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Television, Audiences and Cultural Studies
David Morley
Routledge Taylor h Francis Croup
LONDON AND NEW YORK
- Contents
Acknowledgements Introduction
Part I Theoretical frameworks
1 Television audience research: a critical history
2 Psychoanalytic theories: texts, readers and subjects
Part I1 Class, ideology and interpretation
3 Interpreting television: the Nationwide audience
4 The 'Nationwide' Audience: a critical postscript
Part I11 Gender, domestic leisure and viewing practices
5 Research development: from 'decoding' to viewing context
6 The gendered framework of family viewing
7 From Family Television to a sociology of media consumption
Part IV Methodological issues
8 Towards an ethnography of the television audience
Part V Television, technology and consumption
9 Domestic communication: technologies and meanings (with Roger Silverstone)
10 The consumption of television as a commodity
11 Private worlds and gendered technologies
vii 1
vi Contents
Part V1 Between the private and the public 249
12 The construction of everyday life: political communication and domestic media 25 1
13 Where the global meets the local: notes from the sitting-room 270
Notes Bibliography Index
Index
Abercrombie, N. et al.: on 'dominant ideology thesis' 20,24
Abercrombie, N. and Turner, B.: on media studies 7
address: mode of 65-7.84-5, 112, 113, 206
advertising: and metaphor 209 age: as structuring factor 125 Allen, R. : Channels of Discourse 6 Althusser, L. 24, 136; on family/school
couplet 70; influence on cultural studies 7; on interpellation 62; and relative autonomy concept 55; on unconscious nature of ideology 121
Anderson, B.: on nation as 'imagined community' 267-8
Anderson, J.: on family use of time and television viewing 262; on naturalistic perspective 185-6; on rules of family viewing 184
Anderson, J. and Avery, R.: on interpretative research 36
Ang, I.: on context of viewing 184; on Dallas 208; on ethnography 27; in favour of particularization 187-8; on gender 8,15,147; on purpose of empirical study 181; on quantitative research 175, 177, 179; on ratings discourse 175; on role of researcher 31; on viewing and non-viewing 197
Ang, I. and Hermes, J. 169; on dispersion of power 25; on 'gender essentialism' 1-1
Ang, I. and Morley, D.: on context of cultural studies 2
Annan Committee on Broadcasting (1977) 257
anthropology: postmodern 189;
research into consumption 21617; see also ethnography
anti-racism: perspective on cultural studies 8
Appadurai, A. : on 'career' of technology 236; The Social Life of Things 213
Amheim, Rolf: on social consequences of television 289
audience: assumptions made about 84; characterizing relationship to television 206; and citizenship 252-4; definition of 'common sense' terms 98; discourses available to 87,92; as element of mass communications 77-8; ethnography of see ethnography; as a fiction 178; and 'generalised other' 95; granting privileged status to 180; as passive consumers 18; positioning of 84-5; process of interpretationtdecoding see decoding; sub-cultures within 87-90; see also audience research
audience research 6-7; 'hypodermic' model 273; micro- and macro- issues 275-7; and nature of texts 119; 'new revisionism' 22-6; obsolence of 277; problems of quantitative methods 174-7; questioning of 273-5; role of hindsight 2 W
Australia, cultural studies 3 autonomy: and determination 55-7;
relative 55
Baines, S.: on technological 'valences' 230
Bandura, B.: on 'acting-out' 50
Index 313
Barkin, S. and Gurevitch, M.: interpretative research 36
Barratt, Michael94, 106, 108-9 Barrington-Moore, Jr: on cultural
values 37 Barthes, R.: 'Myth today' 28; on status
of author 10; The Pleasures of the Text 122; and structuralism 33; on 'work' and 'text' 27
Bassett, G. and Wiebe, Z.: on resistant readings 39
Baudrillard, J.: on consumption 216 Bausinger, H.: on gender and viewing
behaviour 140, 160; on significance of newspapers 268; on technology and the everyday 239,277-8; on television as escape from domestic interaction 175
BBC: fostering of feeling of community in nation 255-6; view of audience as consumers 218
Bennett, T. and Woollacot, J.: on political and cultural values 8; on textual meaning 267.206
Berelson, B.: on content analysis 49 Beresford, David: on politics of 'being
there' 286 Berger, J.: on significance of space 271 Berkowitz, L.: on 'acting-out' 50 Berland, J.: on 'placelessness' 280 Bernstein, B.: educational sociology
research 55; on elaborated and restricted linguistic codes 265; and screen theory 68-9; on codes and social structures 5; on determination 56
Bernstein, R.: on education and cultural values 37
Beynon, H.: on relation of class, culture and consciousness 5
Beynon, H. and Nicholls, T.: on relation of class, culture and consciousness 5
Bhabha, J.: on nation and narration 288
bias, in media 7 Birmingham, Centre for Contemporary
Cultural Studies 75; see also Nationwide study
Blind Date 39 Blumler, J., Gurevitch, M. and Katz,
E.: on gratifications research 24 Bobo, J.: on race and gender 15-16
Boddy, W.: on marketing of new technologies 236
Bough. Frank: presentation of Nationwide 103,110
Bourdieu, P. : analysis of Berber house 222-3; on codes and social structures 5; concept of 'habitus' 19; on consumption 211,216,217; on cultural capital 70; on cultural competence 119,128; on gendered organization of household space 215, 227; on structuring of culture 12, 125; on symbolic value of television 214
