ThirdEdition

Techniques&PrinciplesinLanguageTeaching

DianeLarsen-FreemanandMartiAnderson

GreatClarendonStreet,Oxford0X26DP

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Theauthorsandpublisheraregratefultothosewhohavegivenpermissiontoreproducethefollowingextractofcopyrightmaterial:p.214ScreenshotfromFacebook(http://www.facebook.com).ReproducedbykindpermissionofFacebook.Sources:p.215www.wikipedia.com;p.205TheBritishNationalCorpus

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ThistitleoriginallyappearedintheseriesTeachingTechniquesinEnglishasaSecondLanguage,editedbyRussellNCampbellandWilliamERutherford(FirstEdition1986;SecondEdition2000).

Inmemoryofmyparents,ElaineandRandolphLarsen,withheartfeltgratitudefortheirloveandencouragementDIANELARSEN-FREEMAN

Inmemoryofmymother,MavisAnderson,andinhonorofmyfather,ElmerAnderson,whobothinspiredmetobecuriousandcompassionateMARTIANDERSON

Contents

AcknowledgmentsListofAcronymsTotheTeacherEducator

1Introduction2TheGrammar-TranslationMethod3TheDirectMethod4TheAudio-LingualMethod5TheSilentWay6Desuggestopedia7CommunityLanguageLearning8TotalPhysicalResponse9CommunicativeLanguageTeaching10Content-basedInstruction11Task-basedLanguageTeaching12ThePoliticalDimensionsofLanguageTeachingandtheParticipatoryApproach13LearningStrategyTraining,CooperativeLearning,andMultipleIntelligences14EmergingUsesofTechnologyinLanguageTeachingandLearning15ConclusionGlossaryIndex

Acknowledgments

We thank the readers of the first and second editionsof this book.Your invaluablefeedbackandinputhavehelpedtoshapethisthirdedition.Theapproachwehaveusedinthisbook,asintheprevioustwoeditions,isbased

onourexperienceinteachingthemethods/approachescourseattheMasterofArtsinTeachingProgramattheSchoolforInternationalTraining.Thisbookwouldnothavebeenwritten in the firstplace if ithadnotbeen for the influenceofcolleaguesandstudents there. We are indeed grateful for the time we spent in this wonderfulcommunity.MartiwouldliketothankDianeforbeinganinspiringteacherandmentoraswell

as beloved colleague and friend.Workingwithher on this project has been a greatprivilege.DianewouldliketothankMartiforherwillingnesstojoinherinthisprojectand

her‘can-do’attitudethroughout.DianeiscountingonMartitomakethisprojectherownandcarryitintothefuture.Wewishtothankourlifepartnersfortheirencouragementandsupport.Fortheinitialfaiththeyshowedandfortheircontinuedencouragementandhelpful

suggestions, Diane acknowledges with gratitude the editors of this series, RussellCampbellandWilliamRutherford.It has also been a pleasure working with the professionals at Oxford University

Press. For this edition,wewant to acknowledge JuliaBell’s helpfulness especially,andAnnHunter’sandKeithLayfield’sskillfulcopy-editing.Inaddition, thisbookhasbenefitedfromthefact that leadingmethodologistsand

colleagues have generously responded to requests for feedback on portions of thismanuscript, either the previous edition or the current one.We are indebted to EarlStevick (To the Teacher Educator), ShaktiGattegno (SilentWay),Georgi Lozanov,AllisonMiller,andTetsuoNishizawa(Desuggestopedia),JennybelleRardinandPatTirone (Community Language Learning), James Asher (Total Physical Response),Marjorie Wesche and Ann Snow (Content-based Instruction), Elsa Auerbach(Participatory Approach), and Leo van Lier and Mat Schulze (Technology). Theircommentshavemadeusfeelmoreconfidentofourinterpretationandrepresentation.Anyerrorsofinterpretationareentirelyourresponsibility,ofcourse.

ListofAcronyms

ALM Audio-LingualMethodBNC BritishNationalCorpusCBI Content-basedInstructionCLL CommunityLanguageLearningCLT CommunicativeLanguageTeachingCALL Computer-assistedLanguageLearningCLIL ContentandLanguageIntegratedLearningELF EnglishasaLinguaFrancaLCD LiquidCrystalDisplaySLA SecondLanguageAcquisitionSAARRD Security,Aggression,Attention,Reflection,Retention,and

DiscriminationSIOP ShelteredInstructionObservationProtocolTL TargetLanguageTBLT Task-basedLanguageTeachingWL WholeLanguageZPD ZoneofProximalDevelopment

TotheTeacherEducator

TheWorkofLanguageTeachingThe work of teaching is simultaneously mental and social. It is also physical,emotional, practical, behavioral, political, experiential, historical, cultural, spiritual,and personal. In short, teaching is very complex, influenced not only by these 12dimensions and perhaps others, but also requiring their contingent orchestration insupportof students’ learning.When language teaching in particular is in focus, thecomplexity is evengreater, shapedby teachers’viewsof thenatureof language,oflanguage teachingand learning ingeneral, andby theirknowledgeof theparticularsocioculturalsettinginwhichtheteachingandlearningtakeplace(Adamson2004).Indeed, researchhas shown that there is adegreeof sharedpedagogicalknowledgeamong language teachers that is different from that of teachers of other subjects(Gatbonton2000;Mullock2006).Nonetheless,eachteacher’sownlanguagelearninghistory is also unique. The way that teachers have been taught during their own‘apprenticeshipofobservation’(Lortie1975)isboundtobeformative.Thereisalsothe levelofcomplexityat the immediate local level,due to the specificanduniqueneedsofthestudentsthemselvesinaparticularclassataparticulartime,andthefactthat theseneedschangefrommoment tomoment.Finally, therealityofeducationalcontextsbeingwhat theyare, teachersmustnotonlyattempt tomeet theirstudents’learningneeds,buttheymustalsojuggleothercompetingdemandsontheirtimeandattention.Because of this complexity, although this is a book about the methods and

methodological innovationsofrecentyears,wedonotseektoconvincereadersthatonemethod is superior to another, or that there is or everwill be aperfectmethod(Prabhu1990).Theworkofteachingsuggestsotherwise.AsBrumfitobserves:

Aclaimthatwecanpredictcloselywhatwillhappeninasituationascomplexas[theclassroom]canonlybebasedoneithertheviewthathumanbeingsaremoremechanicalintheirlearningresponsesthananyrecentdiscussionwouldallow,orthenotion thatwecanmeasureandpredict thequantitiesandqualitiesofall…factors.Neitheroftheseseemstobeasensiblepointofviewtotake.(Brumfit1984:18–19)

After all, ‘If it could be assumed that learnerswere ‘simply’ learners, that teacherswere ‘simply’ teachers,and thatoneclassroomwasessentially thesameasanother,there would probably be little need for other than a technological approach to

languageteaching’(Tudor2003:3),withadjustmentsbeingmadefor theageof thelearners,specificgoals,orclassnumbers,etc.However,thetruthisthat

Learners arenot ‘simply’ learners anymore than teachers are ‘simply’ teachers;teachingcontexts,too,differfromoneanotherinasignificantnumberofways.Inother words, language teaching is far more complex than producing cars: wecannot therefore assume that the technologyof language teachingwill lead in aneat,deterministicmannertoapredictablesetoflearningoutcomes.(Tudor2003:3).

Tudorgoeson toobserve that this is true evenwithin agiven culture. It cannotbeassumed that all teacherswill share the same conceptions of language, of learning,andofteaching.

Rather than the elegant realisation of one rationality, then, language teaching islikely to involve the meeting and interaction of different rationalities. Murray(1996) is thereforeright indrawingattention to the‘tapestryofdiversity’whichmakesourclassroomswhattheyare.(ibid.2003:7)

LanguageTeacherLearningRecognizing thecomplexanddiversenatureof theworkof teachinghasstimulatedmuch discussion during the last 15 years around the question of how it is thatlanguage teachers learn to teach (Bailey andNunan1996;Bartels 2005;Burns andRichards 2009; Freeman andRichards 1996;Hawkins 2004; Johnson 2009; Tedick2005). In addition, during this same time period, the journal Language TeachingResearchbeganpublicationwithRodEllisasitseditor.Muchoftheresearchreportedon in these sources can be summed up in what Johnson describes as her currentunderstandingoflanguageteacherlearning:

L2 teacher learning [is]… socially negotiated and contingent on knowledge ofself, subject matter, curricula, and setting … L2 teachers [are] … users andcreatorsoflegitimateformsofknowledgewhomakedecisionsabouthowbesttoteach their L2 students within complex socially, culturally, and historicallysituatedcontexts.(Johnson2006:239)

Suchaviewhasradicallytransformednotionsofteacherlearning.AsRichards(2008:164) notes: ‘While traditional views of teacher-learning often viewed the teachers’taskastheapplicationoftheorytopractice,morerecentviewsseeteacher-learningasthetheorizationofpractice.’Ratherthanconsumersoftheory,then,teachersareseentobebothpractitionersandtheorybuilders(Prabhu1992;Savignon2007).Giventhisviewof teachers as theorybuilders, teacher educationmust serve two functions: ‘It

mustteachtheskillsofreflectivityanditmustprovidethediscourseandvocabularythatcanserveparticipantsinrenamingtheirexperience’(Freeman2002:11).Itisthesetwofunctionsthatwebelieveourstudyofmethodsiswell-positionedto

address. First of all, by observing classes in action and then analyzing theobservations,we intend to help readers cultivate skills in reflectivity, important fortheirsenseofself-efficacy(Akbari2007).Thepoint is to illustrate the thinking thatgoesonbeneaththesurfacebehaviorenactedintheclassroominordertounderstandtherationaleforsomeofthedecisionsthatteachersmake(Woods1996;Borg2006).A study ofmethods is also ameans of socialization into professional thinking anddiscourse that language teachers require in order to ‘rename their experience,’ toparticipateintheirprofession,andtolearnthroughouttheirprofessionallives.

AStudyofMethodsThus,astudyofmethodsisinvaluableinteachereducationinatleastfiveways:1Methodsserveasafoilforreflectionthatcanaidteachersinbringingtoconsciousawarenessthethinkingthatunderliestheiractions.Weknowthatteacherscometoteachertrainingwithideasabouttheteaching/learningprocessformedfromtheyearstheythemselvesspentasstudents(Lortie1975).Amajorpurposeofteachereducationistohelpteachersmakethetacitexplicit(Shulman1987).Byexposingteacherstomethodsandaskingthemtoreflectontheprinciplesofthosemethodsandactivelyengagewiththetechniques,teachereducatorscanhelpteachersbecomecleareraboutwhytheydowhattheydo.Theybecomeawareoftheirownfundamentalassumptions,values,andbeliefs.Inturn,reflectiveteacherscantakepositionsonissuesthatresultintheimprovementofthesocietyinwhichtheylive(Clarke2007;Akbari2007).

2Bybecomingclearonwheretheystand(Clarke2003),teacherscanchoosetoteachdifferentlyfromthewaytheyweretaught.Theyareabletoseewhytheyareattractedtocertainmethodsandrepelledbyothers.Theyareabletomakechoicesthatareinformed,notconditioned.Theymaybeabletoresist,oratleastargueagainst,theimpositionofaparticularmethodbyauthorities.Insituationswhereamethodisnotbeingimposed,differentmethodsofferteachersalternativestowhattheycurrentlythinkanddo.Itdoesnotnecessarilyfollowthattheywillchoosetomodifytheircurrentpractice.Thepointisthattheywillhavetheunderstandingandthetoolstodoso,iftheyareabletoandwantto.

3Aknowledgeofmethodsispartoftheknowledgebaseofteaching.Withit,teachersjoinacommunityofpractice(LaveandWenger1991).Beingacommunitymemberinvolveslearningtheprofessionaldiscoursethatcommunitymembersusesothatprofessionaldialoguecantakeplace.Beingpartofadiscoursecommunityconfersaprofessionalidentityandconnectsteacherswitheachothersotheyare

lessisolatedintheirpractice.4Conversely,bybeingmembersofaprofessionaldiscoursecommunity,teachersmayfindtheirownconceptionsofhowteachingleadstolearningchallenged.Interactingwithothers’conceptionsofpracticehelpstokeepteachers’teachingaliveandtopreventitfrombecomingstaleandoverlyroutinized(Prabhu1990).

5Aknowledgeofmethodshelpstoexpandateacher’srepertoireoftechniques.Thisinitselfprovidesafurtheravenueforprofessionalgrowth,sincesometeachersfindtheirwaytonewpedagogicalpositionsbyfirsttryingoutnewtechniquesratherthanbyentertainingnewprinciples.Moreover,effectiveteacherswhoaremoreexperiencedandexperthavealarge,diverserepertoireofbestpractices(Arends2004),whichpresumablyhelpsthemdealmoreeffectivelywiththeuniquequalitiesandidiosyncrasiesoftheirstudents.

CriticismsofMethodsDespitethesepotentialgainsfromastudyofmethods,itisimportanttoacknowledgethatanumberofwritersinourfieldhavecriticizedtheconceptoflanguageteachingmethods. Some say thatmethods are prescriptions for classroombehavior, and thatteachers are encouraged by textbook publishers and academics to implement themwhetherornotthemethodsareappropriateforaparticularcontext(Pennycook1989).Others have noted that the search for the bestmethod is ill-advised (Prabhu 1990;Bartolome 1994); that teachers do not think about methods when planning theirlessons(Long1991);thatmethodologicallabelstelluslittleaboutwhatreallygoesoninclassrooms(Katz1996);andthatteachersexperienceacertainfatigueconcerningthe constant coming and going of fashions inmethods (Rajagopalan 2007).Hinkel(2006) also notes that the need for situationally relevant language pedagogy hasbroughtaboutthedeclineofmethods.Thesecriticismsdeserveconsideration.Itispossiblethataparticularmethodmay

beimposedonteachersbyothers.However,theseothersarelikelytobedisappointedif theyhopethatmandatingaparticularmethodwill leadtostandardization.Forweknowthatteachingismorethanfollowingarecipe.Anymethodisgoingtobeshapedbyateacher’sownunderstanding,beliefs,style,andlevelofexperience.Teachersarenot mere conveyor belts delivering language through inflexible prescribed andproscribedbehaviors(Larsen-Freeman1991); theyareprofessionalswhocan, inthebestofallworlds,maketheirowndecisions—informedbytheirownexperience,thefindings from research, and the wisdom of practice accumulated by the profession(see,forexample,Kumaravadivelu1994).Furthermore,amethod isdecontextualized.Howamethod is implemented in the

classroomisnotonlygoingtobeaffectedbywhotheteacheris,butalsobywhothestudents are, what they and the teacher expect as appropriate social roles, the

institutionalconstraintsanddemands,andfactorsconnectedtothewidersocioculturalcontext in which the instruction takes place. Even the ‘right’ method will notcompensate for inadequate conditions of learning, or overcome sociopoliticalinequities. Further, decisions that teachersmake are often affectedby exigencies inthe classroom rather than by methodological considerations. Thus, saying that aparticularmethodispracticedcertainlydoesnotgiveusthewholepictureofwhatishappeningintheclassroom.Sinceamethodismoreabstractthanateachingactivity,itisnotsurprisingthatteachersthinkintermsofactivitiesratherthanmethodologicalchoiceswhentheyplantheirlessons.What critics of language teaching methods have to offer us is important.

Admittedly,atthispointintheevolutionofourfield,thereislittleempiricalsupportfor a particular method, although there may be some empirical support in secondlanguage acquisition research for methodological principles (Long 2009). Further,what some of the methods critics have done is to raise our awareness about theimportanceofcriticalpedagogy.AsAkbariputsit:

By viewing education as an intrinsically political, power-related activity,supportersofcriticalpedagogyseektoexposeitsdiscriminatoryfoundationsandtake steps toward reforming it so that groupswho are left out because of theirgender, race, or social class are included and represented…Critical pedagogyputstheclassroomcontextintothewidersocialcontextwiththebeliefthat‘whathappens in the classroom should end up making a difference outside of theclassroom’(Baynham2006).(Akbari2008:644)

Larsen-FreemanandFreemanconcur:

It is clear that universal solutions that are transposed acritically, and oftenaccompaniedbycallsforincreasedstandardization,andwhichignoreindigenousconditions,thediversityoflearners,andtheagencyofteachersareimmanentinamodernism that no longer applies, if it ever did. (Larsen-Freeman andFreeman2008:168)

Widdowson (2004) recognizes the inconclusive cycle of pedagogical fashion inteachingmethods, andobserves thatwhat is needed is not a universal solution, butrathera‘shifttolocalization,’inwhichpedagogicpracticesaredesignedinrelationtolocalcontexts,needs,andobjectives(Larsen-Freeman2000;Bax2003;Canagarajah2005). Such a shift responds to the objections of some critical theorists (such asPennycook2001)toattemptsto‘export’languageteachingmethodsfromdevelopedtodevelopingcountrieswiththeassumptionthatonesizefitsall.Treatinglocalizationof practices as a fundamental ‘change in attitude,’ Widdowson adds that ‘localcontexts of actual practice are to be seen not as constraints to be overcome butconditionstobesatisfied’(2004:369).Indeed,Larsen-FreemanandCameron(2008)

suggestthatonemeasureofamethodshouldbeitsadaptability—thedegreetowhichitcanbeadaptedtosatisfydifferentconditions.In the end, then, which method is practiced is, or at least should be, a local

decision.Inthisregard,teachers’voicesmustbeheeded.Andwhatteachershavetosayaboutthevalueofmethodsisunequivocal:

Few teachers define methods in the narrow pejorative sense used by post-methodologists. Most teachers think of methods in terms of techniques whichrealize a set of principles or goals and they are open to anymethod that offerspracticalsolutionstoproblemsintheirparticularteachingcontext.(Bell2007:141)

Continuing,Bellwrites:

A knowledge of methods is equated with a set of options, which empowersteachers to respondmeaningfully to particular classroom contexts. In this way,knowledgeofmethodsisseenascrucialtoteachergrowth.(ibid.2007:141–2)

AsoneteacherinastudyconductedbyBellremarked:

‘Ithinkthatteachersshouldbeexposedtoallmethodsandtheythemselveswould‘build’ their own methods or decide what principles they would use in theirteaching.We cannot ignore methods and all the facts that were considered bythosewho‘created’orusethemintheirteaching.Weneedabasisforbuildingourownteaching.’(ibid.2007:143)

Thus,whilethecriticismofmethodsishelpfulinsomeregards,wedonotbelievethata study of language teaching methods should be excluded from language teachereducation.Itisnotmethods,buthowtheyareusedthatisatissue.Astudyofmethodsneed not lead to the de-skilling of teachers but rather can serve a variety of usefulfunctionswhenusedappropriately in teachereducation.Studyingmethodscanhelpteachers articulate, and perhaps transform, their understanding of the teaching–learning process. It can strengthen their confidence in challenging authorities whomandate unacceptable educational policies. Methods can serve as models of theintegration of theory and practice (see Introduction Chapter 1, page 1). They cancontributetoadiscoursethatbecomesthelinguafrancaofaprofessionalcommunity,fromwhichteacherscanreceivebothsupportandchallenge,andinwhichcontinuingeducation in the lifelong process of learning to teach can be encouraged (Larsen-Freeman 1998). Teachers and teacher educators should not be blinded by thecriticisms of methods and thus fail to see their invaluable contribution to teachereducationandcontinuingdevelopment.Key todoing so, though, ismovingbeyondideologytoinquiry,amovementtowhichwehopethisbookwillcontribute.

NewtothisThirdEditionSome modest revision has been made throughout the book, including a newdiscussion in Chapter 13 of Howard Gardner’s habits of mind, which he claimsstudents need to develop in order to participate effectively in current and emergingculturalandworkenvironments.Otherchaptershaveremainedrelativelyuntouched.This is because these chapters describe methods that are more historical thancontemporary, although they are all still being practiced somewhere in the worldtoday.Inanycase,webelievethateducatorsshouldhaveasenseofthehistoryofthefield,notonlyofcontemporarypractices.Aswehavealreadyindicated,ourgoal inthis book is to expose readers to the ‘tapestry of diversity’ that exists in humanteachingandlearning,nottoconvincereadersofthevalueofanyonemethodovertheothers.There are also severalmajor changes that havebeenmade for this edition.First,

three methodological innovations—Content-based, Task-based, and ParticipatoryApproaches—whichweredealtwith in a single chapter in theprevious edition, areeachaddressedinseparatechaptersinthisedition.Thesethreechaptersallowforthemore in-depth treatment that these enduring practices warrant. Content-basedInstruction, or Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), has seenwidespreadadoption,bothintheeducationofEnglishlanguagelearnersintheUSAand in language education in other countries, particularly in Europe, where it isincreasingly common for governments to encourage the teaching of language andother subjects in tandem in state schools. It was also important to expand thediscussionofTask-basedLanguageTeaching,whichanewchapterhasallowedustodo, as it is the method that has received the most support from second languageacquisitionresearch.Thethirdnewchapter, theParticipatoryApproach,hasenabledus to elaborate on the political dimensions of language teaching, including howlanguagestudycaninfluencealanguagelearner’ssociopoliticalidentity.In addition, we have added a new chapter on technology. Technological aids to

language teaching have been around for some time, of course, but in our opinion,technology has reached a point where it should be considered not only as asupplement to teaching or a resource for teachers, but also as an opportunity forautonomouslearning.Atechnologicalapproachtolanguageteachingrestsonitsownuniquesetofprinciples,includinganewunderstandingofthenatureoflanguage.

TerminologyTwonotesaboutterminologyarealsoinorder:1First,weareusingtheterm‘method’herenottomeanaformulaicprescription,butratheracoherentsetofprincipleslinkedtocertaintechniquesandprocedures.Anthony(1963:64)hasmadethecaseforatripartitehierarchy.Asheputit:‘…

techniquescarryoutamethodwhichisconsistentwithanapproach’.FollowingAnthony,incertainofthechapterswewillintroduceaparticularmethodbyshowinghowitisanexampleofamoregeneralapproachtolanguageteaching.However,notallmethodsdiscussedinthisbookconvenientlyfollowfromageneralapproach.Theyalldo,though,havebothaconceptualandanoperationalcomponent,fittingthedefinitionintheDictionaryofLanguageTeachingandAppliedLinguistics(amethodis‘awayofteachingalanguagewhichisbasedonsystematicprinciplesandprocedures’),andthusjustifyingouruseoftheterm.Admittedly,wehavesometimesfounditdifficulttousetheterm‘method’withmorerecentinnovations,suchaslearningstrategies,cooperativelearning,andtechnology.Atsuchtimes,wehaveresortedtotheterm‘methodologicalinnovations.’

2Wehaveusedtheterm‘targetlanguage’tomean‘thelanguagebeingtaught’forthreereasons.First,weintendforthisbooktobeusefultoteachersofalllanguages,notonlyEnglishteachers.Second,weacknowledgethatmanyteachersandstudentsaremultilingualorplurilingual(tousetheCouncilofEurope’sterm)andsotheuseoftheterm‘second’languagedoesnotreallyapply.Third,wehaveavoidedusingtheterm‘foreign’languagebecausethisdesignationisrelativetothespeakerandmutableinthecontext.Forinstance,intheUSA,Spanishhasaheterogeneousidentity:itcouldbeconsideredasa‘foreign’languagetothosewithlittleornoknowledgeofit;asa‘second’languagetothosewhouseitinadditiontotheirfirstlanguage;orasa‘native’languagetothoseforwhomitisahomeorheritagelanguage(Larsen-FreemanandFreeman2008).Althoughtheterm‘targetlanguage’isnotwithoutitsproblems,usingthistermseemedareasonablecompromise.

Finally, although we have made every effort toward a faithful rendering of eachmethodandmethodological innovation, therewillundoubtedlybe thosewhowouldnot totallyacceptourrendition.This isunderstandableandprobablyinevitable.Ourdescriptionis,asitmustbe,aproductofourownexperience.Itisoursincerehopethatthisbookwillbothinformandstimulateitsreadersand

thatitwillencouragethemtoreflect,inquire,andexperiment.Ifitmeetsthesegoals,then it may help to restore faith in the appropriate use of teaching methods inlanguageteachereducation.

Brattleboro,VermontandAnnArbor,Michigan DianeLarsen-FreemanBangkok,Thailand MartiAnderson

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____.2001.CriticalAppliedLinguistics:ACriticalIntroduction.Mahwah,NJ:Erlbaum.

Prabhu,N.S.1990.‘Thereisnobestmethod—Why?’TESOLQuarterly24/2:161–76.

____.1992.‘Thedynamicsofthelanguagelesson.’TESOLQuarterly26/2:225–41.Rajagopalan.K.2007.‘Frommadnessinmethodtomethodinmadness.’ELTJournal62/1:84–5.

Richards,J.2008.‘Secondlanguageteachereducationtoday.’RELCJournal39/2:158–77.

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Shulman,L.1987.‘Knowledge-baseandteaching:Foundationsofthenewreform.’HarvardEducationalReview57/1:1–22.

Tedick,D.(ed.).2005.LanguageTeacherEducation:InternationalPerspectivesonResearchandPractice.Mahwah,NJ:LawrenceErlbaumAssociates.

Tudor,I.2003.‘Learningtolivewithcomplexity:Towardsanecologicalperspectiveonlanguageteaching.’System31:1–12.

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1

Introduction

GoalsofthisBookOne of the goals of this book is for you to learn about many different languageteaching methods.We will use the term ‘method’ to mean a coherent set of linksbetween the actions of a teacher in a classroom and the thoughts that underlie theactions.Theactionsarethetechniques,andthethoughtsaretheprinciplesinthetitleofthisbook:TechniquesandPrinciplesinLanguageTeaching.Asecondgoalistohelpyouuncoverthethoughtsthatguideyourownactionsasa

teacher.Theymaynotbeonesofwhichyouareaware.Seekingtodeterminewhichprinciples of themethods you read about here aremost [dis]harmoniouswith yourown thinkingwill help you to uncover some of your implicit thoughts and beliefsaboutteaching.Athirdgoalistointroduceyoutoavarietyoftechniques,someofwhichwillbe

new. Although certain techniques may require further training, others can beimmediatelyimplemented.Feelfreetoexperimentandadaptthosetechniquestoyourteachingcontext.

Thought-in-ActionLinksItisimportanttorecognizethatmethodslinkthoughtsandactions,becauseteachingisnotentirelyaboutoneortheother.Ofcoursethisisastrueaboutyourownteachingasitisaboutanymethodyouwillreadaboutinthisbook.Asateacheroflanguage,youhave thoughts1 about your subjectmatter—what language is,what culture is—andaboutyourstudents—whotheyareaslearnersandhowitistheylearn.Youalsohavethoughtsaboutyourselfasateacherandwhatyoucandotohelpyourstudentsto learn. Many of your thoughts have been formed by your own experience as alanguage learner. It isvery important foryou tobecomeawareof the thoughts thatguide your actions in the classroom.With this awareness, you are able to examinewhyyoudowhatyoudoandperhapschoosetothinkaboutordothingsdifferently.Asanexample,letusrelateananecdoteaboutateacherwithwhomDianeLarsen-

Freemanwasworkingsometimeago.WewillcallherHeather,althoughthatisnother real name. From her study of methods in Stevick (1980), Heather becameinterestedinhowtoworkwithteachercontrolandstudentinitiativeinherteaching.Heather determined that during her student teaching internship, shewould exerciselesscontrolof the lesson inorder toencourageher students to takemore initiative.She decided to narrow the goal down to having the students take the initiative inposingthequestionsintheclassroom,recognizingthatsooftenitistheteacherwhoasksallthequestions,notthestudents.Diane was Heather’s teaching supervisor. When Diane came to observe her,

Heatherwasverydiscouraged.Shefeltthatthestudentswerenottakingtheinitiativethatshewastryingtogetthemtotake,butshecouldnotseewhatwaswrong.WhenDianevisitedherclass,sheobservedthefollowing:

HEATHER: Juan,askAnnawhatsheiswearing.JÜAN: Whatareyouwearing?ANNA: Iamwearingadress.HEATHER: Anna,askMurielwhatsheiswriting.ANNA: Whatareyouwriting?MÜRIEL: Iamwritingaletter.

Thispatterncontinuedforsometime.ItwascleartoseethatHeatherhadsuccessfullyavoidedthecommonproblemoftheteacheraskingallthequestionsintheclass.Theteacherwasnotaskingthequestions—thestudentswere.However,Heatherhadnotachieved her goal of encouraging student initiative, since it was she who took theinitiativebypromptingthestudentstoaskthequestions.HeatherandDianediscussedthematterinthepostobservationconference.Heathercametoseethat ifshetrulywantedstudentstotakemoreinitiative, then

she would have to set up the situation in such a way that her participation in an

activity was not essential. Diane talked about several ways Heathermight do this.During this discussion,Heather came to another important awareness. She realizedthat sinceshewasa fairly inexperienced teacher, she felt insecureabouthaving thestudentsmake thedecisions aboutwho sayswhat towhom, andwhen.What if thestudentswere to askher questions that shewasunable to answer?Having studentstaketheinitiativeintheclassroomwasconsonantwithhervalues;however,Heatherrealizedthatsheneededtothinkfurtheraboutwhatlevelofstudentinitiativewouldbecomfortableforheratthisstageinhercareerasateacher.Thepointwasthatitwasnot necessarily simply amatter ofHeather improving her technique; she could seethat thatwas one possibility.Anotherwas to rethink theway inwhich she thoughtaboutherteaching(Larsen-Freeman1993).The linksbetween thoughtandactionwerevery important inHeather’s teaching.

Shecametorealizethatwhensomethingwasnotgoingasshehadintended,shecouldchangeherthoughtorshecouldchangeheraction.Heatherhadanideaofwhatshewanted to accomplish—but the action she chose to carry it out didnot achieveherpurpose.Whensheexaminedherintentionsmoreclearly,shesawthatshewasnotyetready to have her students take complete initiative in the lesson. So for now, thethinkingunderlyingherapproachhadtochange.

ACoherentSetReturningtothemethodsinthisbook,wewillseethatitisthelinkbetweenthoughtsandactionsthat iscommontothemall.But thereisanotherwayinwhichlinksaremadeinmethods,andthat is theconnectionbetweenonethought-in-actionlinkandanother.Amethodisacoherentsetofsuchlinks.Methodsarecoherentinthesensethatthereshouldbesometheoreticalorphilosophicalcompatibilityamongthelinks.It would make little sense, for example, for a methodologist who believes thatlanguageismadeupofasetoffixedpatternstocharacterizelanguageacquisitionasacreative process, and to employ discovery learning techniques to help learnersdiscover the abstract rules underlying a language in order to enable them to createnovelsentences.To say there is coherence among the links does not mean, however, that the

techniquesofonemethodcannotbeusedwithanother.Thetechniquesmaylookverydifferentinpractice,though,ifthethoughtsbehindthemdiffer.Forexample,Stevick(1993)hasshownthatthesimpletechniqueofusingapicturetoprovideacontextfora dialogue that the students are supposed to learn can lead to very differentconclusionsaboutteachingandlearningdependingonhowthetechniqueismanaged.If the students first look at the picture, close their eyeswhile the teacher reads thedialogue,andthenrepeatthedialoguebitbybitaftertheteacher,repeatinguntiltheyhave learned it fluentlyandflawlessly, thestudentscould infer that it is the teacherwho is the provider of all language and itsmeaning in the classroom. They couldfurtherinferthattheyshouldusethat‘partoftheirbrainsthatcopiesbutnotthepartthatcreates’(1993:432).If,ontheotherhand,beforetheylistentoorreadthedialogue,thestudentslookat

thepictureanddescribe itusingwordsandphrases theycansupply,and thenguesswhat the people in the picturemight be saying to each other before they hear thedialogue,theymightinferthattheirinitiativeiswelcomed,andthatitisallrighttobewrong.Further,iftheythenpracticethedialogueinpairswithoutstrivingforperfectrecall,theymightalsoinferthattheyshould‘usethepartoftheirbrainsthatcreates’andthatguessingandapproximationareacceptable(1993:432).Wecanseefromthisexamplehowa techniquemight lookverydifferentandmight leadstudents toverydifferentinferencesabouttheirlearning,dependingonthethoughtsandbeliefsoftheteacher.

WhichMethodisBest?Itisnotourpurposeinthisbooktopromoteonemethodoveranother.Thus,fromourperspective, it isnotaquestionofchoosingbetween intactmethods;norshould thepresence of any method in this book be construed as an endorsement by us. Ouragnostic stance will no doubt irritate some of our readers. However, like Prahbu(1990), we do not believe that there is a single bestmethod. Further, it is not ourpurpose tohaveyousift through themethodspresentedhere inorder tochoose theonewithwhichyoufeelthemostphilosophicallyintune.Instead,itisintendedthatyou will use what is here as a way to make explicit your own beliefs about theteaching–learningprocess,beliefsbaseduponyourexperienceandyourprofessionaltraining,includingtheresearchyouknowabout.Unlessyoubecomeclearaboutyourbeliefs, you will continue to make decisions that are conditioned rather thanconscious.Engagingwiththeprofessionalbeliefsofothersinanongoingmannerisalso important forkeepingyour teachingpracticealive.Furthermore, ‘if the teacherengagesinclassroomactivitywithasenseofintellectualexcitement,thereisatleastafairprobabilitythatlearnerswillbegintoparticipateintheexcitementandtoperceiveclassroom lessons mainly as learning events—as experiences of growth forthemselves’(Prabhu1992:239).Astimepasses,newmethodsarecreatedandothersfallintodisfavor.Rajagopalan

(2007) has observed that teachers experience ‘methods fatigue’ with the continualcoming and going of methodological fashions. This has not been our experience,however. Our experience is that teachers always want to knowwhat is new. Theyknowthatteachingisdifficultwork,andtheyarealwayssearchingforwaystomakeitmoresuccessful.Itisalsosometimesthecasethatmethodsorpracticesthatfallintodisfavorinoneeraareresurrectedinanother.Forinstance,formanyyears,teachersweretoldthattheyshouldneverusethestudents’nativelanguageintheclassroom—that they should never translate—even when all the students shared a language incommon.Themotivationfor thisadvicewas tomaximizestudents’opportunities tousethelanguagetheywerestudying.AssociatedwiththeDirectMethod(seeChapter3),thisadmonitionarosebecauseitsimmediatepredecessor,theGrammar-TranslationMethod(Chapter2),madeabundantuseoftranslation(asthenamesuggests),butitdid not prepare students to communicate in the language of instruction. However,thesedayssuchabsoluteproscriptionstoavoiduseofthestudents’commonlanguagehavecomeunderattack.Forinstance,Cook(2010)suggeststhatsuchaproscriptionis isolationistandundermines thepossibilityfor teachersandstudents toestablisharelationship between languages. Further, he notes, it also violates the pedagogicalprincipleofmovingfromtheknown(here thecommonlanguageof thestudents) tothe unknown (the language the students are learning). This principle is firmlyembedded in Community Language Learning (Chapter 7), which makes use oftranslationtoestablishmeaningandcorrespondencebetweenthelanguages.Itshould

beclear, then, thatsomeofthemethodsfeaturedinthisbookareincompatiblewithothers.Of course, it is not only the dynamics internal to the field that contribute to

changingpractices.Therearefactorsexternaltothefieldthataffectlanguageteachingaswell.Forinstance,populationflowsamongcountriesoftheworldhaveincreasedmultilingualism(TodevaandCenoz2009).Then,too,thedevelopmentandpromotionof the Common European Framework (CEFR: Council of Europe 2001) hasinfluenced thinking about language education. Among other things, the Council ofEurope has encouraged plurilingualism (an individual’s language proficiency inseveral languages).Use of theCEFRpromotes the view thatmost learners are notcomplete tabulae rasae. They already have some degree of competence in anotherlanguageorlanguages,andteachersshouldtakeadvantageofthis(Paradowski2007).Theongoingdevelopmentof technology isanotherof thoseexternal influences thathas had a major impact in the field, and this is likely to increase in the future.Speaking of external influences, we should also acknowledge that standardizedexaminations and textbooks, which require adherence to even the smallest detailsthrough their teacher guides, mean that, in reality, teachers are not always able toexercisethemethodologicalchoicestheywouldwish(Akbari2007).Finally, itwas not our intent to be comprehensive and to dealwith all language

teaching methods that have ever been practiced. While we consider the variousmethods in a roughchronological order, it is also the case that thereweremethodspracticed before the first one discussed in this book, and that many of them arepracticedconcurrently.Tobeclear,wearenotclaimingthatnewermethodsarebetterinallrespectsthanoldermethods.Whatwedidchoosetodowastoincludemethods2that are practiced today, and that reflect a diversity of views on the teaching andlearning processes. By confronting such diversity, and by viewing the thought-in-actionlinksthatothershavemade,wehopethatyouwillarriveatyourownpersonalconceptualizationsofhowthoughtsleadtoactionsinyourteachingandhow,inturn,your teaching leads to the desired learning outcomes in your students. Thus,ultimately,thechoiceamongtechniquesandprinciplesdependsonlearningoutcomes,athemetowhichwewillreturninthefinalchapterofthisbook.

