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Students take exams in Mahatma Gandhi Seva

Ashram, Jaura, India.

Cambodian students taking an exam in order to

apply for the Don Bosco Technical School of

Sihanoukville in 2008.

American students in a computer fundamentals

class taking a computer-based test

Test (assessment)From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A test or examination is an assessment intended tomeasure a test-taker's knowledge, skill, aptitude, physicalfitness, or classification in many other topics (e.g., beliefs).A test may be administered orally, on paper, on acomputer, or in a confined area that requires a test taker tophysically perform a set of skills. Tests vary in style, rigorand requirements. For example, in a closed book test, a testtaker is often required to rely upon memory to respond tospecific items whereas in an open book test, a test takermay use one or more supplementary tools such as areference book or calculator when responding to an item. Atest may be administered formally or informally. An exampleof an informal test would be a reading test administered bya parent to a child. An example of a formal test would be afinal examination administered by a teacher in a classroomor an I.Q. test administered by a psychologist in a clinic.

Formal testing often results in a grade or a test score.[1] Atest score may be interpreted with regards to a norm orcriterion, or occasionally both. The norm may beestablished independently, or by statistical analysis of alarge number of participants.

A standardized test is any test that is administered and

scored in a consistent manner to ensure legal defensibility.[2]

Standardized tests are often used in education, professionalcertification, psychology (e.g., MMPI), the military, andmany other fields.

A non-standardized test is usually flexible in scope andformat, variable in difficulty and significance. Since thesetests are usually developed by individual instructors, theformat and difficulty of these tests may not be widelyadopted or used by other instructors or institutions. A non-standardized test may be used to determine the proficiencylevel of students, to motivate students to study, and toprovide feedback to students. In some instances, a teachermay develop non-standardized tests that resemblestandardized tests in scope, format, and difficulty for thepurpose of preparing their students for an upcoming

standardized test.[3] Finally, the frequency and setting bywhich a non-standardized tests are administered are highlyvariable and are usually constrained by the duration of theclass period. A class instructor may for example, administera test on a weekly basis or just twice a semester.Depending on the policy of the instructor or institution, theduration of each test itself may last for only five minutes to an entire class period.

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In contrasts to non-standardized tests, standardized tests are widely used, fixed in terms of scope, difficulty andformat, and are usually significant in consequences. Standardized tests are usually held on fixed dates asdetermined by the test developer, educational institution, or governing body, which may or may not beadministered by the instructor, held within the classroom, or constrained by the classroom period. Althoughthere is little variability between different copies of the same type of standardized test (e.g., SAT or GRE), thereis variability between different types of standardized tests.

Any test with important consequences for the individual test taker is referred to as a high-stakes test.

A test may be developed and administered by an instructor, a clinician, a governing body, or a test provider. Insome instances, the developer of the test may not be directly responsible for its administration. For example,Educational Testing Service (ETS), a nonprofit educational testing and assessment organization, developsstandardized tests such as the SAT but may not directly be involved in the administration or proctoring of thesetests. As with the development and administration of educational tests, the format and level of difficulty of thetests themselves are highly variable and there is no general consensus or invariable standard for test formats anddifficulty. Often, the format and difficulty of the test is dependent upon the educational philosophy of theinstructor, subject matter, class size, policy of the educational institution, and requirements of accreditation orgoverning bodies. In general, tests developed and administered by individual instructors are non-standardizedwhereas tests developed by testing organizations are standardized.

