Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching Yueh-chiu Helen Wang

Techniques and Principles Techniques and Principles in Language Teachingin Language Teaching

Yueh-chiu Helen WangYueh-chiu Helen Wang

IntroductionIntroduction

The actions are the techniques The actions are the techniques and the thoughts are the and the thoughts are the principles. It is important to principles. It is important to recognize that methods link recognize that methods link thoughts and actions because thoughts and actions because teaching is not entirely about teaching is not entirely about one or the other.one or the other.

You have thoughts about your You have thoughts about your subject matter—what language subject matter—what language is, what culture is—and about is, what culture is—and about your students—who they are as your students—who they are as learners and how it is they learn. learners and how it is they learn. You have also have thoughts You have also have thoughts about yourself as a teacher and about yourself as a teacher and what you can do to help your what you can do to help your students learn. students learn.

It is very important for you to It is very important for you to become aware of the thoughts become aware of the thoughts that guide your actions in the that guide your actions in the classroom.classroom.

Everyone knows that being a Everyone knows that being a good teacher means giving good teacher means giving positive feedback to students positive feedback to students and being concerned about their and being concerned about their affective side on their feelings.affective side on their feelings.

Learning to listen to themselves Learning to listen to themselves is part of lessening their reliance is part of lessening their reliance on the teacher. The teacher will on the teacher. The teacher will not always be there. Also, they not always be there. Also, they will be encouraged to form will be encouraged to form criteria for correcting their criteria for correcting their mistakes—for monitoring their mistakes—for monitoring their own progress. own progress.

Observing a class will give you a Observing a class will give you a greater understanding of a greater understanding of a particular method and will give particular method and will give you more of an opportunity to you more of an opportunity to reflect on your own practice than reflect on your own practice than if you were to simply read a if you were to simply read a description of it.description of it.

Ten questionsTen questions

1. What are the goals of 1. What are the goals of teachers who use this method?teachers who use this method?

2. What is the role of the 2. What is the role of the

teacher? What is the role of the teacher? What is the role of the students?students?

3. What are some 3. What are some characteristics of the characteristics of the teaching/learning process?teaching/learning process?

4. What is the nature of student-4. What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the teacher interaction? What is the nature of student-student nature of student-student interaction?interaction?

5. How are the feelings of the 5. How are the feelings of the students dealt with?students dealt with?

6. How is language viewed? 6. How is language viewed? How is culture viewed?How is culture viewed?

7. What areas of language are 7. What areas of language are emphasized? What language emphasized? What language skills are emphasized?skills are emphasized?

8. What is the role of the 8. What is the role of the students’ native language?students’ native language?

9. How is evaluation 9. How is evaluation accomplished?accomplished?

10. How does the teacher 10. How does the teacher respond to student errors?respond to student errors?

The Grammar-Translation The Grammar-Translation Method Method

The Grammar-Translation MethThe Grammar-Translation Method was called the Classical Metod was called the Classical Method since it was first used in the hod since it was first used in the teaching of the classical languagteaching of the classical languages, Latin and Greek (Chastian, 1es, Latin and Greek (Chastian, 1988). 988).

This method was used for the This method was used for the purpose of helping students purpose of helping students read and appreciate foreign read and appreciate foreign language literature. Through language literature. Through the study of the grammar of the the study of the grammar of the target language, students would target language, students would become more familiar with the become more familiar with the grammar of their native grammar of their native language and that this familiarity language and that this familiarity with the grammar of their native with the grammar of their native

language better. Finally, it was language better. Finally, it was thought that foreign language thought that foreign language learning would help students learning would help students grow intellectually. grow intellectually.

PrinciplesPrinciples

Learning a foreign language is Learning a foreign language is to be able to read literature to be able to read literature written in it. Literary language is written in it. Literary language is superior to spoken language. If superior to spoken language. If students can translate from one students can translate from one language into another, they are language into another, they are considered successful language considered successful language learners.learners.

The ability to communicate in The ability to communicate in the target language is not a goal the target language is not a goal of foreign language instruction. of foreign language instruction.

The primary skills to be The primary skills to be developed are reading and developed are reading and writing. Little attention is given to writing. Little attention is given to speaking and listening and speaking and listening and almost none to pronunciation. almost none to pronunciation.

The teacher is the authority in The teacher is the authority in the classroom. It is very the classroom. It is very important that students get the important that students get the correct answer.correct answer.

Learning is facilitated through Learning is facilitated through attention to similarities between attention to similarities between the target language and the the target language and the native language.native language.

Deductive application of an Deductive application of an explicit grammar rule is a useful explicit grammar rule is a useful pedagogical technique.pedagogical technique.

Language learning provides Language learning provides good mental exercise.good mental exercise.

Students should be conscious of Students should be conscious of the grammatical rules of the the grammatical rules of the target language.target language.

There is little student initiation There is little student initiation and little student-student and little student-student interaction. interaction.

There are no principles of the There are no principles of the method which relate to students’ method which relate to students’ feelings.feelings.

Vocabulary and grammar are Vocabulary and grammar are emphasized. Reading and emphasized. Reading and writing are the primary skills that writing are the primary skills that the students work on. the students work on.

The role of the students’ The role of the students’ native languagenative language

The meaning of the target The meaning of the target language is made clear by language is made clear by translating the students’ native translating the students’ native language. The language that is language. The language that is used in class is mostly the used in class is mostly the students’ native language. students’ native language.

How is evaluation How is evaluation accomplished?accomplished?

Written tests in which students Written tests in which students are asked to translate from their are asked to translate from their native language to the target native language to the target language or vice versa are often language or vice versa are often used. used.

How does the teacher How does the teacher respond to student errors?respond to student errors?

Having the students get the Having the students get the correct answer is considered correct answer is considered very important. very important.

The Direct MethodThe Direct Method

The Direct Method has one very The Direct Method has one very basic rule: No translation is basic rule: No translation is allowed. Meaning is to be allowed. Meaning is to be conveyed directly in the target conveyed directly in the target language through the use of language through the use of demonstration and visual aids. demonstration and visual aids.


The reading skill will be developThe reading skill will be developed through practice with speakined through practice with speaking. Language is primarily speech.g. Language is primarily speech. Culture consists of more than t Culture consists of more than the fine arts(e.g. the students stuhe fine arts(e.g. the students study geography and cultural attitudy geography and cultural attitudes).des).

Objects (e.g. realia or pictures) Objects (e.g. realia or pictures) present in the immediate classropresent in the immediate classroom environment should be used om environment should be used to help students understand the to help students understand the meaning. meaning.

The native language should not The native language should not be used in the classroom. be used in the classroom.

The teacher should The teacher should demonstrate, not explain or demonstrate, not explain or translate. It is desirable that translate. It is desirable that students make a direct students make a direct association between the target association between the target language and meaning. language and meaning.

Students should learn to think in Students should learn to think in the target language as soon as the target language as soon as possible. Vocabulary is possible. Vocabulary is acquired more naturally if acquired more naturally if students use it in full sentences students use it in full sentences rather than memorizing word rather than memorizing word lists. lists.

The purpose of language The purpose of language learning is communication.learning is communication.

Pronunciation should be worked Pronunciation should be worked on right from the beginning of on right from the beginning of language instruction. language instruction.

Self-correction facilitates Self-correction facilitates language learning. language learning.

Lessons should contain some Lessons should contain some conversational activity—some conversational activity—some opportunity for students to use opportunity for students to use language in real contexts. language in real contexts. Students should be encouraged Students should be encouraged to speak as much as possible. to speak as much as possible.

