisof course is true for all scientists, but forChinese scientists it takes extraordinary effortto train in these skills. From the perspectiveof faculty search committees, an open-mind-edness to including colleagues raised in dif-ferent cultures could increase diversity andexploit the talent pool from all over theworld, both essential to keeping U.S. scientif-ic research at the forefront.

After securing a faculty position, the end-less tasks a professor has to deal with—teaching, grant writing, recruiting graduatestudents and postdocs, then not only trainingthem in science but also sometimes beingtheir psychological counselor—are amplifiedby whatever deficiencies have not been over-come since moving across the Pacific. Animportant new challenge at this stage is thatsocial interactions with peers and leaders inthe field become more important for namerecognition (an area in which Chinese peoplein the United States are at an inherent disad-vantage), successful grant and award appli-cations, and promotion. There is more objec-tivity in science than in some other profes-sions, yet one cannot deny the advantage

gained by being proactive about promotingone’s own research and being in the rightsocial circle. These advantages are often lessaccessible to Chinese-born scientists, againbecause of their socialization skills, culturalbarriers and their upbringing (modesty is agreat virtue; pride is a vice).

Despite these challenges, many Asian-born scientists nevertheless achieve highlydesired success, contributing to landmarkscientific discoveries. Time will tell if theywill also play leadership roles in their insti-tutions and professional societies. Asian-born scientists at different levels also face thechallenge of how they can contribute to sci-entific research and education in the countrywhere they themselves grew up and wereeducated. Some choose to go back altogetherto lead research laboratories and institutionsthere. Others spend considerable time super-vising research groups in their home coun-tries. Yet others actively participate in advis-ing their home government on strategicplanning, resource allocation and researchmanagement, including development ofpeer-review systems. Finally, some choose tofocus on the young: they return to teach notonly cutting edge research but also criticalthinking and the social and communication



Social interactions with peersand leaders in the field becomemore important for namerecognition (an area in whichChinese people in the UnitedStates are at an inherentdisadvantage), successfulgrant and award applications,and promotion.

The limiting factors arepresentation skills and theability to engage in interestingand effective scientificexchanges with … colleagues.

skills that are key success factors in U.S. sci-ence. All these efforts take considerable time,but the hope is that such efforts will make iteasier for the next generation of Asian-bornand educated scientists to pursue researchcareers, whether in the United States or intheir home countries. ■


6. CAREER TRANSITIONThe Art of the Interview

Salary Negotiation

What Else Can I Do?: Exploring Opportunities in Business and Management

Late Career Opportunities and Challenges


The Art of the Interview

Elizabeth MarincolaThe American Society

for Cell Biology

S cientists interviewing for jobs have a naturalinclination to focus on the “scientific informationexchange.” As important as this is, general inter-

view protocol and behavior are also critical. The fol-lowing offers general advice about some subtle butimportant aspects of winning an interview, making theinterview successful, and maximizing the chance that asuccessful interview becomes a job offer.

The Initial ContactThink of the initial contact as an opportunity for thereviewer to exclude your candidacy. Act on the assump-tion that the employer receives many, many more indi-cations of interest than the number of people the com-pany or organization has the resources to pursue. For

this reason, a small misstep at this stage can lead to adead end. This does not mean that your prospectiveemployer expects you to be perfect—it just means thatthere’s much more room for individual differences and

There’s much more room for individualdifferences and imperfections in thecontext of considering a whole personthan in the context of a description of a human on paper in whom theemployer has no vested interest.

Think of the initial contact as anopportunity for the reviewer toexclude your candidacy.

imperfections in the context of considering awhole person than in the context of a descrip-tion of a human on paper in whom theemployer has no vested interest.

Write to the contact person listed on theannouncement. If you know someone otherthan the contact person at the company, youmay send a copy of your correspondence tothe person you know with a personal notesaying that you’re applying for a position at their company and that their supportwould be appreciated. One way to informthe official contact that you’ve also sent yourCV to someone else is to add a P.S. to yourcover letter that says, “I have taken the liber-ty of sending a copy of this correspondenceto Jane Doe, who was my colleague at theUniversity of Alabama.” Do not blind-side apotential employer by unnecessarily sup-pressing relevant information.

Take time to write a letter that clearly refer-ences the particular job for which you areapplying. Generic letters that indicate thatthe candidate is looking, for example, for aposition “that utilizes my skills in research”scream, “form letter!” and are not worthsending. Touch upon your most impressivecredentials, but do not repeat your CV in thetext of the cover letter. The letter should typi-cally be three paragraphs: the first states sim-ply that you are applying for the position; thesecond states briefly the nature of your inter-

est and most relevant and impressive qualifi-cations, and the third asks for considerationand can indicate for example how you arebest reached. The cover letter should fit easi-ly, using 12-point type, on one page, andshould leave ample white space at top, bot-tom and at the margins. In a cover letter, lessis more.

Proofread the cover letter three times, thenask a trusted friend, colleague, or relative toproofread it. Grammatical or typographicalerrors in the cover letter, like a cover letterthat is unnecessarily long, are often groundsfor exclusion.

If you’re sending a paper letter, sign yourname in ink (do not use an electronic signa-ture). Enclose your CV. Do not include a listof references unless requested.

Arranging an InterviewIt is more preferable for the employer to con-tact you for an interview than for you to fol-low your letter with an additional request foran interview. However, if you hear nothingfor two weeks after you send the initial letteror email, you may follow up with a phonecall or email inquiring, cordially, if you canschedule an interview. Do not be defensive,accusatory, or impatient.

A good analogy is datingbehavior. People generally liketo be pursued, but not tooaggressively. Don’t devalueyourself or appear desperate.


CHAPTER 6 • CAREER TRANSITION 181

Generic letters that indicate thatthe candidate is looking, forexample, for a position “thatutilizes my skills in research”scream, “form letter!” and arenot worth sending.

In a cover letter, less is more.

A good analogy is dating behavior. Peoplegenerally like to be pursued, but not tooaggressively. Don’t devalue yourself orappear desperate.

It is typical for an interview to be sched-uled by an administrative or clerical person.Be respectful, accommodating and profes-sional with anyone who contacts you. Bear inmind that sometimes interviews must berescheduled or there can be other inconven-iences or annoyances in the logisticalarrangements. All it takes is for a trusted sup-port person to comment to the principal,“Boy, he sounds like such a jerk!” for yourcandidacy to end, even for an otherwisestrong candidate.

The InterviewThe most important possible thing youcan do is your homework. Go to the orga-nization’s website and spend some timethere. You should be aware of the generalparameters of the organization: its prod-ucts and services, its corporate goals, thesize of its staff, and its revenues. If it’s a

start-up, learn how it is financed: throughventure capital? Is it publicly traded? Ifit’s a nonprofit, where does it get its rev-enues? Publications? Membership dues?All this information is available on theorganization’s site.

Be on time for the interview, which meansyou should allow enough travel time to beearly (this does not follow dating protocol!).Prepare questions in your mind but don’tread them. Many questions may be answeredin the course of the conversation: don’t repeatthem. When you ask a question, listen to theanswer, and ask follow-up questions todemonstrate that you are engaged in the con-versation, not just reeling off a list of pre-pared questions. Don’t take exhaustive notes

at an interview because it can inhibit theinterviewer and make you appear distrustful.The interview should feel like a conversation,not an interrogation—the candidate has tocontribute to making the interviewer relaxed,not just the other way around. It is essentialto ask intelligent questions about the organi-zation, but don’t wear out your welcome: besensitive to the other person’s answersbecoming briefer and glances at their watch.If you find yourself asking about CasualFriday policy, you have prolonged the inter-view too long. The interviewer should likeyou more at the end of an interview than atthe beginning.


All it takes is for a trustedsupport person to comment tothe principal, “Boy, he soundslike such a jerk!” for yourcandidacy to end, even for anotherwise strong candidate.

The interview should feel like a conversation, not aninterrogation—the candidatehas to contribute to making theinterviewer relaxed, not just theother way around.

The most important possiblething you can do is yourhomework.

Everyone has “a life.” You should neitheroffer up the details of it nor apologize for it ifit comes out in the interview. For example,you may not wish to mention your spouse orchildren in an initial interview, because theinterview is about you, not about your fami-ly. But if the question of children emerges(employers will often try to steer a conversa-tion in that direction rather than asking directquestions, which can be illegal), you can com-ment matter-of-factly. For example, if theinterviewer says, “I have two sons but Ialways wanted a daughter,” you couldrespond, “Yes, I can testify that daughters arewonderful, since I have one and I am one!”

After the InterviewWithin two days after the interview, write aletter or email to thank the interviewer. If youare seriously interested in the position, saythat you are and what you learned in theinterview about the job that appeals to you. Ifthere were pending issues from the interview,address them in the follow-up letter. This is agood time to send references, even if youwere not asked for them. Make sure that ref-erences have consented to speaking toprospective employers on your behalf andthat their contact information is current. Thecontact information you provide should beapproved by the references—for example, donot give a home phone number unless a ref-erence asks you to.

Even if you are not offered the positionyou wanted, having been through the inter-view is in your interest, because you will bemore prepared for the next one. ■


The interviewer should like youmore at the end of an interviewthan at the beginning.



Salary Negotiation

Julie TheriotStanford University

Medical Center

Many young scientists entering the job marketfor the first time are unprepared to negotiatetheir salary. Graduate and postdoctoral

stipends are usually fixed by the department or institu-tion, so the first independent job offer may also be thefirst occasion for scientists to question their own finan-cial worth. Many people in this position feel so flat-tered to have gotten a job offer that they decline tonegotiate their salary at all.

Starting Salary Is ImportantUsually yearly raises are based on existing salary.The first opportunity to negotiate a substantialraise may not be until a major promotion, three toseven years in the future. When an applicant is con-sidering whether she can live with a particularstarting salary offer, she should account for thelong-term financial impact of only modest increas-es over several years.

This issue is not mitigated when changing jobs. Mostcompanies will base an offer on an applicant’s existingsalary. Furthermore, aggregate salary information isfrequently used to compare competing institutions andto expose discriminatory practices. In a sense, it is theduty as well as the right of a new employee to negoti-ate an appropriate starting salary.

An applicant must consider a salary offer in the con-text of the whole job offer package, including the chal-lenge of the work and the work environment.

In negotiations as well as interviews,knowledge is strength. The well-preparedapplicant will have gathered informationin advance of the negotiation.