Contents

1 History2 Modern day use of tests

2.1 Education2.2 Licensing and certification2.3 Immigration and naturalization

2.4 Intelligence quotient2.5 Competitions

2.6 Group memberships3 Types of tests

3.1 Written tests3.1.1 Multiple choice

3.1.2 Alternative response3.1.3 Matching type

3.1.4 Completion type3.1.5 Essay3.1.6 Mathematical questions

3.2 Physical fitness tests3.3 Performance tests

4 Test preparations5 Cheating on tests

6 Support and criticisms of tests7 See also

7.1 International examinations8 References

9 Further reading10 External links

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Students taking a scholarship

examination inside a classroom in

1940

History

Ancient China was the first country in the world that implemented anationwide standardized test, which was called the imperialexamination. The main purpose of this examination was to select for

able candidates for specific governmental positions.[4] The imperialexamination was established by the Sui Dynasty in 605 AD and waslater abolished by the Qing Dynasty 1300 years later in 1905.England had adopted this examination system in 1806 to selectspecific candidates for positions in Her Majesty's Civil Service. Thisexamination system was later applied to education and it started toinfluence other parts of the world as it became a prominent standard(e.g. regulations to prevent the markers from knowing the identity ofcandidates), of delivering standardized tests.

Influence of World Wars on Testing

Both World War I and World War II made many people realize the necessity of standardized testing and thebenefits associated with these tests. One main reason people saw the benefits was from the Army Alpha andArmy Beta tests, which were used during WWI to determine human abilities. Alongside the Army Alpha, the

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale "added momentum to the testing movement."[5] Soon after, colleges andindustry began using tests to help in accepting and hiring people based on performance of the test.

Another reason more tests began to come forth was that people were realizing that the distance betweensecondary education and higher education was widening after WWII. In 1952, the first Advanced Placement

(AP) test was administered to begin closing the gap between high schools and colleges.[6]

Modern day use of tests

Education

Some countries such as the United Kingdom and France require all their secondary school students to take astandardized test on individual subjects such as the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) (in

England) and Baccalauréat respectively as a requirement for graduation.[7] These tests are used primarily toassess a student's proficiency in specific subjects such as mathematics, science, or literature. In contrasts, highschool students in other countries such as the United States may not be required to take a standardized test tograduate. Moreover, students in these countries usually take standardized tests only to apply for a position in auniversity program and are typically given the option of taking different standardized tests such as the ACT or

SAT, which are used primarily to measure a student's reasoning skill.[8][9] High school students in the UnitedStates may also take Advanced Placement tests on specific subjects to fulfill university-level credit. Dependingon the policies of the test maker or country, administration of standardized tests may be done in a large hall,classroom, or testing center. A proctor or invigilator may also be present during the testing period to provideinstructions, to answer questions, or to prevent cheating.

Grades or test scores from standardized test may also be used by universities to determine if a student applicantshould be admitted into one of its academic or professional programs. For example, universities in the UnitedKingdom admit applicants into their undergraduate programs based primarily or solely on an applicant's grades

on pre-university qualifications such as the GCE A-levels or Cambridge Pre-U.[10][11] In contrast, universities inthe United States use an applicant's test score on the SAT or ACT as just one of their many admission criteria

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to determine if an applicant should be admitted into one of its undergraduate programs. The other criteria in thiscase may include the applicant's grades from high school, extracurricular activities, personal statement, and

letters of recommendations.[12] Once admitted, undergraduate students in the United Kingdom or United Statesmay be required by their respective programs to take a comprehensive examination as a requirement for passingtheir courses or for graduating from their respective programs.

Standardized tests are sometimes used by certain countries to manage the quality of their educational institutions.For example, the No Child Left Behind Act in the United States requires individual states to developassessments for students in certain grades. In practice, these assessments typically appear in the form ofstandardized tests. Test scores of students in specific grades of an educational institution are then used todetermine the status of that educational institution, i.e., whether it should be allowed to continue to operate in thesame way or to receive funding.

Finally, standardized tests are sometimes used to compare proficiencies of students from different institutions orcountries. For example, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) usesProgramme for International Student Assessment (PISA) to evaluate certain skills and knowledge of students

from different participating countries.[13]

Licensing and certification

Standardized tests are sometimes used by certain governing bodies to determine if a test taker is allowed topractice a profession, to use a specific job title, or to claim competency in a specific set of skills. For example, atest taker who intends to become a lawyer is usually required by a governing body such a governmental barlicensing agency to pass a bar exam.