DoubtingGameandBelievingGameSome of what you encounter here will no doubt affirm what you do or believealready; other things you read about may challenge your notions. When ourfundamentalbeliefsarechallenged,weareoftenquick todismiss the idea. It is toothreatening to ourwell-established beliefs.DianeLarsen-Freemanwill never forgetone of the first times she heard Caleb Gattegno discuss the SilentWay, a methodpresentedinthisbook(seeChapter5).DianereportsthatitwasatalanguageteachingconventioninNewYorkCityin1976:

SeveralthingsGattegnotalkedaboutthatdaywerecontrarytomyownbeliefsatthe time. I found myself listening to him and at the same time hearing thisdoubtfulvoiceinmyheadsaying‘Waitaminute….’

Gattegnosaidthatdaythatateachershouldneverpraiseastudent,notevensay‘Good,’ or smile. ‘Wait a minute,’ I heard the voice in my head echoing,‘Everyone knows that being a good teacher means giving positive feedback tostudentsandbeingconcernedabouttheiraffectivesideortheirfeelings.Besides,howwill the studentsknowwhen theyare right if the teacherdoesn’t tell themso?’

Later,though,Ifoundmyselfthinking,‘Ontheotherhand,Icanseewhyyouarereluctant togivefeedback.Youhavemademethinkabout thepowerofsilence.Withouthavingtheteachertorelyon,studentshavetoassumeresponsibilityforthework—justasyousooftensay,‘onlythelearnercandothelearning.’Icanseehowthissilence(behavior)isinkeepingwithyourbeliefthatthestudentsmustdowithout theovert approvalof the teacher.Theymust concentrateondevelopingand thensatisfying theirown innercriteria.Learning to listen to themselves ispart of lessening their reliance on the teacher. The teacher will not always bethere. Also, they will be encouraged to form criteria for correcting their ownmistakes—formonitoringtheirownprogress.Ialsoseehowyouthinkthatiftheteacher makes a big deal out of students’ success, this implies that what thestudent is doing is out of theordinary—and that the jobof learning a languagemustbedifficult.Also,Iseethatinyourview,students’securityisprovidedforby their just being accepted without regard for any linguistic successes ordifficultiestheymightbehaving.

WhatarethedifferencesbetweenthetwovoicesDianeheardinherhead—betweenthe‘WaitaMinute’andthe‘OntheOtherHand’responses?Well,perhapsitwouldbeclearerifwereflectedforamomentonwhatitrequirestoupholdeachposition.WhatDiane has attempted to illustrate is two games (Larsen-Freeman 1983b). They aredescribedinthearticle,‘TheDoubtingGameandtheBelievingGame,’whichappearsin an appendix to a book authored by Peter Elbow (1973). Elbow believes that

doubtingandbelievinggamesaregamesbecausetheyarerule-governed,ritualizedprocesses,whicharenotreallife.Thedoubtinggame,Elbowsays,requireslogicandevidence. ‘It emphasizes a model of knowing as an act of discrimination: puttingsomethingon trial toseewhether it iswantingornot’ (Larsen-Freeman1983a:15).Wethink itspractice issomethingfarmorecommonto theacademicworld than itscounterpart—the believing game. As the famous Tibetan Buddhist master, SogyalRinpoche,putsit:

Our contemporary education, then, that indoctrinates us in the glorification ofdoubt, has created in factwhat could almostbe called a religionor theologyofdoubt, in which to be seen to be intelligent we have to be seen to doubteverything,toalwayspointtowhat’swrongandrarelytoaskwhatisrightorgood…(SogyalRinpoche1993:123–4).

Manyofusareverygoodatplayingthedoubtinggame,butwedosoatacost.Wemayfindfaultwithanewideabeforegivingitaproperchance.What does playing the believing game require, then? The believing game

‘emphasizesamodelofknowingasanactofconstructing,anactof investment,anactofinvolvement’(Elbow1973:163).Itisnotjustthewithholdingofdoubt.Rather,itasksustoputontheeyeglassesofanotherperson—toadopthisorherperspective—to see the method as the originator sees it. Further, it requires a willingness toexplorewhatisnew.While it may appear that the believing game is the more desirable of the two

games,Elbowisnotarguing,norarewe,thatweshouldabandonthedoubtinggame,butratherthatyouattempttounderstandfirstbeforeyoujudge.Therefore,donotbequick todismissaprincipleor techniquebecause,at firstglance, itappears tobeatoddswithyourownbeliefsor tobe impossible toapply inyourownsituation.Forinstance,inoneofthemethodswewillconsider,teacherstranslatewhatthestudentswanttoknowhowtosayfromthestudents’nativelanguagetothelanguagetheyarestudying. If you reject this technique as impractical becauseyoudonot knowyourstudents’nativelanguageorbecauseyourstudentsspeakanumberofdifferentnativelanguages,thenyoumaybemissingoutonsomethingvaluable.Youshouldfirstaskwhat the purpose of translating is: Is there a principle behind its use inwhich youbelieve? If so, canyouapply it anotherway, say,by invitingabilingual speaker tocometoyourclassnowandagainorbyhavingyourstudentsactoutorparaphrasewhattheywanttobeabletosayinthelanguagetheyarestudying?

LayoutofChaptersYouwilllearnaboutthemethodsbyenteringaclassroomwhereeachmethodisbeingpracticed.Inmostchaptersinthisbook,onelanguageteachingmethodispresented.However, in a few chapters, a more general approach to language teaching ispresented, andwhat are described in the chapter are one ormoremethods that areexamplesoftheapproach3.Wehaveassumedthatobservingaclasswillgiveyouagreaterunderstandingofaparticularmethodandwillgiveyoumoreofanopportunitytoreflectonyourownpracticethanifyouweresimplytoreadadescriptionofit.Itshould be acknowledged, however, that these classroom encounters are idealized.Anyonewhoisorhasbeenalanguageteacherorstudentwillimmediatelyrecognizethat lessonsseldomgoassmoothlyas theonesyouwill seehere. In the realworldstudentsdonotalwayscatchonasquickly,andteachershavetocontendwithmanyother social and classroommanagement matters than those presented here. As wehavealreadyacknowledged,amethoddoesnotreflecteverythingthatishappeningintheclassroom.Wewillobservethetechniquestheteacherisusingaswellashisorherbehavior.

(Intheeven-numberedchapters,theteacherisfemale;intheodd-numberedchapters,the teacher ismale.)Afterobservinga lesson,wewill try to infer theprinciplesonwhich the teacher’sbehaviorand techniquesarebased.Although inmostcases,wewillobserveonlytheonebeginningorintermediate-levelclassforeachmethod,oncethe principles are clear, they can be applied to other situations. To illustrate theapplicationof theprinciplesatmore thanone levelofproficiency, in twoinstances,with theSilentWayandDesuggestopedia,wewill firstvisitabeginning-levelclassandthenlaterbrieflyvisitaclassatahigh-intermediatelevel.Itshouldbenotedthatwhen learners are at the advanced level, methods are often less distinct becauseadvancedlearnersmayhavespecial,well-definedneeds,suchaslearninghowtoreadandwriteacademictexts.However,aswehaveseenfromStevick’sexampleofusingapicturetoteachadialogue,thewaytheteacherthinksaboutlanguageteachingandlearningwillstillaffecthowtheteacherworksatalllevels.After we have identified the principles, we will consider the answers to 10

questions.Thequestionsare:1Whatarethegoalsofteacherswhousethismethod?2Whatistheroleoftheteacher?Whatistheroleofthestudents?3Whataresomecharacteristicsoftheteaching/learningprocess?4Whatisthenatureofstudent–teacherinteraction?Whatisthenatureofstudent–studentinteraction?

5Howarethefeelingsofthestudentsdealtwith?6Howislanguageviewed?Howiscultureviewed?

7Whatareasoflanguageareemphasized?Whatlanguageskillsareemphasized?8Whatistheroleofthestudents’nativelanguage?9Howisevaluationaccomplished?10Howdoestheteacherrespondtostudenterrors?

The answers to these questionswill add to our understanding of eachmethod andallowus to see some salientdifferencesamong themethodspresentedhere.Beforereadingtheanswerstothesequestionsinthebook,youmightfirsttrytoanswerthemyourself.Thismightincreaseyourunderstandingofamethodandgiveyoupracticewithreflectingonanexperience.Following these questions, the techniques we observed in the lesson will be

reviewedandinsomecasesexpanded,sothatyoucantrytoputthemintopracticeifyouwish.Indeed,aswementionedearlier,anotherpurposeofthisbookistopresentavarietyof techniques, someofwhichmaybenew toyou, and to encourageyou toexperimentwiththem.Weknowthatthemoreexperiencedateacheris,thebroaderishisorherrepertoireoftechniques(Arends2004).Presumably,suchversatilityallowsateachertodealmoreeffectivelywiththeuniqueconstellationofstudentswithwhomsheorheisworkingatanyonetime.Intheconclusiontoeachchapter,youwillbeaskedtothinkabouthowallofthis

informationcanbeofusetoyouinyourteaching.It isyouwhohavetoviewthesemethodsthroughthefilterofyourownbeliefs,needs,knowledge,andexperience.Byplaying thebelievinggame, it isourhope thatnomatterwhatyourassessmentofaparticularmethod,youwillnothavereacheditwithoutfirst‘gettinginsidethemethodandlookingout’.Weshouldnote,though,thatthisbookisnotasubstituteforactualtraininginaparticularmethod,andspecifictrainingisadvisedforsomeofthem.Attheendofeachchapteraretwotypesofexercise.Thefirst typeallowsyouto

checkyourunderstandingofwhatyouhave read.The second typeof exerciseasksyoutomaketheconnectionbetweenwhatyouunderstandaboutamethodandyourownteachingsituation.Whereverpossible,weencourageyoutoworkwithsomeoneelseasyouconsiderthese.Teachingcanbeasolitaryactivity,butcollaboratingwithotherteacherscanhelpenrichourexperienceandnurtureourgrowth.

References/AdditionalResourcesAkbari,R.2007.‘Reflectionsonreflection:AcriticalappraisalofreflectivepracticesinL2teachereducation.’System35:192–207.

Anthony,E.1963.‘Approach,methodandtechnique.’EnglishLanguageTeaching17:63–7.ReprintedinH.AllenandR.Campbell(eds.).TeachingEnglishasaSecondLanguage(2ndedn.).1972.NewYork:McGraw-Hill.

Arends,R.2004.LearningtoTeach(6thedn.).NewYork:McGraw-Hill.Bailey,K.,M.Long,andS.Peck(eds.).1983.SecondLanguageAcquisitionStudies.Rowley,MA:NewburyHouse.

Cook,G.2010.TranslationinLanguageTeaching–AnArgumentforReassessment.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

CouncilofEurope.2001.CommonEuropeanFrameworkofReferenceforLanguages:Learning,Teaching,Assessment.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Elbow,P.1973.WritingwithoutTeachers.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.Larsen-Freeman,D.1983a.‘Secondlanguageacquisition:Gettingthewholepicture’inK.Bailey,M.LongandS.Peck(eds.).SecondLanguageAcquisitionStudies.Rowley,MA:NewburyHousePublishers,Inc.

____.1983b.‘Languageteachingmethods:Gettingthewholepicture.’KeynoteaddressdeliveredattheFirstAnnualSummerConferenceforLanguageTeachers,June24–5,SchoolforInternationalTraining,Brattleboro,Vermont.

____.1993.Foreignlanguageteachingmethodologyandlanguageteachereducation.PlenaryaddressdeliveredatAILA1993,Amsterdam.

Paradowski,M.2007.‘Comparativelinguisticsandlanguagepedagogy:concisehistory’inF.Boers,J.Darquennes,andR.Temmerman(eds.).MultilingualismandAppliedComparativeLinguistics,1–20.Newcastle:CambridgeScholarsPublishing.

Prabhu,N.S.1990.‘Thereisnobestmethod—Why?’TESOLQuarterly24/2:161–76.

____.1992.‘Thedynamicsofthelanguagelesson.’TESOLQuarterly26/2:225–41.Rajagopalan,K.2007.‘Frommadnessinmethodtomethodinmadness.’ELTJournal62/1:84–5.

Rinpoche,S.1993.TheTibetanBookofLivingandDying.NewYork:HarperCollins.

Stevick,E.1980.TeachingLanguages:AWayandWays.Rowley,MA:NewburyHouse.

____.1993.‘Socialmeaningsforhowweteach’inJ.Alatis(ed.).GeorgetownUniversityRoundTableonLanguagesandLinguistics.Washington,DC:GeorgetownUniversityPress.

Todeva,E.andJ.Cenoz(eds.).2009.TheMultipleRealitiesofMultilingualism.Berlin:MoutondeGruyter.

1Wewilluse the term‘thoughts’ for thesakeof simplicity;however,wemean for thoughts to includebeliefs,attitudes,values,andawarenessesaswell.

2Itshouldbeacknowledgedthatnotalloftheoriginatorsofthemethodspresentedinthisbookwouldcalltheircontribution a ‘method’ because theynote that the term is sometimes associatedwith formulaic practice.Wehopethatwehavemadeitclearthatforusamethodisawayofconnectingparticularprincipleswithparticulartechniquesintoacoherentpackage,nota‘recipe’tobeprescribedtoteachers.

3FollowingAnthony’s(1963)useoftheterm‘approach.’

2

TheGrammar-TranslationMethod

IntroductionTheGrammar-TranslationMethod isnotnew. Ithashaddifferentnames,but ithasbeen used by language teachers for many years. At one time it was called theClassicalMethod since it was first used in the teaching of the classical languages,LatinandGreek.Earlierinthe20thcentury,thismethodwasusedforthepurposeofhelpingstudentstoreadandappreciateforeignlanguageliterature.Itwasalsohopedthatthroughthestudyofthegrammarofthetargetlanguage1studentswouldbecomemore familiar with the grammar of their native language and that this familiaritywouldhelpthemspeakandwritetheirnativelanguagebetter.Finally,itwasthoughtthat foreign language learning would help students grow intellectually; it wasrecognizedthatstudentswouldprobablyneverusethetargetlanguage,butthementalexerciseoflearningitwouldbebeneficialanyway.Let us try to understand the Grammar-TranslationMethod by observing a class

wheretheteacherisusingit.Theclassisahigh-intermediatelevelEnglishclassatauniversity in Colombia. There are 42 students in the class. Two-hour classes areconductedthreetimesaweek.

ExperienceAswe enter the classroom, the class is in themiddle of reading a passage in theirtextbook.Thepassageisanexcerptentitled‘TheBoys’Ambition’fromMarkTwain’sLifeontheMississippi.Eachstudentiscalledontoreadafewlinesfromthepassage.Afterhehas finishedreading,he isasked to translate the few lineshehas just readintoSpanish.The teacherhelpshimwithnewvocabulary items.When thestudentshavefinishedreadingandtranslatingthepassage,theteacheraskstheminSpanishiftheyhaveanyquestions.Onegirlraisesherhandandsays,‘Whatispaddlewheel?’The teacher replies, ‘Es una rueda de paletas.’ Then she continues in Spanish toexplainhowitlookedandworkedonthesteamboatswhichmovedupanddowntheMississippi River during Mark Twain’s childhood. Another student says, ‘Nounderstand“gorgeous”.’Theteachertranslates,‘primoroso.’Since the students have no more questions, the teacher asks them to write the

answerstothecomprehensionquestionswhichappearattheendoftheexcerpt.ThequestionsareinEnglish,andthestudentsareinstructedtowritetheanswerstotheminEnglishaswell.Theydothefirstonetogetherasanexample.Astudentreadsoutloud,‘WhendidMarkTwainlive?’Anotherstudentreplies,‘MarkTwainlivedfrom1835 to1910.’ ‘Bueno,’says the teacher,and thestudentsbeginworkingquietlybythemselves.In addition to questions that ask for information contained within the reading

passage,thestudentsanswertwoothertypesofquestions.Forthefirsttype,theyhavetomake inferences based on their understanding of the passage. For example, onequestionis:‘Doyouthinktheboywasambitious?Whyorwhynot?’Theothertypeof question requires the students to relate the passage to their own experience. Forexample, one of the questions based on this excerpt asks them, ‘Have you everthoughtaboutrunningawayfromhome?’Afterone-halfhour,theteacher,speakinginSpanish,asksthestudentstostopand

checktheirwork.Onebyone,eachstudentreadsaquestionandthenreadshisorherresponse.Iftheansweriscorrect,theteachercallsonanotherstudenttoreadthenextquestion.Ifthestudentisincorrect,theteacherselectsadifferentstudenttosupplythecorrectanswer,ortheteacherherselfgivestherightanswer.Announcingthenextactivity,theteacherasksthestudentstoturnoverthepagein

their text. There is a list of words there. The introduction to the exercise tells thestudentsthatthesearewordstakenfromthepassagetheyhavejustread.Thestudentsseethewords‘ambition,’‘career,’‘wharf,’‘tranquil,’‘gorgeous,’‘loathe,’‘envy,’and‘humbly.’Theyaretoldthatsomeofthesearereviewwordsandthatothersarenewtothem. The students are instructed to give the Spanishword for each of them. Thisexercisetheclassdoestogether.IfnooneknowstheSpanishequivalent,theteachergives it. InPart2of thisexercise, thestudentsaregivenEnglishwords like ‘love,’

‘noisy,’‘ugly,’and‘proudly,’andaredirectedtofindtheoppositesofthesewordsinthe passage.When they have finished this exercise, the teacher reminds them thatEnglishwordsthatlooklikeSpanishwordsarecalledcognates.TheEnglish‘-ty,’shesays,forexample,oftencorrespondstotheSpanishendings-dadand-tad.Shecallsthestudents’attentiontotheword‘possibility’inthepassageandtellsthemthatthisword is the same as the Spanishposibilidad. The teacher asks the students to findotherexamplesintheexcerpt.Handsgoup;aboyanswers,‘Obscurity.’‘Bien,’ saysthe teacher.When all of these cognates from the passage have been identified, thestudentsaretoldtoturntothenextexerciseinthechapterandtoanswerthequestion,‘What do these cognatesmean?’ There is a long list of Englishwords (‘curiosity,’‘opportunity,’‘liberty,’etc.),whichthestudentstranslateintoSpanish.

Figure2.1AnexampleofaGrammar-Translationexercise

Thenext sectionof the chapterdealswithgrammar.The students follow in theirbooksastheteacherreadsadescriptionoftwo-word(phrasal)verbs.Thisisareviewforthemastheyhaveencounteredphrasalverbsbefore.Nevertheless,therearesomenewtwo-wordverbsinthepassagethestudentshaven’tlearnedyet.Thesearelistedfollowing thedescription,and thestudentsareasked to translate themintoSpanish.Thentheyaregiventheruleforuseofadirectobjectwithtwo-wordverbs:

If the two-wordverb is separable, thedirectobjectmaycomebetween theverb

and its particle. However, separation is necessary when the direct object is apronoun. If the verb is inseparable, then there is no separation of the verb andparticlebytheobject.Forexample:

Johnputawayhisbook.

or

Johnputhisbookaway/Johnputitaway.

butnot

*Johnputawayit.

(because‘putaway’isaseparabletwo-wordverb)

Theteacherwentoverthehomework.

butnot

*Theteacherwentthehomeworkover.

(because‘goover’isaninseparabletwo-wordverb).

Afterreadingovertheruleandtheexamples,thestudentsareaskedtotellwhichofthe following two-word verbs, taken from the passage, are separable and whichinseparable.Theyrefertothepassageforclues.Iftheycannottellfromthepassage,theyusetheirdictionariesorasktheirteacher.

Finally,theyareaskedtoputoneofthesephrasalverbsintheblankofeachofthe10sentencestheyaregiven.Theydothefirsttwotogether.1MarkTwaindecidedto____becausehisparentswouldn’tlethimgetajobontheriver.

2Thesteamboatmen____anddischargefreightateachportontheMississippiRiver.

Whenthestudentsarefinishedwiththisexercise,theyreadtheiranswersaloud.At the endof the chapter there is a list of vocabulary items that appeared in the

passage.The list isdivided into twoparts: the firstcontainswords,and thesecond,idioms like ‘togive someone thecold shoulder.’Next toeach isaSpanishwordorphrase. For homework, the teacher asks the students to memorize the Spanishtranslationforthefirst20wordsandtowriteasentenceinEnglishusingeachword.Inthetworemaininglessonsoftheweek,thestudentswillbeaskedto:

1WriteoutthetranslationofthereadingpassageinSpanish.

2Statetherulefortheuseofadirectobjectwithtwo-wordverbs,andapplyittootherphrasalverbs.

3Dotheremainingexercisesinthechapterthatincludepracticewithonesetofirregularpastparticipleforms.Thestudentswillbeaskedtomemorizethepresenttense,pasttense,andpastparticipleformsofthisirregularparadigm:

drink drank drunksing sang sungswim swam swumring rang rungbegin began begun

4Writeacompositioninthetargetlanguageaboutanambitiontheyhave.5Memorizetheremainingvocabularyitemsandwritesentencesforeach.6Takeaquizonthegrammarandvocabularyofthischapter.TheywillbeaskedtotranslateaSpanishparagraphaboutsteamboatsintoEnglish.

ThinkingabouttheExperienceThishasbeenjustabrief introductiontotheGrammar-TranslationMethod,but it isprobably true that thismethod isnotnew tomanyofyou.Youmayhave studiedalanguage in thisway,oryoumaybe teachingwith thismethod rightnow.Whetherthis is true or not, let us seewhatwe have learned about theGrammar-TranslationMethod.Weareabletomakeanumberofobservationsabouttheclassweattended.Ourobservationswillbelistedintheleftcolumn;fromthemwewill trytoidentifytheprinciplesoftheGrammar-TranslationMethod.Theprincipleswillbelistedintherightcolumn.Wewillmakeourobservationsinorder,followingthelessonplanoftheclassweobserved.

Observations Principles

1TheclassisreadinganexcerptfromMarkTwain’sLifeontheMississippi.

Afundamentalpurposeoflearningalanguageistobeabletoreadliteraturewritteninit.Literarylanguageissuperiortospokenlanguage.Students’studyofthetargetcultureislimitedtoitsliteratureandfinearts.

2StudentstranslatethepassagefromEnglishintoSpanish.

Animportantgoalisforstudentstobeabletotranslateeachlanguageintotheother.Ifstudentscantranslatefromonelanguageintoanother,theyareconsideredsuccessfullanguagelearners.

3Theteacherasksstudentsintheirnativelanguageiftheyhaveanyquestions.Astudentasksoneandisansweredinhernativelanguage.

Theabilitytocommunicateinthetargetlanguageisnotagoaloflanguageinstruction.

4Studentswriteouttheanswerstoreadingcomprehensionquestions.

Theprimaryskillstobedevelopedarereadingandwriting.Littleattentionisgiventospeakingandlistening,andalmostnonetopronunciation.

5Theteacherdecideswhetheranansweriscorrectornot.Iftheanswerisincorrect,theteacherselectsadifferentstudenttosupplythecorrectanswerortheteacherherselfgivestherightanswer.

Theteacheristheauthorityintheclassroom.Itisveryimportantthatstudentsgetthecorrectanswer.

6StudentstranslatenewwordsfromEnglishintoSpanish.

Itispossibletofindnativelanguageequivalentsforalltargetlanguagewords.

7StudentslearnthatEnglish‘-ty’correspondsto-dadand-tadinSpanish.

Learningisfacilitatedthroughattentiontosimilaritiesbetweenthetargetlanguageandthenativelanguage.

8Studentsaregivenagrammarrulefortheuseofadirectobjectwithtwo-wordverbs.

Itisimportantforstudentstolearnaboutthegrammarorformofthetargetlanguage.

9Studentsapplyaruletoexamplestheyaregiven.

Deductiveapplicationofanexplicitgrammarruleisausefulpedagogicaltechnique.

10Studentsmemorizevocabulary. Languagelearningprovidesgoodmentalexercise.

11Theteacherasksstudentstostatethegrammarrule.

Studentsshouldbeconsciousofthegrammaticalrulesofthetargetlanguage.

12Studentsmemorizepresenttense,pasttense,andpastparticipleformsofonesetofirregularverbs.

Whereverpossible,verbconjugationsandothergrammaticalparadigmsshouldbecommittedtomemory.

Therewereotheractivitiesplannedfortheremainderoftheweek,butinthisbookwewillfollowthepracticeofnotlistinganobservationunlessitleadstoourdiscoveringadifferentprincipleofthemethod.

ReviewingthePrinciplesTheprinciplesoftheGrammar-TranslationMethodareorganizedbelowbyansweringthe 10 questions posed in Chapter 1. Not all the questions are addressed by theGrammar-Translation Method; we will list all the questions, however, so that acomparisonamongthemethodswestudywillbeeasierforyoutomake.

1WhatarethegoalsofteacherswhousetheGrammar-TranslationMethod?AccordingtotheteacherswhousetheGrammar-TranslationMethod,afundamentalpurposeoflearningalanguageistobeabletoreadliteraturewritteninthetargetlanguage.Todothis,studentsneedtolearnaboutthegrammarrulesandvocabularyofthetargetlanguage.Inaddition,itisbelievedthatstudyinganotherlanguageprovidesstudentswithgoodmentalexercise,whichhelpsdeveloptheirminds.

2Whatistheroleoftheteacher?Whatistheroleofthestudents?Therolesareverytraditional.Theteacheristheauthorityintheclassroom.Thestudentsdoasshesayssotheycanlearnwhatsheknows.

3Whataresomecharacteristicsoftheteaching/learningprocess?Studentsaretaughttotranslatefromonelanguageintoanother.Oftenwhattheytranslatearereadingsinthetargetlanguageaboutsomeaspectofthecultureofthetargetlanguagecommunity.Studentsstudygrammardeductively;thatis,theyaregiventhegrammarrulesandexamples,aretoldtomemorizethem,andthenareaskedtoapplytherulestootherexamples.Theyalsolearngrammaticalparadigmssuchasverbconjugations.Theymemorizenativelanguageequivalentsfortargetlanguagevocabularywords.

4Whatisthenatureofstudent–teacherinteraction?Whatisthenatureofstudent–studentinteraction?Mostoftheinteractionintheclassroomisfromtheteachertothestudents.Thereislittlestudentinitiationandlittlestudent–studentinteraction.

5Howarethefeelingsofthestudentsdealtwith?Therearenoprinciplesofthemethodwhichrelatetothisarea.

6Howisthelanguageviewed?Howiscultureviewed?

Literarylanguageisconsideredsuperiortospokenlanguageandisthereforethelanguagethestudentsstudy.Cultureisviewedasconsistingofliteratureandthefinearts.

7Whatareasoflanguageareemphasized?Whatlanguageskillsareemphasized?Vocabularyandgrammarareemphasized.Readingandwritingaretheprimaryskillsthatthestudentsworkon.Thereismuchlessattentiongiventospeakingandlistening.Pronunciationreceiveslittle,ifany,attention.

8Whatistheroleofthestudents’nativelanguage?Themeaningofthetargetlanguageismadeclearbytranslatingitintothestudents’nativelanguage.Thelanguagethatisusedinclassismostlythestudents’nativelanguage.

9Howisevaluationaccomplished?Writtentestsinwhichstudentsareaskedtotranslatefromtheirnativelanguageintothetargetlanguageorviceversaareoftenused.Questionsaboutthetargetcultureorquestionsthataskstudentstoapplygrammarrulesarealsocommon.

10Howdoestheteacherrespondtostudenterrors?Havingthestudentsgetthecorrectanswerisconsideredveryimportant.Ifstudentsmakeerrorsordonotknowananswer,theteachersuppliesthemwiththecorrectanswer.

ReviewingtheTechniquesAskyourself ifanyof theanswers to theabovequestionsmakesense toyou. Ifso,youmaychoose to try someof the techniquesof theGrammar-TranslationMethodfrom the review that follows.On theotherhand,youmay find thatyouagreeverylittlewiththeanswerstothesequestions,butthattherearestillsometechniquesfromtheGrammar-TranslationMethodthatyoucanusefullyadapt.Belowisanexpandeddescriptionofsomeofthesetechniques.

•TranslationofaLiteraryPassageStudentstranslateareadingpassagefromthetargetlanguageintotheirnativelanguage.Thereadingpassagethenprovidesthefocusforseveralclasses:vocabularyandgrammaticalstructuresinthepassagearestudiedinsubsequentlessons.Thepassagemaybeexcerptedfromsomeworkfromthetargetlanguageliterature,orateachermaywriteapassagecarefullydesignedtoincludeparticulargrammarrulesandvocabulary.Thetranslationmaybewrittenorspokenorboth.Studentsshouldnottranslateidiomsandthelikeliterally,butratherinawaythatshowsthattheyunderstandtheirmeaning.

•ReadingComprehensionQuestionsStudentsanswerquestionsinthetargetlanguagebasedontheirunderstandingofthereadingpassage.Oftenthequestionsaresequencedsothatthefirstgroupofquestionsasksforinformationcontainedwithinthereadingpassage.Inordertoanswerthesecondgroupofquestions,studentswillhavetomakeinferencesbasedontheirunderstandingofthepassage.Thismeanstheywillhavetoanswerquestionsaboutthepassageeventhoughtheanswersarenotcontainedinthepassageitself.Thethirdgroupofquestionsrequiresstudentstorelatethepassagetotheirownexperience.

•Antonyms/SynonymsStudentsaregivenonesetofwordsandareaskedtofindantonymsinthereadingpassage.Asimilarexercisecouldbedonebyaskingstudentstofindsynonymsforaparticularsetofwords.Orstudentsmightbeaskedtodefineasetofwordsbasedontheirunderstandingofthemastheyoccurinthereadingpassage.Otherexercisesthataskstudentstoworkwiththevocabularyofthepassagearealsopossible.

•CognatesStudentsaretaughttorecognizecognatesbylearningthespellingorsoundpatterns

thatcorrespondbetweenthelanguages.Studentsarealsoaskedtomemorizewordsthatlooklikecognatesbuthavemeaningsinthetargetlanguagethataredifferentfromthoseinthenativelanguage.Thistechnique,ofcourse,wouldonlybeusefulinlanguagesthatsharecognates.

•DeductiveApplicationofRulesGrammarrulesarepresentedwithexamples.Exceptionstoeachrulearealsonoted.Oncestudentsunderstandarule,theyareaskedtoapplyittosomedifferentexamples.

•Fill-in-the-blanksExerciseStudentsaregivenaseriesofsentenceswithwordsmissing.Theyfillintheblankswithnewvocabularyitemsorwithitemsofaparticulargrammartype,suchasprepositionsorverbswithdifferenttenses.

•MemorizationStudentsaregivenlistsoftargetlanguagevocabularywordsandtheirnativelanguageequivalentsandareaskedtomemorizethem.Studentsarealsorequiredtomemorizegrammaticalrulesandgrammaticalparadigmssuchasverbconjugations.

•UseWordsinSentencesInordertoshowthatstudentsunderstandthemeaninganduseofanewvocabularyitem,theymakeupsentencesinwhichtheyusethenewwords.

•CompositionTheteachergivesthestudentsatopictowriteaboutinthetargetlanguage.Thetopicisbaseduponsomeaspectofthereadingpassageofthelesson.Sometimes,insteadofcreatingacomposition,studentsareaskedtoprepareaprécisofthereadingpassage.

ConclusionYou have now had an opportunity to examine the principles and some of thetechniquesof theGrammar-TranslationMethod.Try tomakea connectionbetweenwhatyouhaveunderstoodandyourownteachingsituationandbeliefs.Do you believe that a fundamental reason for learning another language is to be

abletoreadtheliteraturewritteninthetargetlanguage?Doyouthinkitisimportanttolearnaboutthetargetlanguage?Shouldculturebeviewedasconsistingofliteratureand the fine arts? Do you agree with any of the other principles underlying theGrammar-TranslationMethod?Whichones?Istranslationavaluableexercise?Isansweringreadingcomprehensionquestionsof

thetypedescribedherehelpful?Shouldgrammarbepresenteddeductively?AretheseoranyoftheothertechniquesoftheGrammar-TranslationMethodoneswhichwillbeusefultoyouinyourownteaching?Whichones?

Activities

ACheckyourunderstandingoftheGrammar-TranslationMethod.1IthasbeensaidthattheGrammar-TranslationMethodteachesstudentsaboutthetargetlanguage,butnothowtouseit.Explainthedifferenceinyourownwords.

2Whatarethecluesthatthismethodhaditsoriginintheteachingoftheclassicallanguages,LatinandGreek?

