Test Final (1)

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Test Final

Chapter 15- Psychological Disorders

- Psychopathology or mental illness, these researchers adopt failure analysis

approach to mental disorders.

What is a mental illness?

- The asic concept of mental disorder doesn!t lend itself to a clear-cut

dictionary de"nition. #ut there are 5 criteria!s for $hat a mental disorder is%1& 'tatistical (arity- mental disorders are uncommon in the population such as

schi)ophrenia. *et $e cannot rely on statistical rarity to de"ne mental

disorder ecause not all infre+uent conditions.& 'uectie Distress- most mental disorders including, mood and an/iety

disorders, produce emotional pain for indiiduals a0icted $ith them& 2mpairment- interfere $ith people!s aility to function in eeryday life.3& 'ocietal Disproal- ')as) argued that 4mental illness is a myth and mental

disorders are nothing more than conditions that society disli6es.5& #iological Dysfunction- many mental disorders proaly result from

rea6do$ns or failures of physiological systems. 7'chi)ophrenia is often

mar6ed y underactiity in the rains frontal loe.&- Family (esemlance 8ie$- mental disorder ie$ that mental disorders don!t

all hae one thing in common.

9istorical Conceptions of :ental 2llness

- Demonic :odel- ie$ of mental illness in $hich odd ehaiour, hearing

oices, or tal6ing to oneself $as attriuted to eil spirits infesting the ody.

This has a correlation $ith the :alleus :alle"carium $hich had to do $ith

4$itches

- :edical :odel- ie$ of mental illness as due to physical disorder re+uiringmedical treatment

o ;sylums- institutions for those people $ith mental illnesses

o #loodletting- mista6en notion that too much lood caused mental

illness. <en trying to frighten to person out of their phoias $as tried,

y ma6ing them face their fears head on.o :oral Treatment- approach to mental illness calling for dignity,

6indness, and respect for those $ith mental illness. 7Dorothea Di/&- :odern <ra of Psychiatric Treatment- imported medicine called Thora)ine-

$asn!t a miracle cure ut it o=ered a modestly e=ectie treatment for some

symptoms of schi)ophrenia and other disorders mar6ed y loss on contact

$ith reality.o Deinstitutionali)ation- goernment policy in the >s and @s that

focused on releasing hospitali)ed psychiatric patients into the

community and closing mental hospitals. Douled edged s$ord, this

allo$ed some patients to return to daily life, ut others $ere forced to

e homeless.

Psychiatric Diagnosis ;cross Cultures

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- Psychiatric diagnosis are shaped not only y history ut also y culture.- Culture #ound 'yndromes- $estern culture is typically indiidualistic,

opposed to the Chinese $here their thoughts focus more e/ternally opposed

to internally on their emotional states, they may e more li6ely to notice

somatic symptoms li6e aches and pains $hen distressed.- Cultural Aniersality- many mental disorders especially those that are seere,

appear to e/ist in most perhaps all cultures.

'pecial Considerations in Classi"cation and Diagnosis

- Psychiatric Diagnosis sere t$o crucial functions%1& They help us pinpoint the psychological prolem a person is e/periencing& Psychiatric diagnosis ma6e it easier for the mental health professionals to

communicate

:isconceptions regarding psychiatric diagnosis%

1& 2s nothing more than pigeonholing- sorting people into di=erent o/es. We

deprie them of their uni+ueness.& They are Anreliale- this is fueled y high-pro"le media coerage of duel

e/pert $itnesses.& They are 2nalid- ')as) stated that these diagnoses are largely useless

ecause they don!t proide us $ith much, if any ne$ information.o ;ccording to (oin and Bu)e a alid Diagnosis-

1& Distinguishes that diagnosis from another& Predicts indiiduals diagnosed performance on laoratory tests& Family history of psychiatric disorders3& atural history- $hat tends to happen oer time5& 2ndiiduals response to treatment

3& They 'tigmati)e People- according to aelling Theorists- scholars $ho argue

that psychiatric diagnoses e/ert po$erful negatie e=ects on people!sperceptions and ehaiours

- (osenhan!s Diagnosis of schi)ophrenia ecame a self-ful"lling prophecy,

leading doctors and nursing sta= to ie$ these indiiduals as distured.

Today!s Diagnosis of :ental Disorder% D':-28

- Diagnosis and 'tatistical :anual of :ental Disorders- diagnostic system

containing the ;merican Psychiatric ;ssociation criteria for mental disorders.

Proides psychologists $ith a list of diagnostic criteria for each condition and

a set of decision rules for deciding ho$ many of these criteria need to e

met.o

Warns diagnosticians aout 4organic that is mental induced conditionsthat can stimulate certain psychological disorders.- Ether Features- D':-28 is a aluale source of information concerning that

characteristics, such as Prealence, of many mental disorders.o Prealence- percentage of people $ithin a population $ho hae a

speci"c mental disorder

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o D':-28 also recogni)es there!s more to people than their disorders.

;ssess people along multiple a/es- dimensions of functioning.

Containing many ;/is%1& ;/is 1- also for personality disorders& ;/is - mental conditions& ;/is - life stressors3& ;/is 3- oerall leel of daily functioning medical conditions5& ;/is 5- adopts a iopsychosocial approach $hich ac6no$ledges the

interplay of iological, psychological, and social inuences- Criticisms of D':-28- prolem $ith D':-28 is the high leel of comoridity

among many of its diagnoseso Comoridity- co-occurrence of t$o or more diagnosis $ithin the same

person.- ;nother prolem arises in its reliance on a categorical model of

psychopathology- a mental disorder such as maor depression, is either

asent $ith no in et$een. 7Pregnancy&- Dimensional :odel- model in $hich a mental disorder di=ers from normal

function in degree rather than 6ind. 7lood pressure etter "ts a dimensionalmodel as there!s no sharp diiding line et$een normal and high lood

pressure

ormality and ;normality

- 2t!s only natural to 4see-ourseles in some patterns of ehaiour largely

ecause in meeting the comple/ demands of daily life $e all e/perience

disturing impulses, thoughts, and fears from time to time.

:ental 2llness and the a$

- Psychological prolems not only a=ect mental function ut they can place us

at ris6 for legal prolems- :ental 2llness and 8iolence- one of the myths in psychology is that people

$ith mental illness are at greatly heightened ris6 for iolenceo 2nsanity Defence- legal defence proposing that people shouldn!t e

held legally responsile for their actions if they $eren!t of 4sound

mind $hen committing them.o 2noluntary Commitment- or ciil commitment, its procedure for

protecting us from certain people $ith mental disorders, as $ell as

protection from themseles. Procedure of placing people $ith mental

illnesses in a psychiatric hospital or other facility ased on their

potential danger to themseles or others.

;n/iety Disorders% Fear and Worry

- ;n/iety disorders are among the most prealent of all mental disorders.- 'omatoform Disorder- condition mar6ed y physical symptoms that suggest

an underlying medical illness, ut that are actually psychological in origin.

9igh leels of physical an/iety disorders are perasie in many of these

disorders

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- 9ypochondriasis- an indiidual!s continual preoccupation $ith the notion that

he or she has a serious physical disease

Benerali)ed ;n/iety Disorder 7B;D&

- B;D- continual feelings of $orry, an/iety, physical tension, and irritaility

across many areas of life functioning. These people tend to thin6 an/iousthoughts, feel on edge, troule sleeping, and fatigue. People $ith this are

more li6ely to e female then male

Panic Disorder

- Panic ;ttac6- rief, intense episode of e/treme fear characteri)ed y

s$eating, di))iness, light-headed, feeling of impending death, can lead

people to thin6 they are haing a heart attac6. Eften deelops in early

adulthood and is associated $ith a history of hears of separation from a

parent during childhood

Phoias% Fears

- 2s an intense fear of an oect or situation that!s greatly out of proportion to

its actual threat. These are the most common of all an/iety disorders.- ;goraphoia- refers to a fear of eing in a place or situation in $hich escape

is diGcult or emarrassing, in $hich help is unaailale in the eent of a

panic attac6.- 'peci"c Phoia- commonly arise in response to animals, insects,

thunderstorms, $ater, and dar6ness.- 'ocial Phoia- mar6ed y fear of pulic appearances in $hich emarrassment

or humiliation seems unli6ely, such as doing a speech.

Post-Traumatic 'tress Disorder 7PT'D&

- :ar6ed emotional disturance after e/periencing or $itnessing a seerely

stressful eent.- 'ymptoms include- e=orts to aoid thoughts, feelings, places, and

conersations associated $ith the trauma.

Esessie- Compulsie Disorder 7ECD&

- Condition mar6ed y repeated and lengthy immersion in osession,

compulsions or oth.- Esessions- persistent idea, thought, or impulse that is un$anted and

inappropriate, causing mar6ed distress. People $ith ECD typically are

distured y their thoughts and usually see them as irrational or nonsensical.

ael themseles as cra)y.- Compulsions- repetitie ehaiours or mental acts that they underta6e to

reduce or preent distress, or reliee shame and guilt.

</planations for ;n/iety Disorders% (oot of Pathological Worry and Fear

- earning Theorists, eliee that fears can arise in t$o additional $ays1& We can ac+uire fears y osering other engage in fearful ehaiours.& Fears can stem from information or misinformation from others.

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- Catastrophi)ing and ;n/iety 'ensitiity- catastrophi)ing is a core feature in

an/ious thin6ing, people do this $hen they predict terrile eents, such as a

life threatening illness from turning a door6no 7despite the lo$ proaility&.

;n/iety 'ensitiity, a fear of an/iety-related sensations. *et people $ith high

an/iety sensitiity tend to misinterpret them as dangerous, perhaps as early

signs of a heart attac6 or stro6e.o ;n/iety can lead us to interpret amiguous stimuli negatiely.

- ;n/iety% #iological 2nuences- t$in studies sho$ that an/iety disorders such

as listed aoe as genetically inuenced. Benes inuence peoples leels of

neuroticism- tendency to e high strung and irritale $hich can set the stage

for e/cessie $orry.

:ood Disorders and 'uicide

- :ood disorderso called ecause diGculties centre on his lea6 mood, $hich

colour all aspects of his e/istence.- :aor Depressie <pisode- state in $hich a person e/periences a lingering

depressed mood or diminished interest in pleasurale actiities, along $ith

symptoms that include $eight loss and sleep diGculties.