Immigration and naturalization

Standardized tests are also used in certain countries to regulate immigration. For example, intended immigrants

to Australia are legally required to pass a citizenship test as part of that country's naturalization process.[14]

Intelligence quotient

Main article: Intelligence quotient

Competitions

Tests are sometimes used as a tool to select for participants that have potential to succeed in a competition suchas a sporting event. For example, serious skaters who wish to participate in figure skating competitions in the

United States must pass official U.S. Figure Skating tests just to qualify.[15]

Group memberships

Tests are sometimes used by a group to select for certain types of individuals to join the group. For example,Mensa International is a high I.Q. society that requires individuals to score at the 98th percentile or higher on a

standardized, supervised IQ test.[16]

Types of tests

Written tests

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Indonesian Students taking a

written test

Written tests are tests that are administered on paper or on a computer. Atest taker who takes a written test could respond to specific items by writingor typing within a given space of the test or on a separate form or document.

In some tests; where knowledge of many constants or technical terms isrequired to effectively answer questions, like Chemistry or Biology - the testdeveloper may allow every test taker to bring with them a cheat sheet.

A test developer's choice of which style or format to use when developing awritten test is usually arbitrary given that there is no single invariant standardfor testing. Be that as it may, certain test styles and format have becomemore widely used than others. Below is a list of those formats of test itemsthat are widely used by educators and test developers to construct paper or computer-based tests. As a result,these tests may consist of only one type of test item format (e.g., multiple choice test, essay test) or may have acombination of different test item formats (e.g., a test that has multiple choice and essay items).

Multiple choice

Main article: Multiple choice

In a test that has items formatted as multiple choice questions, a candidate would be given a number of setanswers for each question, and the candidate must choose which answer or group of answers is correct. There

are two families of multiple choice questions.[17] The first family is known as the True/False question and itrequires a test taker to choose all answers that are appropriate. The second family is known as One-Best-Answer question and it requires a test taker to answer only one from a list of answers.

There are several reasons to using multiple choice questions in tests. In terms of administration, multiple choicequestions usually requires less time for test takers to answer, are easy to score and grade, provide greatercoverage of material, allows for a wide range of difficulty, and can easily diagnose a test taker's difficulty with

certain concepts.[18] As an educational tool, multiple choice items test many levels of learning as well as a testtaker's ability to integrate information, and it provides feedback to the test taker about why distractors werewrong and why correct answers were right. Nevertheless, there are difficulties associated with the use ofmultiple choice questions. In administrative terms, multiple choice items that are effective usually take a great

time to construct.[18] As an educational tool, multiple choice items do not allow test takers to demonstrateknowledge beyond the choices provided and may even encourage guessing or approximation due to thepresence of at least one correct answer. For instance a test taker might not work out explicitly that

, but knowing that , they would choose an answer close to 48.Moreover, test takers may misinterpret these items and in the process, perceive these items to be tricky orpicky. Finally, multiple choice items do not test a test taker's attitudes towards learning because correctresponses can be easily faked.

Alternative response

True/False questions present candidates with a binary choice - a statement is either true or false. This methodpresents problems, as depending on the number of questions, a significant number of candidates could get 100%just by guesswork, and should on average get 50%.

Matching type

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A matching item is an item that provides a defined term and requires a test taker to match identifying

characteristics to the correct term.[19]

Completion type

A fill-in-the-blank item provides a test taker with identifying characteristics and requires the test taker to recall

the correct term.[19] There are two types of fill-in-the-blank tests. The easier version provides a word bank ofpossible words that will fill in the blanks. For some exams all words in the word bank are exactly once. If ateacher wanted to create a test of medium difficulty, they would provide a test with a word bank, but somewords may be used more than once and others not at all. The hardest variety of such a test is a fill-in-the-blanktest in which no word bank is provided at all. This generally requires a higher level of understanding and memorythan a multiple choice test. Because of this, fill-in-the-blank tests[with no word bank] are often feared bystudents.