BApplywhatyouhaveunderstoodabouttheGrammar-TranslationMethod.1Thinkofaparticulargroupofstudentsyouhaverecentlytaughtorarecurrentlyteaching.Chooseareadingpassagefromaliteraryworkoratextbookorwriteoneyourself.Makesureitisatalevelyourstudentscanunderstand,yetnotatalevelthatwouldbetoosimpleforthem.Trytranslatingityourselfasatestofitsdifficulty.Identifythevocabularyyouwouldchoosetoworkon.Planvocabularyexercisesyouwouldusetohelpyourstudentsassociatethenewwordswiththeirnativelanguageequivalents.

2Pickagrammaticalpointortwocontainedinthesamepassage.Providetheexplicitgrammarrulethatrelatestoeachoneandgivesomeexamples.Designexercisesthatrequireyourstudentstoapplytheruletosomedifferentexamples.

References/AdditionalResourcesChastain,K.1988.DevelopingSecond-languageSkills(3rdedn.).Chicago:RandMcNallyCollegePublishingCompany.

Coleman,A.1929.‘TheteachingofmodernforeignlanguagesintheUnitedStates.’Vol.12.AmericanandCanadianCommitteesonModernLanguages.

Kelly,L.1969.25CenturiesofLanguageTeaching.Rowley,MA:NewburyHouse.Plotz,K.1887.ElementarbuchderFranzösischenSprache.Berlin:F.A.Herbig.Stern,H.1983.FundamentalConceptsofLanguageTeaching.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

Thomas,C.(ed.).1901.ReportofthecommitteeoftwelveoftheModernLanguageAssociationofAmerica.Boston:DCHeath.

1The term targetlanguage isused to refer toeithera secondora foreign language that isbeing taught.Sincemanystudentsareplurilingualormultilingualalready,theterm‘secondlanguage’doesnotmakesense,nordoesthe term ‘foreign language’ because often the study of language is taking place within a locale where it isspoken, not in some ‘foreign’ country. The term ‘target language,’ therefore, though not without problems,seemsanacceptablecompromise.

3

TheDirectMethod

IntroductionAs with the Grammar-Translation Method, the Direct Method is not new. Itsprincipleshavebeenappliedby language teachers formanyyears.Most recently, itwas revived as amethodwhen the goal of instruction became learning how to useanother language to communicate. Since theGrammar-TranslationMethodwas notveryeffective inpreparingstudents touse the target languagecommunicatively, theDirectMethodbecamepopular.TheDirectMethodhasoneverybasicrule:Notranslationisallowed.Infact,the

DirectMethodreceivesitsnamefromthefactthatmeaningistobeconveyeddirectlyin the target language through the use of demonstration and visual aids, with norecoursetothestudents’nativelanguage.WewillnowtrytocometoanunderstandingoftheDirectMethodbyobservingan

English teacher using it in a scuolamedia (lower-level secondary school) class inItaly.Theclasshas30studentswhoattendEnglishclassforonehour, threetimesaweek. The class we observe is at the end of its first year of English languageinstructioninascuolamedia.

ExperienceTheteacheriscallingtheclasstoorderaswefindseatstowardthebackoftheroom.He has placed a big map of the USA in the front of the classroom. He asks thestudentstoopentheirbookstoacertainpagenumber.Thelessonisentitled‘Lookingat aMap.’As the students are calledononebyone, they reada sentence from thereadingpassageat thebeginningof the lesson.The teacherpoints to thepartof themapthesentencedescribesaftereachhasreadasentence.Thepassagebegins:

WearelookingatamapoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica.Canadaisthecountrytothe north of the United States, and Mexico is the country to the south of theUnited States. Between Canada and the United States are the Great Lakes.BetweenMexicoandtheUnitedStatesistheRioGrandeRiver.OntheEastCoastistheAtlanticOcean,andontheWestCoastisthePacificOcean.Intheeastisamountain range called the Appalachian Mountains. In the west are the RockyMountains.

After the students finish reading the passage, they are asked if they have anyquestions. A student asks what a mountain range is. The teacher turns to thewhiteboardanddrawsa seriesof invertedcones to illustrateamountain range.Thestudent nods and says, ‘I understand.’Another student askswhat ‘between’means.Theteacherreplies,‘YouaresittingbetweenMariaPiaandGiovanni.PaoloissittingbetweenGabriellaandCettina.Nowdoyouunderstandthemeaningof“between”?’Thestudentanswers,‘Yes,Iunderstand.’

Figure3.1Theteacherdrawingontheboardto illustrate themeaningof‘mountain

range’

Afterallof thequestionshavebeenanswered, the teacheraskssomeofhisown.‘Class,arewelookingatamapofItaly?’

Theclassrepliesinchorus,‘No!’

Theteacherremindstheclasstoanswerinafullsentence.

‘No,wearen’tlookingatamapofItaly,’theyrespond.

Theteacherasks,‘ArewelookingatamapoftheUnitedStates?’

‘Yes.WearelookingatamapoftheUnitedStates.’

‘IsCanadathecountrytothesouthoftheUnitedStates?’

‘No.Canadaisn’tthecountrysouthoftheUnitedStates.’

‘AretheGreatLakesintheNorthoftheUnitedStates?’

‘Yes.TheGreatLakesareintheNorth.’

‘IstheRioGrandeariveroralake?’

‘TheRioGrandeisariver.’

‘It’sariver.Whereisit?’

‘It’sbetweenMexicoandtheUnitedStates.’

‘WhatcoloristheRioGrandeonthemap?’

‘It’sblue.’

‘Pointtoamountainrangeinthewest.Whatmountainsarethey?’

‘TheyaretheRockyMountains.’

The question and answer session continues for a few more minutes. Finally, theteacher invites the students to askquestions.Handsgoup, and the teacher calls onstudents to pose questions one at a time, to which the class replies. After severalquestionshavebeenposed, onegirl asks, ‘Where are theAppalachianMountains?’Before theclasshasachance to respond, the teacherworkswith thestudenton thepronunciationof‘Appalachian.’Thenheincludestherestoftheclassinthispracticeaswell, expecting that theywill have the sameproblemwith this longword.Afterinsuring that the students’ pronunciation is correct, the teacher allows the class toanswerthequestion.Later another student asks, ‘What is the ocean in theWest Coast?’ The teacher

againinterruptsbeforetheclasshasachancetoreply,saying,‘WhatistheoceanintheWestCoast?…oron theWestCoast?’Thestudenthesitates, thensays,‘Onthe

WestCoast.’

‘Correct,’saystheteacher.‘Now,repeatyourquestion.’

‘WhatistheoceanontheWestCoast?’

Theclassrepliesinchorus,‘TheoceanontheWestCoastisthePacific.’

Afterthestudentshaveaskedabout10questions,theteacherbeginsaskingquestionsandmaking statements again.This time, however, the questions and statements areaboutthestudentsintheclassroom,andcontainoneoftheprepositions‘on,’‘at,’‘to,’‘in,’or‘between,’suchas,‘Antonella,isyourbookonyourdesk?’‘Antonio,whoissittingbetweenLuisaandTeresa?’‘Emanuela,pointtotheclock.’Thestudentsthenmakeuptheirownquestionsandstatementsanddirectthemtootherstudents.The teachernext instructs the students to turn to an exercise in the lessonwhich

asksthemtofillintheblanks.Theyreadasentenceoutloudandsupplythemissingwordastheyarereading,forexample:

TheAtlanticOceanis___theEastCoast.

TheRioGrandeis___MexicoandtheUnitedStates.

Edoardoislooking__themap.

Finally,theteacherasksthestudentstotakeouttheirnotebooks,andhegivesthemadictation.ThepassagehedictatesisoneparagraphlongandisaboutthegeographyoftheUnitedStates.Duringtheremainingtwoclassesoftheweek,theclasswill:

1ReviewthefeaturesofUnitedStatesgeography.2Followingtheteacher’sdirections,labelblankmapswiththesegeographicalfeatures.Afterthis,thestudentswillgivedirectionstotheteacher,whowillcompleteamapontheboard.

3Practicethepronunciationof‘river,’payingparticularattentiontothe/?/inthefirstsyllable(andcontrastingitwithandtothepronunciationof/r/.

4WriteaparagraphaboutthemajorgeographicalfeaturesoftheUnitedStates.5Discusstheproverb‘Timeismoney.’StudentswilltalkaboutthisisinordertounderstandthefactthatAmericansvaluepunctuality.Theywillcomparethisattitudewiththeirownviewoftime.

ThinkingabouttheExperienceLetusmakesomeobservationsaboutourexperience.Thesewillbeinthecolumnonthe left. The principles of the Direct Method that can be inferred from ourobservationswillbelistedinthecolumnontheright.

Observations Principles

1ThestudentsreadaloudapassageaboutthegeographyoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica.

Readinginthetargetlanguageshouldbetaughtfromthebeginningoflanguageinstruction;however,thereadingskillwillbedevelopedthroughpracticewithspeaking.Languageisprimarilyspeech.Cultureconsistsofmorethanthefinearts(e.g.inthislessonweobservedthestudentsstudyinggeographyandculturalattitudes).

2Theteacherpointstoapartofthemapaftereachsentenceisread.

Objects(e.g.realiaorpictures)presentintheimmediateclassroomenvironmentshouldbeusedtohelpstudentsunderstandthemeaning.

3Theteacherusesthetargetlanguagetoaskthestudentsiftheyhaveaquestion.Thestudentsusethetargetlanguagetoasktheirquestions.

Thenativelanguageshouldnotbeusedintheclassroom.

4Theteacheranswersthestudents’questionsbydrawingonthewhiteboardorgivingexamples.

Theteachershoulddemonstrate,notexplainortranslate.Itisdesirablethatstudentsmakeadirectassociationbetweenthetargetlanguageformandmeaning.

5Theteacherasksquestionsaboutthemapinthetargetlanguage,towhichthestudentsreplyinacompletesentenceinthetargetlanguage.

Studentsshouldlearntothinkinthetargetlanguageassoonaspossible.Vocabularyisacquiredmorenaturallyifstudentsuseitinfullsentences,ratherthanmemorizingwordlists.

6Studentsaskquestionsaboutthemap. Thepurposeoflanguagelearningiscommunication(thereforestudentsneedtolearnhowtoaskquestionsaswellasanswerthem).

7Theteacherworkswiththestudentsonthepronunciationof‘Appalachian.’

Pronunciationshouldbeworkedonrightfromthebeginningoflanguageinstruction.

8Theteachercorrectsagrammarerrorbyaskingthestudentstomakeachoice.

Self-correctionfacilitateslanguagelearning.

9Theteacherasksquestionsaboutthestudents;studentsaskeachotherquestions.

Lessonsshouldcontainsomeconversationalactivity—someopportunityforstudentstouselanguageinrealcontexts.Studentsshouldbeencouragedtospeakasmuchaspossible.

10Thestudentsfillinblankswithprepositionspracticedinthelesson.

Grammarshouldbetaughtinductively.Theremayneverbeanexplicitgrammarrulegiven.

11TheteacherdictatesaparagraphaboutUnitedStatesgeography.

Writingisanimportantskill,tobedevelopedfromthebeginningoflanguageinstruction.

12AllofthelessonsoftheweekinvolveUnitedStatesgeography.

Thesyllabusisbasedonsituationsortopics,notusuallyonlinguisticstructures.

13AproverbisusedtodiscusshowAmericansviewpunctuality.

Learninganotherlanguagealsoinvolveslearninghowspeakersofthatlanguagelive.

ReviewingthePrinciplesNow let us consider the principles of the Direct Method as they are arranged inanswertothe10questionsposedearlier:

1WhatarethegoalsofteacherswhousetheDirectMethod?TeacherswhousetheDirectMethodintendthatstudentslearnhowtocommunicateinthetargetlanguage.Inordertodothissuccessfully,studentsshouldlearntothinkinthetargetlanguage.

2Whatistheroleoftheteacher?Whatistheroleofthestudents?Althoughtheteacherdirectstheclassactivities,thestudentroleislesspassivethanintheGrammar-TranslationMethod.Theteacherandthestudentsaremorelikepartnersintheteaching–learningprocess.

3Whataresomecharacteristicsoftheteaching/learningprocess?TeacherswhousetheDirectMethodbelievestudentsneedtoassociatemeaningwiththetargetlanguagedirectly.Inordertodothis,whentheteacherintroducesanewtargetlanguagewordorphrase,hedemonstratesitsmeaningthroughtheuseofrealia,pictures,orpantomime;henevertranslatesitintothestudents’nativelanguage.Studentsspeakinthetargetlanguageagreatdealandcommunicateasiftheywereinrealsituations.Infact,thesyllabususedintheDirectMethodisbaseduponsituations(forexample,oneunitwouldconsistoflanguagethatpeoplewoulduseatabank,anotherofthelanguagethattheyusewhengoingshopping)ortopics(suchasgeography,money,ortheweather).Grammaristaughtinductively;thatis,thestudentsarepresentedwithexamplesandtheyfigureouttheruleorgeneralizationfromtheexamples.Anexplicitgrammarrulemayneverbegiven.Studentspracticevocabularybyusingnewwordsincompletesentences.

4Whatisthenatureofstudent–teacherinteraction?Whatisthenatureofstudent–studentinteraction?Theinitiationoftheinteractiongoesbothways,fromteachertostudentsandfromstudentstoteacher,althoughthelatterisoftenteacher-directed.Studentsconversewithoneanotheraswell.

5Howarethefeelingsofthestudentsdealtwith?Therearenoprinciplesofthemethodwhichrelatetothisarea.

6Howislanguageviewed?Howiscultureviewed?Languageisprimarilyspoken,notwritten.Therefore,studentsstudycommon,everydayspeechinthetargetlanguage.Theyalsostudycultureconsistingofthehistoryofthepeoplewhospeakthetargetlanguage,thegeographyofthecountryorcountrieswherethelanguageisspoken,andinformationaboutthedailylivesofthespeakersofthelanguage.

7Whatareasoflanguageareemphasized?Whatlanguageskillsareemphasized?Vocabularyisemphasizedovergrammar.Althoughworkonallfourskills(reading,writing,speaking,andlistening)occursfromthestart,oralcommunicationisseenasbasic.Thusthereadingandwritingexercisesarebaseduponwhatthestudentspracticeorallyfirst.Pronunciationalsoreceivesattentionrightfromthebeginningofacourse.

8Whatistheroleofthestudents’nativelanguage?Thestudents’nativelanguageshouldnotbeusedintheclassroom.

9Howisevaluationaccomplished?Wedidnotactuallyseeanyformalevaluationintheclassweobserved;however,intheDirectMethod,studentsareaskedtousethelanguage,nottodemonstratetheirknowledgeaboutthelanguage.Theyareaskedtodoso,usingbothoralandwrittenskills.Forexample,thestudentsmightbeinterviewedorallybytheteacherormightbeaskedtowriteaparagraphaboutsomethingtheyhavestudied.

10Howdoestheteacherrespondtostudenterrors?Theteacher,employingvarioustechniques,triestogetstudentstoself-correctwheneverpossible.

ReviewingtheTechniquesAre there answers to the 10 questionswithwhich you agreed?Then the followingtechniques may also be useful. Of course, even if you did not agree with all theanswers, theremaybesometechniquesof theDirectMethodyoucanadapt toyourownapproachtoteaching.Thefollowingexpandedreviewoftechniquesprovidesyouwithsomedetails,whichwillhelpyoudothis.

•ReadingAloudStudentstaketurnsreadingsectionsofapassage,play,ordialogueoutloud.Attheendofeachstudent’sturn,theteacherusesgestures,pictures,realia,examples,orothermeanstomakethemeaningofthesectionclear.

•QuestionandAnswerExerciseThisexerciseisconductedonlyinthetargetlanguage.Studentsareaskedquestionsandanswerinfullsentencessothattheypracticenewwordsandgrammaticalstructures.Theyhavetheopportunitytoaskquestionsaswellasanswerthem.

•GettingStudentstoSelf-correctTheteacherofthisclasshasthestudentsself-correctbyaskingthemtomakeachoicebetweenwhattheysaidandanalternativeanswerhesupplied.Thereare,however,otherwaysofgettingstudentstoself-correct.Forexample,ateachermightsimplyrepeatwhatastudenthasjustsaid,usingaquestioningvoicetosignaltothestudentthatsomethingwaswrongwithit.Anotherpossibilityisfortheteachertorepeatwhatthestudentsaid,stoppingjustbeforetheerror.Thestudentthenknowsthatthenextwordwaswrong.

•ConversationPracticeTheteacherasksstudentsanumberofquestionsinthetargetlanguage,whichtheyhavetounderstandtobeabletoanswercorrectly.Intheclassweobserved,theteacheraskedindividualstudentsquestionsaboutthemselves.Thequestionscontainedaparticulargrammarstructure.Later,thestudentswereabletoaskeachothertheirownquestionsusingthesamegrammaticalstructure.

•Fill-in-the-blanksExerciseThistechniquehasalreadybeendiscussedintheGrammar-TranslationMethod,butdiffersinitsapplicationintheDirectMethod.Alltheitemsareinthetargetlanguage;furthermore,noexplicitgrammarrulewouldbeapplied.Thestudentswouldhaveinducedthegrammarruletheyneedtofillintheblanksfromexamples

andpracticewithearlierpartsofthelesson.

•DictationTheteacherreadsthepassagethreetimes.Thefirsttimetheteacherreadsitatanormalspeed,whilethestudentsjustlisten.Thesecondtimehereadsthepassagephrasebyphrase,pausinglongenoughtoallowstudentstowritedownwhattheyhaveheard.Thelasttimetheteacheragainreadsatanormalspeed,andstudentschecktheirwork.

•MapDrawingTheclassincludedoneexampleofatechniqueusedtogivestudentslisteningcomprehensionpractice.Thestudentsweregivenamapwiththegeographicalfeaturesunnamed.Thentheteachergavethestudentsdirectionssuchasthefollowing,‘FindthemountainrangeintheWest.Writethewords“RockyMountains”acrossthemountainrange.’HegaveinstructionsforallthegeographicalfeaturesoftheUnitedStatessothatstudentswouldhaveacompletelylabeledmapiftheyfollowedhisinstructionscorrectly.Thestudentstheninstructedtheteachertodothesamethingwithamaphehaddrawnontheboard.Eachstudentcouldhaveaturngivingtheteacherinstructionsforfindingandlabelingonegeographicalfeature.

•ParagraphWritingTheteacherinthisclassaskedthestudentstowriteaparagraphintheirownwordsonthemajorgeographicalfeaturesoftheUnitedStates.Theycouldhavedonethisfrommemory,ortheycouldhaveusedthereadingpassageinthelessonasamodel.

ConclusionNowthatyouhaveconsideredtheprinciplesandthetechniquesoftheDirectMethod,seewhatyoucanfindofuseforyourownteachingsituation.Doyouagreethatthegoaloftargetlanguageinstructionshouldbetoteachstudents

how to communicate in the target language? Does it make sense to you that thestudents’nativelanguageshouldnotbeusedtogivemeaningtothetargetlanguage?Doyou agree that the culture that is taught should be about people’s daily lives inadditiontothefinearts?Shouldstudentsbeencouragedtoself-correct?ArethereanyotherprinciplesoftheDirectMethodwhichyoubelievein?Whichones?Is dictation aworthwhile activity?Have you used question-and-answer exercises

andconversationpracticeasdescribedherebefore?Ifnot,shouldyou?Isparagraphwriting a useful thing to ask students to do? Should grammar be presentedinductively?Are thereanyother techniquesof theDirectMethodwhichyouwouldconsideradopting?Whichones?

Activities

ACheckyourunderstandingoftheDirectMethod.1InthepreviouschapterontheGrammar-TranslationMethod,welearnedthatgrammarwastreateddeductively.IntheDirectMethod,grammaristreatedinductively.Canyouexplainthedifferencebetweendeductiveandinductivetreatmentsofgrammar?

2WhataresomeofthecharacteristicsoftheDirectMethodthatmakeitsodistinctfromtheGrammar-TranslationMethod?

3IthasbeensaidthatitmaybeadvantageoustoateacherusingtheDirectMethodnottoknowhisstudents’nativelanguage.Doyouagree?Why?

BApplywhatyouhaveunderstoodabouttheDirectMethod.1Chooseaparticularsituation(suchasatthebank,attherailroadstation,oratthedoctor’soffice)oraparticulartopic(suchasarticlesofclothing,holidays,ortheweather)andwriteashortpassageoradialogueonthethemeyouhavechosen.Nowthinkabouthowyouwillconveyitsmeaningtostudentswithoutusingtheirnativelanguage.

2Selectagrammarpointfromthepassage.Planhowyouwillgetstudentstopracticethegrammarpoint.Whatexamplescanyouprovidethemwithsothattheycaninducetherulethemselves?

3Practicewritingandgivingadictationasitisdescribedinthischapter.

References/AdditionalResourcesBerlitz,M.1887.MéthodeBerlitz.NewYork:BerlitzandCompany.deSauzé,E.1929.TheClevelandPlanfortheTeachingofModernLanguageswithSpecialReferencetoFrench(Revisededn.).Philadelphia:Winston,1959.

Diller,K.1978.TheLanguageTeachingControversy.Rowley,MA:NewburyHouse.Gatenby,E.1958.ADirectMethodEnglishCourse(3rdedn.).London:Longman.Gouin,F.1880.TheArtofTeachingandStudyingLanguages(H.SwanandV.Bettstrs.).London:Philip.

Krause,C.1916.TheDirectMethodinModernLanguages.NewYork:CharlesScribner.

4

TheAudio-LingualMethod

IntroductionTheAudio-LingualMethod,liketheDirectMethodwehavejustexamined,isalsoanoral-based approach. However, it is very different, in that rather than emphasizingvocabulary acquisition through exposure to its use in situations, theAudio-LingualMethoddrills students in theuseofgrammatical sentencepatterns.Also,unlike theDirectMethod,ithasastrongtheoreticalbaseinlinguisticsandpsychology.CharlesFries (1945)of theUniversityofMichigan led theway inapplyingprinciples fromstructurallinguisticsindevelopingthemethod,andforthisreason,ithassometimesbeenreferredtoasthe‘MichiganMethod.’Laterinitsdevelopment,principlesfrombehavioralpsychology(Skinner1957)wereincorporated.Itwasthoughtthatthewayto acquire the sentencepatternsof the target languagewas throughconditioning—helpinglearnerstorespondcorrectlytostimulithroughshapingandreinforcement,sothatthelearnerscouldovercomethehabitsoftheirnativelanguageandformthenewhabitsrequiredtobetargetlanguagespeakers.Inordertocometoanunderstandingofthismethod,letusnowenteraclassroom

where theAudio-LingualMethod isbeingused.Wewill sit inonabeginning-levelEnglishclassinMali.Thereare34students,13–15yearsofage.Theclassmeetsforonehouraday,fivedaysaweek.

ExperienceAsweentertheclassroom,thefirstthingwenoticeisthatthestudentsareattentivelylistening as the teacher is presenting a new dialogue, a conversation between twopeople.Thestudentsknowtheywillbeexpectedeventuallytomemorizethedialoguetheteacherisintroducing.Alloftheteacher’sinstructionsareinEnglish.Sometimessheusesactionstoconveymeaning,butnotonewordofthestudents’nativelanguageisuttered.Aftersheactsoutthedialogue,shesays:

‘All right,class. Iamgoing to repeat thedialoguenow.Listencarefully,butnotalkingplease.

Twopeoplearewalkingalongasidewalkintown.Theyknoweachother,andastheymeet, they stop to talk. One of them is named Sally and the other one isnamedBill.IwilltalkforSallyandforBill.Listentotheirconversation:

SALLY:Goodmorning,Bill.

BILL:Goodmorning,Sally.

SALLY:Howareyou?

BILL:Fine,thanks.Andyou?

SALLY:Fine.Whereareyougoing?

BILL:I’mgoingtothepostoffice.

SALLY:Iam,too.Shallwegotogether?

BILL:Sure.Let’sgo.

Listenonemoretime.ThistimetrytounderstandallthatIamsaying.’Now she has the whole class repeat each of the lines of the dialogue after her

model.Theyrepeateachlineseveraltimesbeforemovingontothenextline.Whentheclasscomestotheline,‘I’mgoingtothepostoffice,’theystumbleabitintheirrepetition.Theteacher,atthispoint,stopstherepetitionandusesabackwardbuild-updrill (expansion drill). The purpose of this drill is to break down the troublesomesentenceintosmallerparts.Theteacherstartswiththeendofthesentenceandhastheclass repeat just the last twowords. Since they cando this, the teacher adds a fewmorewords, and the class repeats this expanded phrase. Little by little the teacherbuildsupthephrasesuntiltheentiresentenceisbeingrepeated.

TEACHER:Repeatafterme:postoffice.

CLASS:Postoffice.

TEACHER:Tothepostoffice.

CLASS:Tothepostoffice.

TEACHER:Goingtothepostoffice.

CLASS:Goingtothepostoffice.

TEACHER:I’mgoingtothepostoffice.

CLASS:I’mgoingtothepostoffice.

Through thisstep-by-stepprocedure, the teacher isable togive thestudentshelp inproducing the troublesome line. Having worked on the line in small pieces, thestudentsarealsoabletotakenoteofwhereeachwordorphrasebeginsandendsinthesentence.Afterthestudentshaverepeatedthedialogueseveraltimes,theteachergivesthem

achancetoadopttheroleofBillwhileshesaysSally’slines.Beforetheclassactuallysayseach line, the teachermodels it. Ineffect, theclass isexperiencingarepetitiondrillwhere the students have to listen carefully and attempt tomimic the teacher’smodelasaccuratelyaspossible.Next, theclassandthe teacherswitchroles inorder topracticea littlemore:The

teachersaysBill’slinesandtheclasssaysSally’s.Thentheteacherdividestheclassinhalfso thateachhalfon theirowngets to try tosayeitherBill’sorSally’s lines.Theteacherstopsthestudentsfromtimetotimewhenshefeelstheyarestrayingtoofarfromthemodel,andonceagainprovidesamodel,whichshehasthemattempttocopy.Tofurtherpracticethelinesofthisdialogue,theteacherhasalltheboysintheclasstakeBill’spartandallthegirlstakeSally’s.Shetheninitiatesachaindrillwithfourofthelinesfromthedialogue.Achaindrill

givesstudentsanopportunitytosaythelinesindividually.Theteacherlistensandcantellwhichstudentsarestrugglingandwillneedmorepractice.Achaindrillalsoletsstudentsuse the expressions in communicationwith someoneelse, even though thecommunication is very limited. The teacher addresses the student nearest herwith,‘Goodmorning,Adama.’He, in turn, responds, ‘Goodmorning, teacher.’ She says,‘Howareyou?’Adamaanswers,‘Fine,thanks.Andyou?’Theteacherreplies,‘Fine.’Heunderstandsthroughtheteacher’sgesturesthatheistoturntothestudentsittingbesidehimandgreether.Thatstudent,inturn,saysherlinesinreplytohim.Whenshehasfinished,shegreetsthestudentontheothersideofher.Thischaincontinuesuntil all of the students have a chance to ask and answer the questions. The laststudentdirectsthegreetingtotheteacher.Finally,theteacherselectstwostudentstoperformtheentiredialoguefortherest

of the class.When they are finished, two others do the same. Not everyone has achancetosaythedialogueinapairtoday,butperhapstheywillsometimelaterintheweek.

Theteachermovesnexttothesecondmajorphaseofthelesson.Shecontinuestodrillthestudentswithlanguagefromthedialogue,butthesedrillsrequiremorethansimplerepetition.Thefirstdrill the teacher leads isasingle-slotsubstitutiondrill inwhich the studentswill repeat a sentence from the dialogue and replace aword orphraseinthesentencewiththewordorphrasetheteachergivesthem.Thiswordorphraseiscalledthecue.The teacher begins by reciting a line from the dialogue, ‘I am going to the post

office.’Followingthissheshowsthestudentsapictureofabankandsaysthephrase,‘thebank.’Shepauses,thensays,‘Iamgoingtothebank.’Fromherexamplethestudentsrealizethattheyaresupposedtotakethecuephrase

(‘the bank’), which the teacher supplies, and put it into its proper place in thesentence.Now she gives them their first cue phrase, ‘the drugstore.’ Together the students

respond,‘Iamgoingtothedrugstore.’Theteachersmiles.‘Verygood!’sheexclaims.Theteachercues,‘thepark.’Thestudentschorus,‘Iamgoingtothepark.’Othercuessheoffersinturnare‘thecafé,’‘thesupermarket,’‘thebusstation,’‘the

footballfield,’and‘thelibrary.’Eachcueisaccompaniedbyapictureasbefore.Afterthestudentshavegone throughthedrillsequence three times, the teacherno longerprovidesaspokencuephrase. Instead,shesimplyshows thepicturesoneata time,andthestudentsrepeattheentiresentence,puttingthenameoftheplaceinthepicturein the appropriate slot in the sentence.A similar procedure is followed for anothersentenceinthedialogue,‘Howareyou?’Thesubjectpronouns‘he,’‘she,’‘they,’and‘you’areusedascuewords.This substitutiondrill is slightlymoredifficult for thestudentssincetheyhavetochangetheformoftheverb‘be’to‘is’or‘are,’dependingonwhichsubjectpronountheteachergivesthem.Thestudentsareapparentlyfamiliarwith the subject pronouns since the teacher is not using any pictures. Instead, aftergoingthroughthedrillafewtimessupplyingoralcues,theteacherpointstoaboyintheclassandthestudentsunderstandtheyaretousethepronoun‘he’inthesentence.Theychorus,‘Howishe?’‘Good!’saystheteacher.Shepointstoagirlandwaitsfortheclass’sresponse,thenpointstootherstudentstoelicittheuseof‘they.’

Figure4.1Usingpicturestoconductasentencedrill

Finally,theteacherincreasesthecomplexityofthetaskbyleadingthestudentsinamultiple-slotsubstitutiondrill.Thisisessentiallythesametypeofdrillasthesingle-slottheteacherhasjustused.Howeverwiththisdrill,studentsmustrecognizewhatpartofspeech thecueword isandwhere it fits into thesentence.Thestudentsstilllistentoonlyonecuefromtheteacher.Thentheymustmakeadecisionconcerningwherethecuewordorphrasebelongsinasentencealsosuppliedbytheteacher.Theteacherinthisclassstartsoffbyhavingthestudentsrepeattheoriginalsentencefromthedialogue,‘Iamgoingtothepostoffice.’Thenshegivesthemthecue‘she.’Thestudentsunderstandandproduce, ‘She isgoing to thepostoffice.’Thenextcue theteacher offers is ‘to the park.’ The students hesitate at first; then they respond bycorrectly producing, ‘She is going to the park.’ She continues in this manner,sometimesprovidingasubjectpronoun,othertimesnamingalocation.Thesubstitutiondrillsarefollowedbyatransformationdrill.Thistypeofdrillasks

studentstochangeonetypeofsentenceintoanother—anaffirmativesentenceintoanegativeoranactivesentence intoapassive, forexample. In thisclass, the teacherusesasubstitutiondrillthatrequiresthestudentstochangeastatementintoayes/noquestion.Theteacheroffersanexample,‘Isay,“Sheisgoingtothepostoffice.”Youmakeaquestionbysaying,“Isshegoingtothepostoffice?”‘The teachermodels twomore examples of this transformation, then asks, ‘Does

everyone understand? OK, let’s begin: “They are going to the bank.” ‘ The classrepliesinturn,‘Aretheygoingtothebank?’Theytransformapproximatelyfifteenofthesepatterns,andthentheteacherdecidestheyarereadytomoveontoaquestion-

and-answerdrill.Theteacherholdsuponeofthepicturessheusedearlier, thepictureofafootball

field,andaskstheclass,‘Areyougoingtothefootballfield?’Sheanswersherownquestion, ‘Yes, I’m going to the football field.’ She poses the next question whileholding up a picture of a park, ‘Are you going to the park?’ And again answersherself,‘Yes,I’mgoingtothepark.’Sheholdsupathirdpicture,theoneofalibrary.She poses a question to the class, ‘Are you going to the library?’ They respondtogether,‘Yes,Iamgoingtothelibrary.’‘Verygood,’theteachersays.Throughheractionsandexamples,thestudentshave

learnedthattheyaretoanswerthequestionsfollowingthepatternshehasmodeled.Theteacherdrillsthemwiththispatternforthenextfewminutes.Sincethestudentscanhandleit,sheposesthequestiontoselectedindividualsrapidly,oneafteranother.Thestudentsareexpectedtorespondveryquickly,withoutpausing.Thestudentsareabletokeepupthepace,sotheteachermovesontothenextstep.

Sheagainshowstheclassoneofthepictures,asupermarketthistime.Sheasks,‘Areyougoingtothebusstation?’Sheanswersherownquestion,‘No,Iamgoingtothesupermarket.’Thestudentsunderstand that theyare required to lookat thepictureand listen to

thequestionandanswernegativelyiftheplaceinthequestionisnotthesameaswhatthey see in the picture. ‘Are you going to the bus station? The teacher askswhileholdingupapictureofacafé.‘No,Iamgoingtothecafé,’theclassanswers.‘Verygood!’exclaimstheteacher.Afterposingafewmorequestionsthatrequire

negativeanswers,theteacherproducesthepicturesofthepostofficeandasks,‘Areyougoingtothepostoffice?’Thestudentshesitateamomentandthenchorus,‘Yes,Iamgoingtothepostoffice.’‘Good,’ comments the teacher. She works a little longer on this question- and-

answerdrill,sometimesprovidingherstudentswithsituationsthatrequireanegativeanswerandsometimesgivingencouragement toeachstudent.Sheholdsuppicturesandposesquestionsonerightafteranother,butthestudentsseemtohavenotroublekeeping up with her. The only time she changes the rhythm is when a studentseriouslymispronouncesaword.When thisoccursshe restates thewordandworksbrieflywiththestudentuntilhispronunciationisclosertoherown.For the final few minutes of the class, the teacher returns to the dialogue with

whichshebeganthelesson.Sherepeatsitonce,thenhasthehalfoftheclasstoherleftdoBill’slinesandthehalfoftheclasstoherrightdoSally’s.Thistimethereisnohesitationatall.Thestudentsmovethroughthedialoguebriskly.Theytraderolesanddothesame.Theteachersmiles,‘Verygood.Classdismissed.’Thelessonendsfor theday.Boththeteacherandthestudentshaveworkedhard.

ThestudentshavelistenedtoandspokenonlyEnglishfortheperiod.Theteacheris

tired fromall her action, but she is pleased for she feels the lessonwentwell.Thestudentshavelearnedthelinesofthedialogueandtorespondwithouthesitationtohercuesinthedrillpattern.Inlessonslaterintheweek,theteacherwilldothefollowing:

1Reviewthedialogue.2Expanduponthedialoguebyaddingafewmorelines,suchas‘Iamgoingtothepostoffice.Ineedafewstamps.’