:aor Depressie Disorder

- Can egin at any age, ut more li6ely to occur in the s. Contrary to popular

misconception they are less common in elderly adults than in younger

people. Women are t$ice as li6ely to e/perience depression compared to

men.- Women are more $illing to see6 help, admit depression, and see6

psychological serices than men.- <arliest onset of depression is et$een the ages of 15-3.- Depression li6e the common cold, is recurrent. Depression is also chronic-

that is, present for decades $ith no relief.

</planations for :DD% Tangled We

- To fully understand depression, $e must appreciate the comple/ interplay of

inorn tendencies, stressful eents, interpersonal relationships, the loss of

reinforces in eeryday life, negatie thoughts, and feelings of helplessness.- Depression and ife <ents- 'igmund Freud suggested that early loss can

render us ulnerale to depression later in life. Daid Huro= suggested a

crucial determinant of $hether $e!ll ecome depressed is $hether $e hae

lost or are aout to lose something $e alue dearly, li6e a loed one.- 2nterpersonal :odel- Iames Coyne stated that depression creates

interpersonal prolems. 'tating depression is a icious cycle. People $ithdepression often elicit hostility and reection from others, $hich in turn

maintains or $orsens their depression.- #ehaioural :odel- Peter e$insohn, proposes that depression results from a

lo$ rate of response- contingent positie reinforcement. People $ith

depression gie up to easily. People $ith depression lac6 social s6ills ma6ing

it harder for them to otain reinforcement from people they alue.

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- Cognitie :odel of Depression- theory that depression is caused y negatie

eliefs and e/pectations. #ac6 composed the cognitie triad of depressed

thin6ing% negatie ie$s of 1& oneself & the $orld and the & futureo These negatie schemas presumaly originate in early e/periences of

loss, failure, or reection.o Depressed people su=er from cognitie distortions- scre$ed $ays of

thin6ing. The eidence for the role of cognitie distortions in non-

hospitali)ed indiiduals isn!t as strongo 'ome research suggest that indiiduals $ith mild depression actually

hae a more accurate ie$ of circumstances, called depressie

realism.- earned 9elplessness% :ar6 'eligman found an unusual "nding regarding

depression $ith his $or6 $ith dogs. 9e used a shuttle o/, using an

apparatus, he found that dogs $ho $ere "rst preented from escaping the

shoc6 gae up trying to escape electric shoc6s een $hen they $ere free to

do so. This is learned helplessness- tendency to feel helpless in the face of

eents $e cannot control. 9o$eer 'eligman!s model doesn!t e/plain $hy

people $ith depression ma6e internal attriutions for failure.o When data didn!t "t a model, they altered the learned helplessness

model to account for the attriutions people ma6e to e/plain their

$orlds. ; person $ith depression attriute failure to internal as

opposed to e/ternal factors, and success to e/ternal opposed to

internal.- Depression the (ole of #iology- researchers concluded that there $as no

asis for a lin6 et$een gene and the stressful life eents on the one hand

and depression on the other.

#ipolar Disorder

- :anic episode- e/perience mar6ed y dramatically eleated mood, decreasedneed for sleep, increased energy, inated self-esteem, increased

tal6atieness, and irresponsile ehaiour.- #ipolar Disorder- condition mar6ed y a history of at least one manic episode.

2s e+ual et$een oth men and $omen. 2t is among the most genetically

inuenced of all mental disorders.o 2s inuenced y more than iological factors. 2t also can arise from the

intersection of iological, psychological, and sociocultural forces

'uicide% Fact and Fiction

- :aor depression and ipolar disorder are associated $ith a higher ris6 of

suicide than most other disorders. People $ith ipolar disorders are 15 timeshigher than that of the general population for the suicide rate

- Contrary to $hat people eliee, most people are more of a threat to

themseles then to others.- Anfortunately, the prediction of suicide poses a serious practical prolems%1& We can easily conduct longitudinal studies to determine $hich people $ill

attempt suicide.

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& DiGcult to study the psychological states associated $ith suicide ecause of

the period of high ris6 for suicide to go through $ith attempts to allo$ us to

pinpoint predictors of suicide.& o$ prealence of suicide ma6es predicting it diGcult

Personality Dissociatie Disorders

- Personality Disorders- condition in $hich personality traits, appearing "rst in

adolescence, are e/ile, stale, e/pressed, in a $ide ariety of situations,

and lead to distress or impairment. Personality disorders are coded in ;/is

refers to long-standing personality traits that nay colour the e/pression of

these disorders.o 'tale 2nstaility- #orderline Personality Disorder- condition mar6ed y

e/treme instaility in mood, identity, and impulse control. :any of

these people are ale to hold do$n os, ut are unpredictale.o 8olatile #lend of Traits- impulsiity and rapidly uctuating emotions

often hae a self-destructie +uality% many engage in drug ause,

oereating, and cutting themseles.o </planation for this disorder- traced ac6 to childhood prolems $ith

deeloping a sense of self and onding emotionally to otherso 'ocioiological model- indiiduals $ith this disorder inherit a tendency

to oeract to stress and e/perience diGculties $ith regulating their

emotions.- Psychopathic Personality- condition mar6ed y super"cial charm, dishonesty,

manipulatieness, self-centeredness, and ris6 ta6ing.- ;ntisocial Personality Disorder 7;'PD&- condition mar6ed y a lengthy history

of irresponsile andJor illegal actions

Dissociatie Disorders

- Which inole disruptions in consciousness, memory, identity, or perception.2dea that one person can hae more than one identity.

- Depersonali)ation Disorder- condition mar6ed y multiple episodes of

depersonali)ation.- Dissociatie ;mnesia- inaility to recall important personal information, most

often related to stressful e/perience, that can!t e e/plained y ordinary

forgetfulness. Diagnosis controersial for seeral reasons%1& :emory gaps regarding non-traumatic eents are common in healthy

indiiduals and aren!t necessarily stress-related& :ost people may not e motiated to recall child ause or upsetting eents& Careful studies hae turned up no conincing cases of amnesia that can!t e

e/plained y factors such as disease- Dissociatie Fugue- sudden, une/pected trael a$ay from home or the

$or6place, accompanied y amnesia for signi"cant life eents

Dissociatie 2dentity Disorder% :ultiple Personalities, :ultiple Controersies

- Dissociatie identity disorder- condition characteri)ed y the presence of t$o

or more distinct identities or personality states that recurrently ta6e control of

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the person!s ehaiour. There alternate identities are often di=erent from the

primary personality and may e of di=erent names, ages and een races.- D2D has een discoered to arise from a history of seere ause- physical,

se/ual, or oth during childhood. This sociocognitie model holds that the

popular media, along $ith therapists, hae played a piotal role in the D2D

epidemic.

'chi)ophrenia

- Called the cancer of mental illness- 2s a seere mental disorder of thought and emotion associated $ith a loss of

contact $ith reality. Term literally means 4split mind. DiGculties $ith people

$ith this disorder arise from disturances in attention, thin6ing, language,

emotion, and relationships $ith others. Comprise less than 1K if the

population.- 9allmar6 symptoms of 'chi)ophrenia%1& Delusions- strongly held, "/ed eliefs that hae no asis in reality.& Psychotic symptoms- psychological prolem reecting serious distortions in

reality& 9allucinations- sensory perception that occurs in the asence of an e/ternal

stimulus. Can e auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile, or isual. :ost

ho$eer are auditory in this case.3& Disorgani)ed 'peech- language prolems li6e thought distortions point to

fundamental impairments in schi)ophrenia in the aility to shift and maintain

attention $hich inuence irtually eery aspect of a=ected indiidual!s daily

lies.- Catatonic 'ymptoms- motor prolems, including e/treme resistance to

complying $ith simple suggestions, holding the ody in i)arre or rigid

postures, or fetal position.

The (oots of a 'hattered :ind

- Widely accepted rial hypothesis is that family memers responses aren!t the

cause of schi)ophrenia, ut instead typically a response to the stressful

e/perience of liing $ith a seerely distured person.- </pressed <motion 7<<& - patients e/perience more than t$ice the li6elihood

of relapse $hen their relaties display high <<- that is criticism, hostility, or

oer-inolement. ;lthough << often predicts relapse, $ell-controlled studies

don!t support the hypothesis that child rearing directly causes schi)ophrenia,

any more than does e/treme poerty, childhood trauma, or parental conict.- #rain ;normalities- entricles- cushion and nourish the rain are typically

enlarged in these indiiduals. T$o important "ndings%1& These rain areas fre+uently e/pand $hen others shrin6& Deterioration in these areas is associated $ith thought disorder- 'chi)ophrenia is typical of a decrease in the si)e of the temporal loe,

actiation of the amygdala, and the symmetry of the rains hemispheres- 9ypofrontality- functional rain imaging studies sho$ that the frontal loes of

people $ith schi)ophrenia are less actie than those of nonpatients $hen

engaged in demanding mental tas6s

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- eurotransmitter Di=erences- anormalities in dopamine receptors produce

these symptoms. We contrast positie symptoms $ith negatie symptoms

$hich reect decreases or losses of normal functions, including social

$ithdra$al.- Benetic inuences- seeds of schi)ophrenia are often so$n $ell efore irth

and lie partly in indiiduals genetic endo$ments. <en $hen children $ho

hae a iological parents $ith schi)ophrenia are adopted y parents $ith no

hint of the disorder their ris6 of schi) is greater than that of a person $ith no

iological relatie- Diathesis-stress :odels- perspectie proposing that mental disorders are a

oint product of genetic ulneraility, called a diathesis, and stressors that

trigger this ulneraility.o :ost people $ith schi)otypal personality disorder don!t deelop full-

lo$n schi)ophrenia ecause they hae a $ea6er genetic ulneraility

or ecause they hae e/perienced fe$er stressors.o :ost people $ith this schi)otypal personality disorder are prone to

magical thin6ing, the elief that their thoughts can inuence actions

through supernatural or other$ise mysterious processes. For e/amplestepping on a crac6 is ac6 luc6

Childhood Disorders% (ecent Controersies

- 1 in 5 is $idely proclaimed proportion of indiiduals $ith autistic disorder- ;utistic disorder- disorder mar6ed y seere de"cits in language, social

onding, and imagination, usually accompanied y mental retardation.- :any parents fell prey to the illusionary correlation, an error occurred in

comparison of accines to autism. #ecause around the age of is $hen the

signs of autism sho$ right around the same time as accines for u.- There is een the +uestion of $hether the e/istence of the autism epidemic is

true. ;sperger!s disease $hich is a mild form of autism.