Brecht, B.: on crude thinking 162 broadcasting: and rituals of national
life 261; and social organization of time 260-1
Brodie, J. and Stoneman, L.: on gender differences in viewing 153
Browne, N.: on status of text 206; on textual meaning 26-7
Brunel University, HICT research 3 W , 195,23943,275,280
Brunsdon, C.: on audience research 273; on content and meaning 21; on cultural values in television 26; on gender 15, 146, 149; on ideology and construction of texts 30; on status of text 206; on television conventions 129
Brunsdon, C. and Morley, D.: on Nationwide audience analysis 9,22; on women and workings of home as private sphere 225
Brunt, R. and Jordin, M.: on group intemews 17
Bryce, J.: on context of research 203; on family use of time and television viewing 262-5
Budd, B., Entmann, R. and Steinman, C.: on audience power 29-31
Budget, Nationwide coverage of 103, 104-6.109-11
Bulmer, M.: on relation of class, culture and consciousness 5
Bunce, Michael: on Nationwide (BBC TV) 9
Burke, K.: on language 95 Bush, C.G.: on technological
'valences' 230 Butler, J.: on construction of category
'woman' 160
314 Index
cable television 210,222 Camera Obscura: on construdon of
category 'woman' 160 Cardiff, D. and Scannell, P.: on
development of British broadcasting 255-6
Carey, J.: on senses of space and time 266,278-9
Carr, E.H.: on nature of history 179 Carragee, K.: on family-based research
40; on interpretative research 36-7; on resistant readings 38,39
cartoons, implicit social attitudes 82 CBS Home Shopping Club 215-16 censorship 237,257 Centre for Contemporary Cultural
Studies, Birmingham: analysis of Nationwide 4-5.8-9,75; English Studies Group 122n 128, 129; see d o Nationwide study
Centre for Mass Communications Research, Leicester University 51
Chambers, I.: on counter-hegemoilic foras in popular culture 273,274; criticism of structuralism 33
Chaney, D.: on ritual 264; on television as means of national participation 283-4
children: interviewing of on television viewing 159; supervision of viewing 166,241,258
Christmas broadcast by monarch 255, 256
cinema: as experience 157-8, falling attendances 164
Cipolla, C. : on history of clocks 266 citizenship: and audience membership
252-4; and cost of access to information 217-18
class: and available discourses 87; and codes 36; and consciousaess 5; and construction of audience categories 130; and gender differentiation 145; and idaology 55-7.69-70; and interpellation 63; and leisure 225; and mass culture 36, and 'meaning- systems' (ideological frameworks) 88-90; in Nationwide audience project 16, 125-6; and public-service broadcasting 219; and repertoires of discourse 70; and supervision of children's viewing 166
Clifford, J.: on ethnography as fiction 189-90
Clifford, J. and Marcus, G.: on audience research 273; on ethnography 13; ~ n ' t i & Culture 190
Cockburn. C.: on new technology reproducing gender patterns 229
codes: cultural 86-7,88,92; dominant 89,93; negotiated 89.93; appositional 89, 93; and social structures 5; see d o decoding and interpretation
Cohen, P. and Gardner, C.: on racial stemtypes 8
Cohen, P. and Robbins, D.: on youth cultures 127-8
Collet, P. and Lamb, R.: on 'modalities' of television 207-8
Color Purple, The (film) 15-16 commonsense viemint: aca~tance of
communication, vague- in 184-5 communications resuuch:
interpretative paradigm 50-1 communications technology: future of
277-9; individualizing effects 278-9 community: and geography 278-83,
288-9; and ritual 264; transformed by communications technology 280, see d o family; household
computers 201,207; gender differences in attitudes to 230,233-5,246; ownership of 218; power of software designers 32; symbolic value of 214
Connell, I.: on audiences 7; on ideology 20; on I T V and popular taste 219
Conrad, P-: on selling through television 215
consumption: anthropological research on 21617; ethnography of 183; home as unit of 224; increasing privatization of 21&11; and nature of audience 212; television as object of 210-12; of texts 211
context: domestic 13WO. see &o family; household; of film viewing 157-8; importance of I-, influence on decoding 100, 135; of television-viewing 165-8; of viewing 13%4, 184-6
Index 315
Corner, J.: on act of reading 21; on audience research 18-19; on
contextual issues 15; on ethnographic research 39-40, on media influence 20
Coronation Sfreet 150,151 Comgan, P.: on context of film
viewing 158 Comgan, P. and Willis, P.: on popular
culture 130 Counihan, M.: on content and
meaning 21; on mass wmmunications research 78-9
Cowan, R.: on women and leisure 225 Coward, R.: on relative autonomy 55 Coyne, Tom, as Nationwide presekrer
108 Crossroadr 208 Cubitt, S.: on family viewing 1 3 W cultural capital, and familylschool
wuplet 70 cultural competence 128, 129-30 cultural identity, relationship to social
relationships and technological innovation 1%
cultural imperialism 127 cultural studies: implications of 2-5;
new revisionist/interpretivist perspective 11; and publishing economics 3 4 , 6 ; relation of class, culture and consciousness 5; research methods 206,219; and semiology 24-5; and social sciences 4-5.24
cultural values: analysis of 37; and educational achievement 37-8
culture: and consumption 216-17; 'national' 21S20; youth 127-8
Curran, J. : on 'new revisionism' 22-6 Curran, J. and Gurevitch, M.: Mass