Negotiate from a Position of StrengthThe recruit starts with a strong hand, becauseshe was selected from among many appli-cants. It is in the best interest of the employerto meet the applicant’s reasonable requests tosucceed in recruitment. However, other appli-cants may have been attractive; the employermay withdraw the unaccepted offer if theapplicant’s requests are unreasonable.

In negotiations as well as interviews,knowledge is strength. The well-preparedapplicant will have gathered information inadvance of the negotiation.

Know What You NeedBefore beginning negotiations, the applicantmust consider what she needs, as opposed towhat she wants. A starting salary must sus-tain a reasonable lifestyle for several years.For applicants used to accumulating debtthrough years of low-salaried training, it isuseful to calculate realistic financial needs,including student loan repayments, housing,utilities, transportation, child care, food,entertainment, vacations, insurance, andtaxes. Also it may be advisable to save forretirement and future family expenditures.Regular expenses will vary substantiallydepending on the location of the job; thearrival of children will cause significant,long-term increases in living expenses.Although employers generally do not consid-er an applicant’s individual financial needs,the applicant should be aware if her obliga-tions prevent her from considering a low-paying but otherwise rewarding job.

Consider Salary AlternativesPeople have different needs and priorities,which may include buying a house, qualityday care, future wealth, or travel.

Recruits should consider potential bene-fits in lieu of higher salary. Universities locat-ed in high-cost areas frequently can assistnew faculty in buying homes through low-interest loans or co-investment.Pharmaceutical and biotechnology compa-nies are less likely to offer real estate loansbut more likely to offer signing or relocationbonuses that may be applied to a down-pay-ment. Some employers may offer on-site orsubsidized child care, and most offer familymedical insurance. Some companies may bewilling to sweeten a salary offer with stockoptions. Others may offer extra vacation orsabbatical time. The relative value of thesebenefits is individual, depending on anapplicant’s priorities and goals, and shouldbe weighed along with the salary.Frequently, an employer will have more lati-tude to add benefits than increase salary.

A stock option is the right to purchase ashare of company stock at a fixed price atsome future time. Stock offers should beresearched seriously, including restrictions onexercising options and tax consequences. Ifthe company’s stock is worth more than the

Recruits should considerpotential benefits in lieu of higher salary.



A starting salary must sustaina reasonable lifestyle forseveral years.

Frequently, an employer willhave more latitude to addbenefits than increase salary.

cost of the option at the time of purchase, thisamounts to cash. But most stock options vestover periods of time ranging from months toyears. If the stock value falls below the optionprice, or if the company fails, the options arevalueless. If the employee leaves the compa-ny, she loses the unvested options. The valueof stock options for companies that are pri-vately held (i.e., not traded in stockexchanges) is particularly hard to measure.

Consider Stability and TermsMost academic job offers require that somepart of the applicant’s salary be paid by exter-nal grants. This portion can range from 100% at“soft money” institutions to 25% or less at uni-versities that expect the applicant to cover only“summer salary,” to 0% at the NIH. At manyinstitutions, this fraction may be reduced in thefirst years to help a new P.I. get started.

An offer of $60k as a nine-month basesalary represents a larger commitment on thepart of the institution than an offer of $90kthat is entirely soft money. To weigh the rela-tive merits of these offers, the applicant mustconsider the likelihood of attracting sufficientgrant money to cover the higher salary, espe-cially in a grant climate where roughly 25% ofnew NIH grants are funded. Since most NIHgrants are now modular, any grant moneythat is earmarked for the P.I.’s salary willdecrease the amount of grant money avail-able for graduate and postdoctoral stipends,supplies, and equipment.

Similarly, in industry long-term stabilitymust be weighed against short-term gain.Small start-up biotechnology companies mayoffer attractive salary and stock options, but ifthe company fails, stock options become val-ueless. Pharmaceutical companies will typical-ly offer lower salaries and fewer stock options,but are less likely to lay off scientists or fail.

Be InformedPublicly available data can provide usefulbenchmarks for negotiation. All public universities and many private universitiespublish average faculty salaries. Search theInternet or campus newspapers. The univer-sity’s human resources department can helpdirect the applicant to this information.

Nationwide salary surveys are available.Consult them.1

Know the RulesThe well-prepared applicant has a good senseof what she wants and what she is likely toget. Actual salary negotiation depends on thepolicies and limitations of the specificemployer. The best source of information is a


An offer of $60K as a nine-month base salary represents alarger commitment on the partof the institution than an offer of$90K that is entirely soft money.

Any grant money that isearmarked for the P.I.’s salarywill decrease the amount of grantmoney available for graduate andpostdoctoral stipends, suppliesand equipment.

Publicly available data canprovide useful benchmarks for negotiation.

sympathetic colleague at the institution.Some places, especially public universities,have essentially non-negotiable salary scalesbased on rank. An applicant need not wastetime negotiating salary there and shouldfocus instead on negotiable variables or ahigher starting rank. Some public universitiesand many private ones have an X or scalecomponent of salary, distinguished from theY or off-scale component. The Y component isusually negotiable.

Know the person empowered to negotiateon behalf of the institution. This could be thedean, the department chair, or someone else.The applicant should seek to negotiate direct-ly with the person making the offer, but it isuseful to know whether that person has thesole authority to negotiate salary. Similarly incompanies, salary ranges may be set by direc-tors or vice presidents, but group leadersmay have some freedom to negotiate.

The applicant should also learn the rules ofadvancement. At some companies scientistsmay expect to be promoted frequently, withsalary increase with each promotion. Othersbase salary increases solely on productivity.Some employers may offer a better title forlower salary, but the applicant should bewareof a low-paid Assistant Director position at acompany that has 50 Ph.D. employees ofwhom 30 are Assistant Directors.

Don’t Be RushedThe first offer is an opening bid. The salaryoffer may be made in a one-on-one conversa-tion, ending with, “What do you think aboutthat amount?” Unless the offer is generous

beyond the applicant’s wildest imaginings, itis best not to respond immediately. It isappropriate for the applicant to expressappreciation, and say, “I need a little time toconsider the offer [and/or] think about it inlight of my other offers [and/or] discuss itwith my partner.” Even if an applicant even-tually accepts the offer, clear and calm-head-ed consideration is preferable to a rush judg-ment in a flush of flattery.

Use Competing OffersAn applicant’s bargaining power is enhancedby a tangible competing offer. It is appropri-ate to let the prospective employer knowabout the competition to give the prospectiveemployer the chance to sweeten their offer. Itis easier for an institution to justify a highersalary to match a competing offer than tomake the case on merit alone.

Some high-salary offers from industry donot influence negotiations with academicdepartments because the jobs are not compa-rable. Likewise, a top-rated academic depart-ment may not respond to a more lucrativeoffer from a less prestigious institution. Anapplicant should provide competing offerinformation to her first-choice employerrather than to make an explicit demand thatthe offer be matched.

An applicant should never exaggerate orlie about the existence or value of competingoffers. The scientific community is like agossipy small town where everyone knowseveryone else’s business, and this willinevitably come to light eventually. Someemployers will not respond to a competingoffer unless they see it written. Furthermore,it is counterproductive to cultivate offersmerely to up the ante for the first-choiceoffer, a practice which is almost alwaystransparent: the first-choice employer feelsmanipulated and the second-choice employ-er feels used. Long-term professional good-


The best source of information is a sympathetic colleague at the institution.


will and personal integrity should not besacrificed for what may be a modest short-term gain.

Value the Goodwill of YourColleagues-To-BeIn the long run, honesty about needs, goals,and priorities is the best policy for salarynegotiations. The salary negotiator is often adepartment chair or project leader who islimited by institutional policy. This individ-ual is strongly invested in recruiting the top

applicant and can intercede on behalf of thecandidate only if she knows the applicant’sactual needs and priorities. If an applicantwould like to accept a job offer but cannotbecause her partner has been unable to find ajob, the employer may be able to help. If theapplicant is enthusiastic about the job butshell-shocked by property values, theemployer may be able to swing assistance.However, an applicant should only makespecial requests if she intends to accept theoffer if they are met.

Accepting an OfferWhen you have considered all the issues andnegotiated a good starting salary at a placewhere you are eager to begin work, acceptthe offer and don’t look back. The negotiationprocess is idiosyncratic and never completelyfair. It is likely that you will learn that a col-league at your level is making more moneythan you. As long as you entered the negotia-tion well-prepared and feel good about theprocess and the outcome, you did well. ■


An applicant should neverexaggerate or lie about theexistence or value of competingoffers. The scientific communityis like a gossipy small townwhere everyone knows everyoneelse’s business.

Kathleen GwynnKirsch Foundation

What Else Can I Do?: Exploring Opportunities inBusiness and Management

T he logical answer to “What are you going to dowhen you finish your doctorate?” is research and,possibly, teaching. But you may wonder—as you

look for the right postdoc position or later in yourcareer—“what else is out there?”

The good news is that there are options, althoughfew paths are as clear as that of research in academia orindustry. Despite the hardships and pitfalls you canencounter in securing a full-time research position, youknow the drill through your mentors and advisors whoknow how to work the system and help you with rec-ommendations and connections.

If you are contemplating a career in business or man-agement, connections may not be as readily available.Ask yourself: How do I know whether it’s a good fit forme? How do I get the training or education I need? CanI make it without formal training?

Management and Business“Business” and “management” are often used inter-changeably. “Management” is the art and science ofjudiciously using resources to accomplish an end; itoften assumes that you are leading a team or group ofpeople to accomplish a goal. “Business” refers to a com-mercial enterprise that expects to be profitable. You canbe in business without being a manager. You can be amanager without working at a commercial enterprise.

What does it take to be successful?


Your scientific education andtraining has demanded analyticalskills, project planning and strongintellectual aptitude. These are easilytransferable to the business world.

One hears about “soft” and “hard” skillswhen it comes to management and business,respectively. The “hard” skills needed for busi-ness include data analysis, project planning,budgeting, accounting, and the use of othertools that are best acquired in an academic set-ting. Your scientific education and training hasdemanded analytical skills, project planningand strong intellectual aptitude. These are eas-ily transferable to the business world.

“Soft” skills, which are important for man-agement, include the ability to communicateeffectively, to inspire or lead a team of people,to listen, and to work effectively with othersto accomplish a common goal. “Soft” skillsare primarily personal traits that can behoned, but not taught.

If you enjoy working with others and havethese “soft” skills, and want to move beyondthe research lab, then management, whetherin business, academia, philanthropy, or thenon-profit world, may be a great choice foryou. If making a profit for yourself or yourcompany sounds exciting, then businesscould be a good match.