;ttention De"cit J 9yperactiity Disorder and <arly Enset #ipolar Disorder

- ;D9D- childhood condition mar6ed y e/cessie inattention, impulsiity, and

actiityo Children $ith ;D9D are fussy, crying incessantly, and fre+uently moe

and shift.- ;D9D may e caused y% anormalities in genes that inuence, serotonin,

dopamine, and norepinephrine, a smaller rain olume, and decreased

actiation in the frontal areas of the rain.- Fine line et$een highly energetic children and those $ith mild ;D9D.

</pression that ;D9D is to oer diagnose.- :ost controersial diagnostic challenge% separate children $ith ;D9D from

children $ith ipolar disorder- >-L percent of children $ith ipolar disorder share and ;D9D diagnosis

Chapter 16- Psychological and Biological Treatments

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- Psychotherapy- a psychological interention designed to help people resole

emotional, ehaioural, and interpersonal prolems and improe the +uality

of their lies. There are oer 5 rands of psychotherapies.

Clients and Practitioner of Psychotherapy

- Women and more li6ely to see6 treatment then men, although oth gendersene"t e+ually.- Bood ne$s is that people can e helped y therapists $ho di=er from them in

signi"cant $ays, including gender and ethnicity- (eaping ene"ts from treatment- the e=ectieness of therapy depends on a

host of indiidual di=erences. Clients $ho e/perience some an/iety do etter

in psychotherapy, proaly ecause their distress fuels their motiation to

ma6e life changes- Participants in psychotherapy% clinical psychologists, psychiatrist, counselling,

school, social $or6, mental health, nurse, pastor.

Professionals s. Paraprofessionals

- Paraprofessionals- helpers $ho hae no formal professional training, often

proide psychological serices in such settings as crisis interention centres

and social serice agencies. :any of these paraprofessionals receie agency

speci"c training and attend $or6shops that enhance their educational

ac6grounds. 9elp to compensate for the si)eale gap et$een the high

demand for and meagre supply of licensed practitioners.- Ierome Fran6 stated regardless of leel of professional training, people $ho

ful"ll the role of therapist may proide clients $ith empathy, hope, adice,

support, and opportunities for ne$ learning e/periences- Professional helpers%1& Anderstand ho$ to operate e=ectiely $ithin the mental health system

& ;ppreciate comple/ ethical, professional, and personal issues& Can select treatments of demonstrated e=ectieness- Therapists are more li6ely to e $arm and direct and to estalish a positie

$or6ing relationship $ith clients. </pert $ho is $arm, respectful, caring, and

engaged

2nsight Therapies% ;c+uiring Anderstanding

- Psychodynamic therapies- treatments inspired y classical psychoanalysis

and inuenced y Freud!s techni+ues. This therapy is less costly, riefer, and

inoles only meeting 1- times a $ee6.- 2nsight Therapies- psychotherapies, including psychodynamic, humanistic,

and group approaches $ith the goal of e/panding a$areness or insight.

Freud!s egacy

- Psychodynamic therapists share the follo$ing three approaches and eliefs%1& They eliee that the causes of anormal ehaiours, including unconscious

conicts, $ishes, and impulses, stem from traumatic or other aderse

childhood e/periences

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& 'trie to analy)e% distress thoughts and feelings that clients aoid, $ishes

and fantasies, recurring themes and life patterns, signi"cant past eents,

therapeutic relationship& #eliee that the clients achiee insight into preiously unconscious material,

the causes and the signi"cance of symptoms $ill ecome eident, often

causing symptoms to disappear

Mey 2ngredients of Psychoanalysis

- Boal of psychoanalysis is to decrease guilt and frustration and ma6e the

unconscious conscious y rining to a$areness preiously repressed

impulses, conicts, and memories. There are si/ primary approaches%1& Free ;ssociation- techni+ue in $hich clients e/press themseles $ithout

censorship of any sorts.& 2nterpretation- therapists also formulate e/planations of the unconscious

ase of a client!s dreams, emotions, and ehaiours.& Dream ;nalysis- dreams e/press unconscious themes that inuence the

client!s conscious life.

3& (esistance- attempts to aoid confrontation and an/iety associated $ithuncoering preiously repressed thoughts, emotions, and impulses.

5& Transference- proecting intense, unrealistic feelings.>& Wor6ing Through- help clients $or6 through the process of their prolems.- eo-Freudian Tradition- are more concerned $ith conscious aspects of the

clients functioning.o ;ccording to Carl Iung- the goal of psychotherapy is indiiduation- the

integration of opposing aspects of the personality into a harmonious

$hole- the self.o ;ccording to 'ullian!s interpersonal therapy, psychotherapy is a

collaoratie underta6ing et$een client and therapist. 2nterpersonal

Therapy- treatment that strengthens social s6ills and targetsinterpersonal prolems, conicts, and life transitions

o 2PT $as originally a treatment for depression, short term designed to

strengthen people!s social s6ills.- Traumatic :emories repressed? #elieed that current diGculties often stem

from the repression of traumatic eents such as childhood ause, ho$eer

research doesn!t ear this claim.- Psychodynamic Therapies are not e=ectie for psychotic disorders, li6e

schi)ophrenia.

9umanistic Therapies

- Therapies the emphasi)e the deelopment of human potential and the eliefthat human nature is asically positie. <mphasis on insight, self-

actuali)ation, and that human nature is positie.- They reect the interpretie techni+ues of psychoanalysis. 2nstead, they strie

to understand client!s inner $orlds through empathy and focus on client!s

thoughts and feelings in the present moment.

Person-Centered Therapy

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- Therapists don!t tell clients ho$ to sole their prolems, and clients can use

the therapy hour ho$eer they choose. Therapists must satisfy three

conditions%1& ;uthentic genuine person $ho reeals his or her o$n reactions to $hat the

client is communicating& Therapists must e/press unconditional positie regard- non-udgemental

acceptance of all feelings the client e/presses.& Therapists must relate to clients $ith empathetic understanding- Ene $ay $ould e the $ay of reection- that is mirroring ac6 the client!s

feelings, $hich (ogers $as famous for.

Bestalt Therapy

- Therapy that aims to integrate di=erent and sometimes opposing aspects of

personality into a uni"ed sense of self.- These therapists eliee that people $ith psychological diGculties are

incomplete gestalts ecause they are e/cluded from their a$areness

e/periences and aspects of their personalities that trigger an/iety.

- The T$o-Chair Techni+ue- predicted that the 4good rat may e moree=ectie and authentic than either personality aspect alone.

Broup Therapies

- Broup Therapy- therapy that treats more than one person at a time. <Gcient

for time saing, less costly than indiidual treatments and span all maor

schools of psychotherapy.- ;lcoholics ;nonymous- 1 step, self-help program that proides social

support for achieing soriety. Composed of peers $ho share a similar

prolem.- Controlled Drin6ing and (eha Preention- contrary to ;; the philosophy is,

the ehaiour ie$ assumes that e/cessie drin6ing is a learned ehaiourthat therapists can modify and control $ithout total astinence.

o Deate $hether controlled drin6ing- drin6ing in moderation, is een

appropriate treatment goal. ;lcoholics are told to set limits, and drin6

in moderation.o (elapse Preention- treatment assumes that many people $ith

alcoholism $ill at some point e/perience a lapse, slip, and resume

drin6ing. egatie feelings aout a slip can lead to continued drin6ing

called astinence iolation e=ect.

Family Therapies

- :any psychological prolems are seen as rooted in a dysfunctional familysystem.

- ;ccording to the family therapy approach, families often single out one family

memer as the prolem $hen the prolem is actually rooted in the

interactional patterns of all family memers.- 'trategic Family 2nterentions- family therapy approach designed to remoe

arriers to e=ectie communication. 2dentify one family memer as the

identi"ed patient $ith the prolem, for therapists the real diGculty lies in the

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dysfunctional $ays in $hich family memers communicate, sole prolems,

and relate to one another.- 'tructural Family Therapy- treatment in $hich therapists deeply inole

themseles in family actiities to change ho$ family memers arrange and

organi)e interactions.

#ehaioural ;pproaches

- #ehaioural Therapists- focus on the speci"c ehaiours that lead the client

to see6 therapy and the current ariales that maintain prolematic

thoughts, feelings and ehaiours. They use seeral ehaioural assessment

techni+ues to pinpoint enironmental causes of the person!s prolems,

estalish goals, and deise therapeutic procedures. <mphasis is on the

current rather than the past.- 'ystematic Desensiti)ation- patients are taught to rela/ as they are gradually

e/posed to $hat they fear in a step$ise manner. Bradually e/poses client!s to

an/iety producing situation thought he use of imagined sceneso 2s ased on the principle of reciprocal inhiition- says that clients can!t

e/perience t$o conicting responses simultaneouslyo <=ectieness- dismantling- research procedure for e/amining the

e=ectieness of isolated components of a larger treatment.