Grammar should be taught Grammar should be taught inductively. There may never be inductively. There may never be an explicit grammar rule given. an explicit grammar rule given.

Writing is an important skill, to Writing is an important skill, to be developed from the be developed from the beginning of language beginning of language instruction. instruction.

The syllabus is based on The syllabus is based on situations or topics, not usually situations or topics, not usually on linguistic structures.on linguistic structures.

Learning another language also Learning another language also involves learning how speakers involves learning how speakers of that language live. of that language live.

What are the goals of teachers What are the goals of teachers who use the Direct Method?who use the Direct Method?

Teachers who use the Direct Teachers who use the Direct Method intend that students Method intend that students learn how to communicate in the learn how to communicate in the target language. In order to do target language. In order to do this successfully, students this successfully, students should learn to think in the should learn to think in the target language.target language.

What is the role of teacher?What is the role of teacher?

Although the teacher directs the Although the teacher directs the class activities, the student role class activities, the student role is less passive than in the is less passive than in the Grammar-Translation Method. Grammar-Translation Method. The teacher and the students The teacher and the students are more like partners in the are more like partners in the teaching/learning process. teaching/learning process.

What are some characteristics of What are some characteristics of the teaching/learning process?the teaching/learning process?

Teachers believe students need Teachers believe students need to associate meaning and the to associate meaning and the target language directly. target language directly. Students speak in the target Students speak in the target language a great deal and language a great deal and communicate as if they were in communicate as if they were in real situations. The syllabus is real situations. The syllabus is based upon situations or topics. based upon situations or topics.

What is the nature of student-What is the nature of student-teacher interaction?teacher interaction?

The initiation of the interaction The initiation of the interaction goes both ways, from teacher to goes both ways, from teacher to students and from student to students and from student to teacher, although the latter is teacher, although the latter is often teacher-directed. often teacher-directed.

How are the feelings of the How are the feelings of the students dealt with?students dealt with?

There are no principles of the There are no principles of the methods which relate to this methods which relate to this area.area.

How is language viewed?How is language viewed?

Language is primarily spoken, Language is primarily spoken, not written. not written.

What areas of language are What areas of language are emphasized?emphasized?

Vocabulary is emphasized over Vocabulary is emphasized over grammar. grammar.

What is the role of the What is the role of the students’ native language?students’ native language?

Students’ native language Students’ native language should not be used in the should not be used in the classroom. classroom.


The students might be The students might be interviewed orally by the teacher interviewed orally by the teacher or might be asked to write a or might be asked to write a paragraph about something they paragraph about something they have studied. have studied.


The teacher, employing various The teacher, employing various techniques, tries to get students techniques, tries to get students to self-correct whenever to self-correct whenever possible. possible.

The Audio-Lingual MethodThe Audio-Lingual Method

The Audio-Lingual Method, like The Audio-Lingual Method, like the Direct Method, is also an the Direct Method, is also an oral-based approach. However, oral-based approach. However, it is very different in that the it is very different in that the Audio-Lingual Method drills Audio-Lingual Method drills students in the use of students in the use of grammatical sentence patterns. grammatical sentence patterns.

It also,unlike the Direct Method, has It also,unlike the Direct Method, has a strong theoretical base in linguistica strong theoretical base in linguistics and psychology. It has principles frs and psychology. It has principles from behavioral psychology (Skinner, om behavioral psychology (Skinner, 1957)were1957)were

incorporated. It was thought that the incorporated. It was thought that the way to acquire the sentence patterns way to acquire the sentence patterns of the target language was through cof the target language was through conditioning—helping learners to responditioning—helping learners to respond correctly to stimuli through shapiond correctly to stimuli through shaping and reinforcement. ng and reinforcement.

Learners could overcome the Learners could overcome the habits of their native language habits of their native language and from the new habits and from the new habits required to be target language required to be target language speakers.speakers.

The Audiolingual MethodThe Audiolingual Method

The Audio-lingual Method, like The Audio-lingual Method, like the Direct Method, is also an the Direct Method, is also an oral-based approach. However, oral-based approach. However, it is very different in that the it is very different in that the Audio-Lingual Method drills Audio-Lingual Method drills students in the use of students in the use of grammatical sentence patterns. grammatical sentence patterns.

It was thought that the way to It was thought that the way to acquire the sentence patterns of the acquire the sentence patterns of the target language was through target language was through conditioning—helping learners to conditioning—helping learners to respond correctly to stimuli through respond correctly to stimuli through shaping and reinforcement. shaping and reinforcement. Learners could overcome the habits Learners could overcome the habits of their native language and form the of their native language and form the new habits required to be target new habits required to be target language speakers. language speakers.


Language forms do not occur by Language forms do not occur by themselves; they occur most themselves; they occur most naturally within a context. naturally within a context.

The native language and the The native language and the target language have separate target language have separate linguistic systems. They should linguistic systems. They should be kept apart so that the be kept apart so that the students’ native language students’ native language interferes as little as possible interferes as little as possible with the students’ attempts to with the students’ attempts to acquire the target language. acquire the target language.

The language teacher’s roleThe language teacher’s role

One of the language teacher’s One of the language teacher’s major roles is that of a model of major roles is that of a model of the target language. Teachers the target language. Teachers should provide students with a should provide students with a good model. By listening to how good model. By listening to how it is supposed to sound, it is supposed to sound, students should be able to students should be able to mimic the model. mimic the model.

Language learning is a process Language learning is a process of habit formation. The more of habit formation. The more often something is repeated, the often something is repeated, the stronger the habit and the stronger the habit and the greater the learning. greater the learning.

It is important to prevent It is important to prevent learners from making errors. learners from making errors. Errors lead to the formation of Errors lead to the formation of bad habits. When errors do bad habits. When errors do occur, they should be occur, they should be immediately corrected by the immediately corrected by the teacher. teacher.

The purpose of language The purpose of language learning is to learn how to use learning is to learn how to use the language to communicate. the language to communicate.

Particular parts of speech Particular parts of speech occupy particular ‘slots’ in occupy particular ‘slots’ in sentences. In order to create sentences. In order to create new sentences, students must new sentences, students must learn which part of speech learn which part of speech occupies which slot. occupies which slot.

Positive reinforcement helps the Positive reinforcement helps the students to develop correct students to develop correct habits. habits.

Students should learn to Students should learn to respond to both verbal and respond to both verbal and nonverbal stimuli. nonverbal stimuli.

Pattern practice helps students Pattern practice helps students to form habits which enable the to form habits which enable the students to use the patterns. students to use the patterns.

Students should ‘overlearn’, learStudents should ‘overlearn’, learn to answer automatically withoun to answer automatically without stopping to think. t stopping to think.

The teacher should be like an The teacher should be like an orchestra leader—conducting, orchestra leader—conducting, guiding, and controlling the guiding, and controlling the students’ behavior in the target students’ behavior in the target language. language.

The major objective of language The major objective of language teaching should be for students teaching should be for students to acquire the structural to acquire the structural patterns; students will learn patterns; students will learn vocabulary afterward. vocabulary afterward.

The learning of a foreign The learning of a foreign language should be the same as language should be the same as the acquisition of the native the acquisition of the native language. The rules necessary language. The rules necessary to use the target language will to use the target language will be figured out or induced from be figured out or induced from examples. examples.

The major challenge of foreign The major challenge of foreign language teaching is getting language teaching is getting students to overcome the habits students to overcome the habits of their native language. of their native language.