From Here to ThereSeveral options for pursuing management asa career exist. They range from taking theplunge into a full-time MBA program to tak-

ing an occasional seminar, to making the leapwithout the benefit of formal training.

A full-time MBA program works best ifyou want to switch from research to business.You will learn the required tools, develop anetwork (similar to that in the researchworld), and gain access to on-campusrecruiters and a career placement center. Asummer position between the two years ofschool enables you to add a business job toyour resume (in this world it’s not called a“CV”!), furthering your ability to secure apermanent position. As a critical side benefit,most MBA programs also help you to honeyour “soft” skills.

Unlike graduate school in science, profes-sional schools, including business school,require a significant, front-end financialinvestment. Unless you are independentlywealthy, you will have to assume significantdebt, as scholarships are rare at graduate busi-ness schools. Starting salaries for MBAs, how-ever, often are double or triple the salary of anacademic, so this should be taken into account.

If you are curious about the business world,but not willing to make the sacrifice requiredof a full-time MBA program, consider part-time programs that meet in the eveningsand/or over the weekend. This option is effec-tive if you want to minimize the financial bur-den or are unsure that you want to leaveresearch. You will miss the interaction amongclassmates and the intensity of a full-time pro-gram, but you will have access to career place-


Unlike graduate school inscience, professional schools,including business school,require a significant, front-endfinancial investment.

“Soft” skills, which areimportant for management,include the ability tocommunicate effectively, toinspire or lead a team of people,to listen, and to work effectivelywith others to accomplish acommon goal.

ment services and, most importantly, you willlearn the necessary business skills. Of course,you will also continue to earn an income andadvance in your current position.

Even if you want to remain in the researchworld, taking occasional management cours-es, or enrolling in seminars offered by organ-izations such as the American ManagementAssociation1 may be smart. Successfulresearchers in academia, industry or othersettings must manage a lab with significantgrants and staff. You could also be asked toserve as a Chair, on the Board of a biotechstart-up, or as an officer of your scientificsociety. In these circumstances, good businessand management skills will serve you andyour institution well.

The Direct RoutePharmaceutical companies and health- andmedicine-related businesses and foundationsseek individuals who have academic creden-tials in the life sciences. These venues canoffer the opportunity to go directly from yourdoctoral program or the bench to a positionin a corporation or foundation.

If you wish to move up the managementranks in the corporate world without the

benefit of an MBA, you are likely to start outin research. From there, you can explore pro-fessional development through in-housetraining or the Human ResourcesDepartment. As project manager positionsbecome available, your research skills, com-bined with on-site management training,should lead to promotions.

Foundations that are committed to medicalresearch often seek program officers whounderstand basic science. Program officersmust track and interpret research activities soas to identify and fund the most promisingopportunities. Foundations expect you to bean expert and to have numerous connectionsthroughout your field. This ensures that youstay current with developments and helpcraft new grant initiatives. Foundations areless likely to provide in-house training, butmay support your effort to pursue a part-time MBA program or seminars to shore upyour scientific knowledge with business andmanagement acumen.

The culture of business and managementmay seem foreign to many basic scientists,but the skills, intelligence and intensityrequired have much in common with the cul-ture of science. ■




Late Career Opportunities and Challenges

J. Richard McIntoshUniversity of Colorado

C onversation with any group of cell biologists55–65 years old will elicit a range of opinionsabout their ideas for the years ahead. Some are

committed to ever more research and/or teaching,essentially a continuation of mid-career activities.Others are looking forward with enthusiasm to theprospect of doing something different, perhaps doingnothing at all, while many fall in between.1

There is no general solution to optimizing late careeroptions, because the pertinent issues are so complexand personal that each individual must think thingsthrough for him/herself. There are, however, a numberof processes that seem generally important for the per-sonal decisions that must be made.

Some people think of retirement as an event that willoccur at a specific date, a Rubicon to be crossed that alltoo much resembles the River Styx. One can, however,approach one’s late career with more personal control,organizing a gradual change. Many employers willpermit and even encourage a phased retirement inwhich duties diminish over some years, either throughpart time work or a negotiated agreement.2 If one isenjoying most of professional life but finding that thepace has become too demanding, a gradual retirementprobably makes sense. This course may also be advan-tageous for one’s department, allowing several olderscientists to wind down and release their positions,while the department initiates hirings that will bring innew blood.

Some people think of retirement as anevent that will occur at a specific date,a Rubicon to be crossed that all toomuch resembles the River Styx.

Some older scientists are still full of energybut bored with the problems they have stud-ied for a significant time. Unfortunately, mostfunding agencies are conservative about newendeavors, so a change of field is not easy atany career stage (new grants are harder to getthan renewals for everyone). Late careerdoes, however, offer opportunities for changethat are less obvious. Seniority can allow youto reduce the stresses of running a lab, pro-viding a welcome splash of freedom. If, forexample, you enjoy lab work but not thestruggle for resources, you can probably finda congenial younger colleague who wouldwelcome you into the lab as an associate towork on scientific problems of common inter-est. This would give chances both to train stu-dents in techniques and thought processesthat you know well and to pursue your ownresearch. Similarly, many institutions havebudgets for lab instruction that can help topay the expenses of independent study stu-dents (undergraduates, summer visitors,even medical students); these young peoplecould come to your own lab and help withresearch questions of your choosing. Thepoint is that there are ways to continueresearch, albeit at a slower pace, without thepressure of competing for major researchgrants. Such changes can readily be initiated,given the independence that accompaniesout-growing the need for further profession-al advancement.

Some older scientists find that a new per-spective on teaching can provide a change ofpace and an exciting challenge, as well as sig-

nificant personal reward. Recent research oninteractive learning suggests ways to engagestudents, even in large lecture courses, help-ing them learn more effectively.3 Moderninformation technology can provide instruc-tors with immediate feedback on the successor failure of their exposition, allowing lecturemodification on the fly and a significantincrease in the efficacy of information trans-fer.4 Computers can serve as teachingmachines or as surrogates for hands-on labo-ratory work. While such ideas are not neces-sarily new, one can find rewarding and effec-tive ways to use a professional lifetime ofteaching and learning experience to enrich thepedagogic process. As a senior scientist, onehas the opportunity to revisit teaching withcreativity rather than regarding it as a chore.

Helping younger people understand thecraft of science can also be highly rewarding.Time spent mentoring younger colleaguesone-on-one, or in a workshop setting, canmake a significant contribution. One can alsoteach as far afield as pre-college, even ele-mentary school. Big cities have benefitedtremendously from the work of senior scien-tists who have worked with teachers to effectcurriculum change or subject innovation.5

Such efforts can be a big commitment, buteven occasional volunteer work as a tutor ina school can make a significant difference to afew students and provide a valuable alterna-tive to continuing your customary work.

The issue of volunteering brings up twocomplicated subjects. One is finances, sinceworking without compensation is a luxurythat not everyone can afford. Universities, theTeacher’s Insurance and AnnuityAssociation,6 and many investment compa-nies offer information and guidance aboutfinancial planning for retirement. Attendingseminars or workshops by several suchorganizations is sensible, since it providesmultiple viewpoints and demystifies this



Some older scientists are stillfull of energy but bored withthe problems they have studiedfor a significant time.

planning process. Such interactions mayreduce one’s sense of dependency and canprovide assurance that resources in retire-ment will be sufficient. One’s retirement pack-age can stretch even further if one undertakessomething adventurous, like working as avolunteer teacher in a poor country. Livingcosts in the Third World are so low that aretired American can live very graciously onmodest resources. It is rare that a school oruniversity in such a country can pay a salary,but a volunteer is almost certain to be wel-comed with gratitude and enthusiasm. Suchopportunities can be organized independent-ly, through Internet and email, but Fulbright,7

the Peace Corps8 and several non-governmentorganizations9 can also help.

The second issue related to volunteering isfreedom. It is easy to view the winding downof one’s professional activities as a loss of priv-ilege and power. Certainly some valuablethings will go, but constructive additions cancompensate. A reduced professional load canprovide freedom that is simply not availableunder the pressure of competitive paper- andgrant-writing. This suggests that an importantpart of late career thinking should be identify-ing the things that you would like to initiate.

Some people think of new activities interms of hobbies while others think of newacademic projects. The point is that one of thegreatest opportunities offered by late career

flexibility is the chance to explore: activities,fields, and ideas for which there has previ-ously been no time. Retired people often talkabout their opportunities for travel, reading,attending lectures, music, and sociability. Forsomeone who has led an intensely focusedlife in science, such “opportunity” maysound foreign, even terrifying. This is why agradual transition may be important for cap-italizing on the opportunities of late careerdevelopment. As one ages, life will change, ofthis there is no question. With luck, thechanges will not be crippling ill health butinstead the chance to explore and enjoythings one cares about and finds worthwhile.Emerging from a total focus on a specific fieldof science can include elements of metamor-

phosis and ecdysis that will allow the spread-ing of new-found wings.

Underlying the issue of late career transi-tion is the fact that although our country’s


Retired people often talk abouttheir opportunities for travel,reading, attending lectures,music, and sociability. Forsomeone who has led anintensely focused life in science,such “opportunity” may soundforeign, even terrifying.

It is easy to view the windingdown of one’s professionalactivities as a loss of privilegeand power. Certainly somevaluable things will go, butconstructive additions cancompensate.

A grant to a senior scientist ismoney not given to someoneyounger; a position occupied byan old-timer is one not filled bya beginner.

investment in science is large, it is not infi-nite. A grant to a senior scientist is moneynot given to someone younger; a positionoccupied by an old-timer is one not filled bya beginner. Some senior scientists claim thatthey have always been under-paid, and ifthey are now earning more for less work, it’sabout time and they deserve it. Frankly, Idisagree. Most of us have done sciencebecause we wanted to. Earning a good, mid-dle-class wage for following one’s own

interests is an appropriate reward. At somepoint it makes sense to bow out and givesomeone else a chance.