Dismantling studies sho$ that no single component of desensiti)ation

is essential% $e can eliminate each $ithout e=ecting other treatment.o Can also occur in 8io that is 4real life, $hich gradually inoles the

e/posure of $hat the client actually fearso 2s e=ectie for a $ide range of phoias, insomnia, speech disorders,

asthma, nightmares, and some cases drin6ing prolems.- </posure Theory- a class of procedures that confronts client $ith $hat they

fear $ith the goal of the reduction of fear.o Flood therapy and irtual reality e/posure% proides clients $ith

cutting-edge irtual reality technology to confront their fears of spiders

and other potentially frightening stimuli.o Therapists hae successfully used ooding $ith numerous an/iety

disorders, including ECD, PT'D, and social phoia.o Crucial component of ooding is response preention- techni+ue in

$hich therapists preent clients from preforming their typical

aoidance ehaiourso 8irtual reality e/posure theory is the ne$ 6id of the loc6 of e/posure

theories. 8irtually lifeli6e e/perience of fear-proo6ing situations- (yan Callahan, Thought Field Therapy, claimed that his procedure can cure

phoias, in as little as "e minutes. Claimed that touching of ody parts in aset order can play a role in treating long-standing phoias resistant to

treatment y other means. There is no eidence for the assertion that the

techni+ue cures an/iety y manipulating energy "elds, $hich hae neer

een sho$n to e/ist, or for the implausile claim of irtually instantaneous

cures for the ast maority of phoia su=erers

:odelling Therapy% earning y Watching

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- ;lert #andura, participant modelling- a techni+ue in $hich the therapist

models a calm encounter $ith the client!s feared oect or situation, and then

guides the client through the steps of the encounter until she can cope

unassisted.o ;ssertion Training- primary goals of assertion training are to facilitate

the e/pression of thoughts and feelings in a fortnight and socially

appropriate manner and to ensure that clients aren!t ta6en adantage

of, ignored, or denied rights.o #ehaioural (ehearsal- client engages in role playing $ith therapist to

learn and practice ne$ s6ills. The therapist models not only $hat the

client might say, ut also ho$ the client might say it

Eperant Procedures% Conse+uences Count

- To6en <conomy- method in $hich desirale ehaiours are re$arded $ith

to6ens that clients can e/change for tangile re$ards. Widely used in an

institutional setting, certain ehaiours li6e helping others, are consistently

re$arded $ith to6ens that clients can later e/change for more tangile

re$ards, $hereas screaming is punished.- ;ersion Therapies- treatment that uses punishment to decrease the

fre+uency of undesirale ehaiours. </amples are $hen people omit after

drin6ing too much or electroshoc6 for recurrent snee)ing.

Cognitie #ehaioural Therapies

- Treatments that attempt to replace maladaptie or irrational cognitions $ith

more adaptie, ration cognitions. Three core assumption%1& Cognitions are identi"ale and measureale& Cognitions are 6ey players in oth healthy and unhealthy psychological

functioning

& 2rrational eliefs or catastrophic thin6ing 4im $orthless can e replaced- ;#Cs of (ational #ehaioural Therapies- (<#T- is a prime e/ample of

cognitie-ehaioural approach. 2t!s cognitie in its emphasis on changing

ho$ $e thin6 ut it also focuses on changing ho$ $e act. <llis argued that $e

respond to an unpleasant actiating 7internal and e/ternal& eent ; $ith a

range of emotional and ehaioural conse+uences C. For <llis ho$eer, the

di=erences in ho$ $e respond to the same eent stem largely from

di=erences in #. 7our elief system.&o <llis eentually added D and <, components to descrie ho$ therapists

treat clients. D their irrational eliefs and adopt more e=ectie, <-

rational eliefs to increase adaptie responses. (<#T therapists often

assign 4home$or6 to falsify client!s ad eliefs.- ;aron #ec6!s cognitie therapy- emphasi)es identifying and modifying

distorted thoughts and long-held negatie core eliefs. #ec6!s approach is

helpful for people $ith depression and perhaps een ipolar and

schi)ophrenia.- 'tress inoculation training- therapists teach clients to prepare for and cope

$ith future stressful eents. 9ae applied stress inoculation successfully to

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children and adults facing mental and surgical procedures, pulic spea6ing,

and e/ams.

Third Wae of Cognitie #ehaioural Therapy

- That represent a shift from oth the "rst ehaioural and second cognitie

$aes of the C#T- Boal to assist clients $ith accepting all aspects of their e/periences-

thoughts, feelings, memories, and physical sensations- that they aoided or

supressed.- 'cienti"c consensus emerged that psychotherapy $or6s in alleiating human

su=ering. Conclusion that deried from the techni+ue :eta-analysis- meaning

analysis of analysis, is a statistical method that helps researchers to interpret

large odies of psychological literature.

2s Psychotherapy <=ectie?

- 2n correlation to the Dodo ird myth, 'aul (osen)$eig deliered a same

erdict regarding the e=ectieness of di=erent psychotherapies. That is allappear to e helpful ut are roughly e+uialent in their outcomes% 4;ll hae

$on, all must hae pri)es- Dodo ird erdict% alie or e/tinct?

o Psychotherapy $or6s in alleiating human su=ering.

o :eta-analysis is used y pooling the results of many studies as though

they $ere one ig study. This allo$s researchers to see6 patterns

across large numers of studies and dra$ general conclusions that

hold up across independent laoratorieso <=ectieness of Psychotherapy? NK of people $ho receie

psychotherapy do etter than people $ho don!t. Enly aout 5-1K of

people $ho receie therapy tend to ecome $orse. ;n e/ample $ould

e crisis derie"ng of a person $ith PT'D.o :any therapies are e=ectie and many do aout e+ually $ell.

'ometime they are harmful ho$eer. For e/ample% 'cared 'traight, Coercie (estraint- eing held do$n, Brief

Counselling, *outh 2nterrogations- 9o$ di=erent groups of people respond to psychotherapy? (esearch suggests

that socioeconomic status 7gender, race, ethnicity, and age& hae typically

little or no earing on the outcome of therapy.

Common Factors

- Those that cut across many or most therapies- are responsile for

improement across dierse treatments.- Ierome Fran6 osered, that these common factors are also shared y many

forms of faith healing, religious conersion, and interpersonal persuasion oer

the centuries, cutting across all cultures.- 2n contrast, speci"c factors are those that characteri)e only certain therapies%

including e/posure, challenging irrational eliefs, and social s6ills training.

<mpirically 'upported Treatments

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- 'cientists- practioner gap- refers to the sharp cleft et$een psychologists

$ho ie$ psychotherapy as an art more than a science and those $ho

eliee that clinical practice should primarily reect $ell-replicated scienti"c

"ndings.- <mpirically 'upported Treatments O called research supported treatments,

interentions for speci"c disorders ac6ed y high-+uality scienti"c eidence

deried from controlled studies.o #ehaioural and cognitie ehaiours therapy hae emerged as <'Ts

for depression, an/iety, oesity, se/ual dysfunction, and alcohol

prolems.- 2ne=ectie Treatments- dolphin therapy, laughter therapy, trauma for alien

aduction. :any of these treatments rest of +uestionale premises. 4Primary

scream therapy elieed that the only $ay to achiee relief from

psychological pain is to release pent-up rage in one!s nerous system. Fie

reasons can help us understand $hy ogus therapies sometimes gain a

dedicated pulic follo$ing%1& 'pontaneous remission- client!s recoery may hae nothing at all to do

$ith the treatment. Eccasionally occurs een in serious medical conditionsincluding cancer. 'elf-limiting or cyclical and improe $ithout interention.

& #e$are of Placeo <=ect- y instilling hope and the coniction that $e can

rise to life!s challenges, irtually any credile treatment can e helping in

alleiating our demorali)ation& 'elf-sering iases- clients $ho are in largely inested in psychotherapy

$ill in turn spend a lot of money for serices.3& (egression to the mean- statistical fact of life that e/treme scores tend to

ecome less e/treme on retesting. Can fool therapists and clients into

elieing that a useless treatment is e=ectie.5& (etrospectie re$riting of the past- improed een $hen $e haen!t

ecause $e misrememer our initial leel of adustment as $orse than it$as.

#iomedical Treatments% :edications, <lectrical 'timulation, 'timulation, and 'urgery

- #iomedical treatments- include medications, electrical stimulation, and

surgery, directly alter the rains chemistry or physiology.- Psychopharmacotherapy- the use of medication to treat psychological

disorders.o Thora)ine, ushered into mental hospitals in the treatment of serious

psychological disorderso ;ntian/iety medications- treat an/iety disorders, antidepressants-

depression disorders, mood staili)ers- ipolar disorders,antipsychotics- neurolepticsJtran+uili)ers, psychostimulants- stimulate

nerous systemo 2t should e noted that $e should ear in mind that $e don!t 6no$ for

certain ho$ most of these medication $or6. The fact that medication

can treat depression y either raising or lo$ering serotonin leels

suggest that popular 4chemical imalance theories of depress are

oerestimated.

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- Dosage and 'ide-e=ects- all medication hae side e=ects.o Ene dose doesn!t "t all- people don!t respond to all of the same

dosages of medication in the same $ay. Physicians must proceed $ith

caution and determine the lo$est dose possile to achiee results and

minimi)e unpleasant side e=ects.- :edications oerprescried? Parents and teachers hae e/pressed particular

alarm that psychostimulants for ;D9D such as (italin are oerprescried and

may sustitute for teaching e=ectie coping strategies for focusing attention.

@-N K of children $ith ;D9D can e treated e=ectiely $ith stimulants

$hich can sometimes e comined to a good adantage $ith ehaioural

therapyo Polypharmacy- practise of prescriing multiple medications at the

same time, can increase the ris6 of fre+uent yet serious side e=ects

produced y interactions among drugs. Tragic death of 9eath edger is

an e/ample. #ecome dangerous $hen doctors don!t properly monitor

the medication gien.- <aluating Psychopharmacotherapy- alone is also e=ectie for a ariety of

an/iety disorders, ulimia, and insomnia.o Psychotherapy and medication produce similar rain changes,

suggesting that di=erent routes to improement share similar

mechanisms and reminding us that 4mind and 4ody descrie the

same phenomenon at di=erent leels of e/planation.o (esearch suggests that comining medication and psychotherapy is

$arranted for people $ith schi)ophrenia, ipolar disorder, and maor

depression.o 2t is a logical error to infer a disorders cause from its treatment or ice

ersa. 9eadaches can e treated $ith aspirin for e/ample ut that

doesn!t imply that headaches are due to a de"ciency of aspirin in the

ody.

<lectric 'timulation

- Patients receie rief electrical pulses to the rain that produce a sei)ure to

treat serious psychological prolems. (ecommended typically for people $ith

ipolar disorder, or schi)ophrenia.- :isconception- including the erroneous eliefs that <CT is painful or

dangerous and that it inarialy produces long-term memory loss, personality

changes, and rain damage. The moie Ene Fle$ oer the Cuc6oo!s nest,

promotes this mista6e that <CT is little more than a rutal means of

punishment or ehaioural control $ith no redeeming alue.