Speech is more basic to Speech is more basic to language than the written form. language than the written form. The ‘natural order’ –the order The ‘natural order’ –the order children follow when learning children follow when learning their native language—of skill their native language—of skill acquisition is: listening, acquisition is: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. speaking, reading, and writing.

Language cannot be separated Language cannot be separated from culture. Culture is not only from culture. Culture is not only literature and the arts, but also literature and the arts, but also the everyday behavior of the the everyday behavior of the people who use the target people who use the target language. One of the teacher’s language. One of the teacher’s responsibilities is to present responsibilities is to present information about that culture. information about that culture.

The nature of student-teacher The nature of student-teacher interactioninteraction

Most of the interactions is Most of the interactions is between teacher and students between teacher and students and is initiated by the teacher. and is initiated by the teacher.


Everyday speech is emphasized Everyday speech is emphasized in the Audio-lingual Method. in the Audio-lingual Method. The level of complexity of the The level of complexity of the speech is graded, so that speech is graded, so that beginning students are beginning students are presented with only simple presented with only simple patterns. Culture consists of the patterns. Culture consists of the everyday behavior and lifestyle everyday behavior and lifestyle of the target language speakers.of the target language speakers.


Vocabulary is kept to a minimum Vocabulary is kept to a minimum while the students are mastering while the students are mastering the wound system and the wound system and grammatical patterns. grammatical patterns.

The oral/aural skills receive The oral/aural skills receive most of the attention. most of the attention. Pronunciation is taught from the Pronunciation is taught from the beginning, often by students beginning, often by students working in language laboratories working in language laboratories on discriminating between on discriminating between members of minimal pairs. members of minimal pairs.

The role of the students’ The role of the students’ native languagenative language

The target language is used in The target language is used in the classroom, not the students’ the classroom, not the students’ native language. native language.


Students might be asked to Students might be asked to distinguish between words in a distinguish between words in a minimal pair, for example, or to minimal pair, for example, or to supply an appropriate verb form supply an appropriate verb form in a sentence. in a sentence.


Student errors are to be avoided Student errors are to be avoided if at all possible through the if at all possible through the teacher’s awareness of where teacher’s awareness of where the students will have difficulty the students will have difficulty and restriction of what they are and restriction of what they are taught to say. taught to say.

The role of instructional The role of instructional materialsmaterials

Instructional materials in the AuInstructional materials in the Audiolingual Method assist the teadiolingual Method assist the teacher to develop language mastecher to develop language mastery in the learner. They are primry in the learner. They are primary teacher-oriented.ary teacher-oriented.

Tape recorders and audiovisual Tape recorders and audiovisual equipment often have central rolequipment often have central roles in an audiolingual course.es in an audiolingual course.

The decline of AudioligualismThe decline of Audioligualism

Audiolingualism reached its periAudiolingualism reached its period of most widespread use in thod of most widespread use in the 1960s and was applied both to e 1960s and was applied both to the teaching of foreign language the teaching of foreign language in the United States and to the tin the United States and to the teaching of English as a second eaching of English as a second or foreign language. or foreign language.

Audiolingualism stresses the meAudiolingualism stresses the mechanistic aspects of language lechanistic aspects of language learning and language use. arning and language use.

Total Physical Response Total Physical Response (TPR)(TPR)

TPR is a language teaching TPR is a language teaching method built around the method built around the coordination of speech and coordination of speech and action; it attempts to teach action; it attempts to teach language through physical language through physical motor activity. Developed by motor activity. Developed by James Asher, a professor of James Asher, a professor of psychology at San Jose State psychology at San Jose State University, California. University, California.

He claims that speech directed He claims that speech directed to young children consists to young children consists primarily of commands, which primarily of commands, which children respond to physically children respond to physically before they begin to produce before they begin to produce verbal responses. verbal responses.

Asher shares with the school of Asher shares with the school of humanistic psychology a humanistic psychology a concern for the role of affective concern for the role of affective factors in language learning. factors in language learning.

Asher has elaborated an Asher has elaborated an account of what he feels account of what he feels facilitates or inhibits foreign facilitates or inhibits foreign language learning. For this language learning. For this dimension of his learning theory dimension of his learning theory he draws on three influential he draws on three influential learning hypotheses: learning hypotheses:

1. There exists a specific innate 1. There exists a specific innate bio-program for language bio-program for language learning which defines an learning which defines an optimal path for first and second optimal path for first and second language development. language development.

2. Brain lateralization defines 2. Brain lateralization defines different learning functions in the different learning functions in the left-and-right brain hemispheres. left-and-right brain hemispheres.

3. Stress intervenes between 3. Stress intervenes between the act of learning and what is to the act of learning and what is to be learned; the lower the stress, be learned; the lower the stress, the greater the learning. the greater the learning.

Listening should be Listening should be accompanied by physical accompanied by physical movement. Speech and other movement. Speech and other productive skills should come productive skills should come later.later.

Asher sees TPR as directed to Asher sees TPR as directed to right-brain learning, whereas right-brain learning, whereas most second language teaching most second language teaching methods are directed to left-methods are directed to left-brain learning. Asher hold that brain learning. Asher hold that the child language learner the child language learner acquires language through acquires language through motor movement.motor movement.

Similarly, the adult should Similarly, the adult should proceed to language mastery proceed to language mastery through right hemisphere motor through right hemisphere motor activities, while the left activities, while the left hemisphere watches and learns.hemisphere watches and learns.

The objective of TPRThe objective of TPR

The objective of TPR is to teach The objective of TPR is to teach oral proficiency at a beginning oral proficiency at a beginning level. Comprehension is a level. Comprehension is a means to an end. The ultimate means to an end. The ultimate aim is to teach basic speaking aim is to teach basic speaking skills. TPR requires initial skills. TPR requires initial attention to meaning rather than attention to meaning rather than to the form of items. Grammar to the form of items. Grammar is thus taught inductively. is thus taught inductively.

Learners in TPR have the Learners in TPR have the primary roles of listener and primary roles of listener and performer. They listen performer. They listen attentively and respond attentively and respond physically to commands given physically to commands given by the teacher. Learners are by the teacher. Learners are also expected to recognize and also expected to recognize and respond to novel combinations respond to novel combinations of previously taught items. of previously taught items.

Learners monitor and evaluate Learners monitor and evaluate their own progress. They are their own progress. They are encouraged to speak when they encouraged to speak when they feel ready to speak—that is, feel ready to speak—that is, when a sufficient basis in the when a sufficient basis in the language has been internalized. language has been internalized. The teacher plays an active and The teacher plays an active and direct role in TPR. direct role in TPR.

The Silent WayThe Silent Way

The Silent Way is the name of a The Silent Way is the name of a method of a language teaching method of a language teaching devised by Caleb Gattegno. devised by Caleb Gattegno.

It is based on the premise that It is based on the premise that the teacher should be silent as the teacher should be silent as much as possible in the much as possible in the classroom but the learner classroom but the learner should be encouraged to should be encouraged to produce as much language as produce as much language as possible. possible.

Elements of the Silent Way, partElements of the Silent Way, particularly the use of color charts aicularly the use of color charts and the colored Cuisenaire rods, nd the colored Cuisenaire rods, grew out of Gattegno’s previous grew out of Gattegno’s previous experience as an educational deexperience as an educational designer of reading and mathematisigner of reading and mathematics programs. cs programs.

Learning hypothesesLearning hypotheses

1. Learning is facilitated if the 1. Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates learner discovers or creates rather than remembers and rather than remembers and repeats what is to be learned.repeats what is to be learned.