The above generalities hardly constitute aplan, but they do contain a message: if youbuild upon your career in science to identifyand/or generate opportunities for explo-ration, it is possible to make and use free-doms that will enrich the latter part of yourcareer, potentially making it one of the beststages of your life. ■




7. GRANTSStudy Section Service: An Introduction

Responding to the NIH Summary Statement


Study Section Service: An Introduction

Frank SolomonMassachusetts Institute

of Technology

By several criteria, life sciences research in theUnited States has been phenomenally successfulover the past 40 years. Some analyses ascribe at

least part of that success to the peer review system forawarding research support. The core of the peer review

system is the study section—a committee of scientiststhat evaluates the research in each proposal. But ofcourse study section review is a human endeavor. Itsquality depends entirely on the wisdom, commitment,and integrity of the people who serve. Their task is todistinguish good and valuable science independent ofwhether it comes from new investigators or establishedones, representing large programs or small, in fieldsfashionable at the time or relatively obscure.

At the beginning of their careers, most scientistsview study section as a mysterious body, powerful anddistant, in a position to make fateful decisions.

Study section review is a humanendeavor. Its quality depends entirelyon the wisdom, commitment andintegrity of the people who serve.

The ways of serving effectively—gettingthe most out of the experience and inturn making the most significantcontribution to peer review—arehappily congruent with the ways ofmaking study sections work well.

Especially over the past several years, theNIH has worked to dispel some of that mys-tery and to make the review process moretransparent. Still, the best way to learn howstudy sections work is to serve on one. Theways of serving effectively—getting the mostout of the experience and in turn making themost significant contribution to peerreview—are happily congruent with theways of making study sections work well.

The MechanicsDifferent study sections operate differently,but the following description will fit many ofthem. Most study sections are organizedaround relatively contiguous areas ofresearch, and its members are selected fortheir relevant expertise. Ideally, panel mem-bers will share sufficient common knowl-edge that they will be able to assess propos-als in areas that are at least fairly closelyrelated. That said, the range of proposalseach study section must consider requiresconsiderable breadth.

A term on study section is usually fouryears. The NIH officer assigned to the studysection, the Scientific Review Administrator(SRA), is a fixture. The chair, selected by theSRA from among the roughly twenty mem-bers, usually serves in that role for the lasttwo years of the term.

NIH study sections meet three times a year(somewhere near Washington, DC, in mostcases). Each meeting may deal with 70 to 100or more proposals. Principal investigatorscan indicate which study section they want toreview their proposal, based on experience—their own or their colleagues’—and the mem-bership rosters are posted by the NIH Centerfor Scientific Review for each study section.1

Those lists are not a guarantee; at any givensession, some regular members may beabsent, and substitutes not on the roster maybe present.

Commonly, the SRA assigns primaryresponsibility for each proposal to two mem-bers, who write detailed reviews in a formand tone suitable for transmission to theapplicant. A third person, the reader, maywrite a shorter set of comments. These write-ups are prepared before the study sectionmeets. The SRA identifies formal conflicts—when the applicant is at the same institutionas a prospective reviewer, for example—butit is up to the reviewer to notify the SRA ofother conflicts that may interfere with objec-tive evaluation.

Study sections meet for about 12 hours—one full day until dinner time and then asmuch time as needed on the second day.Nearly everyone arrives the night before thefirst session, and the proceedings conclude intime to allow people on the West Coast to gethome that evening.

The sessions are intense. The review of eachproposal begins, once the members with con-flicts leave the room, with a report from thereviewers and the reader. Frequently, eachreviewer will declare a level of enthusiasm forthe proposal, and then present the findingsand analyses that justify that opinion. Therefollows a discussion involving everyone onthe panel. Of course, proposals that are unani-mously viewed as terrific, or as deeply flawed,do not require a lot of discussion. But for themany proposals that are somewhere betweenthose poles, or about which there are signifi-cantly divergent opinions among the review-ers or other members, a full discussion is nec-essary for the system to work. The discussioncan help resolve differences among thereviewers, sometimes by going back and forthbetween themselves, sometimes in response toquestions asked by other members. It is notuncommon for reviewers to change their posi-tions significantly as a result of these discus-sions, helping the panel to reach a consensusview. Some differences simply do not resolve.


CHAPTER 7 • GRANTS 199

Either way, how this discussion is conduct-ed is crucial to the success of the study sec-tion. It is the preamble to a confidentialvote—a number attached to the proposal byeach member (it would take another article todo justice to the voting process) which is thebasis for the priority score. Each membervotes on each proposal regardless of expert-ise. Different study sections—and in fact dif-ferent chairs, who are responsible for the pace

of the meeting—have different ideas abouthow these discussions should be regulated,ranging from the Stopwatch School to theSocratic School. The essential point is that acomplete explication of the issues and con-cerns provides a more informed, better justi-fied basis for voting.

The Reviewer’s Work LoadA study section with twenty members andeighty proposals will require that each ofits members writes an average of eight fullreviews and serves as reader on four otherproposals—a “light” to “average” load, inmost people’s experience. Reading twelvegrants carefully is not trivial: each proposalis twenty-five single-spaced pages of usu-ally dense scientific prose. But the impor-tance of the job requires reviewers to readevery word and to try to understand everythought. For beginners, it may take six toeight hours to read a proposal, but that

time goes down with experience. Writing athoughtful review takes another couple ofhours. On top of all this work, reviewersfrequently read proposals that are not theirprimary responsibility, for examplebecause they’re interested in the field.

Effective ServiceBecoming an effective and valuable memberof a study section is an acquired skill. Some ofthe same qualities that help us in our workpertain: the ability to analyze complex situa-tions, to identify important questions, todesign well-controlled experiments, and soon. But peer review of grants also calls uponother qualities from reviewers:

• Generosity with respect to time and atten-tion demanded from already busy lives, tobe sure, but also in allowing for sciencethat is substantially different from what thereviewer practices.

• Listening to one’s co-reviewer on a partic-ular proposal, or to the disagreeingreviewers discussing a proposal that is dis-tant from one’s own field. Some peoplemake a point of listening for what theyconsider to be crucial determinants. Forexample, how will this proposal, if fund-ed, advance the field?

• Fairness: the ability of study sections toassess all proposals in an even-handedmanner, so that differences in scores aremeaningful, depends absolutely upon the


Chairs, who are responsible forthe pace of the meeting, havedifferent ideas about how thesediscussions should be regulated,ranging from the StopwatchSchool to the Socratic School.

The importance of the jobrequires reviewers to read every word and to try tounderstand every thought.

fairness of the members. Each scientistbrings to the table a sense of what consti-tutes excellence—in hypotheses, experi-mental design, and impact. Applyingthose standards throughout, and keepingin check one’s biases—personal and scien-tific—allow the study section to establishhigh and firm standards as a group.

• Clarity: reviews that convey effectively thereviewer’s analysis are extremely important.Reviews of high quality that are consistentwith the score that the proposal receivesenhance confidence in the system.

• Persuasiveness: the ability to articulatecrisply the qualities of a grant that under-lie one’s opinion of it matter in the meet-ing. The majority of study section mem-bers must rely upon the reviewers for a guide to both the proposal and the fieldit represents.

What’s in It for the Study Section Member?

Most of those who have served as membersagree that they have enjoyed multiple bene-fits from study section service:

• The opportunity to contribute in a signif-

icant way to the research enterprise. Byputting themselves in a position to be anadvocate for interesting and well-done sci-ence, they help lift the standards and per-formance of their fields.

• The opportunity to learn how to write a

better grant. Reading others’ proposals,good and bad, allows people to see whatworks and what doesn’t, how to presentdata, how to keep reviewers engaged, whatsorts of traps to avoid. The common expe-

rience is that study section members’ pro-posals get better and easier to write as aresult of their service.

• The chance to participate in an intellectual

experience of a high order. The analysis of ascientific program, and its relationship to afield, calls upon the reviewers’ intellect andtraining in a way that too few other activitiesdo. Members also can learn a lot of science ina short time.

• The opportunity to form relationships

with new colleagues that carry on

throughout one’s career.

Which Study Section and When?People usually join study section after beinginvited to serve at a session or two as an ad

hoc member. The invitation comes from theSRA (SRAs are notoriously on the prowl forwilling talent) acting on names receivedfrom members of the study section past andpresent and other scientists in the field.These sessions give the study section and thepotential member a chance to find out ifthey’re compatible. It’s a good idea to pick astudy section that deals primarily with sci-ence relevant to one’s own interests. Allthose hours in a meeting talking about thingsthat you don’t know or care about will make

Reading others’ proposals, goodand bad, allows people to seewhat works and what doesn’t,how to present data, how to keepreviewers engaged, what sorts of traps to avoid.



what is constitutively a demanding experi-ence thoroughly unbearable.

When in your career to join is a delicatequestion. Evaluations of grants have a muchlarger impact than reviews of papers. Butstudy section members are much more visi-ble than anonymous journal reviewers.Rosters of study sections are available on thenet, and the author of a proposal willinevitably guess (rightly or wrongly) whichtwo or three members are the most likely

reviewers. So people on study section canfeel exposed, and many members have beenblamed or (much less often) credited—again, rightly or wrongly—by a colleaguefor the disposition of a proposal. These cir-cumstances frankly make study sectionservice problematic for junior people. Addto that the time it takes and the level of judg-ment and experience required. That’s whymany advise waiting until tenure to join astudy section, save for exceptional cases.That’s a shame, because the learning part isespecially beneficial to young people, butit’s probably sound advice.

There are many other aspects of studysections that are important: how the reviewsare turned into numerical scores; what cango wrong in study section, and why, and who is responsible for making thingsright; the ethics of reviewing; and more.Dedicated, thoughtful members make all the difference. ■


People on study section can feelexposed, and many membershave been blamed or (much less often) credited—rightly or wrongly—by a colleague forthe disposition of a proposal.

Sally Ann Amero The National Institutes

of Health

Marcia Steinberg The National Institutes

of Health

Responding to the NIH Summary Statement

W e’ve all been there, probably more timesthan anyone will admit. You spent monthsreading the literature, staring at your com-

puter, and imposing on your family and friends beforesubmitting your grant application to the NationalInstitutes of Health. Several weeks later, you receive anotice from the NIH, confirming receipt of the applica-tion and listing its assignments.1 All seems fine, until afew months later.

The seasoned applicant knows that the NIH sendsletters to Principal Investigators soon after a study sec-tion meeting,2 usually within two weeks. The letterindicates whether the study section voted to streamline(“unscore”) the application or to assign it a numericalpriority score3; if they chose the latter, the priority scoreand perhaps the percentile ranking will be given.

If Your Application Got an OutstandingPriority Score and Percentile RankingCongratulations, you stand an excellent chance of receiv-ing a grant award! However, you should not make com-mitments based on your expectation of funding support,because your application will be further reviewed by anNIH Institute or Center Advisory Committee for rele-vance to established priorities and public health needs,and the funding decision will be influenced by the rec-ommendation of this committee and the level of fundscurrently available at the given Institute or Center.Therefore, you should wait for the summary statementand actual notice of award, and check with your ProgramOfficer before making commitments.