3Drillthenewlinesandintroducesomenewvocabularyitemsthroughthenewlines,forexample:

Iamgoingtothesupermarket. Ineedalittlebutter.…library …fewbooks.…drugstore …littlemedicine.

4Workonthedifferencebetweenmassandcountnouns,contrasting‘alittle/afew’withmassandcountnounsrespectively.Nogrammarrulewilleverbegiventothestudents.Thestudentswillbeledtofigureouttherulesfromtheirworkwiththeexamplestheteacherprovides.

5Acontrastiveanalysis(thecomparisonoftwolanguages,inthiscase,thestudents’nativelanguageandthetargetlanguage,English)hasledtheteachertoexpectthatthestudentswillhavespecialtroublewiththepronunciationofwordssuchas‘little,’whichcontain/i/.Thestudentsdoindeedsaythewordasifitcontained/i:./.Asaresult,theteacherworksonthecontrastbetween/i/and/i:/severaltimesduringtheweek.Sheusesminimalpairwords,suchasship/sheep,live/leave,andhis/he’stogetherstudentstohearthedifferenceinpronunciationbetweenthewordsineachpair.Then,whenshefeelstheyareready,shedrillstheminsayingthetwosounds—first,thesoundsontheirown,andlater,thesoundsinwords,phrases,andsentences.

6Sometimetowardstheendoftheweek,theteacherwritesthedialogueontheblackboard.Sheasksthestudentstogiveherthelinesandshewritesthemoutasthestudentssaythem.Theycopythedialogueintotheirnotebooks.Theyalsodosomelimitedwrittenworkwiththedialogue.Inoneexercise,theteacherhaserased15selectedwordsfromtheexpandeddialogue.Thestudentshavetorewritethedialogueintheirnotebooks,supplyingthemissingwordswithoutlookingatthecompletedialoguetheycopiedearlier.Inanotherexercise,thestudentsaregivensequencesofwordssuchas‘I,’‘go,’‘supermarket’and‘he,’‘need,’‘butter,’andtheyareaskedtowritecompletesentencesliketheonestheyhavebeendrillingorally.

7OnFridaytheteacherleadstheclassinthe‘supermarketalphabetgame.’Thegamestartswithastudentwhoneedsafooditembeginningwiththeletter‘A.’The

studentsays,‘Iamgoingtothesupermarket.Ineedafewapples.’Thenextstudentsays,‘Iamgoingtothesupermarket.Heneedsafewapples.Ineedalittlebread’(or‘afewbananas,’oranyotherfooditemyoucouldfindinthesupermarketbeginningwiththeletter‘B’).Thethirdstudentcontinues,‘Iamgoingtothesupermarket.Heneedsafewapples.Sheneedsalittlebread.Ineedalittlecheese.’Thegamecontinueswitheachplayeraddinganitemthatbeginswiththenextletterinthealphabet.Beforeaddinghisorherownitem,however,eachplayermustmentiontheitemsofthepreviousstudents.Ifthestudenthasdifficultythinkingofanitem,theotherstudentsortheteacherhelps.

8ApresentationbytheteacheronsupermarketsintheUnitedStatesfollowsthegame.TheteachertriesveryhardtogetmeaningacrossinEnglish.Theteacheranswersthestudents’questionsaboutthedifferencesbetweensupermarketsintheUnitedStatesandopen-airmarketsinMali.TheyalsodiscussbrieflythedifferencesbetweenAmericanandMalifootball.Thestudentsseemveryinterestedinthediscussion.TheteacherpromisestocontinuethediscussionofpopularAmericansportsthefollowingweek.

ThinkingabouttheExperienceAlthough it is true that this was a very brief experience with the Audio-LingualMethod(ALM), letussee ifwecanmakesomeobservationsabout thebehavioroftheteacherandthetechniquessheused.Fromtheseweshouldbeabletofigureoutthe principles underlying the method. We will make our observations in order,followingthelessonplanoftheclassweobserved.

Observations Principles

1Theteacherintroducesanewdialogue. Languageformsdonotoccurbythemselves;theyoccurmostnaturallywithinacontext.

2Thelanguageteacherusesonlythetargetlanguageintheclassroom.Actions,pictures,orrealiaareusedtogivemeaningotherwise.

Thenativelanguageandthetargetlanguagehaveseparatelinguisticsystems.Theyshouldbekeptapartsothatthestudents’nativelanguageinterferesaslittleaspossiblewiththestudents’attemptstoacquirethetargetlanguage.

3Thelanguageteacherintroducesthedialoguebymodelingittwotimes;sheintroducesthedrillsbymodelingthecorrectanswers;atothertimes,shecorrectsmispronunciationbymodelingthepropersoundsinthetargetlanguage.

Oneofthelanguageteacher’smajorrolesisthatofamodelofthetargetlanguage.Teachersshouldprovidestudentswithanaccuratemodel.Bylisteningtohowitissupposedtosound,studentsshouldbeabletomimicthemodel.

4Thestudentsrepeateachlineofthenewdialogueseveraltimes.

Languagelearningisaprocessofhabitformation.Themoreoftensomethingisrepeated,thestrongerthehabitandthegreaterthelearning.

5Thestudentsstumbleoveroneofthelinesofthedialogue.Theteacherusesabackwardbuild-updrillwiththisline.

Itisimportanttopreventlearnersfrommakingerrors.Errorsleadtotheformationofbadhabits.Whenerrorsdooccur,theyshouldimmediatelybecorrectedbytheteacher.

6Theteacherinitiatesachaindrillinwhicheachstudentgreetsanother.

Thepurposeoflanguagelearningistolearnhowtousethelanguagetocommunicate.

7Theteacherusessingle-slotandmultiple-slotsubstitutiondrills.

Particularpartsofspeechoccupyparticular‘slots’insentences.Inordertocreatenewsentences,studentsmustlearnwhichpartofspeechoccupieswhichslot.

8Theteachersays,‘Verygood,’whenthestudentsanswercorrectly.

Positivereinforcementhelpsthestudentstodevelopcorrecthabits.

9Theteacherusesspokencuesandpicturecues.

Studentsshouldlearntorespondtobothverbalandnonverbalstimuli.

10Theteacherconductstransformationandquestion-and-answerdrills.

Eachlanguagehasafinitenumberofpatterns.Patternpracticehelpsstudentstoformhabitswhichenablethestudentstousethepatterns.

11Whenthestudentscanhandleit,theteacherposesthequestionstothemrapidly.

Studentsshould‘overlearn,’i.e.learntoanswerautomaticallywithoutstoppingtothink.

12Theteacherprovidesthestudentswithcues;shecallsonindividuals;shesmilesencouragement;sheholdsuppicturesoneafteranother.

Theteachershouldbelikeanorchestraleader—conducting,guiding,andcontrollingthestudents’behaviorinthetargetlanguage.

13Newvocabularyisintroducedthroughlinesofthedialogue;vocabularyislimited.

Themajorobjectiveoflanguageteachingshouldbeforstudentstoacquirethestructuralpatterns;studentswilllearnvocabularyafterward.

14Studentsaregivennogrammarrules;grammaticalpointsaretaughtthroughexamplesanddrills.

Thelearningofanotherlanguageshouldbethesameastheacquisitionofthenativelanguage.Wedonotneedtomemorizerulesinordertouseournativelanguage.Therulesnecessarytousethetargetlanguagewillbefiguredoutorinducedfromexamples.

15Theteacherdoesacontrastiveanalysisofthetargetlanguageandthestudents’nativelanguageinordertolocatetheplaceswheresheanticipatesherstudentswillhavetrouble.

Themajorchallengeoflanguageteachingisgettingstudentstoovercomethehabitsoftheirnativelanguage.Acomparisonbetweenthenativeandtargetlanguagewilltelltheteacherinwhichareasherstudentswillprobablyexperience

difficulty.

16Theteacherwritesthedialogueontheblackboardtowardtheendoftheweek.Thestudentsdosomelimitedwrittenworkwiththedialogueandthesentencedrills.

Speechismorebasictolanguagethanthewrittenform.The‘naturalorder’(theorderchildrenfollowwhenlearningtheirnativelanguage)ofskillacquisitionis:listening,speaking,reading,andwriting.

17ThesupermarketalphabetgameandadiscussionofAmericansupermarketsandfootballareincluded.

Languagecannotbeseparatedfromculture.Cultureisnotonlyliteratureandthearts,butalsotheeverydaybehaviorofthepeoplewhousethetargetlanguage.Oneoftheteacher’sresponsibilitiesistopresentinformationaboutthatculture.

ReviewingthePrinciplesAtthispointweshouldturntothe10questionswehaveansweredforeachmethodwehaveconsideredsofar.

1WhatarethegoalsofteacherswhousetheAudio-LingualMethod?Teacherswanttheirstudentstobeabletousethetargetlanguagecommunicatively.Inordertodothis,theybelievestudentsneedtooverlearnthetargetlanguage,tolearntouseitautomaticallywithoutstoppingtothink.Theirstudentsachievethisbyformingnewhabitsinthetargetlanguageandovercomingtheoldhabitsoftheirnativelanguage.

2Whatistheroleoftheteacher?Whatistheroleofthestudents?Theteacherislikeanorchestraleader,directingandcontrollingthelanguagebehaviorofherstudents.Sheisalsoresponsibleforprovidingherstudentswithagoodmodelforimitation.

Studentsareimitatorsoftheteacher’smodelorthetapesshesuppliesofmodelspeakers.Theyfollowtheteacher’sdirectionsandrespondasaccuratelyandasrapidlyaspossible.

3Whataresomecharacteristicsoftheteaching/learningprocess?Newvocabularyandstructuralpatternsarepresentedthroughdialogues.Thedialoguesarelearnedthroughimitationandrepetition.Drills(suchasrepetition,backwardbuild-up,chain,substitution,transformation,andquestion-and-answer)areconductedbaseduponthepatternspresentinthedialogue.Students’successfulresponsesarepositivelyreinforced.Grammarisinducedfromtheexamplesgiven;explicitgrammarrulesarenotprovided.Culturalinformationiscontextualizedinthedialoguesorpresentedbytheteacher.Students’readingandwrittenworkisbasedupontheoralworktheydidearlier.

4Whatisthenatureofstudent–teacherinteraction?Whatisthenatureofstudent–studentinteraction?Thereisstudent-to-studentinteractioninchaindrillsorwhenstudentstakedifferentrolesindialogues,butthisinteractionisteacher-directed.Mostoftheinteractionisbetweenteacherandstudentsandisinitiatedbytheteacher.

5Howarethefeelingsofthestudentsdealtwith?Therearenoprinciplesofthemethodthatrelatetothisarea.

6Howisthelanguageviewed?Howiscultureviewed?TheviewoflanguageintheAudio-LingualMethodhasbeeninfluencedbydescriptivelinguists.Everylanguageisseenashavingitsownuniquesystem.Thesystemcomprisesseveraldifferentlevels:phonological,morphological,andsyntactic.Eachlevelhasitsowndistinctivepatterns.

EverydayspeechisemphasizedintheAudio-LingualMethod.Thelevelofcomplexityofthespeechisgraded,however,sothatbeginningstudentsarepresentedwithonlysimplepatterns.Cultureconsistsoftheeverydaybehaviorandlifestyleofthetargetlanguagespeakers.

7Whatareasoflanguageareemphasized?Whatlanguageskillsareemphasized?Vocabularyiskepttoaminimumwhilethestudentsaremasteringthesoundsystemandgrammaticalpatterns.Agrammaticalpatternisnotthesameasasentence.Forinstance,underlyingthefollowingthreesentencesisthesamegrammaticalpattern:‘Megcalled,’‘TheBlueJayswon,’‘Theteampracticed.’

Thenaturalorderofskillspresentationisadheredto:listening,speaking,reading,andwriting.Theoral/auralskillsreceivemostoftheattention.Whatstudentswritetheyhavefirstbeenintroducedtoorally.Pronunciationistaughtfromthebeginning,oftenbystudentsworkinginlanguagelaboratoriesondiscriminatingbetweenmembersofminimalpairs.

8Whatistheroleofthestudents’nativelanguage?Thehabitsofthestudents’nativelanguagearethoughttointerferewiththestudents’attemptstomasterthetargetlanguage.Therefore,thetargetlanguageisusedintheclassroom,notthestudents’nativelanguage.Acontrastiveanalysisbetweenthestudents’nativelanguageandthetargetlanguagewillrevealwhereateachershouldexpectthemostinterference.

9Howisevaluationaccomplished?Theanswertothisquestionisnotobviousbecausewedidn’tactuallyobservethestudentsinthisclasstakingaformaltest.Ifwehad,wewouldhaveseenthatitwasdiscrete-pointinnature,thatis,eachquestiononthetestwouldfocusononlyonepointofthelanguageatatime.Studentsmightbeaskedtodistinguishbetweenwordsinaminimalpair,forexample,ortosupplyanappropriateverbforminasentence.

10Howdoestheteacherrespondtostudenterrors?

Studenterrorsaretobeavoidedifatallpossible,throughtheteacher’sawarenessofwherethestudentswillhavedifficulty,andrestrictionofwhattheyaretaughttosay.

ReviewingtheTechniquesIf you agree with the above answers, you may wish to implement the followingtechniques.Ofcourse, even ifyoudonotagree, theremaybe techniquesdescribedbelowthatyouarealreadyusingorcanadapttoyourapproach.

•DialogueMemorizationDialoguesorshortconversationsbetweentwopeopleareoftenusedtobeginanewlesson.Studentsmemorizethedialoguethroughmimicry;studentsusuallytaketheroleofonepersoninthedialogue,andtheteachertheother.Afterthestudentshavelearnedthefirstperson’slines,theyswitchrolesandmemorizetheotherperson’spart.Anotherwayofpracticingthetworolesisforhalfoftheclasstotakeoneroleandtheotherhalftotaketheother.Afterthedialoguehasbeenmemorized,pairsofindividualstudentsmightperformthedialoguefortherestoftheclass.

IntheAudio-LingualMethod,certainsentencepatternsandgrammarpointsareincludedwithinthedialogue.Thesepatternsandpointsarelaterpracticedindrillsbasedonthelinesofthedialogue.

•BackwardBuild-up(Expansion)DrillThisdrillisusedwhenalonglineofadialogueisgivingstudentstrouble.Theteacherbreaksdownthelineintoseveralparts.Thestudentsrepeatapartofthesentence,usuallythelastphraseoftheline.Then,followingtheteacher’scue,thestudentsexpandwhattheyarerepeatingpartbypartuntiltheyareabletorepeattheentireline.Theteacherbeginswiththepartattheendofthesentence(andworksbackwardfromthere)tokeeptheintonationofthelineasnaturalaspossible.Thisalsodirectsmorestudentattentiontotheendofthesentence,wherenewinformationtypicallyoccurs.

•RepetitionDrillStudentsareaskedtorepeattheteacher’smodelasaccuratelyandasquicklyaspossible.Thisdrillisoftenusedtoteachthelinesofthedialogue.

•ChainDrillAchaindrillgetsitsnamefromthechainofconversationthatformsaroundtheroomasstudents,onebyone,askandanswerquestionsofeachother.Theteacherbeginsthechainbygreetingaparticularstudent,oraskinghimaquestion.Thatstudentresponds,thenturnstothestudentsittingnexttohim.Thefirststudentgreetsorasksaquestionofthesecondstudentandthechaincontinues.Achaindrillallowssomecontrolledcommunication,eventhoughitislimited.Achaindrill

alsogivestheteacheranopportunitytocheckeachstudent’sspeech.

•Single-slotSubstitutionDrillTheteachersaysaline,usuallyfromthedialogue.Next,theteachersaysawordoraphrase(calledthecue).Thestudentsrepeatthelinetheteacherhasgiventhem,substitutingthecueintothelineinitsproperplace.Themajorpurposeofthisdrillistogivethestudentspracticeinfindingandfillingintheslotsofasentence.

•Multiple-slotSubstitutionDrillThisdrillissimilartothesingle-slotsubstitutiondrill.Thedifferenceisthattheteachergivescuephrases,oneatatime,thatfitintodifferentslotsinthedialogueline.Thestudentsmustrecognizewhatpartofspeecheachcueis,oratleast,whereitfitsintothesentence,andmakeanyotherchanges,suchassubject–verbagreement.Theythensaytheline,fittingthecuephraseintothelinewhereitbelongs.

•TransformationDrillTheteachergivesstudentsacertainkindofsentencepattern,anaffirmativesentenceforexample.Studentsareaskedtotransformthissentenceintoanegativesentence.Otherexamplesoftransformationstoaskofstudentsare:changingastatementintoaquestion,anactivesentenceintoapassiveone,ordirectspeechintoreportedspeech.

•Question-and-answerDrillThisdrillgivesstudentspracticewithansweringquestions.Thestudentsshouldanswertheteacher’squestionsveryquickly.Althoughwedidnotseeitinourlessonhere,itisalsopossiblefortheteachertocuethestudentstoaskquestionsaswell.Thisgivesstudentspracticewiththequestionpattern.

•UseofMinimalPairsTheteacherworkswithpairsofwordswhichdifferinonlyonesound;forexample,‘ship/sheep.’Studentsarefirstaskedtoperceivethedifferencebetweenthetwowordsandlatertobeabletosaythetwowords.Theteacherselectsthesoundstoworkonaftershehasdoneacontrastiveanalysis,acomparisonbetweenthestudents’nativelanguageandthelanguagetheyarestudying.

•CompletetheDialogueSelectedwordsareerasedfromadialoguestudentshavelearned.Students

completethedialoguebyfillingtheblankswiththemissingwords.

•GrammarGameGamesliketheSupermarketAlphabetGamedescribedinthischapterareusedintheAudio-LingualMethod.Thegamesaredesignedtogetstudentstopracticeagrammarpointwithinacontext.Studentsareabletoexpressthemselves,althoughinalimitedway.Noticethereisalsoalotofrepetitioninthisgame.

ConclusionWe have looked at both the techniques and the principles of the Audio-LingualMethod.Trynowtomakethebridgebetweenthismethodandyourteachingsituation.Doesitmakesensetoyouthatlanguageacquisitionresultsfromhabitformation?If

so, will the habits of the native language interfere with target language learning?Should errorsbeprevented asmuchaspossible?Should themajor focusbeon thestructuralpatternsofthetargetlanguage?WhichoftheseortheotherprinciplesoftheAudio-LingualMethodareacceptabletoyou?Is a dialogue a useful way to introduce new material? Should it be memorized

through mimicry of the teacher’s model? Are structure drills valuable pedagogicalactivities? Is working on pronunciation through minimal-pair drills a worthwhileactivity?Wouldyousaythesetechniques(oranyothersofthismethod)areonesthatyou can use as described? Could you adapt any of them to your own teachingapproachandsituation?

Activities

ACheckyourunderstandingoftheAudio-LingualMethod.1WhichofthetechniquesbelowfollowsfromtheprinciplesoftheAudio-LingualMethod,andwhichonesdonot?Explainthereasonsforyouranswer.a The teacher asks beginning-level students to write a composition about thesystem of transportation in their home countries. If they need a vocabularywordthattheydonotknow,theyaretoldtolookinabilingualdictionaryforatranslation.

bToward the end of the thirdweek of the course, the teacher gives students areading passage. The teacher asks the students to read the passage and toanswer certain questions based upon it. The passage contains words andstructuresintroducedduringthefirstthreeweeksofthecourse.

cTheteachertellsthestudentsthattheymustaddan‘s’tothirdpersonsingularverbsinthepresenttenseinEnglish.Shethengivesthestudentsalistofverbsandasksthemtochangetheverbsintothethirdpersonsingularpresenttenseform.

2Somepeoplebelievethatknowledgeofafirstandsecondlanguagecanbehelpfultolearnerswhoaretryingtolearnathirdlanguage.WhatwouldanAudio-Lingualteachersayaboutthis?Why?

BApplywhatyouhaveunderstoodabouttheAudio-LingualMethod.1Readthefollowingdialogue.Whatsubsentencepatternisittryingtoteach?

SAMLou’sgoingtogotocollegenextfall.BETTYWhereishegoingtogo?SAMHe’sgoingtogotoStanford.BETTYWhatishegoingtostudy?SAMBiology.He’sgoingtobeadoctor.

Prepareaseriesofdrills(backwardbuild-up,repetition,chain,single-slotsubstitution,multiple-slotsubstitution,transformation,andquestion-and-answer)designedtogivebeginning-levelEnglishlanguagelearnerssomepracticewiththisstructure.IfthetargetlanguagethatyouteachisnotEnglish,youmaywishtowriteyourowndialoguefirst.Itisnoteasytopreparedrills,soyoumightwanttotrygivingthemtosomeotherteacherstocheck.

2Prepareyourowndialoguetointroduceyourstudentstoasentenceorsubsentencepatterninthetargetlanguageyouteach.

References/AdditionalResourcesBrooks,N.1964.LanguageandLanguageLearning:TheoryandPractice(2ndedn.).NewYork:HarcourtBrace.

Chastain,K.1988.DevelopingSecond-languageSkills(3rdedn.).Chicago:RandMcNallyCollegePublishing.

Finocchiaro,M.1974.EnglishasaSecondLanguage:FromTheorytoPractice(2ndedn.).62–72,168–72.NewYork:RegentsPublishing.

Fries,C.1945.TeachingandLearningEnglishasaForeignLanguage.AnnArbor:UniversityofMichiganPress.

Lado,R.1957.LinguisticsAcrossCultures:AppliedLinguisticsforLanguageTeachers.AnnArbor:UniversityofMichiganPress.

____.1964.LanguageTeaching:AScientificApproach.NewYork:McGraw-Hill.Paulston,C.1971.‘Thesequencingofstructuralpatterndrills.’TESOLQuarterly5/3,197–208.

Prator,C.1965.‘Developmentofamanipulative-communicationscale’inR.CampbellandH.Allen(eds.).TeachingEnglishasaSecondLanguage.NewYork:McGraw-Hill.

Rivers,W.1968.TeachingForeignLanguageSkills.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.

Skinner,B.F.1957.VerbalBehavior.NewYork:Appleton-Century-Crofts.

5

TheSilentWay

IntroductionAlthoughpeopledidlearnlanguagesthroughtheAudio-LingualMethod,andindeedthe method is still practiced today, one problem with it was students’ inability toreadilytransferthehabits theyhadmasteredintheclassroomtocommunicativeuseoutsideit.Furthermore,theideathatlearningalanguagemeantformingasetofhabitswas seriously challenged in the early 1960s. Linguist Noam Chomsky argued thatlanguage acquisition could not possibly take place through habit formation sincepeople create and understand utterances they have never heard before. Chomskyproposedinsteadthatspeakershaveaknowledgeofunderlyingabstractrules,whichallow them to understand and create novel utterances. Thus, Chomsky reasoned,language must not be considered a product of habit formation, but rather of ruleformation. Accordingly, language acquisitionmust be a procedure whereby peopleusetheirownthinkingprocesses,orcognition, todiscover therulesof the languagetheyareacquiring.TheemphasisonhumancognitionledtotheestablishmentoftheCognitiveCode

Approach. Rather than simply being responsive to stimuli in the environment,learners were seen to be much more actively responsible for their own learning,engaged in formulating hypotheses in order to discover the rules of the targetlanguage. Errorswere inevitable andwere signs that learnerswere actively testingtheirhypotheses.Forawhileintheearly1970s,therewasgreatinterestinapplyingthisnewCognitiveCodeApproach to language teaching.Materialsweredevelopedwith deductive (learners are given the rule and asked to apply it) and inductive(learnersdiscovertherulefromtheexamplesandthenpracticeit)grammarexercises.However, no language teaching method ever really developed directly from theapproach; instead, a number of ‘innovative methods’ emerged. In the next fewchapterswewilltakealookatthese.AlthoughCalebGattegno’sSilentWay,whichwewillconsiderinthischapter,did

notstemdirectlyfromtheCognitiveCodeApproach,itsharescertainprincipleswithit.Forexample,oneofthebasicprinciplesoftheSilentWayisthat‘Teachingshouldbesubordinatedtolearning.’Inotherwords,Gattegnobelievedthattoteachmeanstoservethelearningprocessratherthantodominateit.Thisprincipleisinkeepingwith

the active search for rules ascribed to the learner in theCognitiveCodeApproach.Gattegnolookedatlanguagelearningfromtheperspectiveofthelearnerbystudyingthe way babies and young children learn. He concluded that learning is a processwhich we initiate by ourselves by mobilizing our inner resources (our perception,awareness,cognition,imagination,intuition,creativity,etc.)tomeetthechallengeathand. In thecourseofour learning,we integrate intoourselveswhatever ‘new’ thatwecreate,anduseitasasteppingstoneforfurtherlearning.InordertoexploretheSilentWay,wewillobservethefirstdayofanEnglishclass

inBrazil.There are24 secondary school students in this class.The classmeets fortwohoursaday,threedaysaweek.

ExperienceAs we take our seats, the teacher has just finished introducing the Silent Way inPortuguese.Theteacherwalkstothefrontoftheroom,takesoutametalpointerandpointstoacharttapedtothewall.Thecharthasablackbackgroundandiscoveredwithsmallrectangularblocksarrangedinrows.Eachblockisinadifferentcolor.Thisisasound–colorchart.EachrectanglerepresentsoneEnglishsound.Thereisawhitehorizontallineapproximatelyhalfwaydownthechartseparatingtheupperrectangles,whichrepresentvowelsounds,fromthosebelowtheline,whichrepresentconsonantsounds.Withoutsayinganything, the teacherpoints tofivedifferentblocksofcolorabovetheline.Thereissilence.Theteacherrepeatsthepattern,pointingtothesamefiveblocksofcolor.Again,noonesaysanything.Thethirdtimetheteacherdoesthepointing,hesays/α/ashetouchesthefirstblock.Theteachercontinuesandtapsthefourotherblocksofcolorwiththepointer.Ashedoesthis,severalstudentssay/e/,/i/,/ /, /u/. He beginswith these vowels since they are the ones studentswill alreadyknow. (These five sounds are the simple vowels of Portuguese and everyBrazilianschoolchildlearnstheminthisorder.)

Figure5.1Theteacherusingasound–colorcharttoteachthesoundsofEnglish

The teacher points to the rectangle that represents /e/. He puts his two palmstogether,thenspreadsthemaparttoindicatethathewantsthestudentstolengthenthisvowelsound.Bymovinghispointer,heshowsthat there isasmoothglidingof thetongue necessary to change this Portuguese /e/ into the English diphthong /ei/. Heworkswith the students until he is satisfied that their pronunciation of /ei/ closely

approximates theEnglishvowel.Heworks in thesamewaywith /i:/, / / and /u:/.Thentheteacherhandsthepointertoagirlinthefrontrow.Shecomestothefrontoftheroomandpoints to thewhiteblock in the toprow.Theclassrespondswith /ei/.Onebyone,asshepointstothenextthreeblocks,theclassrespondscorrectlywith/ei/,/i:/,/ /.Butshehastroublefindingthelastblockofcolorandpointstoablockinthethirdrow.Afewstudentsyell,‘NO!’Shetriesanotherblockinthesamerow;herclassmatesyell,‘NO!’again.Finallyaboyfromthefrontrowsays,‘Àesquerda’(Portuguesefor‘totheleft’).Asthegirlmovesthepointeroneblocktotheleft,theclassshouts/u:/.Theteachersignalsforthegirltodotheseriesagain.Thistimeshegoes a bitmore quickly and has no trouble finding the block for /u:/. The teachersignalstoanotherstudenttoreplacethegirlandpointtothefiveblocksastheclassresponds. Then the teacher brings individuals to the front of the room, each onetappingoutthesequenceofthesoundsashesaysthem.Theteacherworkswiththestudents throughgestures, and sometimes through instructions inPortuguese, togetthemtoproducetheEnglishvowelsoundsasaccuratelyaspossible.Hedoesnotsaythesoundshimself.Apparently satisfied that the students canproduce the five sounds accurately, the

teachernextpointstothefiveblocksinadifferentorder.Afewstudentshesitate,butmostofthestudentsseemabletoconnectthecoloredblockswiththecorrectsounds.Theteachervariesthesequenceseveraltimesandthestudentsrespondappropriately.Theteacherthenpointstoaboysittinginthesecondrow.Theteachermovestothechartandpointstofivecoloredblocks.Twooftheblocksareabovethelineandarethe /ei/ and /u:/ theyhavealreadyworkedon.The threeotherblocksarebelow thelineandarenewtothem.Twoorthreeofthestudentsyell,‘Pedro,’whichistheboy’sname.Theotherstudentshelphimashepointstothecoloredblocksthatrepresentthesoundsofhisname: /p/, /e/, /d/, /r/, /u/.Twoor threeotherstudentsdothesame.Inthisway,thestudentshavelearnedthatEnglishhasa/p/,/d/,and/r/andthelocationofthesesoundsonthesound–colorchart.Thestudentshavealittleproblemwiththepronunciationofthe/r/,sotheteacherworkswiththembeforemovingon.Theteachernextpointstoagirlandtapsouteightcoloredrectangles.Inachorus,

thestudentssayhername,‘Carolina,’andpracticethegirl’snameastheydidPedro’s.Withthisthestudentshavelearnedthecolorsthatrepresentthreeothersounds:/k/,/l/,/n/. The teacher follows a similar procedure with a third student whose name isGabriela.Thestudentsknownowthelocationof/g/and/b/aswell.Theteacherhasvariousstudentstapoutthesoundsforthenamesoftheirthreeclassmates.Afterquitea fewstudentshave tappedout the threenames, the teacher takes the

pointerandintroducesanewactivity.Heaskseightstudentstositwithhimaroundabig table in the front of the roomas the rest of the class gathers behind them.Theteacher puts a pile of blue, green, and pinkwooden rods of varying lengths in themiddleof the table.Hepoints tooneof the rods, thenpoints to three rectanglesof

coloronthesound–colorchart.Somestudentsattempttosay‘rod.’Theyareabletodo this since theyhavealreadybeen introduced to these sound–colorcombinations.Theteacherpointsagaintotheblocksofcolor,andthistimeallofthestudentssay,‘rod.’Theteacherthenpointstotheblockofcolorrepresenting‘a’.Hepointstohismouthandshowsthestudents thathe israisinghis jawandclosinghismouth, thusshowingthestudentshowtoproduceanewEnglishsoundbystartingwithasoundthey already know. The students say something approximating / /, which is a newsoundforthem.Theteacherfollowsthisbypointingfirsttoanewblockofcolor,thenquicklyinsuccessiontofourblocksofcolor;thestudentschorus,‘arod.’Heturnstoadifferentchartonthewall;thisonehaswordsonitindifferentcolors.Hepointstothewords‘a’and‘rod,’andthestudentsseethateachletterisinthesamecolorasthesoundthelettersignifies.Afterpointingto‘a’and‘rod,’theteachersitsdownwiththestudentsatthetable,

sayingnothing.Everyoneissilentforaminuteuntilonegirlpointstoarodandsays,‘arod.’Theteacherhandsherthepointerandshegoesfirsttothesound–colorcharttotapoutthesounds,andsecondtothewordcharttopointtothewords‘a’and‘rod.’Severalotherstudentsfollowthispattern.Next,theteacherpointstoaparticularrodandtapsout‘abluerod.’Thenhepoints

totheword‘blue’onthewordchart.Aboypointstotherodandsay,‘Abluerod.’Hegoestothewordchartandfindsthethreewordsofthisphrasethere.Otherstudentsdothesame.Theteacherintroducestheword‘green’similarly,withstudentstappingoutthepatternafterheisthrough.Theteacherthenpointstoapinkrodandtapsout/pink/onthechart.The/I/vowel

isanewoneforthestudents.ItdoesnotexistinPortuguese.Theteacherpointstotheblock of color which represents /i/ and he indicates through his gesture that thestudentsaretoshortentheglideandopentheirmouthsabitmoretosaythissound.Thefirststudentwhotriestosay‘apinkrod’hastroublewiththepronunciationof

‘pink.’He looks to the teacher and the teacher gestures towards the other students.Oneofthemsays‘pink’andtheteacheracceptsherpronunciation.Thefirststudenttriesagainandthis timetheteacheracceptswhathesays.Anotherstudentseemstohavetroublewiththephrase.Usingafingertorepresenteachwordofthephrase,theteachershowsherhowthephraseissegmented.Thenbytappinghissecondfinger,heindicatesthathertroubleiswiththesecondword:Theteacherthenmouthsthevowelsoundand,withgestures,showsthestudentthatthevowelisshorterthanwhatsheissaying.Shetriestoshapehermouthashedoesandherpronunciationdoesimprovealittle,althoughitstilldoesnotappeartobeasclosetothetargetlanguagesoundsassomeoftheotherstudents’.Withtheotherstudentswatching,heworkswithherabitlonger. The students practice saying and tapping out the three colorwords and thephrase, with the teacher listening attentively and occasionally intervening to helpthemtocorrecttheirpronunciation.

Figure5.2Theteacherusinghandmovementstolocateastudent’serror

The teacherhasanothergroupof students take theplacesof the first eightat thetable. The teacher turns to one of the students and says, ‘Take a green rod.’ Thestudentdoesn’trespond;theteacherwaits.Anotherstudentpicksupagreenrodandsays the same sentence. Through gestures from the teacher, he understands that heshoulddirectthecommandtoanotherstudent.Thesecondstudentperformstheactionandthensays,‘Takeabluerod,’toathirdstudent.Hetakesone.Theotherstudentsthentaketurnsissuingandcomplyingwithcommandstotakearodofacertaincolor.Next the teacher puts several blue and green rods in the center of the table. He

pointstothebluerodandtooneofthestudents,whoresponds,‘Takeabluerod.’Theteacherthensays‘and’andpointstothegreenrod.Thesamestudentsays,‘andtakeagreenrod.’Theteacherindicatestothestudentthatsheshouldsaythewholesentenceandshesays,‘Takeabluerodandtakeagreenrod.’Asthegirlsayseachword,theteacherpointstooneofhisfingers.Whenshesaysthesecond‘take,’hegesturesthatsheshouldremovethe‘take’from

the sentence. She tries again, ‘Take a blue rod and a green rod,’which the teacheraccepts. The students now practice forming and complying with commands withsimilarcompoundobjects.Theteacherthenpointstothewordchartandtooneofthestudents,whotapsout

the sentences on the chart as the other students produce them. Later, students taketurnstappingoutthesentencesoftheirchoiceonthewordchart.Somestudentstapoutsimplecommandsandsomestudentstapoutcommandswithcompoundobjects.Thestudentsreturntotheirdesks.Theteacherturnstotheclassandaskstheclass

inPortuguesefortheirreactionstothelesson.Onestudentrepliesthathehaslearnedthat language learning isnotdifficult.Anothersays thathe is finding itdifficult;hefeels thatheneedsmorepracticeassociating the soundsandcolors.A third studentadds thatshefeltas ifshewereplayingagame.Afourthstudentsayshe is feelingconfused.Atthispointthelessonends.Duringthenextfewclasses,thestudentswill:

1Practicewiththeirnewsoundsandlearntoproduceaccurateintonationandstresspatternswiththewordsandsentences.