Learning is facilitated by Learning is facilitated by accompanying physical objects.accompanying physical objects.

3. Learning is facilitated by 3. Learning is facilitated by problem solving involving the problem solving involving the material to be learned. material to be learned.

Theory of language and Theory of language and learninglearning The sentence is the basic unit of The sentence is the basic unit of

teaching, and the teacher teaching, and the teacher focuses on propositional focuses on propositional meaning, rather than meaning, rather than communicative value. Students communicative value. Students are presented with the structural are presented with the structural patterns of the target language patterns of the target language and learn the grammatical rules and learn the grammatical rules of the language through largely of the language through largely inductive processes.inductive processes.

Gattegno sees vocabulary as a Gattegno sees vocabulary as a central dimension of language lecentral dimension of language learning and the choice of vocabularning and the choice of vocabulary as crucial. ary as crucial.

Gattegno looked at language leaGattegno looked at language learning from the perspective of the rning from the perspective of the learner by studying the way babilearner by studying the way babies and young children learn. es and young children learn.

The teacher points to five blocks The teacher points to five blocks of color without saying anything. of color without saying anything. The blocks of color represent The blocks of color represent the sounds of five English the sounds of five English vowels close to the five simple vowels close to the five simple vowels of Portuguese.vowels of Portuguese.


The teacher should start with The teacher should start with something the students already something the students already know and build from that to the know and build from that to the unknown. Languages share a unknown. Languages share a number of features, sounds number of features, sounds being the most basic.being the most basic.

Language learners are Language learners are intelligent and bring with them intelligent and bring with them the experience of already the experience of already learning a language. The learning a language. The teacher should give only what teacher should give only what help is necessary. help is necessary.

Language is not learned by Language is not learned by repeating after a model. repeating after a model. Students need to develop their Students need to develop their own ‘inner criteria’ for own ‘inner criteria’ for correctness—to trust and to be correctness—to trust and to be responsible for their own responsible for their own production in the target production in the target language. language.

Students’ actions can tell the Students’ actions can tell the teacher whether or not they teacher whether or not they have learned. have learned.

The teacher makes use of what The teacher makes use of what students already know. The students already know. The more the teacher does for the more the teacher does for the students what they can do for students what they can do for themselves, the less they will do themselves, the less they will do for themselves. for themselves.

Learning involves transferring Learning involves transferring what one knows to new what one knows to new contexts. contexts.

Reading is worked on from the Reading is worked on from the beginning but follows from what beginning but follows from what students have learned to say. students have learned to say.

Silence is a tool. It helps to Silence is a tool. It helps to foster autonomy, or the exercise foster autonomy, or the exercise of initiative. It also removes the of initiative. It also removes the teacher from the center of teacher from the center of attention so he can listen to and attention so he can listen to and work with students. The teacher work with students. The teacher speaks, but only when speaks, but only when necessary. necessary.

Meaning is made clear by Meaning is made clear by focusing students’ perceptions, focusing students’ perceptions, not through translation. not through translation.

Students can learn from one Students can learn from one another. The teacher’s silence another. The teacher’s silence encourages group cooperation. encourages group cooperation.

Student attention is a key to Student attention is a key to learning. learning.

Students should engage in a Students should engage in a great deal of meaningful great deal of meaningful practice without repetition.practice without repetition.

Language is for self-expression. Language is for self-expression.

The teacher can gain valuable The teacher can gain valuable information from student information from student feedback. feedback.

What are the goals of teachers What are the goals of teachers who use the Silent Way?who use the Silent Way?

Students should be able to use Students should be able to use the language for self-expressionthe language for self-expression—to express their thought, —to express their thought, perception, and feelings. perception, and feelings.


The teacher is a technician or The teacher is a technician or engineer. engineer.

The teacher should respect the The teacher should respect the autonomy of the learners in their autonomy of the learners in their attempts at relating and attempts at relating and interacting with the new interacting with the new challenges. challenges.

What is the role of the What is the role of the students?students?

The role of the students is to The role of the students is to make use of what they know, to make use of what they know, to free themselves of any free themselves of any obstacles that would interfere obstacles that would interfere with giving their utmost attention with giving their utmost attention to the learning task. to the learning task.


Students begin their study of the Students begin their study of the language through its basic language through its basic building blocks, its sounds. building blocks, its sounds.

This provides valuable This provides valuable information for the teacher and information for the teacher and encourages students to take encourages students to take responsibility for their own responsibility for their own learning. learning.


For much of the student-teacher For much of the student-teacher interaction, the teacher is silent.interaction, the teacher is silent.

Student-student verbal Student-student verbal interaction is desirable (students interaction is desirable (students can learn from one another) and can learn from one another) and is therefore encouraged. is therefore encouraged.


The teacher constantly observes The teacher constantly observes the students. When their the students. When their feelings interfere, the teacher feelings interfere, the teacher tries to find ways for the tries to find ways for the students to overcome them. students to overcome them.


Languages of the world share a Languages of the world share a number of features. However, number of features. However, each language also has its own each language also has its own unique reality since it is the unique reality since it is the expression of a particular group expression of a particular group of people. of people.

How is culture viewed?How is culture viewed?

Their culture, as reflected in Their culture, as reflected in their own unique world view, is their own unique world view, is inseparable from their language. inseparable from their language.

What areas of language are What areas of language are emphasized? emphasized?

Since the sounds are basic to Since the sounds are basic to any language, pronunciation is any language, pronunciation is worked on from the beginning.worked on from the beginning.

What language skills are What language skills are emphasized?emphasized?

All four skills are worked on from All four skills are worked on from the beginning of the course, the beginning of the course, although there is a sequence in although there is a sequence in that students learn to read and that students learn to read and write what they already write what they already produced orally. produced orally.


Meaning is made clear by Meaning is made clear by focusing the students’ focusing the students’ perceptions, not by translation.perceptions, not by translation.


The teacher’s silence frees him The teacher’s silence frees him to attend to his students and to to attend to his students and to be aware of these needs. be aware of these needs.


Student errors are seen as a Student errors are seen as a natural, indispensable part of natural, indispensable part of the learning process. Errors are the learning process. Errors are inevitable since the students are inevitable since the students are encouraged to explore the encouraged to explore the language. language.

DesuggestopediaDesuggestopedia

In order to make better use of oIn order to make better use of our reserved capacity, the limitatiur reserved capacity, the limitations we think we have need to bons we think we have need to be ‘desuggested.’e ‘desuggested.’

Desuggestopedia, the applicatioDesuggestopedia, the application of the study of suggestion to pn of the study of suggestion to pedagogy, has been developed tedagogy, has been developed to help students o help students

eliminate the feeling that they eliminate the feeling that they cannot be successful or the cannot be successful or the negative association they may negative association they may have toward studying and, thus, have toward studying and, thus, to help them overcome the to help them overcome the barriers to learning. barriers to learning.


Learning is facilitated in a Learning is facilitated in a cheerful environment. The cheerful environment. The classroom is bright and colorful. classroom is bright and colorful.

Students can learn from what is Students can learn from what is present in the environment, present in the environment, even if their attention is not even if their attention is not directed to it (‘Peripheral directed to it (‘Peripheral learning). learning).

If students trust and respect the If students trust and respect the teacher’s authority, they will teacher’s authority, they will accept and retain information accept and retain information better. (The teacher speaker better. (The teacher speaker confidently.)confidently.)