If Your Application Got an UnfavorableScore and Percentile RankingIf your application received an unfavorable score, youwill need to formulate an action plan that is based onlogic, sound advice and knowledge of the NIH peer


review system. The Center for ScientificReview homepage4 is an excellent place tostart. It contains the policies, procedures, and review guidelines that NIH study sections follow, and are sent to the reviewers with the applications underreview. Particularly noteworthy are the fivemajor review criteria—(1) Significance, (2) Approach, (3) Innovation, (4) Investigator,and (5) Environment—that are used in theevaluation of the vast majority of researchapplications that are submitted to the NIH, asare the special guidelines that are used in theevaluation of research applications from newinvestigators. Equally important are the doc-uments that describe the format of a studysection meeting and the responsibilities of theassigned reviewers.

It is critical to understand the differentresponsibilities of review staff and programstaff at the NIH, and where an applicationgoes within the NIH. The initial phase of

receipt and referral is managed by a ReferralOfficer in the Center for Scientific Review.Referral officers make initial decisions con-cerning the assignment of the application toan appropriate study section for initial peerreview and to an appropriate Institute orCenter for funding consideration.

The next phase, peer review by a studysection and preparation of the summarystatement, is managed by a Scientific ReviewAdministrator (SRA). Most SRAs and theirstudy sections reside in the Center forScientific Review, but some reside in theInstitutes and Centers. After the initial peerreview, your application is in the hands of aProgram Officer, all of whom reside in anInstitute or Center.

Questions concerning study section assess-ments for a pending grant application, or thelikelihood for funding, should be directed tothe appropriate Program Officer—the indi-vidual listed in the upper left corner of thesummary statement and on the priority scorenotification letter. After the meeting of thestudy section, the SRA is no longer your pointof contact concerning the application, but heor she can discuss matters of general reviewpolicy and procedure. It may be tempting tocontact a reviewer to find out “the real story”of how your application was discussed. You

should not do so. Reviewers understand theneed for complete confidentiality regardingthe discussions in the study section.

You should not attempt to discuss yourapplication, the manner in which it wasreviewed, or an appropriate course of actionuntil you have the summary statement inhand and have given it adequate considera-tion. The summary statement is mailed tothe Principal Investigator within six to eight weeks after the study section meeting.The summary statement includes a resumeand summary of discussion written by theSRA, the (largely unedited) reviewers’ cri-


It is critical to understand thedifferent responsibilities ofreview staff and program staff at NIH, and where yourapplication goes within the NIH.

Particularly noteworthy are the five major review criteria—Significance, Approach,Innovation, Investigator, andEnvironment—that are used inthe evaluation of most researchapplications submitted to NIH.

tiques, a budget recommendation, a meetingroster, and contact information for theappropriate Program Officer in the assignedInstitute or Center.

If Your Application Was Not FundedIf your application was not funded, you havetwo options. If the summary statement out-lines specific points that can be addressedsuccinctly, then fixing those weaknesses andsubmitting an amended application for thenext deadline is advisable. For amendedapplications, reviewers are given the priorsummary statement and they are instructedto comment on both the applicant’s responseto the previous review and the degree to

which the application is improved, so a keyfactor in crafting a successful amended appli-cation is addressing the reviewers’ criticisms.This does not necessarily mean acceptingthem; sometimes reviewers’ criticisms can behandled by providing additional information

or a more thorough explanation. In mostcases, the amended application will be sent tothe same study section, although differentreviewers may be assigned to review it. If theapplicant requests another study section in acover letter and the new study section has theexpertise required to review the application,the request is generally honored.

Scores are often improved in subsequentsubmissions (for a given project, one canmake three submissions). However, changingthe application according to the prior studysection’s comments does not guarantee fund-ing. Sometimes the second set of reviewersuncover weaknesses not found during thefirst review. Therefore, it is common for evenan amended application to receive an unfa-vorable score; it may even score more poorlythan did the original.

If you believe that a substantive factualerror has been made in the review process,your second option is to initiate a formalappeal by writing a letter to the ProgramOfficer. Your concern will be discussed atNIH and your letter may be sent to theAdvisory Council or Board of the fundingInstitute or Center, seeking their recommen-dation for an appropriate course of action. Inorder to be effective, an appeal letter shouldaddress specific issues or comments in thesummary statement that can be documented,rather than differences of scientific opinion.


You should not attempt todiscuss your application, themanner in which it wasreviewed or an appropriatecourse of action until you havethe summary statement in handand have given it adequateconsideration.

A key factor in crafting asuccessful amended applicationis addressing the reviewers’criticisms.


In order to be effective, anappeal letter should addressspecific issues or comments in the summary statementthat can be documented,rather than differences ofscientific opinion.

The Advisory Council or Board may upholdthe study section’s review or recommend thatthe review be done over (deferral). NIH oper-ates on a schedule of three review cycles ayear, and the Advisory Council or Boardmeetings occur late in each review cycle.Therefore, a recommendation by Council forre-review is likely to result in deferral of theapplication for re-review in the next reviewcycle. Only infrequently does the AdvisoryCouncil or Board recommend funding with-out re-review.

An important difference exists betweenthe two options in the document that is re-reviewed: deferral entails the re-review ofthe original application without revision,whereas submitting an amended applicationgives the applicant the opportunity toaddress the comments of the study section.The review schedule for the two options isoften the same.

What’s My Next Move? If revising the application a second time didnot work, it’s probably time to overhaul theproject or to turn in a new direction. Be pre-pared to ask yourself some hard questions:Are the research questions I’m addressing

important? What if my ideas don’t work? AmI working in the wrong place? Am I boredwith this? Also, be prepared to back up andtake some baby steps. Small awards fromlocal funding agencies or internal fundingfrom your institution can give you an oppor-tunity to demonstrate your abilities and toproduce important preliminary data. Finally,take advantage of every resource available toyou that can help you succeed. Ask yourProgram Officer to steer you toward specialNIH initiatives that may be appropriate foryou; ask your SRA to discuss appropriatereview venues for your new ideas; and ask atrusted, senior colleague or former mentor todiscuss your outline and later to proofread

your application. If your institution offers aninternal pre-review service, use it. If yourinstitution offers a course on grant writingskills, take it. If you need assurances andapprovals, get them. An outstanding presen-tation probably can’t rescue a mediocre proj-ect but a mediocre presentation can kill anoutstanding project, especially if it is difficultto understand or if it is incomplete. Don’tleave anything to chance—now is your timeto shine. ■


An outstanding presentationprobably can’t rescue a mediocreproject but a mediocrepresentation can kill anoutstanding project.

If revising the application asecond time did not work, it’sprobably time to overhaul theproject or to turn in a newdirection.

8. ACADEMIC CAREERSTeaching Is Good for Research

Academic Careers without Tenure


Teaching Is Good for Research


Biomedical Research

Few would argue with the premise that researchis an important part of teaching and that manyof our greatest teachers have also been top

researchers. Students are taught the experimentalunderpinnings of key results and concepts, oftenillustrating actual experimental data to establish apoint. The latest results and methods are incorpo-rated in class lectures and problem sets; discussionson genomics, DNA “chip” microarray technology,and bioinformatics commonly interdigitate lectureson cell-cell signaling pathways, protein traffic, andthe cytoskeleton. In laboratory courses studentslearn how to carry out some of the newest experi-mental techniques. In many, many ways, researchinforms teaching.

But what of the converse premise—that teaching isgood for the development of one’s research program?By requiring faculty to master new and unfamiliarareas of biology, teaching naturally leads into newareas of investigation and enhances one’s research pro-gram. Also, in many medical schools and researchinstitutes both in the United States and abroad,research faculty rarely teach undergraduates or evengraduate students, while at the same institutions facul-ty in other colleges or administrative groups handlethe bulk of the graduate and certainly the undergrad-uate instruction.

By requiring faculty to master new andunfamiliar areas of biology, teachingnaturally leads into totally new areasof investigation and enhances one’sresearch program.

It is troubling that faculty at most med-ical schools in the United States do little orno teaching, especially at the undergradu-ate level, even when many are among themost inspiring and creative lecturers.Many who teach give only a few lecturesand only in their area of specialty. Indeed,those who do not teach are vulnerable to

research programs that become narrowand routine. Teachers know that prepar-ing for and teaching a topic to a group ofstudents forces one to read up and learnnew concepts and information. As life sci-ence is becoming more interdisciplinary,there is the need to have a much broaderappreciation of many related subjects, andteaching is a good way to acquire this.Lacking exposure to the questions by stu-dents, and perhaps more importantlylacking the perspective obtained by read-ing broadly and deeply outside of one’sparticular field, many nonteachers seem-ingly have been unable to refocus theirresearch into new areas when the oldareas had become stale.

There are lessons here for young scientistsbeginning a research career. First, gain as muchteaching experience as possible. Often the bestresearch lectures are given by experiencedteachers. Standing in front of a group of stu-dents and presenting complex materials simplyand concisely is a skill that can help one give thefantastic research lecture that lands a top job.

Once beginning researchers have a facultyjob, they should teach. If they do not have toteach, they should volunteer to organize a sem-inar course in a field near but not part of theirown. Reading and criticizing papers in a fieldnot one’s own, as part of a seminar course, is agreat way to learn a new set of technologies orconcepts. Or they should volunteer to teachpart of a core graduate course in their depart-ment or develop and co-teach a new coursewith a colleague in a nearby field. Amongother benefits, they may find common interestsfor collaborations and also get exposure to stu-dents who may decide to work with them.

Thus teaching can inform research asmuch as research can inform teaching. Also,each of us has benefited from inspiring teach-ers and thus each of us has acquired the obli-gation to teach at whatever level we can inorder to train and inspire the generations ofscientists who will follow us. ■


CHAPTER 8 • ACADEMIC CAREERS 209

Many non-teachers seeminglyhave been unable to refocus theirresearch into new areas whenthe old areas had become stale.

If you do not have to teach,volunteer to organize a seminarcourse in a field near but notpart of your own.

Standing in front of a group ofstudents and presentingcomplex materials simply andconcisely is a skill that can helpone give the fantastic researchlecture that lands a top job.

Teaching can inform research asmuch as research can informteaching.