- Conception- aout 5K of people $ith an initially positie response relapse$ithin si/ months or so. <CT us not a cure all. :ay e helpful ecause it

increases leels of serotonin and stimulates the gro$th of rain cells in the

hippocampus.

Psychosurgery

- Er rain surgery to treat psychological prolems. 2s the most radical and

controersial of all iomedical treatments. 'urgeons started $ith prefrontal

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lootomies, process inoling creating small lesions in the amygdala or in

other parts of the limic system.- Today, surgeons sometimes preform psychosurgery as an asolute last resort

for patients $ith a handful of conditions, such as serer ECD.- 2(#Ds help to ensure that%1& Clear rationale for the operation& Patient has receied appropriate ealuations& Consent3& 'urgeon is competent to conduct the surgery

Chapter 1- 'tress, Coping, and 9ealth

- 'tress- a type of response, consists of the tension, discomfort, or physical

symptoms that arise $hen a situation, called a stressor 7stimulus on the

enironment& - strains our aility to cope e=ectiely.o Traumatic eent is a stressor that is so seere that it can produce long-

term psychological or health conse+uenceso 'tress can e thought of as a transaction, much li6e paying dinner at a

restaurant.1& 'tressors as 'timuli- approach focuses on identifying di=erent types of

stressful eents, ranging from o loss to comat. ;lso pinpointed categories

of eents that most of us "nd dangerous and unpredictale, as $ell as the

people $ho are most susceptile to stress follo$ing di=erent eents.o 8ictims of natural disasters su=er from collectie trauma that damages

the onds among people. The "ndings et$een hurricane Matrina and

LJ11, is suggested that stressful circumstances that touch loes of an

entire community can increase social a$areness and cement

interpersonal onds.& 'tress as a Transaction- stress is a suectie e/perience. 'ome people are

sad aout a rea6up ut others may e e/cited to e free. These researcherse/amine ho$ people interpret and cope $ith stressful eents.

a. a)arus stated that $hen $e encounter a potentially threatening

eent, $e engage in primary appraisal- that is $e "rst decide $hether

the eent is harmful efore ma6ing a secondary appraisal aout ho$

$ell $e can cope $ith 2t. Prolem-focused coping- coping strategy y $hich $e prolem sole

and tac6le life!s challenges head on.c. <motion-focused coping- coping strategy that features a positie

outloo6 on feelings or situations accompanied y ehaiours that

reduce painful emotions& 'tress as a (esponse- they assess peoples psychological and physical

reactions to stressful circumstances.

:easuring 'tress

1& 'ocial (eadustment (ating 'cale- ased on 3 ran6ed life eents. 2noles

life transitions suggests that the scale may e measuring ho$ $e adapt to

changing circumstances, many of $hich ta/ our aility to cope e=ectiely.

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a. This approach ho$eer doesn!t consider other crucial factors, including

people!s interpretation of eents, coping ehaiours and resources,

and diGcultly recalling eents accurately.& 9assles- minor annoyance or nuisance that strains our aility to cope. This

scale measures ho$ stressful eents ranging from small annoyances to maor

pressures a=ect out adustment.a. 9assles is a good predictor of health, depression, and an/iety than are

maor life eents.

9o$ $e adapt to stress% Change and Challenge

- 'elye!s genius $as to recogni)e a connection et$een stress response of

animals, including stomach ulcers and increases in the si)e of the adrenal

gland 7producer of stress hormones&o Beneral ;daptation 'yndrome- stress response pattern proposed y

9ans 'eyle that consists of three stages% alarm, resistance, and

e/haustion.1& ;larm (eaction- e/citation of the autonomic nerous system, the discharge of

stress hormone adrenalin, and physical symptoms of an/iety.a. 'tructures in the forerain are inoled in the trigger of the "ght or

ight response- physical and psychological reaction that moili)es

people and animals to either defend themseles 7"ght& or escape

7ight& a threatening situation& (esistance- after the initial rush of stress hormones. ;daptation to the

stressor and "nds $ays to cope $ith it.& </haustion- if our personal resources are limited and $e lac6 good coping

measures, our resistance may ultimately rea6 do$n, causing out leels of

actiation to ottom out.

Tend or #efriend?

- (eaction that moili)es people to nurture 7tend& or see6 social support

7efriend& under stress.- Women generally rely on their social contacts and nurturing ailities- they

tend to those around them and to themseles more than men.

When 'tress is too much

- 'tudents suriing these school shooting, as $ell as their parents, generally

display symptoms of PT'D.

The #rain- #ody reaction to stress

- 2mmune 'ystem- our ody!s natural defence system against inadingacteria, iruses, and other potentially illness-producing organisms and

sustances.o Eur "rst shield of protection is antigens- is in the s6in $hich loc6s the

entry of many diseases called pathogens- ;c+uired 2mmune De"ciency 'yndrome 7;2D'&- life-threatening, incurale, yet

treatale condition in $hich the human immunode"ciency irus 7928& attac6s

and damages the immune system.

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Psychoneuroimmunology

- The study of the relationship et$een the immune system and central

nerous system. For e/ample physical diseases aren!t the result of negatie

thin6ing, nor can positie thin6ing reerse serious illnesses such as cancer- ;ndre$ Weil and Deepa6 Chopra hae populari)ed the idea that the 4mind

can cure serious illnesses. *et most of their optimistic claims aren!t supportedy scienti"c eidence.

- 'tress and Colds- many people eliee there more li6ely to get a cold $hen

they!re really stressed out and it!s right. ong term stressors are especially

li6ely to promote an inammatory response 6no$n to increase at ris6 of colds

and other diseases.- #eyond the Common Cold- all of the follo$ing stressors can contriute to

disruptions in the immune system%o Ta6ing an important test, death of spouse, unemployment, marital

conict, natural disasters

'tress related 2llnesses% #iopsychosocial 8ie$

- Common myth that eliefs and mental states $ere the root causes of

physical ailments.- People today eliee that ulcers are produced y stress. 'tress may play

some role ut LK of ulcers are caused y a acterium.- Psychophysiosocial- illnesses such as asthma and ulcers in $hich emotions

and stress contriute to maintain, or aggraate the physical condition- #iopsychosocial perspectie- ie$ that illness or medical condition is the

product of the interplay of iological, psychological, social factors.- Coronary 9eart Disease- is the complete or partial loc6age of the arteries

that proide o/ygen to the heart, and is the numer one cause of death and

disaility in the A'. :ore men than $omen are at ris6. This deelops due to

cholesterol uild up causing atherosclerosis.- (ole of C9D- history of smo6ing, heart cholesterol, and high lood pressure,

people $ith these issues lied an aerage of 1 years less.

;#Cs of Personality in C9D

- Type ; Personality- personality type that descries people $ho are

competitie, drien, hostile, and amitiouso Term coined to descrie a curious ehaiour pattern they osered

among C9D patients.o Person is a perfectionist, prone to hostility, stuorn, and controlling.

;nger and hostility eing the most predictie of heart disease.- Type # Personality- calmer and mello$ person

'ocioeconomic factors $ith C9D

- Three sources of support for the claim that eeryday e/periences set the

stage for many physical prolems%1& 'igni"cant drop in income& ;frican ;merican $omen $ho report discrimination, and high stressors, hae

more narro$ing and loc6age of their arteries than others

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& C9D is associated $ith sustantial o stress and dissatisfaction

Conclusion

- Physical disorders can also create stress, $hen the treatment for seere

illnesses is successful, transition from poor to dramatically improe health

can introduce ne$ and diGcult decisions, li6e $hether to return to $or6 or toegin or end relationships

Coping $ith 'tress

- 'ocial 'upport- relationships $ith people and groups that can proide us $ith

emotional comfort and personal and "nancial resource- Four 6inds of social ties from isa #er6man% marriage, contact $ith friends,

church memership, and informal and formal group association.o ; rial hypothesis to these "ndings of isolation increasing our chances

of dying is% that poor health results in fe$ social onds, rather than the

other $ay around.o

There $as a replication of #er6man "ndings% een $hen they too6initial health status in account, people $ith less social support had

higher rates of mortality. 2f someone feels disconnected from the $orld

7lo$ social support& he or she is more ulnerale to depression her his

or her goals are too high.

Baining Control

- Fie types of control $e can use%1& #ehaioural Control- aility to step up and do something to reduce the impact

of a stressful situation or preenting a reoccurrence.o This type of coping is called prolem-focused and is generally more

e=ectie in relieing stress, than aoidance-oriented coping- aoiding

action to sole our prolems or giing up hope.& Cognitie Control- aility to cognitiely restructure or thin6 di=erently aout

negatie emotions that arise in response to stress-proo6ing eents.o This type of control includes emotion-focused coping, a strategy that

comes in handy $hen adusting to uncertain situations or aersie

eent $e can!t control or change& Decisional Control- aility to choose among alternatie courses of action3& 2nformational Control- aility to ac+uire information aout a stressful eent.

o 2n this $e engage in proactie coping- $hen $e anticipate stressful

situations and ta6e steps to preent or minimi)e diGculties efore they

arise.

5& <motional Control- aility to supress and e/press emotions.o 'tudent $ho under$ent a study $ho 4opened up aout their

traumatic e/periences made fe$er isits to the health centre and

sho$ed signs of improed immune functioning compared $ith the

students $ho $rote aout triial topics- 2s Catharsis a good thing? Disclosing painful feelings called catharsis, is a

doule edged s$ord. 2n prolem soling to ma6e trouling situations right it is

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a good thing. #ut $hen it reinforces a sense of helplessness, as $hen $e

oice our rage, catharsis can actually e harmful.o Therapists $ould allo$ children to punch pillo$s, yell, and thro$ things

$hen they ecame upset. These actiities resulted rarely reduced our

long-term stress, although they ma6e us feel a little etter at the

present time.- Does Crisis #rie"ng 9elp? 2t is designed to $ard of PT'D among people

e/posed to traumatic eents. Typically in groups, single sessions, group

memers discuss and process their negatie emotions. (ecently it has een

6no$ that crisis derie"ng isn!t e=ectie for trauma reactions, leading to a

possile increase in the ris6 of PT'D.