Essay

Items such as short answer or essay typically require a test taker to write a response to fulfill the requirements of

the item. In administrative terms, essay items take less time to construct.[18] As an assessment tool, essay itemscan test complex learning objectives as well as processes used to answer the question. The items can alsoprovide a more realistic and generalizable task for test. Finally, these items make it difficult for test takers toguess the correct answers and require test takers to demonstrate their writing skills as well as correct spellingand grammar.

The difficulties with essay items is primarily administrative. For one, these items take more time for test takers to

answer.[18] When these questions are answered, the answers themselves are usually poorly written because testtakers may not have time to organize and proofread their answers. In turn, it takes more time to score or gradethese items. When these items are being scored or graded, the grading process itself becomes subjective asnon-test related information may influence the process. Thus, considerable effort is required to minimize thesubjectivity of the grading process. Finally, as an assessment tool, essay questions may potentially be unreliablein assessing the entire content of a subject matter.

Mathematical questions

Most mathematics questions, or calculation questions from subjects such as chemistry, physics or economicsemploy a style which does not fall in to any of the above categories, although some papers, notably the MathsChallenge papers in the United Kingdom employ multiple choice. Instead, most mathematics questions state amathematical problem or exercise that requires a student to write a freehand response. Marks are given morefor the steps taken than for the correct answer. If the question has multiple parts, later parts may use answersfrom previous sections, and marks may be granted if an earlier incorrect answer was used but the correctmethod was followed, and an answer which is correct (given the incorrect input) is returned.

Higher level mathematical papers may include variations on true/false, where the candidate is given a statementand asked to verify its validity by direct proof or stating a counterexample.

Physical fitness tests

A physical fitness test is a test designed to measure physical strength, agility, and endurance. They arecommonly employed in educational institutions as part of the physical education curriculum, in medicine as partof diagnostic testing, and as eligibility requirements in fields that focus on physical ability such as military orpolice. Throughout the 20th century, scientific evidence emerged demonstrating the usefulness of strength

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A Minnesota National Guardsman

performs pushups during a physical

fitness test.

training and aerobic exercise in maintaining overall health, and more agencies began to incorporate standardizedfitness testing. In the United States, the President's Council on Youth Fitness was established in 1956 as a wayto encourage and monitor fitness in schoolchildren.

Common tests[20][21][22] include timed running or the multi-stagefitness test, and numbers of push-ups, sit-ups/abdominal crunches andpull-ups that the individual can perform. More specialised tests maybe used to test ability to perform a particular job or role.

Performance tests

A performance test is an assessment that requires an examinee toactually perform a task or activity, rather than simply answeringquestions referring to specific parts. The purpose is to ensure greaterfidelity to what is being tested.

An example is a behind-the-wheel driving test to obtain a driver'slicense. Rather than only answering simple multiple-choice itemsregarding the driving of an automobile, a student is required to actuallydrive one while being evaluated.

Performance tests are commonly used in workplace and professionalapplications, such as professional certification and licensure. Whenused for personnel selection, the tests might be referred to as a worksample. A licensure example would be cosmetologists being requiredto demonstrate a haircut or manicure on a live person. The Group-Bourdon test is one of a number of

psychometric tests which trainee train drivers in the UK are required to pass.[23]

Some performance tests are simulations. For instance, the assessment to become certified as an ophthalmictechnician includes two components, a multiple-choice examination and a computerized skill simulation. Theexaminee must demonstrate the ability to complete seven tasks commonly performed on the job, such asretinoscopy, that are simulated on a computer.

Test preparations

From the perspective of a test developer, there is great variability with respect to time and effort needed toprepare a test. Likewise, from the perspective of a test taker, there is also great variability with respect to thetime and needed to obtain a desired grade or score on any given test. When a test developer constructs a test,the amount of time and effort is dependent upon the significance of the test itself, the proficiency of the test taker,the format of the test, class size, deadline of test, and experience of the test developer.