2LearnmoreEnglishwordsforcolorsandwhereanynewsoundsarelocatedonthesound–colorchart.

3Learntousethefollowingitems:

Giveittome/her/him/themToothis/that/these/thoseone/onesthe/a/anput…here/thereis/arehis/her/my/your/their/our

4Practicemakingsentenceswithmanydifferentcombinationsoftheseitems.5Practicereadingthesentencestheyhavecreatedonthewallcharts.6WorkwithFidelCharts,whicharechartssummarizingthespellingsofallthedifferentsoundsinEnglish.

7Practicewritingthesentencestheyhavecreated.

Before we analyze the lesson, let us peek in on another class being taught by theSilentWay.1Thisclassisatahigh-intermediatelevel.Thestudentsaresittingarounda table onwhich the teacher has used rods to construct a floor plan of a ‘typical’house.Heestablishesthe‘front’and‘back’ofthehousebyhavingthestudentslabelthe‘front’and‘back’doors.Hepointstoeachoffourroomsandisabletoelicitfromthe students: ‘the living room,’ ‘thedining room,’ ‘thekitchen,’ and ‘thebedroom.’Thentheteacherpointstothewallsofeachroominturn.Thisintroducestheneedfor‘inside/outsidewall.’Bysimplypointingtoeachwall,theteachergivesthestudentsalotofpracticeproducingphraseslike‘thefrontwallofthelivingroom,‘theoutsidewall of the dining room,’ etc.Next the teacher picks up a rod and says ‘table.’Heshrugshisshoulderstoindicatetostudentsthattheyshouldtellhimwheretoputit.One student says ‘the dining room,’ but the teacher indicates that he needs more

specificdirections.Thestudentsays‘Putthetableinthemiddleofthediningroom.’The teacher does this.He then picks up another, smaller rod.Another student says‘chair.’Theteacher indicates that thestudentshouldtellhimwhere toput thechair.Theteacherworkswithher,usingthechartstointroducenewwordsuntilshecansay,‘Putthechairinthediningroomattheheadofthetable.’Thelessoncontinuesinthisway,withtheteachersayingverylittle,andthestudentspracticingagreatdealwithcomplexsentencessuchas‘Putthetableatoneendofthesofaneartheoutsidewallofthelivingroom.’

ThinkingabouttheExperienceSincetheSilentWaymaynotbefamiliartomanyofyou,letusreviewindetailourobservationsandexamineitsprinciples.

Observations Principles

1Theteacherpointstofiveblocksofcolorwithoutsayinganything.TheblocksofcolorrepresentthesoundsoffiveEnglishvowelsclosetothefivesimplevowelsofPortuguese.

Theteachershouldstartwithsomethingthestudentsalreadyknowandbuildfromthattotheunknown.Languagesshareanumberoffeatures,soundsbeingthemostbasic.

2Theteacherpointsagaintothefiveblocksofcolor.Whenthestudentssaynothing,theteacherpointstothefirstblockofcolorandsays/α/.Severalstudentssay/e/,/i/,/ /,/u/astheteacherpointstotheotherfourblocks.

Languagelearnersareintelligentandbringwiththemtheexperienceofalreadylearningalanguage.Theteachershouldgiveonlywhathelpisnecessary.

3Theteacherdoesnotmodelthenewsounds,butratherusesgesturestoshowthestudentshowtomodifythePortuguesesounds.

Languageisnotlearnedbyrepeatingafteramodel.Studentsneedtodeveloptheirown‘innercriteria’forcorrectness—totrustandtoberesponsiblefortheirownproductioninthetargetlanguage.

4Studentstaketurnstappingoutthesounds.

Students’actionscantelltheteacherwhetherornottheyhavelearned.

5Onestudentsays,‘Àesquerda,’tohelpanother.

Studentsshouldlearntorelyoneachotherandthemselves.

6Theteacherworkswithgestures,andsometimesinstructionsinthestudents’nativelanguage,tohelpthestudentstoproducethetargetlanguagesoundsasaccuratelyaspossible.

Theteacherworkswiththestudentswhilethestudentsworkonthelanguage.

7Thestudentslearnthesoundsofnewblocksofcolorbytappingoutthenamesoftheirclassmates.

Theteachermakesuseofwhatstudentsalreadyknow.Themoretheteacherdoesforthestudentswhattheycandoforthemselves,thelesstheywilldoforthemselves.

8Theteacherpointstoarodandthentothreeblocksofcoloronthesound–colorchart.Thestudentsrespond,‘rod.’

Learninginvolvestransferringwhatoneknowstonewcontexts.

9Theteacherpointstothewords‘a’and‘rod’onthewordchart.

Readingisworkedonfromthebeginningbutfollowsfromwhatstudentshavelearnedtosay.

10Theteachersitsdownatthetableandissilent.Afteraminute,agirlpointstoarodandsays,‘arod.’

Silenceisatool.Ithelpstofosterautonomy,ortheexerciseofinitiative.Italsoremovestheteacherfromthecenterofattentionsohecanlistentoandworkwithstudents.Theteacherspeaks,butonlywhennecessary.Otherwise,theteachergetsoutofthewaysothatitisthestudentswhoreceivethepracticeinusingthelanguage.

11Theteacherpointstoaparticularrodandtapsout‘abluerod’onthesound–colorchart.

Meaningismadeclearbyfocusingstudents’perceptions,notthroughtranslation.

12Onestudenttriestosay‘apinkrod’andhastrouble.Helookstotheteacher,buttheteacherremainssilentandlookstotheotherstudents.

Studentscanlearnfromoneanother.Theteacher’ssilenceencouragesgroupcooperation.

13Thefirststudenttriestosay‘apinkrod’again.Thistimetheteacheracceptsthestudent’scorrectpronunciation.

Iftheteacherpraises(orcriticizes)students,theywillbelessself-reliant.Theteacher’sactionscaninterferewithstudents’developingtheirowncriteria.

14Anotherstudenthastroublepronouncingpartofthephrase‘apinkrod.’Usinggestures,theteacherisolatesthetroublespotforher.

Errorsareimportantandnecessarytolearning.Theyshowtheteacherwherethingsareunclear.

15Afterlocatingtheerrorforthestudent,theteacherdoesnotsupplythecorrectlanguageuntilallself-correctionoptionshavefailed.

Ifstudentsaresimplygivenanswers,ratherthanbeingallowedtoself-correct,theywillnotretainthem.

16Theteachermouthsthecorrectsound,butdoesnotvocalizeit.

Studentsneedtolearntolistentothemselves.

17Thestudent’spronunciationisimprovedbutisstillnotasclosetothetargetlanguagesoundsassomeofthestudentsareabletocome.Theteacherworkswithherabitlongerbeforethelessonproceeds.

Atthebeginning,theteacherneedstolookforprogress,notperfection.Learningtakesplaceintime.Studentslearnatdifferentrates.

18Theteacherlistensattentively. Ateacher’ssilencefreestheteachertocloselyobservethestudents’behavior.

19Theteachersays,‘Takethegreenrod,’onlyonce.

Studentslearntheymustgivetheteachertheirattentioninordernottomisswhathesays.Studentattentionisakeytolearning.

20Thestudentstaketurnsissuingandcomplyingwithcommandstotakearodofacertaincolor.

Studentsshouldengageinagreatdealofmeaningfulpracticewithoutrepetition.

21Thestudentspracticecommandswithcompoundobjects.

Theelementsofthelanguageareintroducedlogically,expandinguponwhatstudentsalreadyknow.

22Thestudentstaketurnstappingoutthesentencesoftheirchoiceonthewordcharts.

Studentsgainautonomyinthelanguagebyexploringitandbymakingchoices.

23Somestudentschoosetotapoutsimplecommands;otherstapoutmorecomplexones.

Languageisforself-expression.

24Theteacherasksthestudentsfortheirreactionstothelesson.

Theteachercangainvaluableinformationfromstudentfeedback;forexample,hecanlearnwhattoworkonnext.Studentslearnhowtoacceptresponsibilityfortheirownlearning.

25Thereisnohomeworkassigned. Somelearningtakesplacenaturallyaswesleep.Studentswillnaturallyworkontheday’slessonthen.

26Insubsequentlessons,thestudentswilllearntouseanumberofdifferentlinguisticstructures.

Thesyllabusiscomposedoflinguisticstructures.

27Thestudentswillpracticemakingsentenceswithdifferentcombinationsofthesestructures.

Thestructuresofthesyllabusarenotarrangedinalinearfashion,butratherareconstantlybeingrecycled.

28Studentswillpracticewritingthesentencestheycreate.

Theskillsofspeaking,reading,andwritingreinforceoneanother.

ReviewingthePrinciplesAsyoucansee,theSilentWayhasagreatmanyprinciples.Perhapswecancometoafullerunderstandingofthemifweconsidertheanswerstoour10questions.

1WhatarethegoalsofteacherswhousetheSilentWay?Studentsshouldbeabletousethelanguageforself-expression—toexpresstheirthoughts,perceptions,andfeelings.Inordertodothis,theyneedtodevelopindependencefromtheteacher,todeveloptheirowninnercriteriaforcorrectness.

Studentsbecomeindependentbyrelyingonthemselves.Theteacher,therefore,shouldgivethemonlywhattheyabsolutelyneedtopromotetheirlearning.

2Whatistheroleoftheteacher?Whatistheroleofthestudents?Theteacherisatechnicianorengineer.‘Onlythelearnercandothelearning,’buttheteacher,relyingonwhathisstudentsalreadyknow,cangivewhathelpisnecessary,focusthestudents’perceptions,‘forcetheirawareness,’and‘provideexercisestoinsuretheirfacility’withthelanguage.Theteachershouldrespecttheautonomyofthelearnersintheirattemptsatrelatingandinteractingwiththenewchallenges.

Theroleofthestudentsistomakeuseofwhattheyknow,tofreethemselvesofanyobstaclesthatwouldinterferewithgivingtheirutmostattentiontothelearningtask,andtoactivelyengageinexploringthelanguage.Noonecanlearnforus,Gattegnowouldsay;tolearnisourpersonalresponsibility.

AsGattegnosays,‘Theteacherworkswiththestudent;thestudentworksonthelanguage.’

3Whataresomecharacteristicsoftheteaching/learningprocess?Studentsbegintheirstudyofthelanguagethroughitsbasicbuildingblocks,itssounds.Theseareintroducedthroughalanguage-specificsound–colorchart.Relyingonwhatsoundsstudentsalreadyknowfromtheirknowledgeoftheirnativelanguage,teachersleadtheirstudentstoassociatethesoundsofthetargetlanguagewithparticularcolors.Later,thesesamecolorsareusedtohelpstudentslearnthespellingsthatcorrespondtothesounds(throughthecolor-codedFidelCharts)andhowtoreadandpronouncewordsproperly(throughthecolor-codedwordcharts).

Theteachersetsupsituationsthatfocusstudentattentiononthestructuresofthelanguage.Thesituationsprovideavehicleforstudentstoperceivemeaning.Thesituationssometimescallfortheuseofrodsandsometimesdonot;theytypicallyinvolveonlyonestructureatatime.Withminimalspokencues,thestudentsareguidedtoproducethestructure.Theteacherworkswiththem,strivingfor

pronunciationthatwouldbeintelligibletoanativespeakerofthetargetlanguage.Theteacherusesthestudents’errorsasevidenceofwherethelanguageisuncleartostudentsand,hence,wheretowork.

Thestudentsreceiveagreatdealofpracticewithagiventargetlanguagestructurewithoutrepetitionforitsownsake.Theygainautonomyinthelanguagebyexploringitandmakingchoices.Theteacherasksthestudentstodescribetheirreactionstothelessonorwhattheyhavelearned.Thisprovidesvaluableinformationfortheteacherandencouragesstudentstotakeresponsibilityfortheirownlearning.Somefurtherlearningtakesplacewhiletheysleep.

4Whatisthenatureofstudent–teacherinteraction?Whatisthenatureofstudent–studentinteraction?Formuchofthestudent–teacherinteraction,theteacherissilent.Heisstillveryactive,however—settingupsituationsto‘forceawareness,’listeningattentivelytostudents’speech,andsilentlyworkingwiththemontheirproductionthroughtheuseofnonverbalgesturesandthetoolshehasavailable.Whentheteacherdoesspeak,itistogiveclues,nottomodelthelanguage.

Student–studentverbalinteractionisdesirable(studentscanlearnfromoneanother)andisthereforeencouraged.Theteacher’ssilenceisonewaytodothis.

5Howarethefeelingsofthestudentsdealtwith?Theteacherconstantlyobservesthestudents.Whentheirfeelingsinterfere,theteachertriestofindwaysforthestudentstoovercomethem.Also,throughfeedbacksessionsattheendoflessons,studentshaveanopportunitytoexpresshowtheyfeel.Theteachertakeswhattheysayintoconsiderationandworkswiththestudentstohelpthemovercomenegativefeelingswhichmightotherwiseinterferewiththeirlearning.Finally,becausestudentsareencouragedthroughouteachlessontocooperatewithoneanother,itishopedthatarelaxed,enjoyablelearningenvironmentwillbecreated.

6Howisthelanguageviewed?Howiscultureviewed?Languagesoftheworldshareanumberoffeatures.However,eachlanguagealsohasitsownuniquereality,orspirit,sinceitistheexpressionofaparticulargroupofpeople.Theirculture,asreflectedintheirownuniqueworldview,isinseparablefromtheirlanguage.

7Whatareasoflanguageareemphasized?Whatlanguageskillsareemphasized?

Sincethesoundsarebasictoanylanguage,pronunciationisworkedonfromthebeginning.Itisimportantthatstudentsacquirethemelodyofthelanguage.Thereisalsoafocusonthestructuresofthelanguage,althoughexplicitgrammarrulesmayneverbesupplied.Vocabularyissomewhatrestrictedatfirst.

Thereisnofixed,linear,structuralsyllabus.Instead,theteacherstartswithwhatthestudentsknowandbuildsfromonestructuretothenext.Asthelearners’repertoireisexpanded,previouslyintroducedstructuresarecontinuallybeingrecycled.Thesyllabusdevelopsaccordingtolearningneeds.

Allfourskillsareworkedonfromthebeginningofthecourse,althoughthereisasequenceinthatstudentslearntoreadandwritewhattheyhavealreadyproducedorally.Theskillsreinforcewhatstudentsarelearning.

8Whatistheroleofthestudents’nativelanguage?Meaningismadeclearbyfocusingthestudents’perceptions,notbytranslation.Thestudents’nativelanguagecan,however,beusedtogiveinstructionswhennecessary,tohelpastudentimprovehisorherpronunciation,forinstance.Thenativelanguageisalsoused(atleastatbeginninglevelsofproficiency)duringthefeedbacksessions.

Moreimportant,knowledgestudentsalreadypossessoftheirnativelanguagecanbeexploitedbytheteacherofthetargetlanguage.Forexample,theteacherknowsthatmanyofthesoundsinthestudents’nativelanguagewillbesimilar,ifnotidentical,tosoundsinthetargetlanguage;heassumes,then,thathecanbuilduponthisexistingknowledgetointroducethenewsoundsinthetargetlanguage.

9Howisevaluationaccomplished?Althoughtheteachermaynevergiveaformaltest,heassessesstudentlearningallthetime.Since‘teachingissubordinatedtolearning,’theteachermustberesponsivetoimmediatelearningneeds.Theteacher’ssilencefreeshimtoattendtohisstudentsandtobeawareoftheseneeds.Theneedswillbeapparenttoateacherwhoisobservantofhisstudents’behavior.Onecriterionofwhetherornotstudentshavelearnedistheirabilitytotransferwhattheyhavebeenstudyingtonewcontexts.

Theteacherdoesnotpraiseorcriticizestudentbehaviorsincethiswouldinterferewithstudents’developingtheirowninnercriteria.Heexpectsstudentstolearnatdifferentrates.Theteacherlooksforsteadyprogress,notperfection.

10Howdoestheteacherrespondtostudenterrors?Studenterrorsareseenasanatural,indispensablepartofthelearningprocess.

Errorsareinevitablesincethestudentsareencouragedtoexplorethelanguage.Theteacherusesstudenterrorsasabasisfordecidingwherefurtherworkisnecessary.

Theteacherworkswiththestudentsingettingthemtoself-correct.Studentsarenotthoughttolearnmuchiftheteachermerelysuppliesthecorrectlanguage.Studentsneedtolearntolistentothemselvesandtocomparetheirownproductionwiththeirdevelopinginnercriteria.Ifthestudentsareunabletoself-correctandpeerscannothelp,thentheteacherwouldsupplythecorrectlanguage,butonlyasalastresort.

ReviewingtheTechniquesManyof the ideas in this chaptermaybenew toyou.Someof these ideasmaybeimmediately attractive to you,whereas othersmaynot.Give yourself time to thinkaboutallofthembeforeyoudecidetheirvaluetoyou.In the review that follows, thematerials surveyed in this chapter (the charts and

rods) have been included.While you may not have access to the actual materialsdiscussedhere,thematerialsmaygiveyouotherideasofwhatyoucanuse.

•Sound–ColorChartThechartcontainsblocksofcolor,eachonerepresentingasoundinthetargetlanguage.Theteacher,andlaterthestudents,pointstoblocksofcoloronthecharttoformsyllables,words,andevensentences.Althoughwedidnotseeitinthislesson,sometimestheteacherwilltapaparticularblockofcolorveryhardwhenformingaword.Inthiswaytheteachercanintroducethestresspatternfortheword.Thechartallowsstudentstoproducesoundcombinationsinthetargetlanguagewithoutdoingsothroughrepetition.Thechartdrawsthestudents’attentionandallowsthemtoconcentrateonthelanguage,notontheteacher.Whenaparticularsoundcontrastisnewforstudents,andtheyareunabletoperceivewhichsoundofthetwotheyareproducing,thesound–colorchartcanbeusedtogivethemfeedbackonwhichsoundtheyaremaking.

Finally,sincethesound–colorchartpresentsallofthesoundsofthetargetlanguageatonce,studentsknowwhattheyhavelearnedandwhattheyyetneedtolearn.Thisrelatestotheissueoflearnerautonomy.

•Teacher’sSilenceTheteachergivesjustasmuchhelpasisnecessaryandthenissilent.Ortheteachersetsupanunambiguoussituation,putsalanguagestructureintocirculation(forexample,‘Takea____rod’),andthenissilent.Eveninerrorcorrection,theteacherwillonlysupplyaverbalanswerasalastresort.

•PeerCorrectionStudentsareencouragedtohelpanotherstudentwhenheorsheisexperiencingdifficulty.Itisimportantthatanyhelpbeofferedinacooperativemanner,notacompetitiveone.Theteachermonitorstheaidsothatitishelpful,notinterfering.

•RodsRodscanbeusedtoprovidevisibleactionsorsituationsforanylanguagestructure,tointroduceit,ortoenablestudentstopracticeusingit.Therodstriggermeaning:

Situationswiththerodscanbecreatedinsuchawaythatthemeaningismadeclear;thenthelanguageisconnectedtothemeaning.Atthebeginninglevel,therodscanbeusedtoteachcolorsandnumbers.Laterontheycanbeusedformorecomplicatedstructures;forexample,statementswithprepositions(‘Thebluerodisbetweenthegreenoneandtheyellowone’)andconditionals(‘Ifyougivemeabluerod,thenI’llgiveyoutwogreenones’).Theycanbeusedabstractlyaswell;forinstance,forstudentstomakeaclockwhenlearningtotelltimeinthetargetlanguage,tocreateafamilytree,ortomakeafloorplanoftheirhouse,whichtheylaterdescribetotheirclassmates.Sometimes,teacherswillputtherodsdownonthedeskinaline,usingadifferentrodtorepresenteachwordinasentence.Bypointingtoeachrodinturn,whileremainingsilent,theteachercanelicitthesentencefromthestudents.Hecanalsomakeconcreteforstudentsaspectsofthestructure,forexample,theneedtoinvertthesubjectandauxiliaryverbinordertoformquestions.

Therodsarethereforeveryversatile.Theycanbeusedasrodsormoreabstractlytorepresentotherrealities.Theyallowstudentstobecreativeandimaginative,andtheyallowforactiontoaccompanylanguage.

•Self-correctionGesturesWealreadyexaminedsomeself-correctiontechniquesinthechapterontheDirectMethod.SomeoftheparticulargesturesoftheSilentWaycouldbeaddedtothislist.Forexample,intheclassobserved,theteacherputhispalmstogetherandthenmovedthemoutwardstosignaltostudentstheneedtolengthentheparticularvoweltheywereworkingon.Inanotherinstance,theteacherindicatedthateachofhisfingersrepresentedawordinasentenceandusedthistolocatethetroublespotforthestudent.

•WordChartTheteacher,andlaterthestudents,pointstowordsonthewallchartsinasequencesothatstudentscanreadaloudthesentencestheyhavespoken.Thewaythelettersarecolored(thecolorsfromthesound–colorchartareused)helpsthestudentswiththeirpronunciation.TherearetwelveEnglishchartscontainingabout500words.ThechartscontainthefunctionalvocabularyofEnglish.Thereareothersavailableforotherlanguages.Althoughwedidnotseetheminthislesson,studentsalsoworkwithSilentWaywallpicturesandbookstofurtherexpandtheirvocabulariesandfacilitywiththelanguage.

•FidelChartsTheteacher,andlaterthestudents,pointstothecolor-codedFidelChartsinorder

thatstudentsassociatethesoundsofthelanguagewiththeirspelling.Forexample,listedtogetherandcoloredthesameasthecolorblockforthesound/ei/are‘ay,’‘ea,’‘ei,’‘eigh,’etc.showingthattheseareallwaysofspellingthe/ei/soundinEnglish(asinthewords‘say,’‘steak,’‘veil,’‘weigh’).BecauseofthelargenumberofwayssoundsinEnglishcanbespelled,thereareeightFidelChartsinall.Thereareanumberofchartsavailableforotherlanguagesaswell.

•StructuredFeedbackStudentsareinvitedtomakeobservationsabouttheday’slessonandwhattheyhavelearned.Theteacheracceptsthestudents’commentsinanondefensivemanner,hearingthingsthatwillhelpgivehimdirectionforwhereheshouldworkwhentheclassmeetsagain.Thestudentslearntotakeresponsibilityfortheirownlearningbybecomingawareofandcontrollinghowtheyusecertainlearningstrategiesinclass.Thelengthandfrequencyoffeedbacksessionsvarydependingontheteacherandtheclass.

ConclusionInthischapterwesawabeginninglessonandanintermediatelesson,but theSilentWayisusedwithadvancedstudents,too.Forthesestudentsthesameprinciplesapply,andthesamechartsareused.Inaddition,therearepicturesfortopicalvocabularies,booksforAmericanculturalsettings,andanintroductiontoliterature.WehaveavoidedreferringtotheSilentWayasamethodsinceCalebGattegnosays

it is not one. Proponents of the Silent Way claim its principles are far-reaching,affecting not only education, but the way one perceives the living of life itself.Nevertheless,thereclearlyareimplicationsforlanguageteaching,andyoushouldaskyourselfwhetherthereareimplicationsforyou.Doyoubelieveteachingshouldbesubordinatedtolearning?Doesitmakesenseto

you that learners should be encouraged to be independent of the teacher andautonomousinmakingtheirownchoices?Doyouthinkstudentscanlearnfromoneanother? Should a teacher look for progress, not perfection? Are there any otherprinciplesoftheSilentWayyoubelievein?Whichones?Are thereSilentWaymaterialswhichwould be of use to you?Should a teacher

remainsilentasmuchaspossible?Isstructuredfeedbackausefulthingforteacherstoelicitfromtheirstudents?Whichtechniquescanyouadapttoyourownapproachtolanguageteaching?

Activities

ACheckyourunderstandingoftheSilentWay.1Therearemanyreasonsfortheteacher’ssilenceintheSilentWay.Someofthesehavebeenstatedexplicitlyinthischapter;othershavebeenimplied.Canyoustatethereasons?

2Whatdoesthephrase,‘Teachingissubordinatedtolearning,’mean?3OneofthemottosoftheSilentWayis‘Theteacherworkswiththestudents;thestudentsworkonthelanguage.’Whatdoyouthinkthismeans?

BApplywhatyouhaveunderstoodabouttheSilentWay.1Teachsomestudentsashorttargetlanguageversewhichcontainssomeunfamiliarsounds.Whatnonverbalgesturesorcuescanyoudeveloptoguideyourstudentstoproducethecorrectsounds,intonation,andrhythmastheylearntheverse?

2Chooseagrammarstructure.Itisprobablybetteratfirsttochoosesomethingelementarylikethedemonstrativeadjectives(‘this,’‘that,’‘these,’‘those’inEnglish)orthepossessiveadjectives(‘my,’‘your,’‘his,’‘her,’‘its,’‘our,’‘their’inEnglish).Planalessontoteachthestructureswhere:aYouwillremainassilentandinterfereaslittleaspossible.bThemeaningwillbecleartothestudents.cTheywillreceiveagooddealofpracticewithoutrepetition.

3Thinkofstudentswithaparticularnativelanguagebackground.Howwillyousequencethesoundsofthetargetlanguageinordertoteachthemtothesestudents,buildingonwhattheyalreadyknow?

References/AdditionalResourcesGattegno,C.1972.TeachingForeignLanguagesinSchools:TheSilentWay(2ndedn.).NewYork:EducationalSolutions,Inc.

____.1976.TheCommonSenseofTeachingForeignLanguages.NewYork:EducationalSolutions,Inc.

Richards,J.andT.Rodgers.1986.ApproachesandMethodsinLanguageTeaching.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Stevick,E.1990.HumanisminLanguageTeaching.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

____.1998.WorkingwithTeachingMethods:What’satStake?Boston:Heinle&Heinle.

1 This high-intermediate lesson is based on Donald Freeman’s lesson in the Department of State’s LanguageTeachingMethodsvideo.

6

Desuggestopedia

IntroductionTheoriginatorof themethodwewillbeexploring in thischapter,GeorgiLozanov,believes,asdoesSilentWay’sCalebGattegno,thatlanguagelearningcanoccuratamuchfasterrate thanordinarilytranspires.Thereasonforour inefficiency,Lozanovasserts, is thatwesetuppsychologicalbarriers to learning:Wefear thatwewillbeunabletoperform,thatwewillbelimitedinourabilitytolearn,thatwewillfail.Oneresult is that we do not use the full mental powers that we have. According toLozanovandothers,wemaybeusingonlyfivetotenpercentofourmentalcapacity.Inordertomakebetteruseofourreservecapacity,thelimitationswethinkwehaveneedtobe‘desuggested.’Desuggestopedia,1theapplicationofthestudyofsuggestionto pedagogy, has been developed to help students eliminate the feeling that theycannotbesuccessfuland/orthenegativeassociationtheymayhavetowardstudyingandthustohelpthemovercomethebarrierstolearning.Oneofthewaysthestudents’mental reserves are stimulated is through integration of the fine arts, an importantcontributiontothemethodmadebyLozanov’scolleagueEvelinaGateva.LetusnowseeforourselveshowtheprinciplesofDesuggestopediaareappliedto

languageteaching.Wewillvisitauniversityclass inEgyptbeingtaughtEnglishbythis method. The students are beginners. The class meets for two hours, threemorningsaweek.

Experience2Thefirstthingwenoticewhenweentertheclassroomishowdifferentthisroomis

comparedwithall theotherclassroomswehavebeeninsofar.Everythingisbrightandcolorful.Thereareseveralpostersonthewalls.Mostofthemaretravelposterswith scenes from the United Kingdom; a few, however, contain grammaticalinformation. One has the conjugation of the verb ‘be’ and the subject pronouns;another has the object and possessive pronouns. There is also a table with somerhythm instrumentson it.Next to themare somehats,masks,andotherprops.TheteachergreetsthestudentsinArabicandexplainsthattheyareabouttobeginanewandexcitingexperienceinlanguagelearning.Shesaysconfidently,‘Youwon’tneedtotrytolearn.Itwilljustcomenaturally.’

Figure6.1Studentslookingatpostersonthewall

‘First,youwillallgettopicknewnames—Englishones.Itwillbefun,’shesays.Besides,shetellsthem,theywillneednewidentities(onestheycanplaywith)togoalongwith thisnewexperience.Sheshows theclassaposterwithdifferentEnglishnames printed in color in the Roman alphabet. The students are familiar with theRoman alphabet from their earlier study of French. There aremen’s names in onecolumnandwomen’snamesinanother.Shetellsthemthattheyareeachtochooseaname.Shepronounceseachnameandhasthestudentsrepeatthepronunciation.Onebyonethestudentssaywhichnametheyhavechosen.Next,shetellsthemthatduringthecoursetheywillcreateanimaginarybiography

aboutthelifeoftheirnewidentity.Butfornow,shesays,theyshouldjustchoosea

profession to go with the new name. Using pantomime to help the studentsunderstand,theteacheractsoutvariousoccupations,suchaspilot,singer,carpenter,andartist.Thestudentschoosewhattheywanttobe.Theteachergreetsthestudents,usingtheirnewnamesandasksthemafewyes/no

questions in English about their new occupation. Through her actions the studentsunderstand themeaning,and theyreply‘yes’or ‘no.’She then teaches themashortEnglishdialogue inwhich twopeoplegreeteachotherand inquirewhateachotherdoes for a living. After practicing the dialogue with the group, they introducethemselvestotheteacher.Thentheyplaytherhythminstrumentsastheysinganamesong.Next the teacher announces to the class that they will be beginning a new

adventure. She distributes a 20-page handout. The handout contains a lengthydialogueentitled‘Towanttoistobeableto,’whichtheteachertranslatesintoArabic.Shehasthestudentsturnthepage.Ontherightpagearetwocolumnsofprint:intheleftoneistheEnglishdialogue;intheright,theArabictranslation.Ontheleftpageare some comments in Arabic about certain of the English vocabulary items andgrammaticalstructuresthestudentswillencounterinthedialogueonthefacingpage.These items have been boldfaced in the dialogue. Throughout the 20 pages arereproductionsofclassicalpaintings.Partly in Arabic, partly in English, and partly through pantomime, the teacher

outlinesthestoryinthedialogue.Shealsocallsherstudents’attentiontosomeofthecommentsregardingvocabularyandgrammarontheleft-handpages.ThenshetellstheminArabicthatsheisgoingtoreadthedialoguetotheminEnglishandthattheyshouldfollowalongasshereads.Shewillgive themsufficient timeto lookatboththeEnglishandtheArabic.‘Justenjoy,’sheconcludes.Theteacherputsonsomemusic—Mozart’sViolinConcertoinA.Afteracoupleof

minutes,inaquietvoiceshebeginstoreadthetext.Herreadingappearstobemoldedby the music as she varies her intonation and keeps rhythm with the music. Thestudentsfollowalongwiththevoiceoftheteacher,whoallowsthemenoughtimetoread the translation of the dialogue in their native language silently. They areencouraged tohighlightand takenotesduring the session.The teacherpauses fromtimetotimetoallowthestudentstolistentothemusic,andfortwoorthreeminutesatatime,thewholegroupstandsandrepeatsaftertheteacher,joiningtheirvoicestothemusic.Following thismusical session, thestudents takeabreak.When they return from

thebreak,theyseethattheteacherhashungapaintingofacalmingsceneinnatureatthefrontoftheroom.Theteacherthenexplainsthatshewillreadthedialogueagain.This time she suggests that the students put down their scripts and just listen. Thesecondtimeshereadsthedialogue,sheappearstobespeakingatanormalrate.Shehaschangedthemusic toHandel’sWaterMusic.Shemakesnoattempt this timeto

matchhervoice to themusic.With theendof thesecondreading, theclass isover.There is no homework assigned; however, the teacher suggests that if the studentswanttodosomething,theycouldreadoverthedialogueoncebeforetheygotobedandoncewhentheygetupinthemorning.Wedecidetoattendthenextclasstoseehowtheteacherwillworkwiththenew

material she has presented. After greeting the students and having them introducethemselvesintheirnewidentitiesonceagain,theteacherasksthestudentstotakeouttheirdialoguescripts.Next, the teacher pulls out a hat from a bag. She puts it on her head, points to

herself, and names a character from the dialogue. She indicates that she wantssomeoneelsetowearthehat.Agirlvolunteerstodoso.Threemorehatsaretakenoutof the teacher’s bag and,with a great deal of playfulness, they are distributed.Theteacherturnstothefourstudentswearingthehatsandasksthemtoreadaportionofthedialogue, imagining that theyare thecharacterwhosehat theywear.When theyfinish their portion of dialogue, four different students get to wear the hats andcontinuereadingthescript.Thisgroupisaskedtoreaditinasadway.Thenextgroupoffourreaditinanangryway,andthelastgroupoffourinacheerfulway.The teacher then asks for four new volunteers. She tells them that they are

auditioningforarole inaBroadwayplay.Theywantverymuchtowintherole. Inordertoimpressthedirectoroftheplay,theymustreadtheirlinesverydramatically.The first group reads several pages of the dialogue in this manner, and followinggroupsdothisaswell.Next, the teacher asks questions in English about the dialogue. She also asks

students togiveher theEnglish translationofanArabicsentencefromthedialogueandviceversa.Sometimessheasks thestudents to repeatanEnglish lineafterher;stillothertimes,sheaddressesaquestionfromthedialoguetoanindividualstudent.Thensheteachesthestudentsachildren’salphabetsongcontainingEnglishnames

and occupations, ‘A, my name is Alice; my husband’s name is Alex. We live inAustralia,andwesellapples.B,mynameisBarbara;myhusband’snameisBert.WeliveinBrazil,andwesellbooks.’Thestudentsarelaughingandclappingastheysingalong.Afterthesong,theteacherhasthestudentsstandupandgetinacircle.Shetakes

out amedium-sized soft ball. She throws the ball to one student and,while she isthrowingit,sheaskshimwhathisnameisinEnglish.Hecatchestheballashesays,‘Myname isRichard.’ She indicates that he is to throw the ball to another studentwhileposingaquestiontohim.Richardasks,‘Whatyoudo?’Theteachercorrectsinaverysoftvoicesaying‘Whatdoyoudo?’Thestudentreplies, ‘Iamaconductor.’The game continues on in this manner with the students posing questions to oneanother as they throw the ball. The second class is now over. Again, there is no

homeworkassigned,otherthantoreadoverthedialogueifastudentsowishes.During the third class of the week, the students will continue to workwith this

dialogue.Theywillmoveawayfromreadingit,however,andmovetowardusingthenew language in a creativeway. Theywill play some competitive games, do role-plays (see description in the techniques review) and skits.The followingweek, theclass will be introduced to a new dialogue, and the basic sequence of lessons weobservedherewillberepeated.In the classroom next door, an intermediate class is studying. The students are

seatedaroundarectangulartable.Onthetablethereareafewtoysandinstruments.Againtherearepostersaroundtheroom,thistimeofmorecomplicatedgrammar.Aswelistenin,theteacherisintroducingastoryfromareader.Shegivessynonymsordescriptionsforthenewwords.Shereadspartsofthestoryandthestudentsdochoraland individual reading of other sections. New words, families of words, andexpressionsarelistedattheendofthestoryforreference.Theintermediatestudentsare encouraged to add their own new words and phrases to the lesson with theirtranslations.Thestudentsusemorecomplextensesandlanguagestructures.Theteacherpresentsthefirststoryandlistsofrelatedwordsandstructurestothe

accompaniment of a Beethoven piano concerto in much the same way as thebeginners’ dialogue is read, followed by a shorter second reading to Bach. Thefollowing days include reading, singing, discussions, story-telling, grammar andpronunciationgames,andwriting,allorchestratedinacreativeandplayfulfashion.