Fle/ile Coping

- 2n #onanno!s study of students "nding it diGcult manage their emotions prior

to LJ11, found that those $ho $ere etter at e/ily controlling their

emotions y supressing or e/pressing them on demand on a laoratory tas6

reported less distress at the t$o year follo$ up.o </pending a great deal of e=ort to supress emotions can distract us

from prolem soling and lead us to an unintended conse+uence% the

emotions may return in full or $ith greater force.

2ndiidual Di=erences% ;ttitudes, #eliefs, and Personality

- 9ardiness- set of attitudes mar6ed y a sense of control oer eents,

commitment to life and $or6, and courage and motiation to confront

stressful circumstances.o 2t!s not entirely clear $hether hardiness itself- as opposed to a general

tendency to react calmly to life stressors- is the maor predictor of

successful coping.- Eptimism- people $ho don!t d$ell on the sad things in life. They are more

productie, focused, persistent, and etter at handling frustration.o ;lso associated $ith% a lo$ mortality rate, a more igorous immune

response, lo$ distress in females trying to hae a child, etter surgical

outcomes, and fe$er physical complaints.- 'pirituality and (eligious 2nolement- search for the sacred, $hich may or

may not e/tend to a elief in Bod.o Compared to nonreligious people, religious people hae lo$er morality

rates, improed immune system, lo$er lood pressure, and greater

aility to recoer from illnesses.o People $ho are sic6 are less li6ely to attend religious serices than

healthy people, y the counting of people $ho are less in churchcompared to those $ho are not.

o Three reasons for religious inolements%

1& (eligions foster self-control and prohiit ris6y health ehaiours& <ngagement often oosts social support and increases martial

satisfaction& ; sense of meaning and purpose

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- (umination% :ental Barage- recycling negatie eents in our minds can lead

us to ecome depressed.o (umination- focusing on ho$ ad $e feel and endlessly analy)ing the

causes and conse+uences of our prolems.o Women hae much higher rates of rumination and more fre+uent outs

of depression than men. :en are more li6ely to engage in sporting

actiity rather than ruminate.

Promoting Bood 9ealth

- 'tress can also e good, if $e $ere to eliminate stress in our lies, the pulic

health conse+uences $ould e enormous.- 9ealth Psychology- ehaioural medicine- is a rapidly gro$ing "eld that has

contriuted to our understanding of the inuences of stress and other

psychological factors on physical disorders.o 9ealth psychologists use a ariety of educational and ehaioural

interentions to promote and maintain health, and assist people in

coping $ith serious illnesses

To$ards a 9ealthy ife 'tyle

1& 'top smo6ing- smo6ing ran6s as the leading cause of preentale disease

and death in Canada and A';. 9ealth Psychologists ma6e smo6ing treatment

and preention a high priority.& Cur ;lcohol Consumption- reported outs of heay drin6ing, especially inge

drin6ing- is associated $ith many di=erent types of cancer, lier prolems,

pregnancy complications, rain shrin6age and other neurological prolems.o ;lthough there is research done that says hae one or t$o drin6s per

day can actually lessen the ris6 of heart disease.& ;chieing a 9ealth Weight- eing oese increases the ris6 of arious physical

health prolems and is also associated $ith depression and other adustmentdiGculties. umer of oese children has tripled oer the last decade or so

signalling an ominous trend 4oesity epidemico <=ects of $eight on health- e/ercise is one of the iggest means of

shedding $eight and losing $eight oer the long run. osing $eight

reduces lood pressure, cholesterol, and ris6 of diaetes, and added

ene"t of reducing an/iety and improing mood.o 2n a study 5K of oese people $ere more li6ely to su=er from

depression or an an/iety disorder compared $ith people of normal

$eight.o Tips for achieing healthy $eight- some people on these fad diets may

e/perience dramatic short-term $eight loss, ut this is almost al$aysfollo$ed y a gradual return of the initial $eight 7yo-yo e=ect&.

9o$eer, people $ho follo$ these lo$-fat diets for one year report

more positie moods and a greater sense of $ell-eing compared $ith

people $ho follo$ a lo$-car diet.o 9ere is scienti"cally asic supported adice to follo$ for controlling

$eight and health diets% e/ercise regularly, monitor total calories, eat

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foods $ith 4good fats, social net$or6ing to support your e=orts to lose

$eight, and controlling portion si)e.3& </ercise- aeroic e/ercise for e/ample- $hich is e/ercise that promotes the

use of o/ygen in the ody. Can lo$er lood pressure, as $ell as ris6 for C9D,

improe lung function, cut the ris6s of cancers.o :ore igorous e/ercise is needed to improe oerall physical health

and reach our "tness potentials. ;lso e/ercise is more ene"cial at an

older age due to the facing of trouled stressful life eents- Changing ifestyle% easing said than done- many patients do not ta6e their

physician!s adice around NK, een adice to stop smo6ing, change of diet,

or medication is often ignored.o Personal 2nertia- to try something ne$, many self-destructie haits

7smo6ing& reliee stress and don!t create an imminent health threat.o :isestimating (is6- $e maintain the status +uo is that $e

underestimate certain ris6s to our health and oerestimate others. 'tro6es are more causes of death oer accidents

Digestie cancer cause more deaths oer car related accidents

Diaetes is more causing of death then homicide• We underestimate the fre+uency of the most common

causes of death and oerestimate the fre+uency of the

least common causes of deatho Feeling Po$erless- people that feel as if they can!t change, perhaps

ecause our haits are so deeply ingrained.- Preention Programs- these programs should egin in adolescence, ecause

the earlier $e deelop unhealthy haits, the more li6ely $e are to create

prolems later in life. Programs deeloped that contain these elements%1& <ducate young people aout ris6s and negatie conse+uences of smo6ing,

drin6ing, and oesity

& <ducate young people aout good nutrition& Teach young people to resist peer pressure3& </pose young people to positie role models5& Teaching e=ectie coping s6ills for daily liing and dealing $ith stress

o D.;.(.< Program isn!t e=ectie for preenting sustance ause or

enhancing self-esteem.

Complementary and ;lternatie :edicine

- ;lternatie medicine- refers to health care practices and products used in

place of conentional medicine- medicine $hich there!s solid eidence of

safety and e=ectieness.

- Complementary :edicine- refers to products and practices that are usedtogether $ith conentional medicine.o #oth today are 6no$n as C;:.

- 'cope of ;lternatie 9ealth Care- only half of the illions of dollars used for

medical serices are gien to alternatie medicine practitioners.- 8itamins, 9ers, and Food 'upplements- itamin de"ciencies can cause

serious health prolems, ut there isn!t much ene"t in ta6ing mega doses.

Iust ecause something is natural doesn!t mean that it!s safe and healthy for

us.

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- Chiropractic :edicine- manipulate the spine to treat a $ide range of pain-

related conditions and inuries and often proide nutritional and lifestyle

counselling. #ut there is little eidence that their approaches are more

e=ectie than those deried from traditional medicine- #iofeedac6- is feedac6 y a deice that proides almost an immediate

output of a iological function, such as heart rate or s6in temperature. #ut it

may often e no more e=ectie then rela/ation.- :editation- refers to a ariety of practices that train attention and a$areness.

on-$estern countries tend to see6 insight and spiritual gro$th. Western

ho$eer is more $anting to achiee reduced stress. Contrary to stereotypes

there is no right $ay to mediate.o Concentratie :editation- goal is to focus attention on a single thing

7one!s reath, or a sound&o ;$areness :ediation- attention o$s freely and e/amines $hateer

comes to mind.o :editation creates a heightened creatiity, empathy, alertness, and

self-esteem, $hile decreasing an/iety, and depression. 2ts positie

e=ects may derie from a greater acceptance of our trouling thoughtsand feelings.

- ;cupuncture- ancient Chinese practice of inserting thin needles into more

than places in the ody to alter energy forces elieed to run through

the ody. Prolem is that een today scientists cannot measure or identify the

energy associated $ith speci"c illnesses.o 'aid to reliee nausea follo$ing surgical procedures and treat pain-

related conditions.- Placeos and C;:- most research suggests that sham acupuncture reliees

symptoms as much as standard acupuncture. The placeo e=ect is a simpler

e/planation of this.

o Placeos and acupuncture oth stimulate the release of endorphins- Whole :edical 'ystems% 9omeopathic :edicine- remedies that feature a

small dose of an illness-inducing sustance to actiate the ody!s do$n

natural defences.o 9omeopaths eliee that the memory of the sustance is enough to

stimulate the ody!s natural defences, $hich scienti"cally ma6es no

sense.

Chapter 13- Social Psychology

- 'tudy of ho$ people inuence other!s ehaiour, eliefs, and attitudes- for

oth good and ad.

- 9elps us to understand not only $hy $e sometimes act helpfully and eenheroically in the presence of others, ut also $hy $e occasionally sho$ our

$orst sides, caing into peer pressure.

9umans as a 'ocial 'pecies

- (oin Dunar, proaly correct in that our highly social rains are

predisposed to forming intimate interpersonal net$or6s that are large.

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- Why $e need to elong- humans hae a iologically ased need for

interpersonal connections. (esearch also sho$s that the threat of social

isolation can lead us to ehae in self-destructie $ays and een impair our

mental functioning.- <olution and 'ocial #ehaiour- eolutionary approach to social ehaiour,

many social inuence processes hae een naturally selected ecause they

hae generally sered $ell oer the course of eolution. 'ocial inuences can

ho$eer ac6"re.o <olutionary perspectie on social ehaiour leads us to one crucial

conclusion% conformity, oedience, and many other forms of social

inuence ecome maladaptie only $hen they!re lind or

un+uestioning- 'ocial Comparison Theory- $e ealuate our ailities and eliefs y comparing

them $ith those of others, doing so helps us to understand ourseles and our

social $orlds etter.o Comes in t$o di=erent aours%

1& Ap$ard social comparison- compare ourseles $ith people $ho seem

superior to us in some $ay.& Do$n$ard social comparison- $e compare ourseles $ith others $ho

seem inferior to us in some $ayo #oth ho$eer ooth our self-esteem.