Communication and Society 25 current affairs programmes 85, 129; see
also Nationwide; Panorama
Daily Telegraph 105, 112 Dallas 150. 151,208,219; study
(Liebes and Katz) 37,38 Dayan, D. and Katz, E.: and
'diasporic ceremony' 287; on participation and 'being there' 286-7; on presentation of royal wedding 285,287
de Certeau, M.: on consumption 216,
217; on strategies of powerful and tactics of weak 29,31,275
de Gaulle, General: on television and government 285
decoding 8,27,29,29-30,5576, 85-7,767; comprehension, incomprehension dimension 136-7; dominant 89.99, 115-16, 1267; gender differences 101; and genre theory 127-30; influence of direct experience 100; and intentionality 120-1; interplay of textual and social variables 119-20; and meaning systems 126-7; mechanisms of forming discourses 90; negotiated 89,99400,112, 113, 11617,126-7; oppositional89,99, 112.11617, 1267, 134,135; pattern of 117-18; relevancelirrelevance dimension 136-7; reworking of model 126-30, as set of processes 121; and television as 'conveyor-belt' 120, 121; sec also codes
deep structures, and cultural practice 136
deregulation of television, and quality of programmes 26,218-19
Desmond, J.: on 'Home Shopping Club' 215-16
determinism, and decoding and interpretation 89-90, 118
Deutscher, I.: on definition of 'obvious' terms 98; on language %
discourse: dominant 65; educational 113-14; effectivity of 70; formation 90; methodology of analysis 97-8; polysemy of 65
dishwashers 237 Docherty, D. et al.: on viewing of films
164 Donald, J.: on nation as effect of
cultural technologies 288; on subjectivity 162
Donzelot, J.: analysis of family 257; on organization of domestic space 237; on status of family 226
Douglas, M. and Isherwood, B.: on consumption 211-12,214,216
Downing, J.: on uses and gratifications approach 52-3
Dreitzel, H.: on semiotics and codes 33 Durkheim, E.: on individualism 17,20 Dyer, R.: on decoding model 126-7;
316 Index
on deep structures and cultural practice 136
Dynasty 151,155
Eagleton, Terry: on socialist criticism 34,35
Eco, Umberto: on research methods 92
educational achievement: and 'constant TV' households 169; and orientations to time 264-5
election campaigns 286 Elliott, P. 53; on uses and
gratifications approach 52; The Making of a Television Serics 51
Ellis, J.: on determination 55-6; on national nature of television 7,267
Ellis, J. and Ang, I.: on tekvision's mode of address 206
embourgeoiscment thesis 216,224 employment, and power within family 148
encoding and decoding see decoding Ericson, S.: on audience research 273 Emi, J.: on obsolence of audience
rtsearch 277 essentialism 15-18 ethnicity, and cultural studies 3 ethnography 3941; in approach to
audiences 13-15; of consumption 183; and diversity 27; fashion for 186; and imperialism 189; narrowing of in media studies 13-15, 196; and Nationwide survey 14; politics of 177431; postmodern 1914; potential contribution to audience research 173; problems of 1&91; and 'realism' 189
Evans, W.: on audience research 18; on gratifications research 24; on 'interpretivist' tradition of audience research 29; on interpretivists 31; on 'new revisionism' 22; on appositional readings 38-9
Everyday Tekviswn: 'Nationwide' 92, 123,124,225,255
Ewige l&, Der 65-6
family: areas closed to researcher 186, assumptions about 84; demographic changes in 1434; distinguished from household 203; fragm.entation of 221; gender differences in decoding
101; idealized portrayal of 107, 115; national audience as 255-6; privatization of 221; regulatory discourses 256-60; role of television discourses 226-7; significance of multi-W ownership 254-5; state intervention in 257-8; status of 226; traditional image of 163-4,25&7; types of rules on television-viewing 142-3; see also household
Family Television project 15, 133, 134, 137,228,274,275; criticism of 161, 168; shortcomings 159
family viewing 106; nature of 76-7; need for diiect investigation of 138; regulation of 257; research project, design 143; methodology 143-4; sample design 144-5
Feher, M. and Kwinter, S.: on integration of environment and action 183
feminism: film practice 68; perspective on cultural studies 8
Ferguson, M.: on technology and timelspace differences 281
Feuer, J.: on audience research 179-80,273; on 'implied spectator* for television 162; on 'speculative method' I S 1
film theory: and feminism 68; on importance of context 15743; and position of spectator 180
FisLe, J. : on ethnography 189, Madonna study 38-9; on Nationwide audience analysis 10, 11; on non- existence of 'the television audience' 178; on 'reader's liberation move- ment' 273,274; on role of researcher 32; on 'semiotic democracy' 26-9; theory of reading 28-9
Fontaine, J.S.: on domestic and political life 225; on public and private spheres 223
Forgacs, D.: on subjectivity l34 form: and ideological meaning 123-5;
and interdiscursive connections 128 Foucault, M.: on communications and
geography 40,41; and dispersion of power 25-6; on social organization of home 258; on space and time 270, 271,272
Fowler, Trew et al.: on form and function 124
framing devices 82,84, 123 Frankfurt School, mass society thesis
45-6 Fraser, Ian, interviewed on Nationwide
103, 110 Fremlin, Celia: on news-watching as
ritual 269 Frith, S.: on ideology and reception of
texts 30; on significance of radio for family life 25-
Frow , J. : on 'Nationwide' Audience book 10-11; on role of researcher 31
functional analysis, and communications research 49