Academic Careers without Tenure

Caroline M. KaneUniversity of California,

Berkeley

Tenure (Webster’s Ninth Collegiate Dictionary): a status

granted after a trial period to a teacher protecting him from

summary dismissal.

Universities and colleges maintain a variety ofcategories among faculty, and each has itsown expectations, responsibilities, privileges,

job security, and respect. Institutions of higher edu-cation have neither the resources nor the desire tohire all members of the faculty into positions thatmight require funds in perpetuity (tenured), and yetthey have a great need for faculty in teaching,research, and service to carry out the mission of theinstitution successfully.

What are the advantages and disadvantages to thescientist who signs on to a career without tenure at anacademic institution? Is tenure a dinosaur that shouldbe allowed to achieve extinction? When one is consid-ering a position at an academic institution, whataspects are differentially negotiable for tenured andnontenured faculty?

There are many job titles outside the traditionalAssistant, Associate and Full Professor at academicinstitutions, and they can be confusing to students, staffand even other faculty at the same institution. AdjunctProfessor, Specialist, Research Faculty, Lecturer,Instructor, Professor in Residence: other titles and per-

The most remarkable finding amongcolleagues across institutions is that theyfeel that the respect among colleagues inone’s field off the home campus isunrelated to a campus job title.

sonnel categories might be specific to individ-ual institutions, and each title comes with itsown rules, responsibilities and privileges.

What advantages accrue to scientists atacademic institutions when they do notenjoy traditional job titles? The most remark-able finding among colleagues across institu-tions is that they feel that the respect amongcolleagues in one’s field off the home cam-pus is unrelated to a campus job title. Oncampus, many important aspects are report-ed positively: the opportunity to conductresearch, teach and participate in depart-ment policy discussions is often blind to atitle. While there is no tenure, such positions,when full or nearly full time, usually havethe benefits of traditional faculty, includinghealth insurance and contribution to retire-ment. These benefits accord significantfinancial advantages in any employment sit-uation. These positions can sometimes allowfor part-time assignments which can be aparticular attraction when raising a family,caring for a sick parent or dealing with othersignificant personal needs.

A common perception is that nontradition-al faculty enjoy the advantage of being free ofthe crushing burden of grant writing. This issometimes the case. However, this “advan-tage” may be illusory if the same person findsher- or himself being the ghost writer for theperson who is officially the Principal

Investigator. Many times, there is a strongcontribution to the grant without assumingthe majority role in the writing, and this col-laboration with the Principal Investigator canbe particularly productive.

Association with the institution is widelyregarded as a very positive feature, offeringthe opportunity to work with graduate stu-dents, postdoctoral fellows and visiting fac-ulty, regardless of whether it’s within one’sindependent laboratory or in someone else’s.It is also generally perceived that faculty inthese positions enjoy the opportunity to putextra effort into teaching; indeed some posi-tions, such as lecturer and instructor, have noresearch responsibilities and often no admin-istrative responsibilities outside those associ-ated with classes. This is because expecta-

tions are usually different from those of tradi-tional faculty whose advancement is nearlyentirely based on research output, regardlessof protestation to the contrary. Many facultywithout employment security derive satisfac-

Faculty in these positions enjoythe opportunity to put extraeffort into teaching; indeed somepositions, such as lecturer andinstructor, have no researchresponsibilities.



A common perception is thatnontraditional faculty enjoy the advantage of being free ofthe crushing burden of grantwriting. This is sometimes the case.

The biggest single burdennontraditional faculty endurecompared to other faculty is lackof job security.


tion from and are very successful in theirresearch contributions.

The biggest single burden nontraditionalfaculty endure compared to other faculty islack of job security. Contracts for these posi-tions are typically one to three years, andsometimes less, since salary funds are usual-ly soft money, dependent upon grant fund-ing. While more and more academic institu-tions are moving away from tenure andtoward such rolling contracts, these collegesand universities remain the exception ratherthan the rule. There is also often ambiguity inevaluating one’s success in these nontradi-tional positions, although it almost alwaysreflects a combination of the usual research,

teaching and service. Nonetheless, institu-tions utilize extensive latitude in evaluatingperformance in these positions, and some-times this vagueness can be intentional inorder to be able to eliminate positions or tojustify maintaining a scientist in a nonperma-nent status, depending upon the immediateneeds of a department or institution.Nontraditional faculty indisputably enjoyless salary and research support than theirtenured colleagues.

There is an undeniable perception, if notreality, that one gets less respect for accom-

plishments at one’s home institution. Theunspoken sense is that even if one is doing agood job at teaching, service and evenresearch, if one were just “better,” one wouldhave a permanent position. Moreover, thefeeling of inclusion depends on the depart-ment, and perhaps on the title itself. One non-tenured faculty member indicated that he is“virtually invisible” to his departmentdespite being on the faculty for over eightyears. An interesting research topic would bea comparison of the impact of individualsfrom different job categories on both the suc-cess of the educational institution and one’sresearch field.

These positions are sometimes considered“way stations” on the road to a “real career.”This misconception overlooks the depth andbreadth of excellence and commitment of thecadre of professionals in these roles. Manyscientists have chosen these jobs for all theadvantages outlined above, and their inten-tion is to advance within these nontraditionalranks, enjoying the independence and satis-faction of the significant contributions theyare making. Others however are indeed hiredwith the misleading understanding that as atraditional position opens up, they will befirst in line for full consideration.

The most important advice for scientistsconsidering impermanent positions is, “Lookbefore you leap.” Often one may be told, “Wewill try to move you into a more secure posi-

The unspoken sense is that evenif one is doing a good job atteaching, service and evenresearch, if one were just“better,” one would have apermanent position.

Institutions utilize extensivelatitude in evaluatingperformance in these positions,and sometimes this vaguenesscan be intentional in order to beable to eliminate positions or tojustify maintaining a scientistin a nonpermanent status.

tion.” Analyze the history of the depart-ment’s achieving that. Be ready to be yourown advocate and to initiate interactions

with others in your department or acrossyour campus. Learn clearly, preferably inwriting, how you will be evaluated for pro-motion and how the department or campus

may come to your assistance if you have atemporary lapse in grant funding. How com-mitted is the department to assuring theresearch space and resources for you toadvance professionally? What specificresponsibilities are required of you each aca-demic year? Ask how your opinions will becounted in departmental decisions on policy,hiring, and retention of other faculty, tradi-tional or not. In addition, ask the Dean orother upper level administrator how the posi-tion is significant for the campus. Answerswill vary, and the decision to accept the posi-tion or not will depend upon personal cir-cumstance. Going in with eyes open and withsupporters to promote professional develop-ment are essential. ■


Often one may be told, “We willtry to move you into a moresecure position.” Analyze thehistory of the department’sachieving that.



9. EFFECTIVE PRESENTATIONDo’s and Don’t’s of Poster Presentation

You Don’t Have to Shout to Be Heard


Do’s and Don’t’s of Poster Presentation

Steven M. BlockStanford University

This guide offers advice on preparing a good scien-tific poster. As with all communication, which isan art form, there is no single recipe for success.

There are many alternative, creative ways to displayand convey scientific information pictorially.Occasionally, breaking with tradition can pay off, butnot always. It’s generally best to leave experimentationto the laboratory, and stick with tried-and-true meth-ods for poster presentations. Remember that when itcomes to posters, style, format, color, readability, attrac-tiveness and showmanship all count.

DON’T make your poster up on just one or two largeboards. These are a clumsy nuisance to lug around.They put large strains on poster pins and often falldown. They frequently don’t fit well into the posterspace provided. They don’t lend themselves well to re-arrangement, alignment or last-minute modifications.DO make up your poster in a large number of sepa-rate sections, all of comparable size. The handiestmethod is to mount each standard-sized piece ofpaper individually on a colored board of its own, ofslightly larger dimensions, about 9.5” x 12”. Thisframes each poster segment with a nice border andmakes for a versatile poster that can be put up any-where, yet knocks down easily to fit into a briefcase orbackpack for transport.

DON’T write an overlong title. Save it for yourabstract. Titles that use excess jargon are a bore. Titleswith colons in them are a bore. Titles that are too cuteare even more of a bore.

Titles with colons in them are a bore. Titlesthat are too cute are even more of a bore.

DO keep your title short, snappy, and on tar-get. The title needs to highlight your subjectmatter, but need not state all your conclu-sions. Some good titles simply ask questions.Others answer them.

DON’T make the title type size too large ortoo small.DO make your title large enough to be read easily from a considerable distance(25–50 ft.), without exceeding the width ofyour poster area. It should never occupy morethan two lines. If things don’t fit, shorten thetitle—don’t reduce the type size! Format yourtitle using title case, which means initial capi-tals followed by lowercase letters.

DON’T leave people wondering about whodid this work.DO put the names of all the authors and insti-tutional affiliations just below (or next to)your title. It’s a nice touch to supply firstnames, rather than initials. Don’t use thesame large type size as you did for the title:use something smaller and more discreet.This is not the cult of personality.

DON’T use too small a type size for yourposter. This is the single most common error!!Never, ever, use 10- or 12-point type. Don’tuse it in your text. Don’t use it for captions.Don’t use it for figure legends, annotations,footnotes or subscripts. Don’t use it any-

where. Don’t ever use small type on a poster!Remember, no one ever complained thatsomeone’s poster was too easy to read.

DO use a type size that can be read easily ata distance of 4 feet or more. You do want alarge crowd to develop around your poster,don’t you? Think of 14-pt. type as being suit-able only for the “fine print” and work yourway up (never down) from there. A type sizeof 20 pt. is about right for text (18 pt., if nec-essary). Not enough space to fit all your text?Shorten your text!

DON’T pick a font that’s a pain to read.Please, don’t get too creative in your type-face selections: to struggle through a posterin Gothic or Broadway or Tekton or any-thing garish is painful. Less obvious is thefact that sans-serif fonts, Helvetica and Arial

being the most common offenders, are moredifficult to read, and certain letters areambiguous (l = lower case ‘l’ and I = uppercase ‘I’). Serifs help guide the eye along theline and have been shown in numerous stud-ies to improve readability and comprehen-sion. Equally hard to read are most mono-spaced fonts, such as Courier. Generallyspeaking, it’s better to leave Helvetica to CellPress, reserving its use in posters for shorttext items such as titles and graph labels, andreserve monospaced fonts for use innucleotide sequence alignments.DO use a high-quality laser or inkjet printerto print your poster: no dot matrix printers,no typewriters, no handwriting. Select ahighly legible font with serifs and a large “x-height.” The x-height of a typeface is a typog-rapher’s term for the relative height of the

Not enough space to fit all your text? Shorten your text!