- 'ocial Cognition- $hen a situation is amiguous to "gure out $hat to eliee,

and ho$ to act, turning to others to etter understand ourseles.- :ass 9ysteria- is a contagious outrea6 of irrational ehaiour that spreads

much li6e a u epidemic. :any lead to collectie delusions in $hich many

people simultaneously come to e coninced of i)arre things that are false

7AFE!s& 7Windshield pits& are oth e/amples if epidemics o=ering another

illustration of ho$ shared societal elief can inuence our interpretations of

reality ma6ing the familiar seem other$ise.- Aran egends- false stories that hae een repeated so many times that

people eliee them to e true. They ma6e good stories ecause they tug on

our emotions especially the negatie ones.

The Fundamental ;ttriution <rror% Breat esson of 'ocial Psychology

- ;ttriutions- process of assigning causes to ehaiour. 'ome are internal

7someone roed a an6 ecause of impulse& or e/ternal 7roed a an6

ecause their family needed food&- Coined y ee (oss, the Fundamental ;ttriution <rror- refers to the tendency

to oerestimate the impact of dispositional inuences on other!s ehaiour.o Dispositional inuences- enduring characteristics, personality traits,

attitudes and intelligence.o We are more li6ely to commit this error if $e hae een in this same

situation ourseles, een encouraged to e empathetic to$ards those

$ere osering, perhaps ecause ta6ing a $al6 in others shoes help us

grasp $hat they must contend $ith.- <idence for the Fundamental ;ttriution <rror- after listening to speeches

regarding Fidel Castro students $ere as6ed to ealuate their true attitudes

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to$ards Castro. 'tudents fell prey to the Fundamental ;ttriution <rror, they

inferred that $hat deaters said reected their true position regarding Castro

een though they 6ne$ that the assignment to condition $as entirely

random.

'ocial 2nuence% Conformity and Eedience

- Conformity- refers to the tendency of people to alter their ehaiour as a

result of group pressure.- ;sch 'tudies- conformity increased as the si)e of the maority increased- ut

only up to 5-> confederates. @5K of participants in the original ;sch study,

you $ould conform to the incorrect norm on at least one of 1 trails.- 'ocial inuences on Conformity- three ariales that are independent

regarding conformity%1& Ananimity- if all confederates gae the $rong ans$er the participant $as

more li6ely to conform& Di=erence in the $rong ans$er- 6no$ing that someone else in the group

di=ered from the maority

& 'i)e- made a maor di=erence ut only up to 5 or > confederates- 2maging 'tudies% Proing further 2nuence- rain imaging technology raises

the possiility that social pressure can sometimes inuence perception.

(esearchers in a study led participants to eliee that four other people $ere

ma6ing the same udgements $hen they actually $ere programmed y a

computer. Finding high leels of conformity% participants $ent along $ith the

$rong ans$ers 31K of the time.o This "nding suggests that conformity may come $ith a price tag of

negatie emotion, li6e an/iety- 2ndiidual, Cultural, and Bender di=erences in Conformity- people $ith lo$

self-esteem are more prone to conform. ;sian are also found to e more li6ely

to conform then orth ;mericans

Deindiiduation% osing 2dentity

- Deindiiduation- the tendency for people to engage in atypical ehaiour

$hen stripped of their usual identities.o This process ma6es us more ulnerale to conformity

o 'eeral factors contriute to this, the most prominent are a feeling of

anonymity and a lac6 of indiidual responsiilityo 'tanford Prison 'tudy- people olunteer for a t$o $ee6 psychology life

in prison study, people are either guards or prisoners.1& 2n the eginning guards egan to treat prisoners rutally and suect them to

harsh punishments& Day prisoners mounted reellions, $hich the guards stopped.& 'oon, many prisoners egan to display signs of emotional disturances

7depression, hopelessness, and anger&. <en t$o prisoners $ere released due

to a erge of a psychological rea6do$n. Ence the prisoners and the guards had een assigned their roles

that deemphasi)es their indiiduality, adopted their designated

roles more easily than anyone might hae thought.

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9o$eer this study $as ended N days efore the "nishing date,

and other chance to replicate this study $as unsuccessful,

leading to the suggestion that the e=ects of deindiiduation may

not e eitale- Chaos in ;u Bhraid- A' soldiers $ould place ags and dog collars on 2ra+i

leaders. Himardo the 'ta=ord Prison study psychologist, stated that the

similarities $ere not lost, this $as a product of situational forces.o The dehumani)ation of prisoners and prison guards made it more li6ely

that they!d lose themseles in social roles to $hich superiors assigned

them- :o Psychology- deindiiduation helps e/plain $hy cro$d ehaiour is so

unpredictale% the action of cro$ds depend largely on $hether others are

acting prosoically or antisocially.o ;ccording the e #on, people in cro$ds are more anonymous and

therefore more li6ely to act on their impulses than indiidualso Cro$ds do not lead to iolent ehaiour. ;s $ell as people in cro$ds

typically limit their social interactions to minimi)e conict

Broupthin6

- <mphasis on group unanimity at the e/pense of critical thin6ingo #ecomes so intent of ensuring that eeryone agrees $ith eeryone

else that they lose their capacity to ealuate issues oectiely.o Asually contaminated $ith peer pressure

o Broupthin6 adopts a pathological rather than normatie approach to

ody appearance, nutrition, and emotional control.o Doesn!t al$ays lead to ad decision, ust oercon"dent ones. 'ee6ing

group consensus isn!t al$ays a ad idea ut, ut all information much

e ealuated efore this time

- Treatments for Broupthin6- often treatale, est $ay to aoid groupthin6 is toencourage actie dissent $ithin an organi)ation.

o Ianis, recommended that all groups appoint a deil!s adocate- a

person $hose role is to oice douts aout the $isdom of group!s

decision.- Broup Polari)ation- occurs $hen group discussion strengthens the dominant

position held y indiidual group memers.o Tal6ing things oer $ith others isn!t al$ays a good thing. There are

cases it can e destructie, as $hen uries rush to a unanimous

decision.- Cult- groups that e/hiit intense and un+uestioning deotion to a single

cause. :ost are not dangerous ut they can occasionally hae disastrousconse+uences

o <idence suggest that that cults promote groupthin6 in four maor

$ays%1& Persuasie leader $ho fosters loyalty& Disconnecting group memers from outside $orld& Discouraging assumptions y group memers3& <stalishing training practices that gradually indoctrinate memers

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o :isconceptions% cults are usually distured emotionally, although some

cult leaders are seen to hae or een su=ering from a mental illness. ;nother misconception is that cults are rain$ashed%

transformed into unthin6ing )omies. ;lcoholics ;nonymous is

also a sort of cult, so there is not too much eidence that

$hether rain$ashing is a uni+ue means of changings people!sehaiour.o (esisting Cults% 2noculation- William :cBuire and his inoculation e=ect-

demonstrated that the est $ay to immuni)e people against

undesirale elief is to "rst gently introduce them to reasons $hy this

elief seems to e correct, $hich gies them to chance to generate

their o$n counterarguments against these reasons.

Eedience% Follo$ing Erders

- ;dherence to instructions from those of higher authorityo Transmission is ertical, the group inuence springs not from our peers

ut from our leaderso Eedience is necessary and essential, $ithout it our society couldn!t

run smoothly.

'tanley :ilgram

- Destructie Eedience- he $anted to understand the principles underlying

irrational group ehaiour.- :ilgram Paradigm- proided a $indo$ into the causes of oedience than

conformity, he elieed the un+uestioning acceptance of authority "gures is

the crucial ingredient in e/plaining unusti"ed iolence against innocent

ictims.o Four panels of :ilgram!s oedience-

1& 'hoc6 generator& The 4learner person eing strapped to the shoc6 plate& Deliery of instructions to the 4teacher3& The 4teacher rea6s o= the study after refusing to comply $ith

orderso (esults $ere shoc6ing in that, >K of patients displayed complete

compliance after receiing a heay olt of energy. Anderestimated the

impact of the situation on participants ehaiourso Touch Pro/imity condition- participants $ere instructed to hold the

4learners hand on a shoc6 plate. 9ere the leel of oedience

plummeted. Condition illustrates the point that decreasing the

psychological distance et$een teacher and learning leads todecreased oedience.

;lso the greater the psychological distance et$een teacher and

e/perimenter, the less oedience.o 2ndiidual, Bender, and Cultural Di=erences- :ilgram found that

oedient and disoedient participants $ere similar on most personality

traits. ;s $ell as there is no se/ di=erences in oedience.

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o essons- learned that the po$er of the authority "gures is greater than

almost anyone had imagined, and that oedience doesn!t results from

sadism. Destructie oedience on a large scale proaly re+uires not

only an authority "gure ear an oGcial approal, ut a core

group of $ic6ed people.9elping and 9arming Ethers

- Darley and atane% Why $e don!t help as ystanders- the ystander e=ect,

$as less a conse+uence of apathy than of psychological paralysis. ;rgued

that there is actually danger rather than safety in numers. T$o factors

e/plaining ystander non-interention%1& Pluralistic 2gnorance- the error of assuming that no one in the group

perceies things as $e do. 2t is also releant $hen $e are trying to

"gure out $hether and amiguous situation is really an emergency.& Di=usion of (esponsiility- reduction in feelings of personal

responsiility in the presence of others. The more people present at

an emergency, the less each person feels responsile for the

negatie conse+uences of not helping.- 'tudies of #ystander on-interention- tested participants $illingness to%

1& (eport that smo6e $as "lling the room& (eact to $hat sounded li6e a $oman falling o= a ladder and inuring

herself& (espond to $hat sounded li6e another student e/periencing an epileptic

sei)urea. People $ere seen as more li6ely to see6 or o=er help $hen they

$ere alone rather than in a group

'ocial oa"ng

- Phenomenon $herey indiiduals ecome less productie in groups- ;s a conse+uence, the $hole is less than the sum of its parts

o 'ocial loa"ng appear to e due in part to di=usion of responsiility%

people $or6ing in groups typically feel less responsile for the

outcome of a proect than they do $hen $or6ing alone.