Gardener's World 84 Garmanikow, E. aqd Purvis, J.: on
public and private spheres 223,231, 280
Geertz, C.: on audience research 25; on ethnography as fiction 1924; on facts and explication 182; on 'moral hypochondria' in ethnography 191 ; on task of cultural analysis 188-9, 190; on thin and 'thick' descriptions 194
Gell, A.: on symbolic value of television 214
gender: and power 141-2; representation in soap operas 8; as structuring factor 125
gender differences: in attitudes to introduction of radio 233, 235-6; and construction of audience categories 130; and cultural competence 129; danger in making too easy an explanation 169; and differential decodings 101; discussion of 15, 16; in discussion of television 150-2; and 'gender essentialism' 160-2; and leisure 225; and monochronic/ polychronic orientations to time 264; and organization of household space 227-8; in popular culture 233; in styles of viewing 162; in technological competence 163, 227-35,267; in use of computers 230,23>5; in use of video recorders 228-9; in young people's use of technology 245-6
gender relations: and household space 223; and public and private spheres
Index 317
223; and viewing behaviour 1416, 148-9; and workings of home as private sphere 225
Generation Game, The 84 genre theory, and decoding 127-30 Gerbner, G.: on proposition analysis
98 Gershuny, J.: on mass consumption
210 Gewertz, D. and Emngton, E.: on
postmodern ethnography 192 Giddens, A.: on standardization of
time 265; on 'stnrcturation' 18, 19 Giglioli, P.: on codes and social
structures 5; on context 169; on language, class and code 56
Gillespie, M.: on seating patterns for television viewing 165; on video and cultural identity 288
Glasgow Media Group 7 Gledhill, C.: on fixing of identities 28;
on language and society 178-9; on 'negotiation' of meanings 19; on psychoanalytic and historical subject 67
Golding, P.: on consumption 216; on economic access to information 217-18; on economic reasons for television viewing 168
Goldthorpe, J. and Lockwood, D.; on embourgeoisement thesis 224; The AfPuent Worker 5
Goodman, I.: on television and family behaviour 142-3
Gramsci, A.: influence on cultural studies 7, 24; on tradition 64
gratifications see uses and gratifications model
Gray, A.: on subjectivity of researcher 190; on women and video technology 153, 187,229
Greenfield: on differences in types of media 207
Gripsrud, J.: on audience research 273; on content and meaning 21; on 'readers' rights' 29; on role of researcher 32
Groombridge, B. : on alienated situation of audience 253
Grossberg, L.: on cultural studies 12; on postmodern ethnography 192; on status of text 206; on textual meaning 27
318 Index
Gunter, B. and Svennevig, M.: on multi-tv households 254; on 'pure' viewing 176
Haddon, L.: on male attitudes to computers 233-4
Hall, S.: on cultural studies 3, 4-5,6, 7; on encoding and decoding of television 8, 12, 29,86, 211; on ethnicity and cultural studies 3; on nature of ideology 121; on negotiated codes 117; on openness of message 52; 'preferred reading' model 21; on semiotics and codes 33; on universalist concepts 60
Hall, T.: on orientations to time 263 Halloran, J.: on audience sub-cultures
54; Demonstrations and Cornmuni- cations 51; on 'filtering' by viewer 51; on television and violence 50
Hammersley, M.: on ethnography 1&7
Hammersley, M. and Atkinson, P.: on audience research 174-5
Haralovich, M.: on women in situation comedy 2 2 6 7
Hardy, P., Johnston, C. and Willemen, P.: on real and constructed readers 67,68
Hanis, N.: on relation of class, culture and consciousness 5
Hartley, J.: on audience research 273; on national role of newspapers 268; on television and construction of nation 26; on 'the television audience' as a fiction 17
Hartmann, P. and Husband, C.: on influence of media 70; on race and media 80
Harvey, D. 40; on prioritizing of time and history 270-1
Heath, S. and Sk~rrow, G.: on television 7
Hebdige, D.: on consumption 216; on cultural studies 12; on 'national culture' 219; on popular culture 8; on 'uncertainty principle' 283
hegemony 121-2; and meaning- construction 91
H e m s , J. : on importance of everyday interactions 161
Hill, J.: on interaction of text and users 87
Hirst, P.: on determination 55-6 history, role of 23 Hobson, D. : on Crossroads 208; on
gender and current affairs 129-30; on gender identities 8, 15; on television viewing by women 228
Hodges, J. and Hussain, A.: on state intervention into family life 257; on status of family 226
home: gender differences in attitudes to 146; see also family; household
homeworking, and technology 222 homology, in rhetoric of television 208 Horton, D. and Wohl, R.: on para-
social interaction 279; on television as interaction 208
household: as context of television meaning 202-3; distinguished from family 203; as unit of television consumption 215; see also family; space, household
Household Uses of Information & Communications Technology (HICT) project 28,3940, 195, 23948,275
Hoyles, M.: on act of reading 21 Hurtado, A.: on race and public and
private spheres 223 Hymes, D. : on codes and social
structures 5; on cultural competence 119; on different uses of language 96; on 'ethnography of speaking' 130
'hypodermic model', in mass communications research 45-6,48, 59,78-9,83,273
identification: failures of m; in rhetoric of television 208-9
identity, fixing of 28 ideology, influence of 20 implicit messages: methodology for