The process of test construction has been greatly aided in several ways. For one, many test developers werethemselves students at one time, and therefore are able to modify or outright adopt test questions from theirprevious tests. In some countries such as the United States, book publishers often provide teaching packagesthat include test banks to university instructors who adopt their published books for their courses. These test

banks may contain up to four thousand sample test questions that have been peer-reviewed and time tested.[24]

The instructor who chooses to use this testbank would only have to select a fixed number of test questions fromthis test bank to construct a test.

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As with test constructions, the time needed for a test taker to prepare for a test is dependent upon the frequencyof the test, the test developer, and the significance of the test. In general, nonstandardized tests that are short,frequent, and do not constitute a major portion of the test taker's overall course grade or score require do not

require the test taker to spend great amounts preparing for the test.[25] Conversely, nonstandardized tests thatare long, infrequent, and do constitute a major portion of the test taker's overall course grade or score usuallyrequire the test taker to spend great amounts preparing for the test. To prepare for a nonstandardized test, testtakers may rely upon their reference books, class or lecture notes, Internet, and past experience to prepare for

the test. Test takers may also use various learning aids to study for tests such as flash cards and mnemonics.[26]

Test takers may even hire tutors to coach them through the process so that they may increase the probability ofobtaining a desired test grade or score. Finally, test takers may rely upon past copies of a test from previousyears or semesters to study for a future test. These past tests may be provided by a friend or a group that has

copies of previous tests or from instructors and their institutions.[27]

Unlike nonstandardized test, the time needed by test takers to prepare for standardized tests are less variableand usually considerable. This is because standardized tests are usually uniformed in scope, format, and difficultyand often have important consequences with respect to a test taker's future such as a test taker's eligibility toattend a specific university program or to enter a desired profession. It is not unusual for test takers to preparefor standardized tests by relying upon commercially available books that provide in-depth coverage of thestandardized test or compilations of previous tests (e.g., 10 year series in Singapore). In many countries, testtakers even enroll in test preparation centers or cram schools that provide extensive or supplementaryinstructions to test takers to help them better prepare for a standardized test. Finally, in some countries,instructors and their institutions have also played a significant role in preparing test takers for a standardized test.

Cheating on tests

Cheating on a test is the process of using unauthorized means or methods for the purpose of obtaining a desiredtest score or grade. This may range from bringing and using notes during a closed book examination, copyinganother test taker's answer or choice of answers during an individual test, or even sending a paid proxy to takethe test.

Several common methods have been employed to combat cheating. They include the use of multiple proctors orinvigilators during a testing period to monitor test takers. Test developers may construct multiple variants of thesame test to be administered to different test takers at the same time. In some cases, instructors themselves maynot administer their own tests but will leave the task to other instructors or invigilators, which may mean that theinvigilators do not know the candidates, and thus some form of identification may be required. Finally,instructors or test providers may compare the answers of suspected cheaters on the test themselves todetermine if cheating did occur.

Support and criticisms of tests

Despite their widespread use, the validity, quality, or use of tests, particularly standardized tests in educationhave continued to be widely supported or criticized. Like the tests themselves, supports and criticisms of testsare often varied and may come from a variety of sources such as parents, test takers, instructors, businessgroups, universities, or governmental watchdogs.

Supporters of standardized tests in education often provide the following reasons for promoting testing ineducation:

Feedback or diagnosis of test taker's performance[28]

Fair and efficient[29]

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Promotes accountability[28][29]

Prediction and selection[28]

Improves performance[28]

Critics of standardized tests in education often provide the following reasons for revising or removingstandardized tests in education:

Narrows curricular format and encourages teaching to the test.[3]

Poor predictive quality.[30]

Grade inflation of test scores or grades.[31][32][33]

Culturally or socioeconomically biased.[34]

See also

Academic dishonesty

Assignment (education)

Bar examination

Blue book exam, used in free response exams

Computerized adaptive testingComputerized classification test

Concept inventory

Cooper Test, used by Law, Military and Fire

Credential

Driver's license

E-assessment

E-scape, a technology and approach that looks specifically at the assessment of creativity andcollaboration.