Prosocial ehaiour and altruism

- ;ltruism- helping others for unsel"sh reasons.o 'cientists often argue that $e help others entirely for egoistic reasons.

o 2n some studies, e/posing female patients $ho is a confederate,

people had to option to either a& ta6e her place and receie shoc6s or& turning a$ay and not getting shoc6ed. Participants $ho $ere

empathetic to$ards their ictim, they generally o=ered to ta6e her

place and receie the shoc6s rather then turn a$ay.- 'ituational 2nuences of 9elping- the siler lining to the grey cloud of

ystander non-interention% it!s that e/posure to research on ystander

e=ects may increase the chances of interening in emergencies. Called the

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enlightenment e=ect- learning aout psychological research can change real-

$orld ehaiour for the etter.- 2ndiidual and Bender di=erence in 9elping- e/troerted people are more

prone to help than introerted people. Participants $ho are less concerned

aout social approal and less traditional are more li6ely to go against the

grain and interene in emergencies

;ggression% $hy $e hurt others

- 2s a ehaiour intended to harm others, either erally or physically- 'ituational inuence on aggression are%1& 2nterpersonal Proocation- li6ely to stri6e out aggressiely against those $ho

hae proo6ed us y insults, threats, or hitting.& Frustration- th$arted from a goal.& :edia inuences- conclusion that media iolence increases the odds of

iolence though oserational learning.3& ;ggressie Cues- e/ternal cues associated $ith iolence, gun or 6nies, can

sere as discriminatie stimuli, ma6ing us prone to act iolently in response

5& ;rousal- $hen our autonomic nerous systems are hyped up $e mista6enlyattriute this arousal to anger, leading us to act aggressiely.

>& ;lcohol and other drugs- sustances can disinhiit our rain!s prefrontal

corte/ lo$ering, alcohol is li6ely to trigger aggression only $hen the target of

our aggression occupies the focus of our attention as $hen someone is

threatening us directly@& Temperature- $arm temperatures increase irritaility, they may ma6e people

more li6ely to lose their tempers $hen proo6ed or frustrated.- ;ggression% indiidual, gender and cultural di=erences

o Personality- people di=er in their tendencies to ehae aggressiely.

People $ith high emotions are more prone to iolenceo

'e/ Di=erences- relation aggression- form of indirect aggression,prealent in girls, inoling the spreading of rumors, gossiping, and

noneral putdo$ns for the purpose of social manipulation (esearch suggests that although males tend to e more

physically aggressie than females, girls are more li6ely than

oys to engage in gossipo Cultural Di=erences- physical iolent crimes are less prealent among

;sian people $hen compared to Canadians. Cultural of honor- a social norm of defending ones reputation in

the face pf perceied insults. :ay help us to e/plain $hy the

rates of iolence are higher in 'outh A'; compared to the rest.

;ttitudes and Persuasion% Changing :inds

- ;ttitude- is a elief that includes an emotional component. ;ttitudes reect

ho$ $e feel aout an issue or person.o :isconception is that attitudes are good predictors of ehaiour.

o When attitudes don!t predict ehaiour- aPierre!s study $as

imperfect, there $as no $ay to 6no$ if people $ho "lled out the surey

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$ere the same people $ho!d sered them. There is a moderate

association $ith attitudes and ehaiours of .N.o When attitudes do predict ehaiour- attitudes are high accessile-

$hich come to mind easily and tend to e strongly predictie of our

ehaiour ;ttitudes also tend to predict ehaiour $hen they!re "rmly held

and stale oer time. 'elf-monitoring- is a trait that assesses the e/tent to $hich

people!s ehaiours reect their true feelings and attitudes.

Erigin of ;ttitudes

- (ecognition- this heuristic ma6es us more li6ely to eliee something $e

hae heard many times efore. Can ho$eer lead us to the and$agon

fallacy $hich is the false telling of stories or interpretation, and leading us to

oin the consensus- ;ttitudes and Personality- although $e may persuade ourseles that our

political attitudes derie from completely oectie analyses of social issues,

these attitudes are often a=ected y our personalities.

;ttitude Change

- Cognitie Dissonance Theory- is an inuential model of attitude change, $e

alter our attitudes ecause $e e/perience unpleasant state of tension.o Cognitie Dissonance- et$een t$o or more unpleasant mental

e/perience of tension resulting from t$o conicting thoughts or eliefso 2f $e hold a elief or attitude 7;& that inconsistent $ith another attitude

or elief 7#&, $e can reduce the an/iety resulting from this in three

maor $ays%1& Change ;

& Change #& 2ntroduce a ne$ ariale 7cognition& that resoles the inconsistency

- (esearchers ma6e the participants do a oring tas6 7inserting 1 spoons into

a tray&, then tell them to tell the ne$ e/perimenter ho$ much fun the actiity

$as. ;ssigned some people to receie 1Q and others Q. We might e/pect

people receiing Q $ould enoy this more, cognitie dissonance theory

suggest that the 1Q recipients should e more enoyale from the tas6.o The people $ho receied 1Q had no e/ternal usti"cation- in correlation

to the people $ho receied Q they $ere ried to lie.o Participants gien less money reported enoying the tas6 more,

ecause they needed to ustify their lies to themseles

- ;lternaties to CDT- self-perception theory- proposed theory that $e ac+uireour attitudes y osering our ehaiours

o 2mpression management theory- theory that $e don!t really change

our attitudes, ut report that $e hae so that our ehaiours appear

consistent $ith our attitudes- Persuasion Techni+ues%1& Foot in the door- persuasie techni+ue ino6ing ma6ing a small re+uest

efore ma6ing a igger one

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& Door in the face- persuasie techni+ue inoling ma6ing an unreasonaly

large re+uest efore ma6ing the small re+uest $ere hoping to hae

guaranteed.& o$all techni+ue- persuasie techni+ue in $hich the seller of a product

starts y +uoting a lo$ sales price, and then mentions all of the 4add-ons

costs at once the customer has agreed to purchase the product- Characteristics of the messenger- more li6ely to s$allo$ a message if famous

people delier item. We can safeguard y teaching them to distinguish

et$een legitimate and illegitimate authorities.o (esearchers hae no$ reported this implicit egotism e=ect- the "nding

that $ere more positiely disposed to$ards, people, places, or things

that resemle us across many domains.- :ar6eting of Pseudoscience- resist these tactics y eing ale to recogni)e

them, identi"ed a ariety of persuasion tactics to $atch out for $hen

ealuating unsustantiated claims.

Preudice and Discrimination

- Preudice- dra$ing negatie conclusions aout a person, group of people, or

situation prior to ealuating the eidence- 'tereotype- a elief, positie or negatie, aout the characteristics of

memers of a group that is applied generally to most memers of a groupo 'tem from psychological processes that are adaptie

o *et stereotypes can e the seeds from $hich preudice gro$s

o 'ome stereotypes are massie oergenerali)ations% creating an

illusionary correlation ecause they indicate the perception of an

erroneous association et$een minority group and a gien

characteristic.o Thomas Pettigre$ called the Altimate ;ttriution <rror- the mista6e of

attriuting the negatie ehaiour of entire groups li6e $omen,Christians, or lac6s to their dispositions. 'imilar to the Fundamental

;ttriution <rror after $hich its name, A;< leads us to underestimate

the impact of situational factors on people!s ehaiourso 'tereotypes comes to us naturally, they 6ey di=erence et$een

preudice people and non-preudice people isn!t that the former hae

stereotypes of minority groups and the latter done, ecause oth

groups harour stereotypes.

ature of Preudice

- Tendency to$ard preudice is deeply rooted in the human species

- ;daptie Conseratism- eolutionary principle that creates a predispositionto$ard disturing anything or anyone unfamiliar or di=erent.

- 2n-group ias- tendency for indiiduals inside our group relatie to memers

outside our group. 7e/ample are the fans for a home team&- Eut-group homogeneity- tendency to ie$ all indiiduals outside our group as

highly similar.

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o :a6es it easier for us to dismiss memers of other groups, such as

races, in one fell s$oop, ecause $e can simply tell ourseles they all

share at least one undesirale characteristic- greediness or la)iness

Discrimination

- egatie ehaiour to$ard memers of out-groups.o Preudice in turn can lead to discrimination, terms are often confused.

o Can e sutle yet po$erful

- Creating discrimination- ust need t$o groups that di=er on any

characteristic.o :inimal intergroup paradigm- a laoratory method for creating ased

on aritrary di=erenceso Iane <lliot classic lue-eyes ro$n-eyes demonstration highlighted the

negatie interpersonal e=ects of discrimination

(oots of Preudice

- 'capegoat 9ypothesis- claim that preudice arises from a need to lame othergroups for our misfortunes- Iust-$orld hypothesis- claim that our attriution and ehaiours are shaped

y a deep-seated assumption that the $orld is fair and all things happen for a

reason.- Conformity- preudice attitudes can stem from conforming to society norms,

loo6ing for the ned of social approal- 2ndiidual Di=erences- (oert ;ltemeyer, e/plains that some people e/hiit

high leels of preudice against a $ide ariety of out-groups.o </trinsic religiosity- most prominent in religion, $ho are people $ho

ie$ religion as a means to an end, tends to hae high leels of

preudice.o 2ntrinsic religiosity- $hom religion is deeply in a part of a elief system,

tend to hae e+ual or lo$er leels of preudice than nonreligious

people

Preudice 4#ehind the 'cenes

- </plicit preudice- unfounded negatie eliefs of $hich $e!re a$are regarding

the characteristics of an our group- 2mplicit preudice- unfounded negatie elief of $hich $e!re una$are

regarding the characteristics of an out group- 2mplicit ;ssociation Test- is the most $idely researched measure of implicit or

unconscious preudice. :any people across races associate negatie $ords

more readily $ith lac6 then $hite faces.o 2t is hard to 6no$ $hether the 2;T measures preudice as much as

a$areness of stereotypes

Comating (acism

- (oers Cae 'tudy- cooperation to$ards a shared goal produced a dramatic

decrease in hostility et$een groups. 8aluale lesson to learn% one means of

7/17/2019 Test Final (1)


reducing preudice is to encourage people to $or6 to$ard a shared high

purpose- Iigsa$ Classrooms- educational approach designed to minimi)e preudice y

re+uiring all children to ma6e independent contriutions to shared proect.

'igni"cantly reduced preudice.- 2ncreased contact et$een racial groups is rarely suGcient to reduce

preudice

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Test Final (1)