analysing 82; semiological analysis 83; see also hypodermic model
individualism, and group interviews 17-18
information gap model 218 intentionality: in encodingldecoding
model 120-1; see also decoding interdiscourse 60-1,76-7, 195; extra-
discursive 70; and interpellation 61-5 internationalization of television
219-20
interpellation: contradictory 6 3 4 ; and interdiscourse 61-5
interpretation, group 97 intertextuality 27 interviewing methods, defence of
180-1
Jameson, F.: on significance of space 271 -
Jennings and Madge: on mediated participation in Coronation (1937) 284
Jensen, K.B.: on wntextualization of research findings 176; on oppositional decodings 31; on significance of everyday experience 185
Jensen, K.B. and Rosengren, K.: on 'convergence' in audience research 25
Jewel in the Crown, The 151 Johnston, C.: on subjectivity 67-8 Jouet , J. and Toussaint, Y .: on
technology use in France 234 Jud Suss 65-6
Kantor, D. and Lehr, W.: on family use of time 262-3
Katz, E. and Lazarsfield, P.: mass society thesis 45-6,48; P e r s o ~ l Influence 48
Keddie, N . : on codes and social structures 5; on education and cultural values 37
King, A.: on patterns in leisure 224-5; on standardization of time 265
Klapper, J.: on 'reinforcement' 48 Knorr-Cetina, K.: concept of
'methodological situationalism' 188 Kramarae, C.: on definition and use of
technology 230 Kubey, T.: on use of television to
avoid negative moods 167-8 Kumar, K.J.: on family structure and
relating to television 166
Labov, W. : on codes and social structures 5
Lacan, J.: on constitution of subject 60; on interpellation 62
Laclau, E. 160; on class and ideology 69; on interpellation 62-3,64
Index 319
Laclau, E. and Mouffe, C.: Hegemony and Social Strategy 134
Lakoff and Johnson: on metaphor 209 language: and wnsciousness 121; form
and meaning 12S5; lexico- referential systems 9 3 4 ; political determinations of 94-5; and project methods 95-6,98; and society 178-9
language, class and code 55-8 Lazarsfeld, P. et al.: The People's
Choice 48 leisure: and class 225; and gender 225;
gender differences in 225; increasingly home-centred 164
Lemish, D.: 'The rules of viewing television in public places' 133
Lewis, C.A.: on radio and home life 259
Lewis. J.: on group interviews 17; on narrative in television news 209
lexico-referential systems 9 3 4 Liebes, T. and Katz, E.: Dallas study
37,38 Lindlof, T. and Meyer, T.: on
interactive technology 238-9; on signficance of interactive technology 277; on significance of domestic settings 203; on vagueness in communication 184-5
Lindlof, T. and Traudt, P.: on family viewing 140; on household space and viewing habits 165; on physical structure of home 204; on use of technology in home 227
Live Aid S 7 Lockwood, D.: on consumption 216 Lodziak, C.: on economic reasons for
television viewing 168; on effect of broadcasting on domestic time 261; on social organization of time 266
Lull, J. : cross-cultural comparisons of sense of time 262; on ethnography 13, 186; on household space and viewing habits 165; on importance of context 176; on influence of household space 204; on 'modalities' of television 207-8; on selection of television programmes 141; on television and use of time 262; on use of video rewrders 228-9
McArthur, C.: on political and cultural values 8
320 Index
McCabe, C.: on political and cultural values 8
Maclntyre, A.: on thought and action 94-5
McLuhan, M.: on differences in types of media 207; on television 7
McLuhan, M. and Fiore, Q.: on 'global village' 278
McRobbie, A.: on subjectivity of researcher 190
McRobbie, A. and Garber, J.: on girls' rejection of masculinecoded objects 234-5; on girls' sub-cultures 228; 24%
Maddox, B.: on women's use of telephone 232
Madonna, study of readings of by teenage girls 38-9
Malinowski, B. : immersionist ethnography 191
Mann, M.: on 'abstract' and 'situated' levels of consciousness 9; on relation of class, culture and consciousness 5
Marcus, G. and Fischer, M.: on anthropology as reflexive 184; on 'crisis' of ethnography 13, 189
Martin, G. : on role of popular newspapers 253
Martin-Barbero, J.: on massculture 36; on television and construction of nation 267
Marxism: and audience research 20, and mass culture 3 4 4
Mascia-Lees, F.E. et al.: on politics of postmodem ethnography 191,192
mass communications, elements of process 77-8
mass communications research: 'hypodermic model' 45-6,48,59, 78-9,83,273; normative paradigm 47-8; 'pendulum effect' 78; 'uses and gratifications' see uses and gratifications approach
mass culture 34-6 mass society: and Fascism 41-6; d e of
groups and opinion leaders 48 Massey, D. 40; on concepts of local
and global 282; on postmodem ethnography and global power relations 191-2
Mattelart, A.: on cultural imperialism 127; on empirical facts 125
Mattelart, A. and Dorfmann, A.: on Donald Duck 82
Mayer, M. : on women's use of telephone 231
Mead, G.H.: on 'generalised other' 95 meaning: and consumption 210-11;
'conveyor-belt' of 121; generated through everyday activities 185,207; negotiable 214; predefined 214
'meaning-systems' (ideological frameworks) 88-9,118; dominant 88.93; negotiated code 93; appositional code 93; radical 88-9; subordinate 88; see also codes, cultural
media studies: anthropological perspectives 173-4; difficulty of defining 194; increasing emphasis on audience interpretation 221-25 see also audience research; cultural studies
Medrich, E.: on television as background 1 6 7