Educational software

Exam Stress

Examiner (disambiguation)

Final examination

General Educational Development

Grade (education)Graduate Record Examination

Harvard Step Test, a cardiovascular test

Law

Cross examination

Direct examination

Licensure

List of standardized tests in the United States

Matriculation examinationMedical College Admission Test

Optical mark recognition

Performance testing

Physical examination

Pilot certification in the United States

Progress testing

Project Talent (in the US)

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SAT

Vertical Jump, a leg power test

International examinations

Abitur — used in Germany.

GCSE and A-level — Used in the UK except Scotland.International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme — International examination.

International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE) — international examinations

Junior Certificate and Leaving Certificate — Republic of Ireland.

Matura/Maturita — used in Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic,

Italy, Liechtenstein, Hungary, Macedonia, Montenegro, Poland, Serbia, Slovenia, Switzerland and

Ukraine; previously used in Albania.

Nationella prov — used in Sweden.Standard Grade, Higher Grade, and Advanced Higher — used in Scotland

References

1. ^ Thissen, D., & Wainer, H. (2001). Test Scoring. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Page 1, sentence 1.

2. ^ North Central Regional Educational Laboratory, NCREL.org(http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/students/earlycld/ea5lk3.htm)

3. ̂a b "Goswami U (1991) Put to the Test: The Effects of External Testing on Teachers. Educational Researcher20: 8-11" (http://edr.sagepub.com/content/20/5/8.abstract).

4. ^ Advanced Level Examination, Chinese Language and Culture, Paper 1A

5. ^ Kaplan, R.M., & Saccuzzo, D.P. (2009) Psychological Testing. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth

6. ^ http://www.collegeboard.com/prod_downloads/about/news_info/ap/ap_history_english.pdf

7. ^ "GCSEs: The official guide to the system" (http://www.ofqual.gov.uk/files/GCSE_Guide.pdf).

8. ^ "About the SAT" (http://sat.collegeboard.com/why-sat/what-is-sat).

9. ^ "About ACT: History" (http://www.act.org/aboutact/history.html). Retrieved October 31, 2006.Namechanged in 1996.

10. ^ "Cambridge Pre-U" (http://www.cie.org.uk/qualifications/academic/uppersec/preu).

11. ^ "International Qualifications - University of Oxford"(http://www.ox.ac.uk/admissions/undergraduate_courses/international_students/international_qualifications/index.html).

12. ^ "Harvard College Admissions"(http://www.admissions.college.harvard.edu/apply/application_process/requirements.html).

13. ^ "PISA" (http://www.pisa.oecd.org/pages/0,2987,en_32252351_32235731_1_1_1_1_1,00.html).

14. ^ "Australian Citizenship - Australian Citizenship test" (http://www.citizenship.gov.au/learn/cit_test/practice/).

15. ^ "Welcome to U.S. Figure Skating" (http://www.usfigureskating.org/Clubs.asp?id=353).

16. ^ > "What is Mensa?" (http://www.mensa.org/?page=10).

17. ^ "Constructing Written Test Questions For the Basic and Clinical Sciences"(http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/documents/nbme_iwgindex.pdf).

18. ̂a b c d "Types of Test Item Formats"(http://www.siop.org/workplace/employment%20testing/testformats.aspx).

19. ̂a b "MFO Topic C5: Developing Test Questions"(http://www.mdfaconline.org/modules/module_c05/module_c5.html).

20. ^ "Army Fitness Standards" (http://www.army.mod.uk/join/20153.aspx).