The teacher gives the students The teacher gives the students the impression that learning the the impression that learning the target language will be easy and target language will be easy and enjoyable. enjoyable.

The students choose new The students choose new names and identities and feel names and identities and feel less inhibited since their less inhibited since their performance is really that of a performance is really that of a different person. different person.

The dialogue that students learn The dialogue that students learn contains language they can use contains language they can use immediately. Songs are useful immediately. Songs are useful for ‘freeing the speech muscles’ for ‘freeing the speech muscles’ and evoking positive emotions. and evoking positive emotions.

Fine art provides positive Fine art provides positive suggestions for students. suggestions for students.

One way that meaning is made One way that meaning is made clear is through native language clear is through native language translation. translation.

Communication takes place on Communication takes place on ‘two planes’: on one the ‘two planes’: on one the linguistic message is encoded; linguistic message is encoded; and on the other are factors and on the other are factors which influence the linguistic which influence the linguistic message. On the conscious message. On the conscious plane, the learner attends to the plane, the learner attends to the language; on the subconscious language; on the subconscious plane, the music suggests that plane, the music suggests that learning is easy and pleasant. learning is easy and pleasant.

When there is a unity between When there is a unity between conscious and subconscious, conscious and subconscious, learning is enhanced.learning is enhanced.

A calm state, such as one A calm state, such as one experiences when listening to a experiences when listening to a concert, is ideal for overcoming concert, is ideal for overcoming psychological barriers and for psychological barriers and for taking advantage of learning taking advantage of learning potential.potential.

The fine arts (music, art, and The fine arts (music, art, and drama) enable suggestions to drama) enable suggestions to reach the subconscious. The reach the subconscious. The arts should, therefore, be arts should, therefore, be integrated as much as possible integrated as much as possible into the teaching process. into the teaching process.

The teacher should help the The teacher should help the students ‘activate’ the material students ‘activate’ the material to which they have been to which they have been exposed. Novelty aids exposed. Novelty aids acquisition.acquisition.

Music and movement reinforce Music and movement reinforce the linguistic material. If they the linguistic material. If they trust the teacher, they will reach trust the teacher, they will reach this state more easily. this state more easily.

In an atmosphere of play, the In an atmosphere of play, the conscious attention of the conscious attention of the learner does not focus on learner does not focus on linguistic forms, but rather on linguistic forms, but rather on using the language. Learning using the language. Learning can be fun. can be fun.

Errors are corrected gently, not Errors are corrected gently, not in a direct, confrontational in a direct, confrontational manner. manner.

What are the goals of teachers whWhat are the goals of teachers who use Desuggestopedia?o use Desuggestopedia?

Teachers hope to accelerate the Teachers hope to accelerate the process by which students learn process by which students learn to use a foreign language for to use a foreign language for everyday communication. In everyday communication. In order to do this, more of the order to do this, more of the students’ mental powers must students’ mental powers must be tapped. be tapped.


The teacher is the authority in The teacher is the authority in the classroom. In order for the the classroom. In order for the method to be successful, the method to be successful, the students must trust and respect students must trust and respect her. Once the students trust the her. Once the students trust the teacher, they can feel more teacher, they can feel more secure. If they feel secure, they secure. If they feel secure, they can be more spontaneous and can be more spontaneous and less inhibited. less inhibited.


The posters are change every The posters are change every few weeks to create a sense of few weeks to create a sense of novelty in the environment. novelty in the environment. Students select target language Students select target language names and choose new names and choose new occupations. During the course occupations. During the course they create whole biographies to they create whole biographies to go along with their new go along with their new identities. identities.


The teacher initiates interactions The teacher initiates interactions with the whole group of students with the whole group of students and with individuals right from and with individuals right from the beginning of a language the beginning of a language course. course.


If students are relaxed and If students are relaxed and confident, they will not need to confident, they will not need to try hard to learn the language. It try hard to learn the language. It will just come naturally and will just come naturally and easily. easily.


Language is the first two planes Language is the first two planes in the two-plane process of in the two-plane process of communication. In the second communication. In the second plane are the factors which plane are the factors which influence linguistic message. influence linguistic message.


The culture which students learn The culture which students learn concerns the everyday life of peconcerns the everyday life of people who speak the language. Tople who speak the language. The use of fine arts is also importhe use of fine arts is also important in Desuggestopedic classes. ant in Desuggestopedic classes.


Vocabulary is emphasized. Vocabulary is emphasized. Grammar is dealt with explicitly Grammar is dealt with explicitly but minimally. but minimally.


Speaking communicatively is Speaking communicatively is emphasized. Students also emphasized. Students also read in the target language (for read in the target language (for example, dialogs) and write (for example, dialogs) and write (for example, imaginative example, imaginative compositions). compositions).

What is the role of the What is the role of the students’ native language? students’ native language?

Native-language translation is Native-language translation is used to make the meaning of used to make the meaning of the dialog clear. The teacher the dialog clear. The teacher also uses the native language in also uses the native language in class when necessary. class when necessary.


Evaluation usually is conducted Evaluation usually is conducted on students’ normal in-class on students’ normal in-class performance and not through performance and not through formal tests, which would formal tests, which would threaten the relaxed atmosphere threaten the relaxed atmosphere considered essential for considered essential for accelerated learning.accelerated learning.


Errors are corrected gently, with Errors are corrected gently, with the teacher using a soft voice. the teacher using a soft voice.

Community Language Community Language Learning Method (CLL)Learning Method (CLL)

It takes its principles from more It takes its principles from more general Counseling-Learning general Counseling-Learning approach developed by Charles approach developed by Charles A. Curran. A. Curran.

Curran believed that a way to Curran believed that a way to deal with the fears of students is deal with the fears of students is for teachers to become for teachers to become ‘language counselors.’‘language counselors.’

By understanding students’ By understanding students’ fears and being sensitive to fears and being sensitive to them, he can help students them, he can help students overcome their negative feelings overcome their negative feelings and turn them into positive and turn them into positive energy to further their learning. energy to further their learning.

Principles Principles

Building a relationship with and Building a relationship with and among students is very among students is very important. important.

Any new learning experience Any new learning experience can be threatening. When can be threatening. When students have an idea of what students have an idea of what will happen in each activity, they will happen in each activity, they often feel more secure.often feel more secure.

Language is for communication.Language is for communication. The superior knowledge and The superior knowledge and

power of the teacher can be power of the teacher can be threatening. If the teacher does threatening. If the teacher does not remain in the front of the not remain in the front of the classroom, the threat is reduced classroom, the threat is reduced and the students’ learning is and the students’ learning is facilitated.facilitated.

The teacher should be sensitive The teacher should be sensitive to students’ level of confidence to students’ level of confidence and give them just what they and give them just what they need to be successful.need to be successful.

Students feel more secure when Students feel more secure when they know the limits of an they know the limits of an activity. activity.

Teacher and students are whole Teacher and students are whole persons. Sharing about their persons. Sharing about their learning experience allows learning experience allows learners to get to know one learners to get to know one another and to build community. another and to build community.

Guided by the knowledge that Guided by the knowledge that each learner is unique, the each learner is unique, the teacher creates an accepting teacher creates an accepting atmosphere. Learners feel free atmosphere. Learners feel free to lower their defenses and the to lower their defenses and the learning experience becomes learning experience becomes less threatening. less threatening.

The teacher understands what The teacher understands what the students say. the students say.

The students’ native language is The students’ native language is used to make the meaning clear used to make the meaning clear and to build a bridge from the and to build a bridge from the known to the unknown. known to the unknown. Students feel more secure when Students feel more secure when they understand everything.they understand everything.