ThinkingabouttheExperienceLetusnow investigateDesuggestopedia inourusual fashion.First,wewill listourobservations. From these, we will attempt to uncover the principles ofDesuggestopedia.

Observations Principles

1Theclassroomisbrightandcolorful. Learningisfacilitatedinacheerfulenvironment.

2Amongthepostershangingaroundtheroomareseveralcontaininggrammaticalinformation.

Astudentcanlearnfromwhatispresentintheenvironment,evenifhisattentionisnotdirectedtoit(peripherallearning).

3Theteacherspeaksconfidently. Ifthestudentstrustandrespecttheteacher’sauthority,theywillacceptandretaininformationbetter.

4Theteachergivesthestudentstheimpressionthatlearningthetargetlanguagewillbeeasyandenjoyable.

Theteachershouldrecognizethatlearnersbringcertainpsychologicalbarrierswiththemtothelearningsituation.Sheshouldattemptto‘desuggest’these.

5Thestudentschoosenewnamesandidentities.

Assuminganewidentityenhancesstudents’feelingofsecurityandallowsthemtobemoreopen.Theyfeellessinhibitedsincetheirperformanceisreallythatofadifferentperson.

6Thestudentsintroducethemselvestotheteacher.

Thedialoguethatthestudentslearncontainslanguagetheycanuseimmediately.

7Theyplayrhythmicinstrumentsastheysingasong.

Songsareusefulfor‘freeingthespeechmuscles’andevokingpositiveemotions.

8Theteacherdistributesalengthyhandouttotheclass.Thetitleofthedialogueis‘Towanttoistobeableto.’

Theteachershouldintegrateindirectpositivesuggestions(‘thereisnolimittowhatyoucando’)intothelearningsituation.

9Theteacherbrieflymentionsafew Theteachershouldpresentandexplain

pointsaboutEnglishgrammarandvocabulary.Theseareinboldprintinthedialogue.

thegrammarandvocabulary,butnotdwellonthem.Theboldprintallowsthestudents’focustoshiftfromthewholetexttothedetailsbeforetheyreturntothewholetextagain.Thedynamicinterplaybetweenthewholeandthepartsisimportant.

10Therearereproductionsofclassicalpaintingsthroughoutthetext.

Fineartprovidespositivesuggestionsforstudents.

11Intheleftcolumnisthedialogueinthetargetlanguage.Intherightcolumnisthenativelanguagetranslation.

Onewaythatmeaningismadeclearisthroughnativelanguagetranslation.

12Theteacherreadsthedialoguewithamusicalaccompaniment.Shematcheshervoicetotherhythmandintonationofthemusic.

Communicationtakesplaceon‘twoplanes’:ononethelinguisticmessageisencoded;andontheotherarefactorswhichinfluencethelinguisticmessage.Ontheconsciousplane,thelearnerattendstothelanguage;onthesubconsciousplane,themusicsuggeststhatlearningiseasyandpleasant.Whenthereisaunitybetweenconsciousandsubconscious,learningisenhanced.

13Theteacherreadsthescriptasecondtimeasthestudentslisten.Thisisdonetodifferentmusic.

Acalmstate,suchasthestateoneexperienceswhenlisteningtoaconcert,isidealforovercomingpsychologicalbarriersandfortakingadvantageoflearningpotential.

14Forhomework,thestudentsaretoreadthedialogueatnightandinthemorning.

Atthesetimes,thedistinctionbetweentheconsciousandthesubconsciousismostblurredand,therefore,learningcanoccur.

15Theteachergivesthestudentshatstowearforthedifferentcharactersinthedialogue.Thestudentstaketurnsreadingportionsofthedialogue.

Dramatizationisaparticularlyvaluablewayofplayfullyactivatingthematerial.Fantasyreducesbarrierstolearning.

16Theteachertellsthestudentsthatthey Thefinearts(music,art,anddrama)

areauditioningforaplay. enablesuggestionstoreachthesubconscious.Theartsshould,therefore,beintegratedasmuchaspossibleintotheteachingprocess.

17Theteacherleadstheclassinvariousactivitiesinvolvingthedialogue,forexample,question-and-answer,repetition,andtranslation.

Theteachershouldhelpthestudents‘activate’thematerialtowhichtheyhavebeenexposed.Themeansofdoingthisshouldbevariedsoastoavoidrepetitionasmuchaspossible.Noveltyaidsacquisition.

18Sheteachesthestudentsachildren’ssong.

Musicandmovementreinforcethelinguisticmaterial.Itisdesirablethatstudentsachieveastateofinfantilizationsothattheywillbemoreopentolearning.Iftheytrusttheteacher,theywillreachthisstatemoreeasily.

19Theteacherandstudentsplayaquestion-and-answergame.

Inanatmosphereofplay,theconsciousattentionofthelearnerdoesnotfocusonlinguisticforms,butratheronusingthelanguage.Learningcanbefun.

20Thestudentmakesanerrorbysaying,‘Howyoudo?’Theteachercorrectstheerrorinasoftvoice.

Errorsarecorrectedgently,notinadirect,confrontationalmanner.

ReviewingthePrinciplesLet us now followour usual procedure of reviewing the principles of amethodbyansweringour10questions.

1WhatarethegoalsofteacherswhouseDesuggestopedia?Teachershopetoacceleratetheprocessbywhichstudentslearntouseanotherlanguageforeverydaycommunication.Inordertodothis,moreofthestudents’mentalpowersmustbetapped.Thisisaccomplishedbydesuggestingthepsychologicalbarrierslearnersbringwiththemtothelearningsituation.

2Whatistheroleoftheteacher?Whatistheroleofthestudents?Theteacheristheauthorityintheclassroom.Inorderforthemethodtobesuccessful,thestudentsmusttrustandrespecther.Thestudentswillretaininformationbetterfromsomeoneinwhomtheyhaveconfidencesincetheywillbemoreresponsivetoher‘desuggesting’theirlimitationsandsuggestinghoweasyitwillbeforthemtosucceed.Oncethestudentstrusttheteacher,theycanfeelmoresecure.Iftheyfeelsecure,theycanbemorespontaneousandlessinhibited.

3Whataresomecharacteristicsoftheteaching/learningprocess?Thecourseisconductedinaclassroomthatisbrightandcheerful.Postersdisplayinggrammaticalinformationaboutthetargetlanguagearehungaroundtheroominordertotakeadvantageofstudents’peripherallearning.Thepostersarechangedeveryfewweeks.

Studentsselecttargetlanguagenamesandchoosenewoccupations.Duringthecourse,theycreatewholebiographiestogoalongwiththeirnewidentities.

Thetextsstudentsworkfromarehandoutscontaininglengthydialogues(asmanyas800words)inthetargetlanguage.Nexttothedialogueisatranslationinthestudents’nativelanguage.Therearealsosomenotesonvocabularyandgrammarwhichcorrespondtoboldfaceditemsinthedialogue.

Theteacherpresentsthedialogueduringtwo‘concerts.’Theserepresentthefirstmajorphase(thereceptivephase).Inthefirstconcerttheteacherreadsthedialogue,matchinghervoicetotherhythmandpitchofthemusic.Inthisway,thewholebrain(boththeleftandtherighthemispheres)ofthestudentsbecomeactivated.Thestudentsfollowthetargetlanguagedialogueastheteacherreadsitoutloud.Theyalsocheckthetranslation.Duringthesecondconcert,thestudentslistencalmlywhiletheteacherreadsthedialogueatnormalspeed.Forhomework,thestudentsreadoverthedialoguejustbeforetheygotosleep,andagainwhentheygetupthenextmorning.

Whatfollowsisthesecondmajorphase(theactivephase),inwhichstudentsengageinvariousactivitiesdesignedtohelpthemgainfacilitywiththenewmaterial.Theactivitiesincludedramatizations,games,songs,andquestion-and-answerexercises.

4Whatisthenatureofstudent–teacherinteraction?Whatisthenatureofstudent–studentinteraction?Theteacherinitiatesinteractionswiththewholegroupofstudentsandwithindividualsrightfromthebeginningofalanguagecourse.Initially,thestudentscanonlyrespondnonverballyorwithafewtargetlanguagewordstheyhavepracticed.Later,thestudentshavemorecontrolofthetargetlanguageandcanrespondmoreappropriatelyandeveninitiateinteractionthemselves.

5Howarethefeelingsofthestudentsdealtwith?Agreatdealofattentionisgiventostudents’feelingsinthismethod.Oneofthefundamentalprinciplesofthemethodisthatifstudentsarerelaxedandconfident,theywillnotneedtotryhardtolearnthelanguage.Itwilljustcomenaturallyandeasily.

Itisconsideredimportantinthismethodthatthepsychologicalbarriersthatstudentsbringwiththembedesuggested.Indirectpositivesuggestionsaremadetoenhancestudents’self-confidenceandtoconvincethemthatsuccessisobtainable.

Studentsalsochoosetargetlanguagenamesontheassumptionthatanewidentitymakesstudentsfeelmoresecureandthusmoreopentolearning.

6Howislanguageviewed?Howiscultureviewed?Languageisthefirstoftwoplanesinthetwo-planeprocessofcommunication.Inthesecondplanearethefactorswhichinfluencethelinguisticmessage.Forexample,thewayonedressesorthenonverbalbehavioroneusesaffectshowone’slinguisticmessageisinterpreted.

Theculturewhichstudentslearnconcernstheeverydaylifeofpeoplewhospeakthelanguage.TheuseofthefineartsisalsoimportantinDesuggestopediaclasses.

7Whatareasoflanguageareemphasized?Whatlanguageskillsareemphasized?Vocabularyisemphasized.Claimsaboutthesuccessofthemethodoftenfocusonthelargenumberofwordsthatcanbeacquired.Grammarisdealtwithexplicitlybutminimally.Infact,itisbelievedthatstudentswilllearnbestiftheirconsciousattentionisfocused,notonthelanguageforms,butonusingthelanguage.

Speakingcommunicativelyisemphasized.Studentsalsoreadinthetargetlanguage(forexample,dialogues)andwriteinit(forexample,imaginativecompositions).

8Whatistheroleofthestudents’nativelanguage?Nativelanguagetranslationisusedtomakethemeaningofthedialogueclear.Theteacheralsousesthenativelanguageinclasswhennecessary.Asthecourseproceeds,theteacherusesthenativelanguagelessandless.

9Howisevaluationaccomplished?Evaluationusuallyisconductedonstudents’normalin-classperformanceandnotthroughformaltests,whichwouldthreatentherelaxedatmosphereconsideredessentialforacceleratedlearning.

10Howdoestheteacherrespondtostudenterrors?Errorsarecorrectedgently,withtheteacherusingasoftvoice.

ReviewingtheTechniquesIfyoufindDesuggestopedia’sprinciplesmeaningful,youmaywanttotrysomeofthefollowingtechniques,ortoalteryourclassroomenvironment.Evenifnotallofthemappeal to you, theremay be some elements you could usefully adapt to your ownteachingstyle.

•ClassroomSet-upThechallengefortheteacheristocreateaclassroomenvironmentthatisbrightandcheerful.Thiswasaccomplishedintheclassroomwevisitedwherethewallsweredecoratedwithscenesfromacountrywherethetargetlanguageisspoken.Theseconditionsarenotalwayspossible.However,theteachershouldtrytoprovideaspositiveanenvironmentaspossible.

•PeripheralLearningThistechniqueisbasedupontheideathatweperceivemuchmoreinourenvironmentthanweconsciouslynotice.Itisclaimedthat,byputtingposterscontaininggrammaticalinformationaboutthetargetlanguageontheclassroomwalls,studentswillabsorbthenecessaryfactseffortlessly.Theteachermayormaynotcallattentiontotheposters.Theyarechangedfromtimetotimetoprovidegrammaticalinformationthatisappropriatetowhatthestudentsarestudying.

•PositiveSuggestionItistheteacher’sresponsibilitytoorchestratethesuggestivefactorsinalearningsituation,therebyhelpingstudentsbreakdownthebarrierstolearningthattheybringwiththem.Teacherscandothisthroughdirectandindirectmeans.Directsuggestionappealstothestudents’consciousness:Ateachertellsstudentstheyaregoingtobesuccessful.Butindirectsuggestion,whichappealstothestudents’subconscious,isactuallythemorepowerfulofthetwo.Forexample,indirectsuggestionwasaccomplishedintheclasswevisitedthroughthechoiceofadialogueentitled,‘Towanttoistobeableto.’

•ChooseaNewIdentityThestudentschooseatargetlanguagenameandanewoccupation.Asthecoursecontinues,thestudentshaveanopportunitytodevelopawholebiographyabouttheirfictionalselves.Forinstance,laterontheymaybeaskedtotalkorwriteabouttheirfictionalhometown,childhood,andfamily.

•Role-play

Studentsareaskedtopretendtemporarilythattheyaresomeoneelseandtoperforminthetargetlanguageasiftheywerethatperson.Theyareoftenaskedtocreatetheirownlinesrelevanttothesituation.Inthelessonweobserved,thestudentswereaskedtopretendthattheyweresomeoneelseandtointroducethemselvesasthatperson.

•FirstConcertThetwoconcertsarecomponentsofthereceptivephaseofthelesson.Aftertheteacherhasintroducedthestoryasrelatedinthedialogueandhascalledherstudents’attentiontosomeparticulargrammaticalpointsthatariseinit,shereadsthedialogueinthetargetlanguage.Thestudentshavecopiesofthedialogueinthetargetlanguageandtheirnativelanguageandrefertoitastheteacherisreading.

Musicisplayed.Afterafewminutes,theteacherbeginsaslow,dramaticreading,synchronizedinintonationwiththemusic.Themusicisclassical;theearlyRomanticperiodissuggested.Theteacher’svoicerisesandfallswiththemusic.

•SecondConcertInthesecondphase,thestudentsareaskedtoputtheirscriptsaside.Theysimplylistenastheteacherreadsthedialogueatnormalspeed.Theteacherisseatedandreadswiththemusicalaccompaniment.Thus,thecontentgovernsthewaytheteacherreadsthescript,notthemusic,whichispre-ClassicalorBaroque.Attheconclusionofthisconcert,theclassendsfortheday.

•PrimaryActivationThistechniqueandtheonethatfollowsarecomponentsoftheactivephaseofthelesson.Thestudentsplayfullyrereadthetargetlanguagedialogueoutloud,individuallyoringroups.Inthelessonweobserved,threegroupsofstudentsreadpartsofthedialogueinaparticularmanner:thefirstgroup,sadly;thenext,angrily;thelast,cheerfully.

•CreativeAdaptationThestudentsengageinvariousactivitiesdesignedtohelpthemlearnthenewmaterialanduseitspontaneously.Activitiesparticularlyrecommendedforthisphaseincludesinging,dancing,dramatizations,andgames.Theimportantthingisthattheactivitiesarevariedanddonotallowthestudentstofocusontheformofthelinguisticmessage,justthecommunicativeintent.

ConclusionWhatconnection,ifany,canyoumakebetweenDesuggestopediaandyourapproachto teaching? Does it make sense to you that when your students are relaxed andcomfortable, their learning will be facilitated? Should the teacher’s role be one ofbeing a respected and trusted authority? Should direct and indirect suggestions beused?Shouldlearningbemadeasenjoyableaspossible?Which,ifany,oftheotherprinciplesofDesuggestopediadoyouaccept?Doyouthinkstudentscanlearnperipherally?Woulditbeusefulforyourstudents

to develop a new target language identity? Would you consider presenting newmaterialwith amusical accompaniment?Are any of the activities of the activationphaseofusetoyou?

Activities

ACheckyourunderstandingofDesuggestopedia.1Whataresomeofthewaysthatdirectpositivesuggestionswerepresentinthelesson?Indirectpositivesuggestions?

2Howaretheartsintegratedintothelessonweobserved?

BApplywhatyouhaveunderstoodaboutDesuggestopedia.1Mostteachersdonothavecontroloftheclassroomsinwhichtheyteach.Thisdoesnotmeanthattheycannotprovideanenvironmentdesignedtoreducethebarrierstheirstudentsbringwiththem,however.Canyouthinkofwaysthatyoumightdothis?

2Makealistof10grammaticalpointsaboutthetargetlanguagethatyouwouldwanttodisplayonposterstoencouragebeginningstudents’peripherallearning.

References/AdditionalResourcesDhority,L.1991.TheACTApproach:TheUseofSuggestionforIntegrativeLearning.Amsterdam:GordonandBreachSciencePublishers.

Gateva,E.1991.CreatingWholenessthroughArt.GlobalArtisticCreationoftheEducationalTrainingProcess.Aylesbury,UK:AcceleratedLearningSystems.

Iki,S.1993.Interview:‘GeorgiLozanovandEvelynaGateva.’TheLanguageTeacher,17/7:3–17.

Lozanov,G.1978.OutlinesofSuggestologyandSuggestopedy.London:GordonandBreach.

____andE.Gateva.1988.TheForeignLanguageTeacher’sSuggestopedicManual.NewYork:GordonandBreachSciencePublishers.

Schiffler,L.1992.SuggestopedicMethodsandApplications(Englishedn.).Amsterdam:GordonandBreachSciencePublishers.

Stevick,E.1998.WorkingwithTeachingMethods:What’satStake?Boston,MA:Heinle&Heinle.

1Suggestopedia isnowcalledDesuggestopedia to reflect the importanceplacedondesuggesting limitationsonlearning(LozanovandMiller,personalcommunication).

2ThelessondescribedhereisinpartbasedononestheauthorsobservedtaughtbyDanDugasandLynnDhority,respectively.IthasbeensomewhatmodifiedinlightofcommentsbyAlisonMillerandGeorgiLozanov.

7

CommunityLanguageLearning

Introduction1Themethodwewillexamineinthischapteradvisesteacherstoconsidertheirstudentsas ‘whole persons.’Whole-person learning means that teachers consider not onlytheir students’ intellect, but they also have some understanding of the relationshipamong students’ feelings, physical reactions, instinctive protective reactions, anddesiretolearn.TheCommunityLanguageLearningMethodtakesitsprinciplesfromthemoregeneralCounseling-LearningapproachdevelopedbyCharlesA.Curran.Curran studied adult learning for many years. He found that adults often feel

threatenedbyanewlearningsituation.Theyarethreatenedbythechangeinherentinlearningandbythefearthat theywillappearfoolish.Curranbelievedthatawaytodeal with the fears of students is for teachers to become language counselors. Alanguagecounselordoesnotmeansomeonetrainedinpsychology;itmeanssomeonewho is a skillful ‘understander’ of the struggle students face as they attempt tointernalize another language. The teacher who can understand can indicate hisacceptance of the student. By understanding students’ fears and being sensitive tothem, he can help students overcome their negative feelings and turn them intopositiveenergytofurthertheirlearning.Let us see howCurran’s ideas are put into practice in theCommunityLanguage

LearningMethod.WewillobserveaclassinaprivatelanguageinstituteinIndonesia.Mostof the studentsworkduring theday and come for language instruction in theevening.Theclassmeetstwoeveningsaweekfortwohoursasession.Thisisthefirstclass.

ExperienceThestudentsarriveandtaketheirseats.Thechairsareinacirclearoundatablethathasa tape recorderon it.Aftergreeting thestudents, the teacher introduceshimselfandhas thestudents introduce themselves. In Indonesian,he tells the studentswhattheywillbedoingthatevening:TheyaregoingtohaveaconversationinEnglishwithhis help. The conversationwill be tape-recorded, and afterward, theywill create awritten formof theconversation—atranscript.He tells theclass that the restof theeveningwillbespentdoingvariousactivitieswiththelanguageonthetranscript.Hethenexplainshowthestudentsaretohavetheconversation.‘Whenever one of you would like to say something, raise your hand and I will

comebehindyou.IwillnotbeaparticipantintheconversationexcepttohelpyousayinEnglishwhatyouwanttosay.SaywhatyouwanttosayinIndonesian;Iwillgiveyou theEnglish translation. Iwill give you the translation in phrases, or “chunks”.Recordonlythechunks,oneatatime.Aftertheconversation,whenwelistentotherecording,yoursentencewillsoundwhole.OnlyyourvoicesinEnglishwillbeonthetape.SincethisisyourfirstEnglishconversation,youmaywanttokeepitsimple.Wehavetenminutesforthisactivity.’Noonespeaksatfirst.Thenayoungwomanraisesherhand.Theteacherwalksto

her chair. He stands behind her. ‘Selamat sore,’ she says. The teacher translates,‘Good….’Afteralittleconfusionwiththeswitchonthemicrophone,sheputs‘Good’onthetapeandturnstheswitchoff.Theteacherthengives‘evening,’andshetriestosay‘evening’intothemicrophonebutonlygetsout‘eve….’Theteachersaysagainin a clear and warm voice, somewhat exaggerating the word, ‘Eve… ning.’ Thewomantriesagain.Sheshowssomesignsofherdiscomfortwiththeexperience,butshesucceedsinputtingthewholeword‘evening’ontotherecording.Another student raiseshis hand.The teacherwalks tohimand standsbehindhis

chair.‘Selamatsore,’thesecondstudentsaystothefirststudent.‘Apakabar?’heasksofathird.Theteacher,alreadysensingthatthisstudentisabitmoresecure,givestheentire translation, ‘Good evening.’ ‘Good evening,’ the student says, putting thephraseonthetape.‘Howareyou?’theteachercontinues.‘How…,’thestudentsaysintothemicrophone,thenturns,obviouslyseekinghelpfortherestofthephrase.Theteacher, realizing he needed to give smaller chunks, repeats each word separately.‘How,’repeatstheteacher.‘How,’saysthestudentintothemicrophone.‘Are,’repeatsthe teacher. ‘Are,’ the student says. ‘You,’ completes the teacher. ‘You,’ the studentrecords. The student to whom the question was directed raises his hand and theteacher stands behind him. ‘Kabar baik. Terima kasih’, he responds. ‘Fine,’ theteachersays.‘Fine,’thestudentrecords.‘Thankyou,’theteachercompletes.‘Thankyou,’thestudentconfidentlyputsonthetape.

Figure7.1Astudentrecordinghercontributiontotheconversation

Afourthstudentasksofanother,‘Namasaudarasiapa?’Theteacherstepsbehindherandsays,‘What’s…your…name?’pausingaftereachwordtogivethestudenttimetoputherquestionsuccessfullyonthetape.Theotherstudentreplies,‘NamasayaSaleh.’‘MynameisSaleh,’theteachersays

in English. ‘Apa kabar?’ another student asks Saleh. ‘How are you?’ the teachertranslates. ‘Saya tidaksehat,’ Saleh answers. ‘I amnotwell,’ the teacher translates.‘Mengapa?’ asks another student ‘Why?’ says the teacher. ‘Sebab kepala sayapusing,’ Saleh replies. ‘Because I have a headache,’ translates the teacher. Each ofthese English utterances is recorded in the manner of the earlier ones, the teachertryingtobesensitivetowhatsizechunkeachstudentcanhandlewithconfidence.Theteacherthenannouncesthattheyhavefiveminutesleft.DuringthistimethestudentsaskquestionslikewhysomeoneisstudyingEnglish,whatsomeonedoesforaliving,andwhatsomeone’shobbiesare.In thisconversation,eachstudentaroundthetablerecordssomeEnglishutteranceonthetape.Aftertheconversationhasended,theteachersitsinthecircleandasksthestudents

tosayinIndonesianhowtheyfeelabouttheexperience.OnestudentsaysthathedoesnotrememberanyoftheEnglishhehasjustheard.Theteacheracceptswhathesaysandresponds,‘Youhaveaconcernthatyouhaven’tlearnedanyEnglish.’Thestudentsays, ‘Yes.’Another student says he, too, has not learned anyEnglish; hewas justinvolved in the conversation. The teacher accepts this comment and replies, ‘Yourattentionwasontheconversation,notontheEnglish.’Anotherstudentsaysthatshedoes notmind the fact that she cannot remember anyEnglish; she has enjoyed the

conversation.Theteacheracceptshercommentandreassuresherandallthestudentsthat theywillyethaveanopportunity to learn theEnglishwords—thathedoesnotexpectthemtoremembertheEnglishphrasesatthistime.‘Wouldanyoneelseliketosay anything?’ the teacher asks. Since there is silence, the teacher continues, ‘OK,then.Let’slistentoyourconversation.Iwillplaythetape.JustlistentoyourvoicesinEnglish.’ The students listen. ‘OK,’ the teacher says. ‘I am going to play the tapeagainandstopitattheendofeachsentence.Seeifyoucanrecallwhatyousaid,andsayitagaininIndonesiantobesurethateveryoneunderstandswhatwassaid.Ifyoucan’trecallyourownsentence,wecanallhelpout.’Theyhavenotroublerecallingwhatwassaid.Nexttheteacherasksthemtomovetheirchairsintoasemicircleandtowatchashe

writestheconversationontheboard.Theteacherasksifanyonewouldliketooperatethe tape recorderandstop it at theendofeachsentence.Noonevolunteers, so theteacher operates it himself. The teacher then writes line by line, numbering eachEnglishsentence.Onestudentasksifhecancopythesentences.Theteacheraskshimtostayfocusedonthewordsbeingwrittenupatthispointandreassureshimthattherewillbetimeforcopyinglater,ifnotinthisclasssession,theninthenext.The teacher writes all the English sentences. Before going back to put in the

Indonesianequivalents,hequietlyunderlinesthefirstEnglishwordandthenpauses.HeasksthestudentstogivetheIndonesianequivalents.Sincenoonevolunteersthemeaning,afterafewsecondshewritestheliteralIndonesiantranslation.Hecontinuesthiswayuntilallthesentencesaretranslated,leavingoutanyunnecessaryrepetition.Next,theteachertellsthestudentstositbackandrelaxashereadsthetranscriptof

theEnglishconversation.Hereadsitthreetimes,varyingtheinstructionseachtime.Thefirsttime,studentsjustlisten.Thenexttimetheyclosetheireyesandlisten.Thelasttimetheysilentlymouththewordsastheteacherreadstheconversation.Forthenextactivity,theHumanComputerTM,thestudentsaretoldinawarmmanner,‘ForthenextfivetotenminutesIamgoingtoturnintoa‘humancomputer’foryou.Youmay useme to practice the pronunciation of any Englishword or phrase or entiresentenceonthetranscript.Raiseyourhand,andI’llcomebehindyou.ThenyousayeitherthesentencenumberorthewordyouwanttopracticeinEnglishorIndonesian.As the computer, I amprogrammed to give back only correctEnglish, so youwillhave to listencarefully to see ifwhatyousaymatcheswhat I amsaying.Youmayrepeattheword,phrase,orsentenceasmanytimesasyouwant.Iwillstoponlywhenyoustop.Youcontrolme;youturnthecomputeronandoff.’

Figure7.2Theteacherwritingupthestudentconversation

Astudentraiseshishandandsays,‘Thankyou.’Hehastroublewiththesoundatthebeginningof‘thank.’Theteacherrepeatsthephraseafterhimandthestudentsaysitagain.Theteacherrepeats it.Threemoretimesthestudentstarts thecomputerbysaying,‘Thankyou.’Aftertheteacherhassaiditforthethirdtime,thestudentstops,whichinturnstopsthecomputer.Anotherstudent raiseshishandandsays, ‘Whatdoyoudo?’aquestionfromthe

transcript.Again the teachermovesbehind the student and repeats thequestion thestudenthaschosentopractice.Thestudentworksonthisquestionseveraltimesjustasthefirststudentdid.Severalotherspracticesayingsomepartofthetranscriptinasimilarmanner.The teacher then asks the students to work in groups of three to create new

sentencesbasedupon thewordsandphrasesof the transcript.Eachgroupwrites itssentences down. The teacher walks from group to group to help. The first groupwritesthesentence‘Adiknotworkinabank.’Theteachergivesthecorrectsentencetothegroup:‘Adikdoesnotworkinabank.’Thesecondgroupwrites‘Whatismyname?’ ‘OK,’ says the teacher. After the teacher finishes helping the group, eachgroup reads its sentences to the class.The teacher replays the tape twomore timeswhilethestudentslisten.Finally,theteachertellstheclasstheyhave10minutesleftinthesession.Heasks

them to talk in Indonesian about the experience they have had that evening, theirEnglish, and/or their learning process. As students respond, the teacher listenscarefullyandreflectsbacktothestudentsinsuchawaythateachfeelsheorshehas

beenunderstood.Mostofthestudentsarepositiveabouttheexperience,onestudentsaying that it is the first time she has felt so comfortable in a beginning languageclass.‘InowthinkIcanlearnEnglish,’shesays.Forthenexttwoclassestheteacherdecidestohavethestudentscontinuetowork

withtheconversationtheycreated.Someoftheactivitiesareasfollows:1Theteacherselectstheverb‘be’fromthetranscript,andtogetherheandthestudentsconjugateitforpersonandnumberinthepresenttense.Theydothesamefortheverb‘do’andfortheregularverb‘work.’

2Thestudentsworkinsmallgroupstomakesentenceswiththenewforms.Theysharethesentencestheyhavecreatedwiththerestoftheclass.

3Studentstaketurnsreadingthetranscript,onestudentreadingtheEnglishandanotherreadingtheIndonesian.TheyhaveanopportunitytoworkontheirEnglishpronunciationagainaswell.

4Theteacherputsapictureofapersononthewhiteboard,andthestudentsaskquestionsofthatpersonasiftheyhavejustmethim.

5Thestudentsreconstructtheconversationtheyhavecreated.6Theycreateanewdialogueusingwordstheyhavelearnedtosayduringtheirconversation.

When they finish theseactivities, theclasshasanotherconversation, records it,andusesthenewtranscriptasthebasisforsubsequentactivities.

ThinkingabouttheExperienceLetusnowturnourattentiontoanalyzingwhatwesaw.Ontheleft,wecanlistourobservations, and on the right, we can list the principles we derive from ourobservations.

Observations Principles

1Theteachergreetsthestudents,introduceshimself,andhasthestudentsintroducethemselves.

Buildingarelationshipwithandamongstudentsisveryimportant.

2Theteachertellsthestudentswhattheyaregoingtodothatevening.Heexplainstheprocedureforthefirstactivityandsetsatimelimit.

Anynewlearningexperiencecanbethreatening.Whenstudentshaveanideaofwhatwillhappenineachactivity,theyoftenfeelmoresecure.Peoplelearnnondefensivelywhentheyfeelsecure.

3Studentshaveaconversation. Languageisforcommunication.

4Theteacherstandsbehindthestudents. Thesuperiorknowledgeandpoweroftheteachercanbethreatening.Iftheteacherdoesnotremaininthefrontoftheclassroom,thethreatisreducedandthestudents’learningisfacilitated.Alsothisfostersinteractionamongstudents,ratherthanonlyfromstudenttoteacher.

5Theteachertranslateswhatthestudentswanttosayinchunks.

Theteachershouldbesensitivetostudents’levelofconfidenceandgivethemjustwhattheyneedtobesuccessful.

6Theteachertellsthemthattheyhaveonlyafewminutesremainingfortheconversation.

Studentsfeelmoresecurewhentheyknowthelimitsofanactivity.

7Studentsareinvitedtotalkabouthowtheyfeltduringtheconversation.

Teacherandstudentsarewholepersons.Sharingtheirfeelingsabouttheirlearningexperienceallowslearnerstogettoknowoneanotherandtobuildcommunity.

8Theteacheracceptswhateachstudentsays.

Guidedbytheknowledgethateachlearnerisunique,theteachercreatesanacceptingatmosphere.Learnersfeelfree

tolowertheirdefenses,andthelearningexperiencebecomeslessthreatening.

9Theteacherunderstandswhatthestudentssay.

Theteacher‘counsels’thestudents.Hedoesnotofferadvice,butrathershowsthemthatheisreallylisteningtothemandunderstandswhattheyaresaying.Byunderstandinghowstudentsfeel,theteachercanhelpstudentsgaininsightsintotheirownlearningprocessaswellastransformtheirnegativefeelings,whichmightotherwiseblocktheirlearning.

10ThestudentslistentothetapeandgivetheIndonesiantranslation.

Thestudents’nativelanguageisusedtomakethemeaningclearandtobuildabridgefromtheknowntotheunknown.Studentsfeelmoresecurewhentheyunderstandeverything.

11Theteacherasksthestudentstoformasemicircleinfrontofthewhiteboardsotheycanseeeasily.

Theteachershouldtaketheresponsibilityforstructuringactivitiesclearlyinthemostappropriatewaypossibleforsuccessfulcompletionofanactivity.

12Theteacherreassuresthestudentsthattheywillhavetimelaterontocopythesentences.

Learningatthebeginningstagesisfacilitatedifstudentsattendtoonetaskatatime.

13TheteacherasksthestudentstogivetheIndonesianequivalentsashepointstodifferentphrasesinthetranscript.Hepointstothefirstphraseandpauses;ifnoonevolunteersthemeaning,hewritesithimself.

Theteacherencouragesstudentinitiativeandindependence,butdoesnotletstudentsflounderinuncomfortablesilences.

14Theteacherreadsthetranscriptthreetimes.Thestudentsrelaxandlisten.

Studentsneedquietreflectiontimeinordertolearn.

15IntheHumanComputer™activity,thestudentschoosewhichphrasetheywanttopracticepronouncing;theteacher,followingthestudent’slead,repeatsthephraseuntilthelearneris

Studentslearnbestwhentheyhaveachoiceinwhattheypractice.Studentsdevelopaninnerwisdomaboutwheretheyneedtowork.Ifstudentsfeelincontrol,theycantakemoreresponsibility

satisfiedandstops. fortheirownlearning.