Meehan, P. : Nationwide interview with 101, 102-3,107, 108-9
Merton, R.: on audience research 24-5; Mass Persuasion 4 7 4 4 9
Merton, R. and Kendall, P.: on focused interview 96-7
Merton, R. and Lazarsfeld, P. : on narcotic effect of media 252
message: 'direction' and 'closures' of 83-4,86; encoding and decoding S 7 ; polysemic nature of 83,85, 856
metaphor: in rhetoric of television 209 'methodological situationalism* concept
188 Metz, C. and Baudry, J.: on 'implied
spectator' for television 162 Meyerowitz, J.: on Live Aid 286-7; on
media and sense of place 279-80 Miller, D.: on concept of 'local' 282;
on consumption 211-12,21617 Mills, A. and Rice, P.: on quiz shows 8 Mills, C.W.: on indexical analysis of
vocabularies 93-4; language 95, % mobility 144-5 Modleski, T. : on class and gender 15,
160; on mass culture 34-5; on Nationwide study 35; on subjest- positioning and soap opera 181
Money Programme, The 105,112
Moores, S.: on broadcasting and family values 258-9; on communication and geography 41; on radio as masculinized technology 2 3 5 4 , 2 6 7
Moorhouse, H. and Chamberlain, C.: on relation of class, culture and consciousness 5
Morris, M. : on audience research 2734
M r and Mrs 84 multi-set households 201 multinationalism in broadcasting
corporations 289 Murdock, G.: on audience research
273, 274-5; on combining micro and macro issues of communications 272; on concept of 'habitus' 19-20; on cultural studies 4-5; on economic access to information 217-18; on economic reasons for television viewing 168; on mass culture 36; on openness of texts 31-2; on research methods 13; on sub-cultures 81
Nader, R.: Nationwide feature on 101-2,109
namwcasting 289 nation, as effect of cultural
technologies 288 N u ~ ~ o M I Commission on &uses and
Prevention of Violence: the Surgeon-General's Report H)
National Viewers' and Listeners' Association 258
nationalism, influence of media on 267-8
Nationwide: 'deconstructed' readings 113; influence of implicit messages 81-2; non-engagement with 114-15; perception of class bias 108; perception of political bias 105-6, 107, 111, 112, 113; perception of race bias 107, 114; seen as aimed at women 106; self-denigrating approach 81
Nationwide audience research project 2,3,8-9, 10-15,39,75-118; analysis of isolated parts of discourse 124; analytic methods 22,92-3; and class 16; contextual variations 100, 1334; interviewing groups 104, 111-17; interviewing methods 91-2,9643;
Index 321
invo~vement variations 99; language considerations 94-6; and negotiation and resistance from audience 91; re-examination of 119-30; research procedure 93-4; socio-demographic variations 99; S~~iological problems 125-6; studying maintenance of hegemony 91; topic variations 99-100; transcript interpretation 111-17; transcripts 104-11
Naumann, M.: on subject 129 Nava, M.: on 'contradictions of
consumerism' 273 Nazi propaganda 65-6 Neale, S.: on context of text 57, 86, on
determination 58; on form and function 124; on modes of address 66; on Nazi propaganda 6%
Newcomb, H. and Hirsch, P.: on producer and consumer of television 31
news and current affairs: gender differences in viewing 155-7; influence of 77,79; levels of interest in 251,254; local 157, 251
news-watching: motivation for 284-5; as ritual 79,252,2684,276; as transmission of ideological categories 276
newspapers: interpretative role 253-4; providing imaginary links to members of nation 268
Nice, R. : on sociology of culture 274
~$holls, T. and Armstrong, P.: on relation of class, culture and consciousness 5
Nightingale, V.: on ethnographic research I S 1 4
Nordenstreng, K.: mass communi- cations research in Finland 79,252, 268
Not the 9 O'clock News (BBC) 80 Nowell-Smith, G.: on Subject 68
O'Connor, A.: on cultural studies 3-4, 12
Ohmae, Kenichi: on global strategies 289
Open University, 'Popular Culture' course 8
oppasitional ('resistant') readings 38-9
322 Index
Panorama 81,82,84,106,107,251 Parker, C.: on gender differences in
decoding 101 Parkin, F.: on 'abstract' and 'situated'
levels of consciousness 99; on class and ideology 69; and contradictory interpellations 63; encoding/ decoding model 55; on 'meaning systems' and class 12; on 'meaning- systems' 88-9, 90,118,1267; model of class structure 126; on relation of class, culture and consciousness 5
participant observation: and interpretation 180, 181; potential contribution to audience research 173
passive people-meters 174 Pateman, T:: on election campaigns
286 Paterson, R.: on reordering of public - and private spheres 257; on
supervision of children's viewing 166,258; on videos and uncertified material 238
Pay-TV 211,213 Pecheux, M. 188,195; on
interdiscourse 61,64,77 'pendulum effect' in mass
communications research 78 phenomenology, influence on
interpretative research 37 Piepe, A. et al. : on group decoding 97 Police Five 157 politics: and domestic life 225, 283-7;
and 'non-political' television 9 Pollock, F.: on individualism 17-18 polysemy, in media texts 38 Pool: on telephone and privacy 238 popular culture, research into S 1 0 post-structuralism: in ethnography
191-4; and theorization of cultural studies 3 4
Poulantzas, N.: on class and ideology 69
power: and gender relations 141-2; and men's need for control 162-3; over family viewing 139, 147-8
preferred readings 65,86-7,92; of fiction 122; status of 122-3; and textual practices 123
presenters: 'direction' and 'closures' of message 84,85; influence on audience 94; response to 106-7, 108