The teacher asks the students The teacher asks the students to form a semicircle in front of to form a semicircle in front of the blackboard so they can see the blackboard so they can see easily. easily.

Learning at the beginning Learning at the beginning stages is facilitated if students stages is facilitated if students attend to one task at a time.attend to one task at a time.

The teacher encourages student The teacher encourages student initiative and independence, but initiative and independence, but does not let student flounder in does not let student flounder in uncomfortable silences. uncomfortable silences.

Students need quiet reflection Students need quiet reflection time in order to learn. time in order to learn.

In groups, students can begin to In groups, students can begin to feel a sense of community and feel a sense of community and can learn from each other as can learn from each other as well as the teacher. well as the teacher. Cooperation, not competition, is Cooperation, not competition, is encouraged.encouraged.

The teacher should work in a The teacher should work in a non-threatening way with what non-threatening way with what the learner has produced. the learner has produced.

Developing a community among Developing a community among the class members builds trust the class members builds trust and can help to reduce the and can help to reduce the threat of the new learning threat of the new learning situation. situation.

Retention will best take place Retention will best take place somewhere in between novelty somewhere in between novelty and familiarity. and familiarity.

What are the goals of teachers What are the goals of teachers who use CLL Methods?who use CLL Methods?

Teachers who use the Teachers who use the Community language Learning Community language Learning Method want their students to Method want their students to learn how to use the target learn how to use the target language communicatively.language communicatively.

What is the role of the What is the role of the teacher?teacher?

The teacher’s initial role is The teacher’s initial role is primarily that of a counselor. primarily that of a counselor. Rather, it means that the Rather, it means that the teacher recognizes how teacher recognizes how threatening a new learning threatening a new learning situation can be for adult situation can be for adult learners.learners.

What is the role of the What is the role of the students?students? Initially the learners are very Initially the learners are very

dependent upon the teacher. It is dependent upon the teacher. It is recognized that as the learners recognized that as the learners continue to study, they become continue to study, they become increasingly independent. CLT increasingly independent. CLT methodologists have identified five methodologists have identified five stages in this movement from stages in this movement from dependency to mutual dependency to mutual interdependency with the teacher.interdependency with the teacher.

It should be noted that accuracy It should be noted that accuracy is always a focus even in the is always a focus even in the first three stages; however, it is first three stages; however, it is subordinated to fluency. subordinated to fluency.

What are some characteristics of What are some characteristics of the teaching/learning process? the teaching/learning process?

In a beginning class, which is what In a beginning class, which is what we observed, students typically have we observed, students typically have a conversation using their native a conversation using their native language. The teacher helps them language. The teacher helps them express what they want to say by express what they want to say by giving them the target language giving them the target language translation in chunks. These chunks translation in chunks. These chunks are recorded, and when they are are recorded, and when they are replayed, it sounds like a fairly fluid replayed, it sounds like a fairly fluid conversation. conversation.

During the course of the lesson, During the course of the lesson, students are invited to say how students are invited to say how they feel, and in return the they feel, and in return the teacher understands them. teacher understands them.

According to Curran, there are According to Curran, there are six elements necessary for non-six elements necessary for non-defensive learning: security, defensive learning: security, aggression, attention, reflection, aggression, attention, reflection, and retention. and retention.


The Community Language The Community Language Learning Method is neither Learning Method is neither student-centered, nor teacher-student-centered, nor teacher-centered, but rather teacher-centered, but rather teacher-student-centered. Teacher-student-centered. Teacher-student-centered, with both student-centered, with both being decision-makers in the being decision-makers in the class.class.

How are the feelings of the How are the feelings of the students dealt with?students dealt with? Responding to the students’ Responding to the students’

feelings is considered very feelings is considered very important in Counseling-important in Counseling-Learning. The teacher listens Learning. The teacher listens and responds to each comment and responds to each comment carefully. While security is a carefully. While security is a basic element of the learning basic element of the learning process, the way in which it is process, the way in which it is provided will change depending provided will change depending upon the stage of learner. upon the stage of learner.


Language is for communication. Language is for communication. Curran writes that ‘learning is Curran writes that ‘learning is persons, meaning that both persons, meaning that both teacher and students work at teacher and students work at building trust in one another and building trust in one another and the learning process. the learning process.


Curran believes that in this kind Curran believes that in this kind of supportive learning process, of supportive learning process, language becomes the means language becomes the means for developing creative and for developing creative and critical thinking. Culture is an critical thinking. Culture is an integral part of language integral part of language learning. learning.


The most important skills are The most important skills are understanding and speaking the understanding and speaking the language at the beginning, with language at the beginning, with the reinforcement through the reinforcement through reading and writing. reading and writing.


Where possible, literal native Where possible, literal native language equivalents are given language equivalents are given to the target language words to the target language words that have been transcribed. that have been transcribed.

How is evaluation How is evaluation accomplished?accomplished? Although no particular mode of Although no particular mode of

evaluation is prescribed in the CLL evaluation is prescribed in the CLL Method, whatever evaluation is Method, whatever evaluation is conducted should be in keeping with conducted should be in keeping with the principles of the method. Finally, the principles of the method. Finally, it is likely that teachers would it is likely that teachers would encourage their students to self-encourage their students to self-evaluate—to look at their own evaluate—to look at their own learning and to become aware of learning and to become aware of their own progress. their own progress.

How does the teacher respond to How does the teacher respond to student errors?student errors?

Teachers should work with what Teachers should work with what the learner has produced in a the learner has produced in a non-threatening way. One way non-threatening way. One way of doing this is for the teacher to of doing this is for the teacher to repeat correctly what the repeat correctly what the student has said incorrectly.student has said incorrectly.

The two most basic principles which The two most basic principles which underlie the kind of learning that can underlie the kind of learning that can take place in the CLL Method are take place in the CLL Method are summed up in the following phrases: summed up in the following phrases: (1) ‘Learning is persons,’ which (1) ‘Learning is persons,’ which means that whole-person learning of means that whole-person learning of another language takes place best in another language takes place best in a relationship of trust, support, and a relationship of trust, support, and cooperation between teacher and cooperation between teacher and students and among students. (2) students and among students. (2)

‘‘Learning is dynamic and Learning is dynamic and creative,’ which means that creative,’ which means that learning is a living and learning is a living and developmental process. developmental process.

Communicative Language Communicative Language TeachingTeaching It became clear that communication rIt became clear that communication r

equired that students perform certain equired that students perform certain functions as well, such as promising, functions as well, such as promising, inviting, and declining invitations withinviting, and declining invitations within a social context (Wilkins, 1976). Iin a social context (Wilkins, 1976). In short, being able to communicate rn short, being able to communicate required more than linguistic competeequired more than linguistic competence; it required communicative compnce; it required communicative competence (Hymes, 1971)—knowing whetence (Hymes, 1971)—knowing when and how to say what to whom.en and how to say what to whom.

Such observations contributed tSuch observations contributed to a shift in the field in the late 19o a shift in the field in the late 1970s and early 1980s from a ling70s and early 1980s from a linguistic structure-centered approauistic structure-centered approach to a Communicative Approacch to a Communicative Approach (Widdowson, 1990). h (Widdowson, 1990).

CLT aims broadly to apply the CLT aims broadly to apply the theoretical perspective of the theoretical perspective of the Communicative Approach by Communicative Approach by making communicative making communicative competence the goal of competence the goal of language teaching and by language teaching and by acknowledging the acknowledging the interdependence of language interdependence of language and communication.and communication.