16Thestudentslearntolistencarefullytoseeifwhattheysaymatcheswhattheteacherissaying.

Studentsneedtolearntodiscriminate,forexample,inperceivingthesimilaritiesanddifferencesamongthetargetlanguageforms.

17Studentsworktogetheringroupsofthree.

Ingroups,studentscanbegintofeelasenseofcommunityandcanlearnfromeachotheraswellastheteacher.Cooperation,notcompetition,isencouraged.

18Theteachercorrectsbyrepeatingcorrectlythesentencethestudentshavecreated.

Theteachershouldworkinanonthreateningwaywithwhatthelearnerhasproduced.

19Thestudentsreadtheirsentencestotheothermembersoftheclass.

Developingacommunityamongtheclassmembersbuildstrustandcanhelptoreducethethreatofthenewlearningsituation.

20Theteacherplaysthetapetwomoretimeswhilethestudentslisten.

Learningtendsnottotakeplacewhenthematerialistoonewor,conversely,toofamiliar.Retentionwillbesttakeplacesomewhereinbetweennoveltyandfamiliarity.

21Thestudentsareonceagaininvitedtotalkabouttheexperiencetheyhavehadthatevening.

Inadditiontoreflectingonthelanguage,studentsreflectonwhattheyhaveexperienced.Inthisway,theyhaveanopportunitytolearnaboutthelanguage,theirownlearning,andhowtolearnfromoneanotherincommunity.

22Otheractivitieswiththetranscriptofthefirstconversationoccur.Thenthelearnershaveanewconversation.

Inthebeginningstages,the‘syllabus’isgeneratedprimarilybythestudents.Studentsaremorewillingtolearnwhentheyhavecreatedthematerialthemselves.

ReviewingthePrinciplesLet us now review the principles of the Community Language Learning Method(CLL).Inansweringour10questions,someadditionalinformationaboutthemethodwillalsobeprovided.

1WhatarethegoalsofteacherswhousetheCommunityLanguageLearningMethod?TeacherswhouseCLLwanttheirstudentstolearnhowtousethetargetlanguagecommunicatively.Inaddition,theywanttheirstudentstolearnabouttheirownlearning,totakeincreasingresponsibilityforit,andtolearnhowtolearnfromoneanother.Alloftheseobjectivescanbeaccomplishedinanondefensivemanneriftheteacherandlearner(s)treateachotheraswholepersons,valuingboththoughtsandfeelings.

2Whatistheroleoftheteacher?Whatistheroleofthestudents?Theteacher’sinitialroleisprimarilythatofacounselor.Thisdoesnotmeanthattheteacherisatherapist,orthattheteacherdoesnoteaching.Rather,itmeansthattheteacherrecognizeshowthreateninganewlearningsituationcanbeforadultlearners,soheskillfullyunderstandsandsupportshisstudentsintheirstruggletomasterthetargetlanguage.

Initially,thelearnersareverydependentupontheteacher.Itisrecognized,however,thatasthelearnerscontinuetostudy,theybecomeincreasinglyindependent.CommunityLanguageLearningmethodologistshaveidentifiedfivestagesinthismovementfromdependencytomutualinter-dependencywiththeteacher.InStagesI,II,andIII,theteacherfocusesnotonlyonthelanguagebutalsoonbeingsupportiveoflearnersintheirlearningprocess.InStageIV,becauseofthestudents’greatersecurityinthelanguageandreadinesstobenefitfromcorrections,theteachercanfocusmoreonaccuracy.Itshouldbenotedthataccuracyisalwaysafocuseveninthefirstthreestages;however,itissubordinatedtofluency.ThereverseistrueinStagesIVandV.

3Whataresomecharacteristicsoftheteaching/learningprocess?Inabeginningclass,whichiswhatweobserved,studentstypicallyhaveaconversationusingtheirnativelanguage.Theteacherhelpsthemexpresswhattheywanttosaybygivingthemthetargetlanguagetranslationinchunks.Thesechunksarerecorded,andwhentheyarereplayed,itsoundslikeafairlyfluidconversation.Later,atranscriptismadeoftheconversation,andnativelanguageequivalentsarewrittenbeneaththetargetlanguagewords.Thetranscriptionoftheconversation

becomesa‘text’withwhichstudentswork.Variousactivitiesareconducted(forexample,examinationofagrammarpoint,workingonpronunciationofaparticularphrase,orcreatingnewsentenceswithwordsfromthetranscript)thatallowstudentstofurtherexplorethelanguagetheyhavegenerated.Duringthecourseofthelesson,studentsareinvitedtosayhowtheyfeel,andinreturntheteacherunderstandsthem.

AccordingtoCurran,therearesixelementsnecessaryfornondefensivelearning.Thefirstoftheseissecurity.Nextisaggression,bywhichCurranmeansthatstudentsshouldbegivenanopportunitytoassertthemselves,beactivelyinvolved,andinvestthemselvesinthelearningexperience.Onewayofallowingforthisinthelessonweobservedwasforstudentstoconducttheirownconversation.Thethirdelementisattention.Oneoftheskillsnecessaryinlearningasecondorforeignlanguageistobeabletoattendtomanyfactorssimultaneously.Tofacilitatethis,especiallyatthebeginningofthelearningprocess,theteacherhelpstonarrowthescopeofattention.Recallthattheteacherinourlessonaskedthestudentsnottocopythetranscriptwhilehewaswritingitontheboard.Instead,hewantedthemtoattendtowhathewaswritingandtoaddwhattranslationtheymayhaverecalledinordertocompletethetranscript.

Thefourthelement,reflection,occurredintwodifferentwaysinourlesson.Thefirstwaswhenthestudentsreflectedonthelanguageastheteacherreadthetranscriptthreetimes.Thesecondwaswhenstudentswereinvitedtostopandconsidertheactiveexperiencetheywerehaving.Retentionisthefifthelement,theintegrationofthenewmaterialthattakesplacewithinthewholeself.Thelastelementisdiscrimination,sortingoutthedifferencesamongtargetlanguageforms.WesawthiselementwhenthestudentswereaskedtolistentotheHumanComputerTMandattempttomatchtheirpronunciationtothecomputer’s.

4Whatisthenatureofstudent–teacherinteraction?Whatisthenatureofstudent–studentinteraction?Thenatureofstudent-teacherinteractioninCLLchangeswithinthelessonandovertime.Sometimesthestudentsareassertive,aswhentheyarehavingaconversation.Atthesetimes,theteacherfacilitatestheirabilitytoexpressthemselvesinthetargetlanguage.Hephysicallyremoveshimselffromthecircle,therebyencouragingstudentstointeractwithoneanother.Atothertimesinthelesson,theteacherisveryobviouslyinchargeandprovidingdirection.Atalltimesinitially,theteacherstructurestheclass;atlaterstages,thestudentsmayassumemoreresponsibilityforthis.AsRardin(1988)hasobserved,theCommunityLanguageLearningMethodisneitherstudent-centered,norteacher-centered,butratherteacher–studentcentered,withbothbeingdecision-makersintheclass.

Buildingarelationshipwithandamongstudentsisveryimportant.Inatrustingrelationship,anydebilitatinganxietythatstudentsfeelcanbereduced,therebyhelpingstudentstostayopentothelearningprocess.Studentscanlearnfromtheirinteractionwitheachotheraswellastheirinteractionwiththeteacher.Aspiritofcooperation,notcompetition,canprevail.

5Howarethefeelingsofthestudentsdealtwith?Respondingtothestudents’feelingsisconsideredveryimportantinCLL.Oneregularactivityisinvitingstudentstocommentonhowtheyfeel.Theteacherlistensandrespondstoeachcommentcarefully.Byshowingstudentsheunderstandshowtheyfeel,theteachercanhelpthemovercomenegativefeelingsthatmightotherwiseblocktheirlearning.

Studentsecurityinthislessonwasprovidedforinanumberofways.Someoftheseweretheteacher’suseofthestudents’nativelanguage,tellingstudentspreciselywhattheywouldbedoingduringthelesson,respectingestablishedtimelimits,givingstudentsonlyasmuchlanguageatatimeastheycouldhandle,andtakingresponsibilityforstructuringactivitiesclearlyinthemostappropriateway.Whilesecurityisabasicelementofthelearningprocess,thewayinwhichitisprovidedwillchangedependinguponthestageofthelearner.

6Howisthelanguageviewed?Howiscultureviewed?Languageisforcommunication.Curranwritesthat‘learningispersons,’meaningthatbothteacherandstudentsworkatbuildingtrustinoneanotherandthelearningprocess.Atthebeginningoftheprocess,thefocusison‘sharingandbelongingbetweenpersonsthroughthelanguagetasks.’Thenthefocusshiftsmoretothetargetlanguagewhichbecomesthegroup’sindividualandsharedidentity.Curranalsobelievesthatinthiskindofsupportivelearningprocess,languagebecomesthemeansfordevelopingcreativeandcriticalthinking.Cultureisanintegralpartoflanguagelearning.

7Whatareasoflanguageareemphasized?Whatlanguageskillsareemphasized?Intheearlystages,typicallythestudentsgeneratethematerialsincetheydecidewhattheywanttobeabletosayinthetargetlanguage.Lateron,afterstudentsfeelmoresecure,theteachermightpreparespecificmaterialsorworkwithpublishedtextbooks.

Particulargrammarpoints,pronunciationpatterns,andvocabularyareworkedwith,basedonthelanguagethestudentshavegenerated.Themostimportantskillsare

understandingandspeakingthelanguageatthebeginning,withreinforcementthroughreadingandwriting.

8Whatistheroleofthestudents’nativelanguage?Students’securityisinitiallyenhancedbyusingtheirnativelanguage.Thepurposeofusingthenativelanguageistoprovideabridgefromthefamiliartotheunfamiliar.Wherepossible,literalnativelanguageequivalentsaregiventothetargetlanguagewordsthathavebeentranscribed.Thismakestheirmeaningclearandallowsstudentstocombinethetargetlanguagewordsindifferentwaystocreatenewsentences.Directionsinclassandsessionsduringwhichstudentsexpresstheirfeelingsandareunderstoodareconductedinthenativelanguage.Inlaterstages,ofcourse,moreandmoreofthetargetlanguagecanbeused.BythetimestudentsareinStagesIIIandIV,theirconversationshavefewnativelanguagewordsandphrases.Inaclasswherethestudentsspeakavarietyofnativelanguages,conversationstakeplacerightfromthestartinthetargetlanguage.Meaningismadeclearinotherways,withpantomime,pictures,andtheuseoftargetlanguagesynonyms,forexample.

9Howisevaluationaccomplished?AlthoughnoparticularmodeofevaluationisprescribedintheCommunityLanguageLearningMethod,whateverevaluationisconductedshouldbeinkeepingwiththeprinciplesofthemethod.If,forexample,theschoolrequiresthatthestudentstakeatestattheendofacourse,thentheteacherwouldseetoitthatthestudentsareadequatelypreparedfortakingit.

Also,ateacher-madeclassroomtestwouldlikelybemoreofanintegrativetestthanadiscrete-pointone.Studentswouldbeaskedtowriteaparagraphorbegivenanoralinterview,ratherthanbeingaskedtoansweraquestionwhichdealswithonlyonepointoflanguageatatime.(ComparethiswiththeevaluationproceduresfortheAudio-LingualMethod.)

Finally,itislikelythatteacherswouldencouragetheirstudentstoself-evaluate—tolookattheirownlearningandtobecomeawareoftheirownprogress.

10Howdoestheteacherrespondtostudenterrors?Teachersshouldworkwithwhatthelearnerhasproducedinanonthreateningway.Onewayofdoingthisisfortheteachertorecastthestudent’serror,i.e.torepeatcorrectlywhatthestudenthassaidincorrectly,withoutcallingfurtherattentiontotheerror.Techniquesdependonwherethestudentsareinthefive-stagelearningprocess,butareconsistentwithsustainingarespectful,nondefensiverelationshipbetweenteacherandstudents.

ReviewingtheTechniquesWewillreviewthetechniquesdescribedinthisCLLlessonandprovidealittlemoredetail.Youmayhaveagreedwithsomeoralloftheanswerstoour10questionsandmightliketotrytoincorporatesomeofthesetechniquesintoyourownapproachtolanguage teaching.Ofcourse, theremayalsobe techniquesyouarecurrentlyusingthat can be adapted so that they are consistentwith thewhole-person approachwehaveexploredhere.

•RecordingStudentConversationThisisatechniqueusedtorecordstudent-generatedlanguageaswellastogivetheopportunityforcommunitylearningtocomeabout.Bygivingstudentsthechoiceaboutwhattosayandwhentosayit,studentsareinagoodpositiontotakeresponsibilityfortheirownlearning.Studentsareaskedtohaveaconversationusingtheirnativelanguageoralanguagecommontothegroup.Inmultilingualgroupswithnocommonlanguage,othermeanswillhavetobeemployed.Forinstance,studentscanusegesturestogettheirmeaningacross.Aftereachnativelanguageutteranceoruseofagesture,theteachertranslateswhatthestudentsaysoractsoutintothetargetlanguage.Theteachergivesthestudentsthetargetlanguagetranslationinappropriate-sizedchunks.Eachchunkisrecorded,givingstudentsafinalrecordingwithonlythetargetlanguageonit.Inthelessonweobserved,ataperecorderwasused;however,thesedays,otherteachersmightuseadigitalvoice-recordingdevice,suchasanMP3player,acellphone,oracomputer.Suchrecordingtechnologyallowsforinstant‘repeats’withoutrewinding.Also,ateachercanburnaCDorsendanMP3(orother)filetostudentselectronically,whichallowsstudentstolistentotherecordingintheirowntime.

Afteraconversationhasbeenrecorded,itcanbereplayed.Sincethestudentshaveachoiceinwhattheywanttosayintheoriginalconversation,itiseasierforthemtoassociatemeaningwithaparticulartargetlanguageutterance.Beingabletorecallthemeaningofalmosteverythingsaidinafirstconversationismotivatingforlearners.Therecordingcanalsobeusedtosimplylistentotheirvoicesinthetargetlanguage.

Recordingstudentconversationworksbestwith12orfewerstudents.Inalargerclass,studentscantaketurnsbeingtheonestohavetheconversation.

•TranscriptionTheteachertranscribesthestudents’recordedtargetlanguageconversation.Eachstudentisgiventheopportunitytotranslatehisorherutterancesandtheteacherwritesthenativelanguageequivalentbeneaththetargetlanguagewords.Studentscancopythetranscriptafterithasbeencompletelywrittenupontheboardoron

large,poster-sizedpaper,ortheteachermayprovidethemwithacopy.Thetranscriptprovidesabasisforfutureactivities.Ifposter-sizedpaperisused,thetranscriptcanbeputupintheclassroomforlaterreferenceandforthepurposeofincreasingstudentsecurity.

ThinkingabouttheExperienceThe teacher takes timeduringand/orafter thevariousactivities togive thestudentstheopportunity to reflect onhow they feel about the language learning experience,themselvesaslearners,andtheirrelationshipwithoneanother.Asstudentsgivetheirreactions, the teacher understands them—shows that he has listened carefully bygivinganappropriateunderstandingresponsetowhatthestudenthassaid.Hedoesnotrepeatwhatthelearnersays,butrathershowsthatheunderstandsitsessence.Youmay wish to return to the lesson we observed where the teacher understood thestudents’ reactions to their conversation. Such responses can encourage students tothinkabouttheiruniqueengagementwiththelanguage,theactivities,theteacher,andtheotherstudents,thusstrengtheningtheirindependentlearning.

•ReflectiveListeningThestudentsrelaxandlistentotheirownvoicesspeakingthetargetlanguageontherecording.Anotherpossibletechniqueisfortheteachertoreadthetranscriptwhilethestudentssimplylisten,withtheireyesopenorshut.Athirdpossibilityisforthestudentstomouththewordsastheteacherreadsthetranscript.

•HumanComputer™Astudentchoosessomepartofthetranscripttopracticepronouncing.Sheis‘incontrol’oftheteacherwhenshetriestosaythewordorphrase.Theteacher,followingthestudent’slead,repeatsthephraseasoftenasthestudentwantstopracticeit.Theteacherdoesnotcorrectthestudent’smispronunciationinanyway.Itisthroughtheteacher’sconsistentmannerofrepeatingthewordorphraseclearlythatthestudentself-correctsasshetriestoimitatetheteacher’smodel.

•SmallGroupTasksThesmallgroupsintheclassweobservedwereaskedtomakenewsentenceswiththewordsonthetranscript.Afterward,thegroupssharedthesentencestheymadewiththerestoftheclass.Laterintheweek,studentsworkinginpairsmadesentenceswiththedifferentverbconjugations.

Therearealotofdifferentactivitiesthatcouldtakeplacewithstudentsworkinginsmallgroups.Teacherswhousesmallgroupactivitiesbelievestudentscanlearnfromeachotherandgetmorepracticewiththetargetlanguagebyworkinginsmallgroups.Also,smallgroupsallowstudentstogettoknoweachotherbetter.Thiscanleadtothedevelopmentofacommunityamongclassmembers.

ConclusionAsindicatedearlierinthischapter,theparticularclassthatweobservedrepresentsthefirst lessonofwhat isconsideredaStage Iexperience in theCommunityLanguageLearningMethod.TheprincipleswehavedrawnfromitcanalsobeseeninStageII,III, IV,andV relationships, although theywillbe implemented indifferentways inordertorespondappropriatelytolearnergrowth.The twomost basic principleswhich underlie the kind of learning that can take

placeinCLLaresummedupinthefollowingphrases:1‘Learningispersons,’whichmeansthatwhole-personlearningofanotherlanguagetakesplacebestinarelationshipoftrust,support,andcooperationbetweenteacherandstudentsandamongstudents.

2‘Learningisdynamicandcreative,’whichmeansthatlearningisanongoingdevelopmentalprocess.

Doyouagreewith these twobasicprinciples?Doyoubelievethata teachershouldadopttheroleofacounselor,asCurranusestheterm?Shouldthedevelopmentofacommunity be encouraged? Do you think that students should be given theopportunityfor,ineffect,creatingpartoftheirownsyllabus?Whichoftheseoranyotherprinciplesiscompatiblewithyourpersonalapproachtoteaching?Doyouthinkyoucouldusethetechniqueofrecordingyourstudents’conversation?

Shouldyougiveyourstudentsanopportunitytoreflectontheirexperience?CanyouusetheHumanComputer™?Whichoftheothertechniquescanyouseeadaptingtoyourteachingstyle?

Activities

ACheckyourunderstandingoftheCommunityLanguageLearningMethod.1Curransaystherearesixelementsofnondefensivelearning:security,aggression,attention,reflection,retention,anddiscrimination(SAARRD).Someofthewaystheseweremanifestinourlessonwerepointedoutinanswertoquestions3and5.Canyoufindanyotherexamplesoftheseintheclassweobserved?

2Curranclaimslearnerspassthroughfivestagesoflearningastheygofrombeingabeginninglanguagelearnertoanadvancedlanguagelearner.Astheyexperiencethesestages,theychangefrombeingdependentontheteachertobeingmutuallyinterdependentwiththeteacher.Canyouseehowthesestudentsaredependentontheteachernow?Canyoufindanythingintheclassweobservedthatencourageslearnerindependence?

BApplywhatyouhaveunderstoodabouttheCommunityLanguageLearningMethod.1Havesomestudentsrecordaconversationwithyourhelpasthelanguagecounselor.Tellthemtorecordonlythetargetlanguage.Afteryouhavecompletedtheconversation,thinkoffivedifferentactivitiestohelpthemprocessandreviewthetargetlanguageconversationtheyhavecreatedwhilebeingconsistentwiththeprinciplesofCLL.

2Tryteachingalessonasyounormallydo,butthinkofyourstudentsinawhole-personway,ifthisisanewideatoyou.Doesthischangethewayyouwork?Ifso,thenhow?

References/AdditionalResourcesCurran,C.1976.Counseling-LearninginSecondLanguages.CliffsidePark,NJ:Counseling-LearningInstitutes.

____.1977.Counseling-Learning:AWhole-personApproachforEducation(2ndedn.).CliffsidePark,NJ:Counseling-LearningInstitutes.

Rardin,J.etal.1988.EducationinaNewDimension.CliffsidePark,NJ:Counseling-LearningInstitutes.

Samimy,K.andJ.Rardin.1994.‘Adultlanguagelearners’affectivereactionstocommunitylanguagelearning:Adescriptivestudy.’ForeignLanguageAnnals27/3.

Stevick,E.1998.WorkingwithTeachingMethods:What’satStake?Boston,MA:Heinle&Heinle.

1 In this chapter, the authors have benefited enormously from the careful reading and helpful comments ofJennybelleRardinandPatTironeoftheCounseling-LearningInstitutes.

8

TotalPhysicalResponse

IntroductionLet us first consider a general approach to foreign language instruction which hasbeen named the Comprehension Approach. It is called this because of theimportance itgives to listeningcomprehension.Mostof theothermethodswehavelookedathavestudentsspeakingthetargetlanguagefromthefirstday.Inthe1960s,JamesAsher’sresearchgaverisetothehypothesisthatlanguagelearningstartsfirstwith understanding and ends with production. After the learner internalizes anextensivemapofhowthetargetlanguageworks,speakingwillappearspontaneously.Ofcourse,thestudents’speechwillnotbeperfect,butgraduallyspeechwillbecomemoretarget-like.Noticethatthisisexactlyhowaninfantacquiresitsnativelanguage.Ababyspendsmanymonthslisteningtothepeoplearounditlongbeforeiteversaysaword.Thechildhasthetimetotrytomakesenseoutofthesoundsithears.Noonetellsthebabythatitmustspeak.Thechildchoosestospeakwhenitisreadytodoso.Thereareseveralmethodsbeingpracticedtodaythathaveincommonanattemptto

apply these observations to language instruction.One suchmethod isKrashen andTerrell’s Natural Approach. The Natural Approach shares certain features with theDirectMethod,whichwe examined inChapter 3. Emphasis is placed on students’developingbasiccommunicationskillsthroughreceivingmeaningfulexposuretothetarget language (comprehensible input). Meaning is given priority over form andthus vocabulary acquisition is stressed. The students listen to the teacher using thetargetlanguagecommunicativelyfromthefirstdayofinstruction.Theydonotspeakat first. The teacher helps her students to understand her by using pictures andoccasional words in the students’ native language and by being as expressive aspossible. It is thought that if the teacher uses language that is just in advance ofstudents’ current level of proficiency (i+1) while making sure that her input iscomprehensible,acquisitionwillproceed‘naturally.’Unconsciousacquisition,then,isfavored over more conscious learning. Creating a low affective filter is also aconditionforacquisitionthatismetwhentheclassroomatmosphereisoneinwhichanxietyisreducedandstudents’self-confidenceisboosted.Thefilter iskept lowaswellbythefactthatstudentsarenotputonthespottospeak;theyspeakwhentheyarereadytodoso.

AnothermethodthatfitswithintheComprehensionApproachisWinitzandReed’sself-instructionalprogramandWinitz’TheLearnables.Inthismethod,studentslistento tape-recorded words, phrases, and sentences while they look at accompanyingpictures.Themeaningoftheutteranceisclearfromthecontextthepictureprovides.Thestudentsareaskedtorespondinsomeway,suchaspointingtoeachpictureasitisdescribed, toshowthat theyunderstand the language towhich theyare listening;however,theydonotspeak.Storiesillustratedbypicturesarealsousedasadevicetoconveyabstractmeaning.A third method that fits here is the Lexical Approach. Although its originator,

Michael Lewis, claims that the Lexical Approach is an approach, not amethod, itreallybelongsunder thecategoryof theComprehensionApproach,we feel.This isbecause the Lexical Approach is less concernedwith student production andmoreconcernedthatstudentsreceiveandcomprehendabundantinput.Particularlyatlowerlevels, teachers talk extensively to their students in the target language, whilerequiringlittleornoverbalresponsefromthem.Studentsarealsogivenexercisesandactivitiesthatraisetheirawarenessaboutmulti-wordlexicalitems,suchas‘Iseewhatyou mean,’ and ‘Take your time.’ Like Krashen and Terrell, Lewis emphasizesacquisitionoverlearning,assumingthat‘Itisexposuretoenoughsuitableinput,notformalteaching,whichiskeytoincreasingthelearner’slexicon(Lewis1997:197).Afourthmethod,JamesAsher’sTotalPhysicalResponse(TPR),istheonewewill

examine in detail here in order to see how the principles of the ComprehensionApproach are put into practice.Based on his research cited above,Asher reasonedthatthefastest,leaststressfulwaytoachieveunderstandingofanytargetlanguageistofollowdirectionsutteredbytheinstructor(withoutnativelanguagetranslation).WewilllearnaboutTotalPhysicalResponsethroughourusualwayofobservingaclassinwhichitisbeingused.TheclassislocatedinSweden.Itisabeginningclassfor30Grade5students.TheystudyEnglishforoneclassperiodthreetimesaweek.

Experience1Wefollowthe teacherassheenters theroom,andwetakeaseat in thebackof theroom. It is the first class of the year, so after the teacher takes attendance, sheintroducesthemethodtheywillusetostudyEnglish.SheexplainsinSwedish,‘YouwillbestudyingEnglishinawaythatissimilartothewayyoulearnedSwedish.Youwillnotspeakatfirst.Rather,youwilljustlistentomeanddoasIdo.IwillgiveyouacommandtodosomethinginEnglish,andyouwilldotheactionsalongwithme.Iwillneedfourvolunteerstohelpmewiththelesson.’Handsgoup,andtheteachercallsonfourstudentstocometothefrontoftheroom

andsitwithheronchairsthatarelinedupfacingtheotherstudents.Shetellstheotherstudentstolistenandtowatch.InEnglishtheteachersays,‘Standup.’Asshesaysit,shestandsupandshesignals

for thefourvolunteers torisewithher.Theyallstandup. ‘Sitdown,’shesays,andtheyallsit.Theteacherandthestudentsstandupandsitdowntogetherseveraltimesaccordingtotheteacher’scommand;thestudentssaynothing.Thenexttimethattheystand up together, the teacher issues a new command, ‘Turn around.’ The studentsfollow the teacher’s example and turn so that they are facing their chairs. ‘Turnaround,’ the teacher saysagainand this time they turn to face theother students asbefore. ‘Sitdown.Standup.Turnaround.Sitdown.’Shesays, ‘Walk,’and theyallbeginwalking towards the front rowof thestudents’ seats. ‘Stop. Jump.Stop.Turnaround. Walk. Stop. Jump. Stop. Turn around. Sit down.’ The teacher gives thecommands and they all perform the actions together. The teacher gives thesecommands again, changing their order and saying them quite quickly. ‘Stand up.Jump.Sitdown.Standup.Turnaround.Jump.Stop.Turnaround.Walk.Stop.Turnaround.Walk.Jump.Turnaround.Sitdown.’Once again the teacher gives the commands; this time, however, she remains

seated. The four volunteers respond to her commands. ‘Stand up. Sit down.Walk.Stop.Jump.Turnaround.Turnaround.Walk.Turnaround.Sitdown.’Thestudentsrespondperfectly.Next,theteachersignalsthatshewouldlikeoneofthevolunteerstofollowhercommandsalone.Onestudentraiseshishandandperformstheactionstheteachercommands.Finally,theteacherapproachestheotherstudentswhohavebeensittingobserving

herandtheirfourclassmates.‘Standup,’shesaysandtheclassresponds.‘Sitdown.Stand up. Jump. Stop. Sit down. Stand up. Turn around. Turn around. Jump. Sitdown.’Even though theyhavenotdone theactionsbefore, the students are able toperformaccordingtotheteacher’scommands.Theteacherissatisfiedthattheclasshasmasteredthesesixcommands.Shebegins

tointroducesomenewones.‘Pointtothedoor,’sheorders.Sheextendsherrightarmand right index finger in thedirectionof thedoorat the sideof theclassroom.The

volunteerspointwithher.‘Pointtothedesk.’Shepointstoherownbigteacher’sdeskatthefrontoftheroom.‘Pointtothechair.’Shepointstothechairbehindherdeskand the students follow. ‘Standup.’The students standup. ‘Point to thedoor.’Thestudentspoint.‘Walktothedoor.’Theywalktogether.‘Touchthedoor.’Thestudentstouchitwithher.Theteachercontinuestocommandthestudentsasfollows:‘Pointtothedesk.Walktothedesk.Touchthedesk.Pointtothedoor.Walktothedoor.Touchthe door. Point to the chair. Walk to the chair. Touch the chair.’ She continues toperformtheactionswiththestudents,butchangestheorderofthecommands.Afterpracticingthesenewcommandswiththestudentsseveral times, theteacherremainsseated,andthefourvolunteerscarryoutthecommandsbythemselves.Onlyoncedothe students seemconfused, atwhichpoint the teacher repeats thecommandwhichhascauseddifficultyandperformstheactionwiththem.

Figure8.1Studentsandteacheractingouttheteacher’scommand

Nexttheteacherturnstotherestoftheclassandgivesthefollowingcommandstothestudentssittinginthebackrow:‘Standup.Sitdown.Standup.Pointtothedesk.Point to thedoor.Walk to thedoor.Walk to thechair.Touch thechair.Walk.Stop.Jump.Walk.Turnaround.Sitdown.’Althoughshevariesthesequenceofcommands,thestudentsdonotseemtohaveanytroublefollowingtheorder.Next, the teacher turns to the four volunteers and says, ‘Stand up. Jump to the

desk.’The students have never heard this commandbefore.Theyhesitate a secondandthenjumptothedeskjustastheyhavebeentold.Everyonelaughsatthissight.‘Touchthedesk.Sitonthedesk.’Again,theteacherusesanovelcommand,onetheyhave not practiced before.The teacher then issues two commands in the formof a

compound sentence, ‘Point to the door, and walk to the door.’ Again, the groupperformsasithasbeencommanded.Asthelaststepofthelesson,theteacherwritesthenewcommandsontheboard.

Eachtimeshewritesacommand,sheactsitout.Thestudentscopythesentencesintotheirnotebooks.Theclass isover.Nooneexcept the teacherhasspokenaword.However,a few

weekslaterwhenwewalkbytheroomwehearadifferentvoice.Westoptolistenformoment.Oneofthestudentsisspeaking.Wehearhersay,‘Raiseyourhands.Showmeyourhands.Closeyoureyes.Putyourhandsbehindyou.Openyoureyes.Shakehandwithyourneighbor.Raiseyourleftfoot.’Welookinandseethatthestudentisdirectingtheotherstudentsandtheteacherwiththesecommands.Theyarenotsayinganything;theyarejustfollowingthestudent’sorders.

ThinkingabouttheExperienceNow that we have observed the Total Physical ResponseMethod being used in aclass,letusexaminewhatwehaveseen.Wewilllistourobservationsandthentrytounderstandtheprinciplesuponwhichtheteacher’sbehaviorisbased.

Observations Principles

1Theteachergivesacommandinthetargetlanguageandperformstheactionwiththestudents.

Meaninginthetargetlanguagecanoftenbeconveyedthroughactions.Memoryisactivatedthroughlearnerresponse.Beginninglanguageinstructionshouldaddresstherighthemisphereofthebrain,thepartwhichcontrolsnonverbalbehavior.Thetargetlanguageshouldbepresentedinchunks,notjustwordbyword.

2Thestudentssaynothing. Thestudents’understandingofthetargetlanguageshouldbedevelopedbeforespeaking.

3Theteachergivesthecommandsquitequickly.

Studentscaninitiallylearnonepartofthelanguagerapidlybymovingtheirbodies.

4Theteachersitsdownandissuescommandstothevolunteers.

Theimperativeisapowerfullinguisticdevicethroughwhichtheteachercandirectstudentbehavior.

5Theteacherdirectsstudentsotherthanthevolunteers.

Studentscanlearnthroughobservingactionsaswellasbyperformingtheactionsthemselves.

6Theteacherintroducesnewcommandsaftersheissatisfiedthatthefirstsixhavebeenmastered.

Itisveryimportantthatstudentsfeelsuccessful.Feelingsofsuccessandlowanxietyfacilitatelearning.

7Theteacherchangestheorderofthecommands.

Studentsshouldnotbemadetomemorizefixedroutines.

8Whenthestudentsmakeanerror,theteacherrepeatsthecommandwhileactingitout.

Correctionshouldbecarriedoutinanunobtrusivemanner.

9Theteachergivesthestudentscommandstheyhavenotheardbefore.

Studentsmustdevelopflexibilityinunderstandingnovelcombinationsof

targetlanguagechunks.Theyneedtounderstandmorethantheexactsentencesusedintraining.Noveltyisalsomotivating.

10Theteachersays,‘Jumptothedesk.’Everyonelaughs.

Languagelearningismoreeffectivewhenitisfun.

11Theteacherwritesthenewcommandsontheboard.

Spokenlanguageshouldbeemphasizedoverwrittenlanguage.

12Afewweekslater,astudentwhohasnotspokenbeforegivescommands.

Studentswillbegintospeakwhentheyareready.

13Astudentsays,‘Shake*handwithyourneighbor.’

Studentsareexpectedtomakeerrorswhentheyfirstbeginspeaking.Teachersshouldbetolerantofthem.Workonthefinedetailsofthelanguageshouldbepostponeduntilstudentshavebecomesomewhatproficient.

ReviewingthePrinciplesWewillnextturntoour10questionsinordertoincreaseourunderstandingofTotalPhysicalResponse.

1WhatarethegoalsofteacherswhouseTPR?TeacherswhouseTPRbelieveintheimportanceofhavingtheirstudentsenjoytheirexperienceoflearningtocommunicateinanotherlanguage.Infact,TPRwasdevelopedinordertoreducethestresspeoplefeelwhentheyarestudyingotherlanguagesandtherebyencouragestudentstopersistintheirstudybeyondabeginninglevelofproficiency.

Thewaytodothis,Asherbelieves,istobaseforeignlanguagelearninguponthewaychildrenlearntheirnativelanguage.

2Whatistheroleoftheteacher?Whatistheroleofthestudents?Initially,theteacheristhedirectorofallstudentbehavior.Thestudentsareimitatorsofhernonverbalmodel.Atsomepoint(usuallyafter10–20hoursofinstruction),somestudentswillbe‘readytospeak.’Atthatpoint,therewillbearolereversalwithindividualstudentsdirectingtheteacherandtheotherstudents.

3Whataresomecharacteristicsoftheteaching/learningprocess?Thefirstphaseofalessonisoneofmodeling.Theteacherissuescommandstoafewstudents,thenperformstheactionswiththem.Inthesecondphase,thesesamestudentsdemonstratethattheycanunderstandthecommandsbyperformingthemalone.Theobserversalsohaveanopportunitytodemonstratetheirunderstanding.