Press, A.: on class and gender 160 Pride, J. and Holmes, J.: on codes and
social structures 5 production, as element of mass
communications 77-8 programme, as element of mass
communications 77-8 programme preferences: gender
differences in 155-7; and sense of identity 162
programme styles 8&5 proposition analysis 98 psychoanalytic theory 59-71;
universalist nature of 59-60 public-semce broadcasting, and class
219
quiz shows 8
Rabinow, P.: on 'symbolic violence' in ethnography 189
race 80; and available discourses 87; and public and private spheres 223; stereotypes of 8
radio 207; as masculinized technology 233,235-6; and organization of family life 258-60; as 'speaking clock' 267; and television viewing 260
Radway, J.: on audiences 14; on conception of ethnography in media studies 1%: on gender 15.16: and . .d
gratifications research 24;'on ' Nationwide audience analysis 11; on reading of romance fiction 141-2; on relation of media to everyday life 195, 197; Reading the Romance 10
Rakow, L.: on tech;lology and gender m 2
Rath, C.D.: on community and geography 288; on trans-border broadcasting 268
ratings, significance of 174-7 Rawlence, C.: on standardization of
time 266 reader: and discursive formations 68-9;
'ideal' 129; 'inscribed by the text' 129; role of 28-9, 130
readers, real and constructed 67 reading: applying model to television
consumption 206-7; 'preferred' 65, 86-7, 92, 121-3; social context of 118
realisms, variety of 67
Index 323
reception theory, and definition of text 17-
Reith, Lord 255,256 relative autonomy, concept of 55 remotecontrol devices: ownership of
228; power over 147,162-3; and viewer inattentiveness 174
research: doubts about validity of 190; open-ended 187; political objections to 190-1
researcher: role of 31,32-3; subjectivity of 190
revisionism, 'new', in audience research 22-6
rhetoric: addition and suppression 209; homology 208; identification 208-9; metaphor 209; using analysis of on television 208-10
Richards, I.: on variant and misreadings 12
Riley, D.: on construction of category 'woman' 160
Riley, J. and Riley, M.: on communications research 49
ritual: as mode of dramatizing community 264; news-watching as 79,252,268-9,276
Robins, K.: on communication and geography &l; on spatial restructuring 271
Robins, K. and Webster, F.: on selling through television 215
Rogge, J.U. and Jensen, K.: on effect of new technologies 281; on use of video recorders 228
romance: gender differences in viewing 155-6
romance fiction, women's reading of 128,141-2
Rosen, H. : on codes and social structures 5; on determination 56; on education and cultural values 37; on television and educational achievement 169
Rosengren, K.: on gratifications research 24
Ross, Andrew: on television 7 Rothschild, J.: on gendered use of
home computers 230 Royal Television Society, Towler's
1985 lecture to 176 Ruskin, J. : on women and home
225
Rutherford, J.: on concept of nation 288
Ryall, T. : on genres of cultural artefacts 127-30
Ryle, Gilbert: on 'thin' and 'thick' descriptions 182
Sahlins: on consumption 211 Said, E.: on 'Orientalism' 189 Sangren, E.: on 'authority' in t e a 192 satellite television 210, 241,272, 281,
287 Saussure, F. de: definition of text as
syntagm 123; on identity and difference 235; on speech act as individual 130
Scanlon, Hugh, interviewed on Nationwide 103,110
Scannell, P.: on relationship of television and radio 260; on social organization of space 255; on social organization of time 266; on television and everyday practices l77
scheduling policies 237; international 262
Schiller, H.: on economic access to information 218
Schlesinger, P.: on identity and communications 287-8
Schroder, K.: on 'convergence' in audience research 25; on decoding 30; on gratifications research 24
Schudson, M.: on audience research 273; on decoding 30; on role of researcher 32; on social context of response 3 3 4
Schutz, A.: on significance of everyday experience 185
Screen theory 60-1,61-2; critique of sociological approaches 68-9
Seiter, E.: on class and gender 160; on role of researcher 32
Seiter, E. et al.: on audience pleasure 26; critique of Modleski 181; on rationalization of time 266; on revisionism 23
semiology and cultural studies 24-5 'semiotic democracy' 2 6 9 semiotics: in analysis of Nationwide
study 75; and codes 32-3 Silverstone, R.: on application of
rhetorical analysis to television 208; on complexity of television watching
173; on cultural studies 6; on integration of environment and action in understanding wmmuni- cation 183; on news-watching as ritual 269; on television as bridge between private and public 283; on television as everyday life 197
Silverstone, R., Morley, D. et al.: on wnsumption of television 215
Skirrow, G. : on video games as masculinized technology 232-3,234
Sky Television, 'Home Shopping TV network' 216
Slack, J.D.: on context 276 Smith, Susan: on construction of news
209 soap opera 8, 154; conventions 129;
Miller on 282; providing 'past in common' 261; significance of multiple narrative 264; and subject- positioning 181
social formation and discourses 57-8 social systems approach to
communications research 49 sociology: in analysis of Nationwide
study 75; attitude to cultural studies 24; 'invisibility' of women in 228
Soja, E. 40; on distinction between natural and created space 270; on time in critical theory 270