Whenever possible, ‘authentic Whenever possible, ‘authentic language’ –language as it is language’ –language as it is used in a real context—should used in a real context—should be introduced.be introduced.

Being able to figure out the Being able to figure out the speaker’s or writer’s intentions is speaker’s or writer’s intentions is part of being communicatively part of being communicatively competent. competent.

The target language is a vehicle for The target language is a vehicle for classroom communication, not just classroom communication, not just the object of study.the object of study.

One function can have many One function can have many different linguistic forms. Since the different linguistic forms. Since the focus of the course is on real focus of the course is on real language use, a variety of linguistic language use, a variety of linguistic forms are presented together. The forms are presented together. The emphasis is on the process of emphasis is on the process of communication rather than just communication rather than just mastery of language forms. mastery of language forms.

Students should work with languStudents should work with language at the discourse or supraseage at the discourse or suprasentential (above the sentence) levntential (above the sentence) level. They must learn about coheel. They must learn about cohesion and coherence, those propsion and coherence, those properties of language which bind therties of language which bind the sentences together. e sentences together.

Games are important because Games are important because they have certain features in they have certain features in common with real common with real communicative events—there is communicative events—there is a purpose to the exchange. a purpose to the exchange. Also, the speaker receives Also, the speaker receives immediate feedback from the immediate feedback from the listener on whether or not he or listener on whether or not he or she has successfully she has successfully communicated. communicated.

Students should be given an Students should be given an opportunity to express their ideas opportunity to express their ideas and opinions. and opinions.

Errors are tolerated and seen as a Errors are tolerated and seen as a natural outcome of the development natural outcome of the development of communication skills. Since this of communication skills. Since this activity was working on fluency, the activity was working on fluency, the teacher did not correct the student, teacher did not correct the student, but simply noted the error, which he but simply noted the error, which he will return to at a later point. will return to at a later point.

One pf the teacher’s major One pf the teacher’s major responsibilities is to establish responsibilities is to establish situations likely to promote situations likely to promote communication. communication.

Communicative interaction Communicative interaction encourages cooperative encourages cooperative relationships among students. It relationships among students. It gives students an opportunity to gives students an opportunity to work on negotiating meaning. work on negotiating meaning.

The social context of the The social context of the communicative event is communicative event is essential in giving meaning to essential in giving meaning to the utterances. the utterances.

Learning to use language forms Learning to use language forms appropriately is an important appropriately is an important part of communicative part of communicative competence. competence.

The teacher acts as a facilitator The teacher acts as a facilitator in setting up communicative in setting up communicative activities and as an advisor activities and as an advisor during the activities. during the activities.

In communicating, a speaker In communicating, a speaker has a choice not only about has a choice not only about what to say, but also how to say what to say, but also how to say it. it.

The grammar and vocabulary The grammar and vocabulary that the students learn follow that the students learn follow from the function, situational from the function, situational context, and the roles of the context, and the roles of the interlocutors. interlocutors.

Students should be given Students should be given opportunities to listen to opportunities to listen to language as it is used in language as it is used in authentic communication. They authentic communication. They may be coached on strategies may be coached on strategies for how to improve their for how to improve their comprehension. comprehension.

What are the goals of What are the goals of teachers who use CLT?teachers who use CLT?

The goal is to enable students to The goal is to enable students to communicate in the target communicate in the target language. To do this students language. To do this students need knowledge of linguistic need knowledge of linguistic forms, meanings, and functions. forms, meanings, and functions. Communication is a process; Communication is a process; knowledge of the forms of knowledge of the forms of language is insufficient. language is insufficient.

What is the role of the What is the role of the teacher? teacher? The teacher facilitates communication in The teacher facilitates communication in

the classroom. In this role, one of his the classroom. In this role, one of his major responsibilities is to establish major responsibilities is to establish situations likely to promote communication. situations likely to promote communication. During the activities he acts as an adviser, During the activities he acts as an adviser, answering students’ questions and answering students’ questions and monitoring their performance. He might monitoring their performance. He might make note of their errors to be worked on make note of their errors to be worked on at a later time during more accuracy-based at a later time during more accuracy-based activities. At other times he might be activities. At other times he might be

A ‘co-communicator’ engaging iA ‘co-communicator’ engaging in the communicative activity alon the communicative activity along with students (Littlewood, 19ng with students (Littlewood, 1981). 81).

What is the role of the What is the role of the students?students? Students are, above all, Students are, above all,

communicators. They are actively communicators. They are actively engaged in negotiating meaning—in engaged in negotiating meaning—in trying to make themselves trying to make themselves understood and in understanding understood and in understanding others.others.

Since the teacher’s role is less Since the teacher’s role is less dominant than in a teacher-centered dominant than in a teacher-centered method, students are seen as moremethod, students are seen as more

Responsible managers of their Responsible managers of their own learning. own learning.


The most obvious The most obvious characteristics of CLT is that characteristics of CLT is that almost everything that is done is almost everything that is done is done with a communicative done with a communicative intent. Students use the intent. Students use the language a great deal through language a great deal through communicative activities such communicative activities such as games, role plays, and as games, role plays, and problem-solving tasks.problem-solving tasks.

According to Morrow (in According to Morrow (in Johnson and Morrow, 1981), Johnson and Morrow, 1981), activities that are truly activities that are truly communicative have three communicative have three features in common: information features in common: information gap, choice, and feedback. gap, choice, and feedback.

In communicative, the speaker In communicative, the speaker has a choice of what she will has a choice of what she will say and how she will say it. say and how she will say it. True communication is True communication is purposeful. A speaker can thus purposeful. A speaker can thus evaluate whether or not his evaluate whether or not his purpose has been achieved purpose has been achieved based upon the information she based upon the information she receives from his listener. receives from his listener.

Another characteristic of CLT is Another characteristic of CLT is the use of authentic materials. It the use of authentic materials. It is considered desirable to give is considered desirable to give students an opportunity to students an opportunity to develop strategies for develop strategies for understanding language as it is understanding language as it is actually used. actually used.

Finally, we noted that activities Finally, we noted that activities in CLT are often carried out by in CLT are often carried out by students in small groups. Small students in small groups. Small numbers of students interacting numbers of students interacting are favored in order to maximize are favored in order to maximize the time allotted to each student the time allotted to each student for communicating. for communicating.


The teacher may present some The teacher may present some part of the lesson, such as when part of the lesson, such as when working with linguistic accuracy. working with linguistic accuracy. At other times, he is the At other times, he is the facilitator of the activities, but he facilitator of the activities, but he does not always himself interact does not always himself interact with the students. with the students.

Students interact a great deal Students interact a great deal with one another. They do this with one another. They do this in various configurations: pairs, in various configurations: pairs, triads, small groups, and whole triads, small groups, and whole group. group.


One of the basic assumptions of One of the basic assumptions of CLT is that by learning to CLT is that by learning to communicate students will be communicate students will be more motivated to study a more motivated to study a foreign language since they will foreign language since they will feel they are learning to do feel they are learning to do something useful with the something useful with the language. language.


Language is for communication. Language is for communication. Linguistic competence, the Linguistic competence, the knowledge of forms and their knowledge of forms and their meanings, is just one part of meanings, is just one part of communicative competence. communicative competence. Another aspect of Another aspect of communicative competence is communicative competence is knowledge of the functions knowledge of the functions language is used for. language is used for.