CHAPTER 9 • EFFECTIVE PRESENTATION 217

Never, ever, use 10- or 12-pointtype. Don’t use it in your text.Don’t use it for captions. Don’t useit for figure legends, annotations,footnotes or subscripts. Don’t useit anywhere.

lowercase ‘x’ compared with an uppercaseletter, such as ‘A,’ or a lowercase letter withascenders, such as ‘b.’ A large x-height makesfor easy reading from a distance. Good ol’Times Roman (A a B b C c D d E e G g P p Q

q X x Y y Z z) and its look-alike clones suchas Times New Roman represent the standardchoice. But if you seek a different look, con-sider Baskerville (A a B b C c D d E e G g Pp Q q X x Y y Z z), Century Schoolbook(A a B b C c D d E e G g P p Q q Xx Y y Zz), Palatino (A a B b C c D d E e G g P p Q qX x Y y Z z), or anything else with proven leg-ibility. Also, consider adjusting the kerning(the letter spacing) for improved readability.This is particularly helpful when using largefont sizes.

DON’T vary type sizes or typefaces exces-sively throughout the poster. For example,don’t use something different for every bit oftext and graphics.DO design your poster as if you were design-ing the layout for a magazine or newspaper.Select fonts and sizes that work together well.Strive for consistency, uniformity and a clean,readable look.

DON’T make your reader jump all over theposter area to follow your presentation. Don’tsegregate your text, figures, and legends inseparate areas.DO lay out the poster segments in a logicalorder, so that reading proceeds in some kindof linear fashion from one segment to thenext, moving sequentially in a raster pattern.

The best way to set up this pattern is colum-nar format, so the reader proceeds verticallyfirst, from top to bottom, then left to right.This has the advantage that several peoplecan read your poster at the same time, walk-ing through it from left to right, without hav-ing to exchange places. Consider numberingyour individual poster pieces (1, 2, 3, ...) sothat the reading sequence is obvious to all.And always make sure that all figure legendsare located immediately adjacent to the rele-vant figures.

DON’T use gratuitous colors. Colors attractattention, but can also detract from your mes-sage when misused. Fluorescent (neon) colorborders just don’t cut it for posters. Neitherdo excessive variations in color (the “rainbowlook”). Forget paisley, tie-dye, stripes, polkadots, and batik. In graphics, use color withdeliberation. DO use colors in your poster, but in a waythat helps to convey additional meaning. Forcolor borders, select something that drawsattention but doesn’t overwhelm. For colorartwork, make sure that the colors actuallymean something and serve to make usefuldistinctions. If pseudocoloring is necessary,give thought to the color scale being used,making sure that it is tasteful, sensible, and,above all, intuitive. Also, be mindful of colorcontrast when choosing colors: never placeisoluminous colors in close proximity (darkred on navy blue, chartreuse on light grey,etc.), and remember that a lot of people outthere happen to be red/green colorblind.


Consider numbering yourindividual poster pieces (1, 2, 3, ...) so that the readingsequence is obvious to all.

Forget paisley, tie-dye, stripes,polka dots, and batik. Ingraphics, use color withdeliberation.

Please remember this advice when you createcolor slides and transparencies, as well!

DON’T write your poster as one long, mean-dering thread.DO break your poster up into sections, muchlike a scientific article. Label each sectionwith titles. Always start with an abstract, andwrite it to be easily read and digested, in con-trast to the abstracts found in some scientificjournals. You should not attempt to includeeverything possible in 150 words or less.Make sure that your abstract contains a clearstatement of your conclusions. Other sectionsshould describe the Strategy, Methods, andResults (although you need not call these sec-

tions by those names). Display all yourgraphs, pictures, photos, illustrations, etc., incontext. Write clear, short legends for everyfigure. Follow up with a Conclusions section.You may wish to add an “Executive Summary”at the end: many successful posters provide abulleted list of conclusions, questionsanswered/raised, or both.

DON’T ever expect anyone to spend morethan 3–5 minutes at your poster. If you can’tconvey your message clearly in less timethan this, chances are you haven’t done thejob properly.DO get right to the heart of the matter, andremember the all-important “KISS Principle”:Keep It Simple, Stupid! In clear, brief, jargon-free terms, your poster must explain the sci-entific problem in mind (what’s the ques-tion?), its significance (why should we care?),how your particular experiment addressesthe problem (what’s your strategy?), theexperiments performed (what did you actu-ally do?), the results obtained (what did youactually find?), the conclusions (what do youthink it all means?), and, optionally, caveats(any reservations?), and future prospects(where do you go from here?).

DON’T write your poster as if it were a scientific paper. It’s not. Don’t waste lots ofprecious space on messy experimental details(Materials and Methods should be abbreviated)or on irrelevant minutia. Don’t display everygel, every sequence, every genotype. Don’tever supply long tables: no one has the timeor inclination to wade through these. And don’t ever lift long sections of textdirectly from some manuscript and use theseas a part of your poster. A poster is not aworked-over manuscript.DO recall that a poster should be telegraphicin style and very accessible. Avoid jargon.Eschew obfuscation. Write plainly, simply,briefly—never cryptically. A little informalitycan help, but don’t get too cute. Stress exper-imental strategy, key results, and conclusions.Don’t get bogged down in little stuff. Conveythe Big Picture.

DON’T leave prospective readers hanging orassume they’re all experts. They’re not, espe-cially at a broad meeting like the ASCB,


Remember that a lot of peopleout there happen to be red/greencolor-blind. Please rememberthis advice when you createcolor slides and transparencies,as well!

Display all your graphs,pictures, photos, illustrations,etc. in context. Write clear,short legends for every figure.


where people from different fields will beviewing your poster.DO consider adding a helpful tutorial sectionto your poster. For example, consider one ormore of these additions to the “standardfare”: a brief, possibly annotated bibliogra-phy; a short account describing some specialapparatus or technique; a synopsis of the his-torical background of a particular scientificproblem; a pictorial glossary describing somejargon terms (e.g., a definition of synthetic

lethality with an illustration of alternativeways it can develop); a website for supple-mentary material; photographs of yoursetup; or anything else that would help teachyour readers what they need to know to

understand and appreciate your work. Usegraphics! Many of the items above are whatan editor would call a sidebar to the mainstory. Sidebars help to communicate the mes-sage. Remember that you are the single bestadvocate of your own work.

DON’T leave out acknowledgments.DO remember that it never hurts to give cred-it where it’s due. Write up a shortAcknowledgment section, including yoursources of financial support and everyonewho helped you to get the work done. No onewas ever accused of being too generous here.

DON’T leave out the references.DO provide routes into the literature andsupply a context for your work. Poster refer-ences need not be as extensive as those inpapers. If your poster work, or work closelyrelated to it, has already been published, dis-play the citation(s). Footnotes are permissible

but not preferable, so if they’re necessary,keep them brief. People hate having to jumparound while reading posters. A website formore information is useful.

DON’T leave everything until the lastminute! Avoid resorting to handwritten text(no felt-tip pens!) or using white-out. Don’thold everything together with tape. Be pro-fessional.DO start putting your poster together early.Get the Title, Acknowledgments, Bibliography,and other standard items out of the way first,so you aren’t unnecessarily stuck at the lastminute with these details. Experiment withlayout, type fonts, sizes, and colors early. Buyyour posterboard, pushpins, etc., early. Pre-cut posterboard pieces. Make any graphicsthat you know in advance are destined foryour poster early. Buy a can of spray mount(artist’s adhesive) so you can dry mount allthe poster segments. The best kind to get isthe type that allows you to reposition the art-work without damaging it.

DON’T stand directly in front of your posterat the session or get too close to it. Don’tbecome so engrossed in conversation with anysingle individual that you (or they) accidental-ly prevent others from viewing your poster.DO try to stay close by, but off to the side justa bit, so that passersby can see things and sothat you don’t block the vision of peoplealready gathered ‘round.

DON’T be an eager beaver and badger thenice people who come to read your poster.DO give them some space. Allow them todrink it all in. If they engage you with a ques-tion, that is your opening to offer to takethem through the poster or discuss matters ofmutual scientific interest. Conversely, don’tignore people who look interested: you canhave a beer with your buddies later.


Sidebars help to communicatethe message.

DON’T pull a disappearing act. DO stick around. It’s your poster, your work!Be there for the full scheduled presentationtime. This is especially important at the ASCBAnnual Meeting where there’s so much goingon that interested viewers may be duckingout of other things just to catch the end ofyour poster presentation.

DON’T forget ancillary materials.DO come prepared to your poster, armedwith reprints of any of your own relevantpapers that you might have, plus extra copiesof any material you may wish to share. Haveready some business cards if you have them,

or prepare in advance slips of paper withyour coordinates. Bring a pad of paper with ahard back for writing and some pens. Postersare a terrific way to get scientific suggestionsand meet like-minded individuals! Don’t for-get to bring plenty of push-pins.

DON’T hesitate to provide supporting mate-rials, if these can help. But don’t overdo it.DO consider using some kind of attention-getting gimmick, but beware that it doesn’tbackfire! A video set-up can be orderedthrough the ASCB, or you can supply yourown laptop computer. Some interestingposters provide physical models or variouskinds of three-dimensional display. Still oth-ers display actual data traces, or computer-based simulations, or something else thatmakes them stand out from the crowd. But ifyou do this, be sure your “hook” is legitimateand that it doesn’t detract from the science, ortrivialize it. ■

Don’t ignore people who lookinterested: you can have a beerwith your buddies later.




You Don’t Have to Shout to Be Heard

W. Sue ShaferUniversity of California,

San Francisco

Richard L. ShaferRetired, The National

Institutes of Health

How can I get my point across? Everyone con-fronts this question. Women particularly mayworry about being heard. They wonder if they

can exert authority or get things accomplished withoutusing macho behavior.

“Christiana” suggests a neat new idea to the product

development group, only to have it ignored. Later on, when

“Frank” suggests it, he gets credit and compliments for it.

Do things like this really happen? Observe and ana-lyze behaviors in meetings you attend, and you’ll agreethat it happens too often.

Going to Meetings Many of us attend one or more recurring meetings, suchas a lab meeting, a product development meeting, or apolicy meeting. Next time, try to map out the interac-tions you see, and measure the meeting’s effectiveness: • Is the leader in control of the meeting? Do you like

the way the meeting is run?• How many participants speak up? Are there a few

dominant personalities who hog all the air time? • Do people interrupt each other? Do men interrupt

more than women do? Women more than men? • Does everyone get to contribute? Are ideas freely

shared and acknowledged?