21. ^ "RAF Fitness Standards" (http://www.raf.mod.uk/careers/canijoin/fitness.cfm).

22. ^ "USMC Personal Fitness Test (Chapter 2 - Conduct of the PFT)"(http://www.marines.mil/news/publications/Documents/MCO%20P6100.12%20W%20CH%201.pdf).

23. ^ "Group-Bourdon tool" (http://www.digital-reality.org.uk/). Digital Reality. Retrieved 2 March 2011.

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24. ^ "Exam Testbank Computerized Test Banks for College Textbooks" (http://examtestbank.com/).

25. ^ "How to study for Quizzes and Exams in Biochemistry"(https://www.pharmacy.purdue.edu/~mcmp304/HowToStudyForQuizzesAndExams.pdf).

26. ^ "Study strategies" (http://www.k-state.edu/counseling/topics/career/studystr.htm).

27. ^ "Past Exam Papers" (http://www.abdn.ac.uk/library/examdb/).

28. ̂a b c d Phelps, Richard (2005). Defending standardized testing. London: Psychology Press. ISBN 0-8058-4912-2.

29. ̂a b Hirsch Jr., Eric (1999). The Schools We Need: And Why We Don't Have Them. New York: Anchor.ISBN 0-385-49524-2.

30. ^ "FairTest criticism of the SAT" (http://www.fairtest.org/sat-i-faulty-instrument-predicting-college-success).fairtest.org.

31. ^ Paton, Graeme (July 6, 2010). "Universities criticise exam 'grade inflation'"(http://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews/7872573/Universities-criticise-exam-grade-inflation.html). The Daily Telegraph (London).

32. ^ Vasagar, Jeevan (August 2, 2010). "Fears for state pupils as top universities insist on A* at A-level"(http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2010/aug/02/universities-state-schools-a-levels). The Guardian(London).

33. ^ Finch, Julia (March 10, 2010). "They can't read, can't write, keep time or be tidy: Tesco director's verdict onschool-leavers" (http://www.guardian.co.uk/business/2010/mar/10/tesco-director-slates-school-leavers). TheGuardian (London).

34. ^ "Hedges LV (1994) An Exchange: Part I*: Does Money Matter? A Meta-Analysis of Studies of the Effects ofDifferential School Inputs on Student Outcomes. Educational Researcher 23: 5-14"(http://edr.sagepub.com/content/23/3/5.abstract).

Further reading

Airasian, P. (1994) "Classroom Assessment," Second Edition, NY" McGraw-Hill.

Cangelosi, J. (1990) "Designing Tests for Evaluating Student Achievement." NY: Addison-Wesley.Gronlund, N. (1993) "How to make achievement tests and assessments," 5th edition, NY: Allyn and

Bacon.Haladyna, T.M. & Downing, S.M. (1989) Validity of a Taxonomy of Multiple-Choice Item-Writing

Rules. "Applied Measurement in Education," 2(1), 51-78.Monahan, T. (1998) The Rise of Standardized Educational Testing in the U.S. – A BibliographicOverview (http://torinmonahan.com/papers/testing.pdf).

Ravitch, Diane, “The Uses and Misuses of Tests” (http://www.dianeravitch.com/uses_and_misuses.pdf),in The Schools We Deserve (New York: Basic Books, 1985), pp. 172–181.

Wilson, N. (1997) Educational standards and the problem of error. Education Policy Analysis Archives,Vol 6 No 10 (http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v6n10/)

External links

"About the Joint Committee on Testing Practices"(http://www.apa.org/science/programs/testing/committee.aspx). http://www.apa.org: American

Psychological Association. Retrieved 2 Aug 2011. "The Joint Committee on Testing Practices (JCTP)was established in 1985 by the American Educational Research Association (AERA), the AmericanPsychological Association (APA), and the National Council on Measurement in Education (NCME). In

2007 the JCTP disbanded, but JCTP publications are still available and may be obtained by contactingany of the groups listed in the product descriptions shown below."

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