Thus, learners need knowledge Thus, learners need knowledge of forms and meanings and of forms and meanings and functions. However, they must functions. However, they must also use this knowledge and also use this knowledge and take into consideration the take into consideration the social situation in order to social situation in order to convey their intended meaning convey their intended meaning appropriately. appropriately.

How is culture viewed? How is culture viewed?

Culture is the everyday lifestyle Culture is the everyday lifestyle of people who use the language. of people who use the language. There are certain aspects of it There are certain aspects of it that are especially important to that are especially important to communication—the use of communication—the use of nonverbal behavior which might nonverbal behavior which might receive greater attention in CLT. receive greater attention in CLT.

What areas of language are What areas of language are emphasized?emphasized? Language functions might be Language functions might be

emphasized over forms. Typically, emphasized over forms. Typically, a functional syllabus is used. A a functional syllabus is used. A variety of forms are introduced for variety of forms are introduced for each function. Only the simpler each function. Only the simpler forms would be presented at first, but forms would be presented at first, but as students get more proficient in the as students get more proficient in the target language, the functions are target language, the functions are reintroduced and more complex reintroduced and more complex forms are learned. forms are learned.


Students work on all four skills Students work on all four skills from the beginning. Just as oral from the beginning. Just as oral communication is seen to take communication is seen to take place through negotiation place through negotiation between speaker and listener, between speaker and listener, so too is meaning thought to be so too is meaning thought to be derived from the written word derived from the written word through an interaction between through an interaction between the reader and the writer.the reader and the writer.


Judicious use of the students’ Judicious use of the students’ native language is permitted in native language is permitted in CLT. However, whenever CLT. However, whenever possible, the target language possible, the target language should be used not only during should be used not only during communicative activities, but communicative activities, but also for explaining the activities also for explaining the activities to the students or in assigning to the students or in assigning homework. homework.


A teacher evaluates not only the A teacher evaluates not only the students’ accuracy, but also students’ accuracy, but also their fluency. their fluency.

A teacher can informally A teacher can informally evaluate his students’ evaluate his students’ performance in his role as an performance in his role as an adviser or co-communicator. adviser or co-communicator.


Errors of form are tolerated Errors of form are tolerated during fluency-based activities during fluency-based activities and are seen as a natural and are seen as a natural outcome of the development of outcome of the development of communication skills.communication skills.

Content-based ApproachContent-based Approach

There are three more There are three more approaches that make approaches that make communication central: content-communication central: content-based instruction, task-based based instruction, task-based instruction, and participatory instruction, and participatory approach. The difference is a approach. The difference is a matter of their focus. matter of their focus.

CLT lessons centered on giving CLT lessons centered on giving students opportunities to practice students opportunities to practice using the communicative function of using the communicative function of making predictions. In this chapter, making predictions. In this chapter, the approaches we examine do not the approaches we examine do not begin with functions or any other begin with functions or any other language items. Instead, they give language items. Instead, they give priority to process over priority to process over predetermined linguistic content. predetermined linguistic content.

In these approaches rather than In these approaches rather than ‘learning to use English, ‘student‘learning to use English, ‘students use ‘English to learn it’ (Howats use ‘English to learn it’ (Howatt, 1984:279). t, 1984:279).

Using content from other Using content from other disciplines in language courses disciplines in language courses is not a new idea. For years, is not a new idea. For years, specialized language courses specialized language courses have included content relevant have included content relevant to a particular profession or to a particular profession or academic discipline. academic discipline.

The special contribution of The special contribution of content-based instruction is that content-based instruction is that it integrates the learning of it integrates the learning of language with the learning of language with the learning of some other content, often some other content, often academic subject matter. It has academic subject matter. It has been observed that academic been observed that academic subjects provide natural content subjects provide natural content for language instruction. for language instruction.

Such observations motivated the Such observations motivated the ‘language across the curriculum’ ‘language across the curriculum’ movement for native English movement for native English speakers in England, which was speakers in England, which was launched in the 1970s to integrate launched in the 1970s to integrate the teaching of reading and writing the teaching of reading and writing into all other subject areas. Of into all other subject areas. Of course, when students study course, when students study academic subjects in a non-native academic subjects in a non-native language, they will need a great deal language, they will need a great deal

of assistance in understanding of assistance in understanding subject matter texts. Content-subject matter texts. Content-based instruction fits in with the based instruction fits in with the other methods in this chapter other methods in this chapter where the selection and where the selection and sequence of language items sequence of language items arise from communicative arise from communicative needs, not predetermined by needs, not predetermined by syllabi. syllabi.


The subject matter content is The subject matter content is used for language teaching used for language teaching purposes.purposes.

Teaching should build on Teaching should build on students’ previous experience.students’ previous experience.

When learners perceive the When learners perceive the relevance of their language use, relevance of their language use, they are motivated to learn. they are motivated to learn. They know that it is a means to They know that it is a means to an end, rather than an end in an end, rather than an end in itself. itself.

The teacher ‘scaffolds’ the The teacher ‘scaffolds’ the linguistic content, i.e. helps linguistic content, i.e. helps learners say what it is they want learners say what it is they want to say by building together with to say by building together with the students a complete the students a complete utterance. utterance.

Language is learned most Language is learned most effectively when it is used as a effectively when it is used as a medium to convey informational medium to convey informational content of interest to the content of interest to the students. students.

Vocabulary is easier to acquire Vocabulary is easier to acquire when there are contextual clues when there are contextual clues to help convey meaning.to help convey meaning.

When they work with authentic When they work with authentic subject matter, students need subject matter, students need language support. language support.

Learners work with meaningful, Learners work with meaningful, cognitively demanding language cognitively demanding language and content within the context of and content within the context of authentic material and tasks.authentic material and tasks.

Communicative competence Communicative competence involves more than using involves more than using language conversationally. It language conversationally. It also includes the ability to read, also includes the ability to read, discuss, and write about content discuss, and write about content from other fields. from other fields.

Another content-based Another content-based instruction ‘face,’ where content instruction ‘face,’ where content and language instruction have and language instruction have been integrated, is the adjunct been integrated, is the adjunct model. Students enroll in a model. Students enroll in a regular academic course. In regular academic course. In addition, they take a language addition, they take a language course that is linked to the course that is linked to the academic course. academic course.

In sheltered–language instruction in In sheltered–language instruction in a second language environment, a second language environment, both native speakers and non-native both native speakers and non-native speakers of a particular language speakers of a particular language follow a regular academic follow a regular academic curriculum. For classes with non-curriculum. For classes with non-native speakers, however, ‘sheltered’ native speakers, however, ‘sheltered’ instruction is geared to students’ instruction is geared to students’ developing second language developing second language proficiency. proficiency.

Sheltered-language instructors Sheltered-language instructors support that their students through support that their students through the use of particular instructional the use of particular instructional techniques and materials. It offers techniques and materials. It offers the significant advantage that the significant advantage that second language students do not second language students do not have to postpone their academic have to postpone their academic study until their language control study until their language control reaches a high level. reaches a high level.

In sum, what all modes of content-baIn sum, what all modes of content-based instruction have in common is lesed instruction have in common is learning both specific content and relaarning both specific content and related language skills. In content-baseted language skills. In content-based language teaching, the claim in a sd language teaching, the claim in a sense is that students get “two for oneense is that students get “two for one”—both content knowledge and incre”—both content knowledge and increased language proficiency’ (Wesche, ased language proficiency’ (Wesche, 1993).1993).

Documents

Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching Yueh-chiu Helen Wang