If you like the way the meeting is working, try tothink about why. Who is making it happen and what isshe or he doing? Who is effective and why?

If you don’t like the dynamics of the meeting, try topinpoint the causes. What would you do to changethem? How would you do it?

One-time meetings pose another opportunity toanalyze and understand the meeting culture aroundyou. As you develop your skills of observation andanalysis, you’ll adjust your style more quickly to theseone-time events.

Making Meetings BetterTwo golden rules will make the meetings youattend more constructive for you: Be courteous

and Be substantive.

Be courteous

• Make sure you know the name of everyoneattending. Ask for a round of introductionsif people don’t know each other.

• Use others’ names when speaking to themor referring to their statements.

• Be brief. Speak only to add something new.Don’t speak only to be heard.

• Listen to the person speaking. Don’t beplanning your next statement while some-one else is talking.

• Look at the speaker.• Speak in friendly terms to others. Never

yell at other participants. If someoneyells at you, try to reply quietly, in a friendly voice, perhaps with a bit of humor.

After a well-run meeting, compliment itsleader. Reinforce what you liked about it.

Be Substantive

• Speak only when you have something to say.

• Acknowledge the ideas of others, even ifyou want to build on them instead of usethem as-is.

• If you disagree with an idea, acknowledgeit and the person who offered it, while stat-ing your differences.

• Ask for clarification if you do not under-stand what someone is suggesting. Be firmin your dealings with those who try to runover you.

• If someone “steals” your idea, reclaim it.“That’s just what I was trying to say earli-er...you’ve made it much clearer.”

If you model these behaviors for others, youmight raise the entire meeting’s effectiveness.

Leading Better MeetingsIf you regularly lead meetings, analyze howyour meeting looks to the participants. Askthe same questions as participants might, butanswer them from your leader’s perspective.

The same golden rules apply to those wholead meetings: Be courteous and Be substantive.

Be courteous

• Prepare in advance by sending out an agenda. If appropriate, send out a roster of attendees, including their first and lastnames, titles and organizational affiliations.

• Start and end on time. Keep your meetingsto a reasonable and previously agreedupon length. Schedule the time to fit thetasks to be accomplished.

Acknowledge the ideas of others,even if you want to build onthem instead of use them as-is.



These two golden rules willmake the meetings youattend more constructive for you: Be courteous and Be substantive.

Listen to the person speaking.Don’t be planning your nextstatement while someone else is talking.

• Be sure all participants know each others’names, and if appropriate, areas of expertise.If they don’t, introduce them to one another.Use their names as you speak to them.

• Look at and listen to speakers. Ask for clar-ification when needed.

• Assure that all have a chance to speak, andassure that no one speaks just to be heard.Be sensitive to women and men whoseideas might get lost.

Be Substantive

• Clarify your own objective(s) before your meeting. Begin the meeting by stating the objective(s) as clearly as youcan manage. Highlight and acknowledgeany murky areas.

• Describe the ground rules for how you’lluse the meeting to accomplish its objective.Describe your plans for keeping the meet-ing on task.

• Don’t try to accomplish in big meetingsthings that should be handled privately.For example, telling another scientist thatshe/he doesn’t fit in the project you areplanning is best done in private, even if itfirst becomes clear to you in the course ofyour bigger meeting.

• Use subgroups to accomplish appropriatetasks, when subgroups can do so moreefficiently.

• Encourage participants to speak brieflywhen adding new ideas or expanding onthose already offered.

• Encourage participants who disagree withone another’s ideas to debate the ideas,without attacking one another personally.

• End your meetings with a summary ofwhat has been accomplished and a list ofaction items with due dates.

• Thank the participants for their help andcontributions.

The Real World People who are knowledgeable in some areamake it easier for others to respect them,especially if they convey the knowledge in afriendly fashion…. A man will display atleast a small amount of deference to hisfemale conversational partner—by lookingat her when she is speaking—if she knowsmore about the topic under discussion thanhe does.1

Depending on the environment, it can be hard or easy to be heard and to be effective. Your self-confidence, firmness,consideration for others, and clear sense ofpurpose will make it easier. Your successand effectiveness in being heard will build one more step toward a world where women contribute their talents without hindrance. ■


Be sensitive to women and menwhose ideas might get lost.

ENDNOTES1. THE LAB COMMUNITYConfronting the Social Context of Science1 C. Perrow. Normal Accidents: Living With High-RiskTechnologies (Basic Books, New York, 1984).

2 D. Vaughan. The Challenger Launch Decision: RiskyTechnology, Culture and Deviance at NASA (Universityof Chicago Press, Chicago, 1996).

3 E. A. Cohen and J. Gooch. Military Misfortunes: TheAnatomy of Failure in War (Vintage, New York, 1991).

Two Cultures and the Revolution in Biotechnology1 C. P. Snow. The Two Cultures. (Cambridge UniversityPress, New York, 1959).

3. SCIENTIFIC CITIZENSHIPThe Misconduct of Others: Prevention Techniques for ResearchersThis article is modified from one published by theauthor in the American Psychological Society’sObserver. Reproduced with permission.

1 Code of Federal Regulations. 42 C.F.R. Part 50 subpartA, section 102.

2 http://ori.hhs.gov.

Making a Difference: The Three R’s of Public Science Policy1 http://www.jscpp.org.

Great Expectations or Realistic Expectations?1 http://www.ascb.org/publicpolicy/nasareport.html.

2 http://www.aaas.org/spp/rd/proj05u.htm.

4. WRITING AND PUBLISHINGMe Write Pretty One Day: How to Write a Good Scientific PaperSome of the content of this article is based on an earlier guide by R. Ward and K. LaMarco.

5. POSTDOC ISSUES To Eurodoc or Not Eurodoc1 For general tips, see http://pingu.salk.edu/%7Eforsburg/bio.html.

2 Funding sources include the NIH, Damon Runyon-Walter Winchell Cancer Research Fund,Human Frontiers, National Science Foundation, American Cancer Society, and the FrenchMuscular Dystrophy Association (AFM). Grantsnet (http://www.grantsnet.org/) providesinformation about fellowships without international restrictions. Speak with your sponsorabout institutional, national or European fellowships for which you are eligible.

3 Janet Chenevert (Ville Franche).

4 Christine Blaumueller (European Molecular Biology Laboratory).

5 Kelly McNagy (University of British Columbia).

6 Karla Neugebauer (Max Planck Institute).

7 Laura Machesky (University of Birmingham).

8 Judy White (University of Virginia).

6. CAREER TRANSITIONSalary Negotiation1 Abbott, Langer and Associates publishes Compensation in the Life Sciences that tabulatessalaries for life scientists in all sectors as a function of rank, type of work, type of organization,and geographical location. Radford Surveys publishes a similar report for the biotechnologysector. The American Association of University Professors (AAUP) publishes an Annual Reporton the Economic Status of the Profession. Similarly, the American Association of Medical Collegestracks salaries for basic scientists at U.S. medical schools.

What Else Can I Do?: Exploring Opportunities in Business and ManagementAuthor served as Director of MBA Admissions at the Graduate School of Business at Stanford University from 1981 to 1985.

1 www.amanet.org.

Late Career Opportunities and Challenges1 For an audiotape of a 2001 American Society for Cell Biology Annual Meeting panel on Late Career Options, see http://ascb.org/audio/audio01mtg.html.

2 For an analysis of the policies found in many American universities, seehttp://www.aaup.org/Issues/retirement/retrpt.htm.

3 J. Handelsman et al., Science 304: 521-522 (2004).

4 See, for example, http://umperg.physics.umass.edu/library/UMPERG-2001-12.

5 See, for example, http://www.nas.edu/rise/.

6 http://www.tiaa-cref.org/.

7 http://www.iie.org/.

8 http://www.peacecorps.gov/.

9 http://www.crossculturalsolutions.org/ or http://www.iearn.org/.


7. GRANTSStudy Section Service: An Introduction1 http://www. csr.nih.gov/.

Responding to the NIH Summary Statement1 As soon as possible after the receipt date, usually within 6 weeks, the PHS will send thePrincipal Investigator/Program Director and the applicant organization the application’sassignment number; the name, address, and telephone number of the Scientific ReviewAdministrator of the Scientific Review Group (SRG) to which the application has beenassigned; and the assigned Institute contact and phone number. If this information is notreceived within that time, contact the Division of Receipt and Referral, Center for ScientificReview (CSR), National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-7720 (301-435-0715). If thereis a change in the assignment, another notification will be sent.

2 Most applications submitted to the Public Health System, which includes NIH, are reviewedthrough a two-tier system. The first level of review is performed by the Scientific ReviewGroup (SRG), which is often called the study section or review committee and is managed bythe Scientific Review Administrator (SRA). The purpose of the SRG is to evaluate the scientificand technical merit of applications. The SRG does not make funding decisions. The secondlevel of review usually is performed by the Advisory Council or Board of the potential award-ing component (Institute, Center, or other unit). Council or Board recommendations are basednot only on considerations of scientific merit, as judged by the SRGs, but also on the relevanceof the proposed study to an Institute’s programs and priorities. Program Officers, on the otherhand, are NIH officials in the various Institutes and Centers responsible for presenting appli-cations to the Advisory Council or Board.

3 The review of most research applications includes a process called streamlining, in whichonly those applications deemed to be amongst the top half of those being reviewed are discussed and assigned a priority score. The remainder are generally not discussed and not scored. Each scored application is assigned a single, global score that reflects the overallimpact that the project could have on the field based on consideration of the five review criteria (significance, approach, innovation, investigator, and environment), with the emphasison each criterion varying from one application to another, depending on the nature of theapplication and its relative strengths. The best possible priority score is 100 and the worst is500. Individual reviewers mark scores to two significant figures (e.g., 2.2), and the individualscores are averaged and then multiplied by 100 to yield a single overall score for each scoredapplication (e.g., 220).

4 http://www.csr.nih.gov/review/policy.htm.

9. EFFECTIVE PRESENTATIONDo’s and Don’t’s of Poster PresentationBased on an article by the author that appeared in Biophysical Journal 71: 3527–3529 (1996).Reprinted with permission.

You Don’t Have to Shout to Be Heard1 Virginia Valian. Why So Slow? The Advancement of Women. (MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1999).

ENDNOTES 227


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