space: effect of communications systems on 278-83; household 215, 227; and gender relations 224, gendered organization of 227-8, influence of 204, policing of 258; social significance of 27&2
Spigel, L.: on introduction of television 2367; on marketing of dishwashers 237
Spivak, G.: on postmodern ethnography 192
sport on television, discussion of 151 Stam, R.: on motivation of news-
watching 284-5 sub-cultures 81; of girls 228; within
audience 87-90 subjectivity: formation of 162;
relationship to actions and social relations 134-6; of researcher 190
subjects: distinctions between forms of subjectivity 129; histories of 64; processes constituting 60; textual and social 67-71
survey techniques, limitations of 173 symbolic interactionism: influence on
interpretative research 37
taste, popular 218-20 technology: 'appropriate' 229-32; areas
for further research 222; changes affecting television 201,204-5; and control 242-4; and 'dehumanization' 2434; ethnographic portrait of home use 2 3 9 4 ; gendering of 280; home-based uses of 222; inherited competences 247; re-wntextualizing study of television within 194; relationship to social and cultural identities 1%; women's attitudes to 163,227-35.267; and youth culture 245
telephone use 207,218; and answering makhines 238,243; and chat lines 237,241; gender differences 231-2, 280; and kin relationships 242, 244; monitoring of calls by family members 240,241-2; and privacy 238; and spatial constraints 280
teletext 143 television: as background environment
166; wmmodification of 213-16; wntextualization by market 205; decodinghnterpretation see decoding; differences in nature of watching see gender differences; viewing; discussion of 15&2; economic access to 217-18; economic considerations for viewing levels 168; and family behaviour see family; household; introduction into household 236-7; need to recognize private and public aspects of 201; and other leisure activities 139, 1-43, 156; and other media 207,260; popular wnsumption of 8; selling through 205,211,215-16,222; symbolic value of 214; as technology 204-5; and use of radio 260; see also broadcasting; viewing
texts: connection with production and consumption 86-7; wnsumption of 211; definition of and reception theory 179-80; direction and closures of 119; influence of sociologicaVstructural variables 119; 'innocent' 82; openness of 31-2, 122,
179-80; polysemy of 123; power over 31; preferred readings see readings, preferred; status of 206
textual meaning see meaning 'thin' and 'thick' descriptions of data
182,188, 194 Third Text 16 Thompson, E.P.: on standardization of
time 265 time: cultural variations in 261-5;
monochronic orientation to 263; polychronic orientation to 2634; social organization of 260-1; standardization of 265-6
Tomlinson, A.: on home as consumer unit 224; on internal fragmentation of family 221
topics, abstract and situated 99-100 Towler, R.: on complexity of viewing
176 Turkle, S.: on 'cornputer reticence' in
women 234-5; on girls' sub-cultures 245-6; on risk-taking 247
Turner, G.: on context of cultural studies 2-3; on group interviews 17; on Nationwide audience analysis 10, 11, 12, 14
United States: analytic methods 25; cultural studies 3,4,13; mass society research 6 7 ; research on television and violence 50; and 'semiotic democracy' 26
uses and gratifications approach 24.49, 51-5,80,83,85,169,206,230-1; emphasis on individual interpretation 88; and open texts 122; overestimation of 'openness' 52-3
video games 143; as masculinized technology 232-3
video recorders: gender differences in attitudes to 152-3, 187; as objects of consumption 210; ownership of 164, 201,218,228-9; and uncertified material 238; and viewer inattentiveness 174
videos: pirating of 237; planning recording of 150; pop 201
viewing: blurring of distinction from non-viewing 197; choices 141, 143; combination with other activities 1 6 9 ; wmplexity of 175-6; context of 176,1846; and conversation 149;
enforced 141,175-6; and inattentiveness 174; and orientations to time 263-5; particulatization of 187-8; planned and unplanned 149-50; 'pure' 176,207; solo 1534; style of 148-9
viewpoints, of 'ordinary person' 89,93, 94
violence and television 50 Voloshinov, V.: on availability of
discourses 100; distinction between sign and signal 854,123; and polysemy of message 83; on 'social individual' 282; on social nature of consciousness 53,130
Walkerdine, V.: on girls' rejection of masculinecoded objects 234-5
wealth creation, alternative theories of 111,117
Webster, F. and Robins, K.: on new broadcasting technology 254
Widows 150,152,154 Willemen, P.: on multinational
commodification of culture 274, 2754; on real and constructed readers 67,68; on social formation and discourses 57-8
Williams, Rayrnond: on 'community' and 'communication' 269; on local and national newspapers 2534
Williamson, J.: on mass culture 35-6 Willis, P.: on context of cultural studies
3; on education and cultural values 37; on purpose of empirical study 181
Wober, M.: on audience research 174, 175
Woolfson, C. : on individual communication 5 3 4
World in Action 251 Worpole, K . : on 'national culture' 219 Wright, P.: on role of history 23 Wright, R.: 'functional inventory' 49
Young, Filson: on broadcasting of time 267
youth culture 127-8; incorporation of new elements 201
Zaretsky, E.: on capitalism and the family 223; on domestic and political life 225
Zimmennann, J.: on new technology reproducing gender patterns 229