Theteachernextrecombineselementsofthecommandstohavestudentsdevelopflexibilityinunderstandingunfamiliarutterances.Thesecommands,whichstudentsperform,areoftenhumorous.

Afterlearningtorespondtosomeoralcommands,thestudentslearntoreadandwritethem.Whenstudentsarereadytospeak,theybecometheoneswhoissuethecommands.Afterstudentsbeginspeaking,activitiesexpandtoincludeskitsandgames.

4Whatisthenatureofstudent–teacherinteraction?Whatisthenatureofstudent–studentinteraction?Theteacherinteractswiththewholegroupofstudentsandwithindividualstudents.Initially,theinteractionischaracterizedbytheteacherspeakingandthestudentsrespondingnonverbally.Lateron,thestudentsbecomemoreverbalandtheteacher

respondsnonverbally.Studentsperformtheactionstogether.Studentscanlearnbywatchingeachother.Atsomepoint,however,Asherbelievesobserversmustdemonstratetheirunderstandingofthecommandsinordertoretainthem.

Asstudentsbegintospeak,theyissuecommandstooneanotheraswellastotheteacher.

5Howarethefeelingsofthestudentsdealtwith?OneofthemainreasonsTPRwasdevelopedwastoreducethestresspeoplefeelwhenstudyingotherlanguages.Oneoftheprimarywaysthisisaccomplishedistoallowlearnerstospeakwhentheyareready.Forcingthemtospeakbeforethenwillonlycreateanxiety.Also,whenstudentsdobegintospeak,perfectionshouldnotbeexpected.

Anotherwaytorelieveanxietyistomakelanguagelearningasenjoyableaspossible.Theuseofzanycommandsandhumorousskitsaretwowaysofshowingthatlanguagelearningcanbefun.

Finally,itisimportantthattherenotbetoomuchmodeling,butthatstudentsnotbetoorushedeither.Feelingsofsuccessandlowanxietyfacilitatelearning.

6Howisthelanguageviewed?Howiscultureviewed?Justaswiththeacquisitionofthenativelanguage,theoralmodalityisprimary.Cultureisthelifestyleofpeoplewhospeakthelanguagenatively.

7Whatareasoflanguageareemphasized?Whatlanguageskillsareemphasized?Vocabularyandgrammaticalstructuresareemphasizedoverotherlanguageareas.Theseareembeddedwithinimperatives.Theimperativesaresinglewordsandmulti-wordchunks.Onereasonfortheuseofimperativesistheirfrequencyofoccurrenceinthespeechdirectedatyoungchildrenlearningtheirnativelanguage.

Understandingthespokenwordshouldprecedeitsproduction.Thespokenlanguageisemphasizedoverwrittenlanguage.Studentsoftendonotlearntoreadthecommandstheyhavealreadylearnedtoperformuntilafter10hoursofinstruction.

8Whatistheroleofthestudents’nativelanguage?TPRisusuallyintroducedinthestudents’nativelanguage.Aftertheintroduction,rarelywouldthenativelanguagebeused.Meaningismadeclearthroughbody

movements.

9Howisevaluationaccomplished?Teacherswillknowimmediatelywhetherornotstudentsunderstandbyobservingtheirstudents’actions.Formalevaluationscanbeconductedsimplybycommandingindividualstudentstoperformaseriesofactions.Asstudentsbecomemoreadvanced,theirperformanceofskitstheyhavecreatedcanbecomethebasisforevaluation.

10Howdoestheteacherrespondtostudenterrors?Itisexpectedthatstudentswillmakeerrorswhentheyfirstbeginspeaking.Teachersshouldbetolerantofthemandonlycorrectmajorerrors.Eventheseshouldbecorrectedunobtrusively.Asstudentsgetmoreadvanced,teacherscan‘finetune’—correctmoreminorerrors.

ReviewingtheTechniquesThemajortechnique,aswesawinthelessonweobserved,istheuseofcommandstodirect behavior. Asher acknowledges that, although this technique is powerful, avarietyofactivitiesispreferredformaintainingstudentinterest.Adetaileddescriptionof using commands is provided below. If you find some of the principles of TotalPhysicalResponsetobeofinterest,youmaywishtodeviseyourowntechniquestosupplementthisone.

•UsingCommandstoDirectBehaviorItshouldbeclearfromtheclassweobservedthattheuseofcommandsisthemajorteachingtechniqueofTPR.Thecommandsaregiventogetstudentstoperformanaction;theactionmakesthemeaningofthecommandclear.SinceAshersuggestskeepingthepacelively,itisnecessaryforateachertoplaninadvancejustwhichcommandsshewillintroduceinalesson.Iftheteachertriestothinkthemupasthelessonprogresses,thepacewillbetooslow.

Atfirst,toclarifymeaning,theteacherperformstheactionswiththestudents.Latertheteacherdirectsthestudentsalone.Thestudents’actionstelltheteacherwhetherornotthestudentsunderstand.

Aswesawinthelessonweobserved,Asheradvisesteacherstovarythesequenceofthecommandssothatstudentsdonotsimplymemorizetheactionsequencewithouteverconnectingtheactionswiththelanguage.

Asherbelievesitisveryimportantthatthestudentsfeelsuccessful.Therefore,theteachershouldnotintroducenewcommandstoofast.Itisrecommendedthatateacherpresentthreecommandsatatime.Afterstudentsfeelsuccessfulwiththese,threemorecanbetaught.

Althoughwewereonlyabletoobserveonebeginningclass,peoplealwaysaskjusthowmuchofalanguagecanbetaughtthroughtheuseofimperatives.Asherclaimsthatallgrammarfeaturescanbecommunicatedthroughimperatives.Togiveanexampleofamoreadvancedlesson,onemightteachthepasttenseasfollows:

TEACHER:Ingrid,walktotheblackboard.(Ingridgetsupandwalkstotheblackboard.)TEACHER:Class,ifIngridwalkedtotheblackboard,standup.(Theclassstandsup.)TEACHER:Ingrid,writeyournameontheblackboard.(Ingridwriteshernameontheblackboard.)TEACHER:Class,ifIngridwrotehernameontheblackboard,sitdown.(Theclasssitsdown.)

•RoleReversalStudentscommandtheirteacherandclassmatestoperformsomeactions.Ashersaysthatstudentswillwanttospeakafter10–20hoursofinstruction,althoughsomestudentsmaytakelonger.Studentsshouldnotbeencouragedtospeakuntiltheyareready.

•ActionSequenceAtonepointwesawtheteachergivethreeconnectedcommands.Forexample,theteachertoldthestudentstopointtothedoor,walktothedoor,andtouchthedoor.Asthestudentslearnmoreandmoreofthetargetlanguage,alongerseriesofconnectedcommandscanbegiven,whichtogethercompriseawholeprocedure.Whilewedidnotseealongactionsequenceinthisveryfirstclass,alittlelateronstudentsmightreceivethefollowinginstructions,whichtheyactout:

Takeoutapen.Takeoutapieceofpaper.Writealetter.(imaginary)Foldtheletter.Putitinanenvelope.Sealtheenvelope.Writetheaddressontheenvelope.Putastampontheenvelope.Mailtheletter.

Thisseriesofcommandsiscalledanactionsequence,oran‘operation.’Manyeverydayactivities,likewritingaletter,canbebrokendownintoanactionsequencethatstudentscanbeaskedtoperform.

ConclusionNowthatwehavehadachancetoexperienceaTotalPhysicalResponseclassandtoexamineitsprinciplesandtechniques,youshouldtrytothinkabouthowanyofthiswillbeofusetoyouinyourownteaching.TheteacherweobservedwasusingTPRwithGrade5children;however,thissamemethodhasbeenusedwithadultlearnersandyoungerchildrenaswell.Askyourself:Doesitmakeanysensetodelaytheteachingofspeakingthetarget

language?Doyoubelievethatstudentsshouldnotbeencouragedtospeakuntiltheyarereadytodoso?Shouldateacheroverlookcertainstudenterrorsinthebeginning?Which,ifany,oftheotherprinciplesdoyouagreewith?Wouldyouusetheimperativetopresentthegrammaticalstructuresandvocabulary

ofthetargetlanguage?Doyoubelieveitispossibletoteachallgrammaticalfeaturesthrough the imperative?Doyou think that accompanying languagewithactionaidsrecall?Wouldyouteachreadingandwritinginthemannerdescribedinthislesson?Wouldyouwant to adapt anyof the techniquesofTPR toyour teaching situation?Can you think of any others you would create that would be consistent with theprinciplespresentedhere?

Activities

ACheckyourunderstandingofTotalPhysicalResponse.1Asherbelievesthatadditionallanguageinstructioncanandshouldbemodeledonnativelanguageacquisition.Whataresomecharacteristicsofhismethodthataresimilartothewaychildrenacquiretheirnativelanguage?

2OneoftheprinciplesofTPRisthatwhenstudentanxietyislow,languagelearningisenhanced.Howdoesthismethodlowerstudentanxiety?

BApplywhatyouhaveunderstoodaboutTotalPhysicalResponse.1Althoughtheteacherusesimperatives,shedoessoinagentle,pleasantway,thewayaparentwould(usually)dowithachild.Hervoice,facialexpression,andmannerarekind.Practicegivingthecommandsinthischapterinthisway.

2Alotoftargetlanguagestructuresandvocabularycanbetaughtthroughtheimperative.PlanpartofaTPRlessoninwhichthepresentcontinuoustense,oranotherstructureinthetargetlanguage,isintroduced.

3Intheactionsequence(operation)thatwelookedat,theteacherhadthestudentspretendtowriteandmailaletter.Thinkofthreeothercommonactivitieswhichcouldbeusedasactionsequencesintheclassroom.Makealistofcommandsforeachone.

References/AdditionalResourcesAsher,J.2009.LearningAnotherLanguageThroughActions:TheCompleteTeacher’sGuidebook(7thedn.).LosGatos,CA:SkyOaksProductions.

Garcia,R.1996.Instructor’sNotebook:HowtoApplyTPRforBestResults(4thedn.).LosGatos,CA:SkyOaksProductions.

Krashen,S.andT.Terrell.1983.TheNaturalApproach:LanguageAcquisitionintheClassroom.Hayward,CA:TheAlemanyPress.

____.1987.PrinciplesandPracticeinSecondLanguageAcquisition.EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:Prentice-Hall.

Lewis,M.1993.TheLexicalApproach.Boston:Heinle/Cengage.____.1997.ImplementingtheLexicalApproach.Boston:Heinle/Cengage.Nelson,G.,T.Winters,andR.Clark.2004.DoasISay:Operations,ProceduresandRitualsforLanguageAcquisition(3rdedn.).Brattleboro,VT:ProLinguaAssociates,Publishers.

Richards,J.andT.Rodgers.1986.ApproachesandMethodsinLanguageTeaching.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Romijn,E.andC.Seely.2000.LiveActionEnglish.Berkley,CA:CommandPerformanceLanguageInstitute.(AlsoavailableinSpanish,French,German,Italian,andJapanese.)

Seeley,C.andE.Romijn.2006.TPRisMorethanCommandsatAllLevels(3rdedn.).LosGatos,CA:SkyOaksProductions.

Winitz,H.1978.TheLearnables.KansasCity,MO:InternationalLinguistics.(Cassetteprogramseries.)

____(ed.).1981.TheComprehensionApproachtoForeignLanguageInstruction.Rowley,MA:NewburyHouse.

1ThislessonisbasedupontheoneinAsher(1982).

9

CommunicativeLanguageTeaching

IntroductionYoumayhavenoticedthatthegoalofmostofthemethodswehavelookedatsofarisfor students to learn to communicate in the target language. In the 1970s, though,educators began to question if theywere going aboutmeeting the goal in the rightway.Someobservedthatstudentscouldproducesentencesaccuratelyinalesson,butcould not use them appropriately when genuinely communicating outside of theclassroom.Othersnotedthatbeingabletocommunicaterequiredmorethanmasteringlinguisticstructure,duetothefactthatlanguagewasfundamentallysocial(Halliday1973).Withinasocialcontext, languageusersneeded toperformcertain functions,suchaspromising, inviting, anddeclining invitations (Wilkins1976).Studentsmayknow the rules of linguistic usage, but be unable to use the language (Widdowson1978). In short, being able to communicate required more than linguisticcompetence; it required communicative competence (Hymes 1971)—knowingwhenandhowtosaywhattowhom.Suchobservationscontributedtoashift inthefieldinthelate1970sandearly1980sfromalinguisticstructure-centeredapproachtoaCommunicativeApproach(Widdowson1990;Savignon1997).Applying the theoretical perspective of the Communicative Approach,

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) aims broadly to make communicativecompetencethegoaloflanguageteaching.Whatthislookslikeintheclassroommaydepend on how the principles are interpreted and applied. Indeed, Klapper (2003)makes thepoint thatbecauseCLTlackscloselyprescribedclassroomtechniques,ascomparedwithsomeoftheothermethodswehavejust lookedat,CLTis‘fuzzy’inteachers’understanding.ThisfuzzinesshasgivenCLTaflexibilitywhichhasallowedit to endure for thirty years. However, its flexibility also means that classroompracticesdifferwidelyevenwhen teachers report that theyarepracticingCLT. It isprobably fair to say that there is no one single agreed upon version of CLT.Nevertheless, we will follow our usual way of understanding the theory andassociatedpracticesbyvisitingaclassinwhichaformofCommunicativeLanguageTeachingisbeingpracticed.The classwewill visit is one being conducted for immigrants toCanada. These

twentypeoplehavelivedinCanadafortwoyearsandareatahigh-intermediatelevel

ofEnglishproficiency.Theymeettwoeveningsaweekfortwohourseachclass.

ExperienceTheteachergreetstheclassanddistributesahandout.Thereiswritingonbothsides.Onone side is a copyof a sports column froma recentnewspaper.The reporter isdiscussingthelastWorldCupcompetition.Theteacherasksthestudentstoreaditandthen to underline the predictions the reportermakes about the nextWorldCup.Hegivesthemthesedirections in thetarget language.Whenthestudentshavefinished,theyreadwhattheyhaveunderlined.Theteacherwriteswhattheyhavefoundontheboard. Then he and the students discuss which predictions the reporter feels morecertainaboutandwhichpredictionshefeelslesscertainabout:

FranceisverylikelytowinthenextWorldCup.

Spaincanwiniftheyplayaswellastheyhavelately.

Germanyprobablywon’tbeacontendernexttime.

Argentinamayhaveanoutsidechance.

Thenheasksthestudentstolookatthefirstsentenceandtotelltheclassanotherwaytoexpressthissameprediction.Onestudentsays,‘FranceprobablywillwinthenextWorld Cup.’ ‘Yes,’ says the teacher. ‘Any others?’ No one responds. The teacheroffers,‘FranceisalmostcertaintowintheWorldCup.’‘Whataboutthenext?’heasksthe class. One student replies, ‘It is possible that Spain will win theWorld Cup.’Another student offers, ‘There’s a possibility that Spain will win theWorld Cup.’Eachofthereporter’spredictionsisdiscussedinthismanner.Alltheparaphrasesthestudentssuggestareevaluatedbytheteacherandtheotherstudentstomakesuretheyconveythesamedegreeofcertaintyasthereporter’soriginalprediction.Next,theteacherasksthestudentstoturntotheothersideofthehandout.Onitare

allthesentencesofthearticlethattheyhavebeenworkingon.Theyare,however,outoforder.Forexample,thefirsttwosentencesonthissideofthehandoutare:

Argentinamayhaveanoutsidechance.

In the final analysis, the winning team may simply be the one with the mostexperience.

Thefirstsentencewasinthemiddleoftheoriginalsportscolumn.Thesecondwasthelastsentenceoftheoriginalcolumn.Theteachertellsthestudentstounscramblethesentences,toputthemintheirproperorderbynumberingthem.Whentheyfinish,thestudents compare what they have done with the original on the other side of thehandout.Theteacherthenasksthestudentsiftheyagreewiththereporter’spredictions.He

alsoasksthemtoget intopairsandtowrite theirownpredictionaboutwhowillbethenextWorldCupchampion.

Theteacherthenannouncesthatthestudentswillbeplayingagame.Hedividestheclassintosmallgroupsoffivepeopleeach.Hehandseachgroupadeckof13cards.Eachcardhasapictureofapieceofsportsequipment.As thestudents identify theitems,theteacherwriteseachnameontheboard:basketball,soccerball,volleyball,tennisracket,skis,iceskates,rollerskates,football,baseballbat,golfclubs,bowlingball,badmintonracket,andhockeystick.Thecardsareshuffledandfourofthestudentsinagrouparedealtthreecardseach.

Theydonotshowtheircardstoanyoneelse.Theextracardisplacedfacedowninthemiddleofthegroup.Thefifthpersonineachgroupreceivesnocards.SheistoldthatsheshouldtrytopredictwhatitisthatDumduan(oneofthestudentsintheclass)willbe doing the following weekend. The fifth student is to make statements like,‘Dumduanmaygo skiing thisweekend.’ If oneof themembersof her grouphas acardshowingskis, thegroupmemberwouldreply,forexample,‘Dumduancan’tgoskiingbecause Ihaveher skis.’ If,on theotherhand,noonehas thepictureof theskis, then the fifth student can make a strong statement about the likelihood ofDumduangoingskiing.Shecansay,forexample,‘Dumduanwillgoskiing.’Shecancheckherpredictionbyturningoverthecardthatwasplacedfacedown.If it is thepictureoftheskis,thensheknowssheiscorrect.Thestudentsseemtoreallyenjoyplaying thegame.They take turnsso thateach

personhasachancetomakethepredictionsabouthowaclassmatewillspendhisorhertime.Forthenextactivity,theteacherreadsanumberofpredictionslikethefollowing:

By2030,solarenergywillreplacetheworld’srelianceonfossilfuels.

By2050,peoplewillbelivingonthemoon.

The students are told to make statements about how probable they think thepredictionsareandwhytheybelieveso.Theyarealsoaskedhowtheyfeelabouttheprediction.Indiscussingoneofthepredictions,astudentsayshedoesnotthinkitis*like that a world government will be in place by the twenty-second century. Theteacherandstudentsignorehiserrorandthediscussioncontinues.Next, the teacherhas the studentsdivide intogroupsof three.Since there are20

students,therearesixgroupsofthreestudentsandonegroupoftwo.Onememberofeachgroupisgivenapicturestripstory.Therearesixpicturesinacolumnonapieceofpaper,butnowords.Thepicturestellastory.Thestudentwiththestoryshowsthefirst picture to the othermembers of her group,while covering the remaining fivepictures.

Figure9.1Studentsmakingpredictionsaboutastripstory

Theother students try topredictwhat they thinkwillhappen in the secondpicture.Thefirststudenttellsthemwhethertheyarecorrectornot.Shethenshowsthemthesecondpictureandasksthemtopredictwhatthethirdpicturewilllooklike.Aftertheentire series of pictures has been shown, the group gets a new strip story and theychangeroles,givingthefirststudentanopportunitytoworkwithapartnerinmakingpredictions.Forthefinalactivityoftheclass,thestudentsaretoldthattheywilldoarole-play.

Theteachertellsthemtogetintogroupsoffour.Theyaretoimaginethattheyareallemployeesofthesamecompany.Oneofthemistheothers’boss.Theyarehavingameetingtodiscusswhatwillpossiblyoccurasaresultoftheircompanymergingwithanother company.Before they begin, they discuss somepossibilities together.Theydecide that theycan talkabout topicssuchaswhetherornotsomeof thepeople intheircompanywilllosetheirjobs,whetherornottheywillhavetomove,whetherornot certain policies will change, whether or not they will earn more money.‘Remember,’saystheteacher,‘thatoneofyouineachgroupistheboss.Youshouldthink about this relationship if, for example, shemakes a prediction that you don’tagreewith.’For10minutesthestudentsperformtheirrole-play.Theteachermovesfromgroup

togroup to answerquestions andoffer any adviceonwhat thegroups candiscuss.Afterit isover, thestudentshaveanopportunitytoposeanyquestions.Inthisway,theyelicit somerelevantvocabularywords.They thendiscusswhat languageformsareappropriateindealingwithone’sboss.‘Forexample,’theteacherexplains,‘what

ifyouknowthatyourbossdoesn’tthinkthatthevacationpolicywillchange,butyouthink it will. How will you state your prediction? You are more likely to saysomethinglike“Ithinkthevacationpolicymightchange,”than“Thevacationpolicywillchange.”‘‘What if, however,’ the teacher continues, ‘it is your colleague with whom you

disagreeandyouarecertainthatyouareright.Howwillyouexpressyourpredictionthen?’ One student offers, ‘I know that the vacation policy will change.’ Anotherstudent says, ‘I am sure that the vacation policywill change.’A third student sayssimply,‘Thevacationpolicywillchange.’The class is almost over. The teacher uses the last few minutes to give the

homeworkassignment.Thestudentsaretofindoutwhattheycanabouttwopoliticalcandidatesrunningagainsteachotherintheupcomingelection.Thestudentsarethentowritetheirpredictionofwhotheythinkwillwintheelectionandwhytheythinkso.Theywillreadthesetotheirclassmatesatthestartofthenextclass.

ThinkingabouttheExperienceAswehave seen before, there are important principles underlying the behaviorwehave observed. Let us now investigate these by compiling our two lists: ourobservationsandtheunderlyingprinciples.

Observations Principles

1Theteacherdistributesahandoutthathasacopyofasportscolumnfromarecentnewspaper.

Wheneverpossible,authenticlanguage—languageasitisusedinarealcontext—shouldbeintroduced.

2Theteachertellsthestudentstounderlinethereporter’spredictionsandtosaywhichonestheythinkthereporterfeelsmostcertainofandwhichhefeelsleastcertainof.

Beingabletofigureoutthespeaker’sorwriter’sintentionsispartofbeingcommunicativelycompetent.

3Theteachergivesthestudentsthedirectionsfortheactivityinthetargetlanguage.

Thetargetlanguageisavehicleforclassroomcommunication,notjusttheobjectofstudy.

4Thestudentstrytostatethereporter’spredictionsindifferentwords.

Onefunctioncanhavemanydifferentlinguisticforms.Sincethefocusofthecourseisonreallanguageuse,avarietyoflinguisticformsarepresentedtogether.Theemphasisisontheprocessofcommunicationratherthanjustmasteryoflanguageforms.

5Thestudentsunscramblethesentencesofthenewspaperarticle.

Studentsshouldworkwithlanguageatthediscourseorsuprasentential(abovethesentence)level.Theymustlearnaboutcohesionandcoherence,thosepropertiesoflanguagewhichbindthesentencestogether.

6Thestudentsplayalanguagegame. Gamesareimportantbecausetheyhavecertainfeaturesincommonwithrealcommunicativeevents—thereisapurposetotheexchange.Also,thespeakerreceivesimmediatefeedbackfromthelisteneronwhetherornotshehassuccessfullycommunicated.Having

studentsworkinsmallgroupsmaximizestheamountofcommunicativepracticetheyreceive.

7Thestudentsareaskedhowtheyfeelaboutthereporter’spredictions.

Studentsshouldbegivenanopportunitytoexpresstheirideasandopinions.

8Astudentmakesanerror.Theteacherandotherstudentsignoreit.

Errorsaretoleratedandseenasanaturaloutcomeofthedevelopmentofcommunicationskills.Sincethisactivitywasworkingonfluency,theteacherdidnotcorrectthestudent,butsimplynotedtheerror,whichhewillreturntoatalaterpoint.

9Theteachergiveseachgroupofstudentsastripstoryandatasktoperform.

Oneoftheteacher’smajorresponsibilitiesistoestablishsituationslikelytopromotecommunication.

10Thestudentsworkwithapartnerorpartnerstopredictwhatthenextpictureinthestripstorywilllooklike.

Communicativeinteractionencouragescooperativerelationshipsamongstudents.Itgivesstudentsanopportunitytoworkonnegotiatingmeaning.

11Thestudentsdoarole-play.Theyaretoimaginethattheyareallemployeesofthesamecompany.

Thesocialcontextofthecommunicativeeventisessentialingivingmeaningtotheutterances.

12Theteacherremindsthestudentsthatoneofthemisplayingtheroleofthebossandthattheyshouldrememberthiswhenspeakingtoher.

Learningtouselanguageformsappropriatelyisanimportantpartofcommunicativecompetence.

13Theteachermovesfromgrouptogroupofferingadviceandansweringquestions.

Theteacheractsasafacilitatorinsettingupcommunicativeactivitiesandasanadvisorduringtheactivities.

14Thestudentssuggestalternativeformstheywouldusetostateapredictiontoacolleague.

Incommunicating,aspeakerhasachoicenotonlyaboutwhattosay,butalsohowtosayit.

15Aftertherole-playisfinished,thestudentselicitrelevantvocabulary.

Thegrammarandvocabularythatthestudentslearnfollowfromthefunction,situationalcontext,andtherolesofthe

interlocutors.

16Fortheirhomework,thestudentsaretofindoutaboutpoliticalcandidatesandtomakeapredictionaboutwhichonewillbesuccessfulintheforthcomingelection.

Studentsshouldbegivenopportunitiestoworkonlanguageasitisusedinauthenticcommunication.Theymaybecoachedonstrategiesforhowtoimprovetheircomprehension.

ReviewingthePrinciplesThe answers to our 10 questions will help us come to a better understanding ofCommunicative Language Teaching. In some answers new information has beenprovidedtoclarifycertainconcepts.

1WhatarethegoalsofteacherswhouseCommunicativeLanguageTeaching(CLT)?Thegoalistoenablestudentstocommunicateinthetargetlanguage.Todothis,studentsneedknowledgeofthelinguisticforms,meanings,andfunctions.Theyneedtoknowthatmanydifferentformscanbeusedtoperformafunctionandalsothatasingleformcanoftenserveavarietyoffunctions.Theymustbeabletochoosefromamongthesethemostappropriateform,giventhesocialcontextandtherolesoftheinterlocutors.Theymustalsobeabletomanagetheprocessofnegotiatingmeaningwiththeirinterlocutors.Communicationisaprocess;knowledgeoftheformsoflanguageisinsufficient.

2Whatistheroleoftheteacher?Whatistheroleofthestudents?Theteacherfacilitatescommunicationintheclassroom.Inthisrole,oneofhismajorresponsibilitiesistoestablishsituationslikelytopromotecommunication.Duringtheactivitiesheactsasanadvisor,answeringstudents’questionsandmonitoringtheirperformance.Hemightmakeanoteoftheirerrorstobeworkedonatalatertimeduringmoreaccuracy-basedactivities.Atothertimeshemightbea‘co-communicator’engaginginthecommunicativeactivityalongwithstudents(Littlewood1981).

Studentsare,aboveall,communicators.Theyareactivelyengagedinnegotiatingmeaning—intryingtomakethemselvesunderstood—evenwhentheirknowledgeofthetargetlanguageisincomplete.

Also,sincetheteacher’sroleislessdominantthaninateacher-centeredmethod,studentsareseenasmoreresponsiblefortheirownlearning.

3Whataresomecharacteristicsoftheteaching/learningprocess?ThemostobviouscharacteristicofCLTisthatalmosteverythingthatisdoneisdonewithacommunicativeintent.Studentsusethelanguageagreatdealthroughcommunicativeactivitiessuchasgames,role-plays,andproblem-solvingtasks(seediscussionoftheseinthereviewofthetechniques).

Activitiesthataretrulycommunicative,accordingtoMorrow(JohnsonandMorrow1981),havethreefeaturesincommon:informationgap,choice,andfeedback.

Aninformationgapexistswhenonepersoninanexchangeknowssomethingtheotherpersondoesnot.IfwebothknowtodayisTuesday,andIaskyou,‘Whatistoday?’andyouanswer,‘Tuesday,’ourexchangeisnotreallycommunicative.Myquestioniscalledadisplayquestion,aquestionteachersusetoaskstudentstodisplaywhattheyknow,butitisnotaquestionthatasksyoutogivemeinformationthatIdonotknow.

Incommunication,thespeakerhasachoiceofwhatshewillsayandhowshewillsayit.Iftheexerciseistightlycontrolled,sothatstudentscanonlysaysomethinginoneway,thespeakerhasnochoiceandtheexchange,therefore,isnotcommunicative.Inachaindrill,forexample,ifastudentmustreplytoherneighbor’squestioninthesamewayasherneighborrepliedtosomeoneelse’squestion,thenshehasnochoiceofformandcontent,andrealcommunicationdoesnotoccur.

Truecommunicationispurposeful.Aspeakercanthusevaluatewhetherornotherpurposehasbeenachievedbasedupontheinformationshereceivesfromherlistener.Ifthelistenerdoesnothaveanopportunitytoprovidethespeakerwithsuchfeedback,thentheexchangeisnotreallycommunicative.Formingquestionsthroughatransformationdrillmaybeaworthwhileactivity,butitisnotinkeepingwithCLTsinceaspeakerwillreceivenoresponsefromalistener.Sheisthusunabletoassesswhetherherquestionhasbeenunderstoodornot.

AnothercharacteristicofCLTistheuseofauthenticmaterials.Itisconsidereddesirabletogivestudentsanopportunitytodevelopstrategiesforunderstandinglanguageasitisactuallyused.

Finally,wenotedthatactivitiesinCLTareoftencarriedoutbystudentsinsmallgroups.Smallnumbersofstudentsinteractingarefavoredinordertomaximizethetimeallottedtoeachstudentforcommunicating.WhilethereisnoexplicittheoryoflearningconnectedwithCLT,theimplicitassumptionseemstobethatstudentswilllearntocommunicatebypracticingfunctionalandsociallyappropriatelanguage.

4Whatisthenatureofstudent–teacherinteraction?Whatisthenatureofstudent–studentinteraction?Theteachermaypresentsomepartofthelesson.Atothertimes,heisthefacilitatoroftheactivities,buthedoesnotalwayshimselfinteractwiththestudents.Sometimesheisaco-communicator,butmoreoftenheestablishessituationsthatpromptcommunicationbetweenandamongthestudents.

Studentsinteractagreatdealwithoneanother.Theydothisinvariousconfigurations:pairs,triads,smallgroups,andwholegroup.

5Howarethefeelingsofthestudentsdealtwith?OneofthebasicassumptionsofCLTisthatbylearningtocommunicatestudentswillbemoremotivatedtostudyanotherlanguagesincetheywillfeeltheyarelearningtodosomethinguseful.Also,teachersgivestudentsanopportunitytoexpresstheirindividualitybyhavingthemsharetheirideasandopinionsonaregularbasis.Finally,studentsecurityisenhancedbythemanyopportunitiesforcooperativeinteractionswiththeirfellowstudentsandtheteacher.

6Howisthelanguageviewed?Howiscultureviewed?Languageisforcommunication.Linguisticcompetence,theknowledgeofformsandtheirmeanings,isonlyonepartofcommunicativecompetence.Anotheraspectofcommunicativecompetenceisknowledgeofthefunctionsthatlanguageisusedfor.Aswehaveseeninthislesson,avarietyofformscanbeusedtoaccomplishasinglefunction.Aspeakercanmakeapredictionbysaying,forexample,‘Itmayrain,’or‘Perhapsitwillrain.’Conversely,thesameformofthelanguagecanbeusedforavarietyoffunctions.‘May,’forinstance,canbeusedtomakeapredictionortogivepermission(‘Youmayleavenow.’).

Thus,thelearnerneedsknowledgeofformsandmeaningsandfunctions.However,tobecommunicativelycompetent,shemustalsousethisknowledgeandtakeintoconsiderationthesocialsituationinordertoconveyherintendedmeaningappropriately(CanaleandSwain1980).Aspeakercanseekpermissionusing‘may’(‘MayIhaveapieceoffruit?’);however,ifthespeakerperceiveshislistenerasbeingmoreofasocialequalorthesituationasbeinginformal,hewouldmorelikelyuse‘can’toseekpermission(‘CanIhaveapieceoffruit?’).

Cultureistheeverydaylifestyleofpeoplewhousethelanguage.Therearecertainaspectsofitthatareespeciallyimportanttocommunication—theuseofnonverbalbehavior,forexample,whichmightreceivegreaterattentioninCLT.

7Whatareasoflanguageareemphasized?Whatlanguageskillsareemphasized?Languagefunctionsmightbeemphasizedoverforms.Typically,althoughnotalways,afunctionalsyllabusisused.Avarietyofformsareintroducedforeachfunction.Onlythesimplerformswouldbepresentedatfirst,butasstudentsgetmoreproficientinthetargetlanguage,thefunctionsarereintroducedandmorecomplexformsarelearned.Thus,forexample,inlearningtomakerequests,beginningstudentsmightpractice‘Wouldyou…?’and‘Couldyou…?’Highlyproficientstudentsmightlearn‘Iwonderifyouwouldmind…’

Studentsworkwithlanguageatthediscourseorsuprasententiallevel.Theylearn

aboutcohesionandcoherence.Forexample,inourlessonthestudentsrecognizedthatthesecondsentenceofthescrambledorderwasthelastsentenceoftheoriginalsportscolumnbecauseofitsintroductoryadverbialphrase,‘Inthefinalanalysis….’Thisadverbialphraseisacohesivedevicethatbindsandordersthissentencetotheothersentences.Thestudentsalsorecognizedthelackofcoherencebetweenthefirsttwosentencesofthescrambledorder,whichdidnotappearconnectedinanymeaningfulway.

Studentsworkonallfourskillsfromthebeginning.Justasoralcommunicationisseentotakeplacethroughnegotiationbetweenspeakerandlistener,sotooismeaningthoughttobederivedfromthewrittenwordthroughaninteractionbetweenthereaderandthewriter.Thewriterisnotpresenttoreceiveimmediatefeedbackfromthereader,ofcourse,butthereadertriestounderstandthewriter’sintentionsandthewriterwriteswiththereader’sperspectiveinmind.Meaningdoesnot,therefore,resideexclusivelyinthetext,butratherarisesthroughnegotiationbetweenthereaderandwriter.

8Whatistheroleofthestudents’nativelanguage?Judicioususeofthestudents’nativelanguageispermittedinCLT.However,wheneverpossible,thetargetlanguageshouldbeusednotonlyduringcommunicativeactivities,butalsoforexplainingtheactivitiestothestudentsorinassigninghomework.Thestudentslearnfromtheseclassroommanagementexchanges,too,andrealizethatthetargetlanguageisavehicleforcommunication,notjustanobjecttobestudied.

9Howisevaluationaccomplished?Ateacherevaluatesnotonlyhisstudents’accuracy,butalsotheirfluency.Thestudentwhohasthemostcontrolofthestructuresandvocabularyisnotalwaysthebestcommunicator.

Ateachercanevaluatehisstudents’performanceinformallyinhisroleasadvisororco-communicator.Formoreformalevaluation,ateacherislikelytouseanintegrativetestwhichhasarealcommunicativefunction.Inordertoassessstudents’writingskill,forinstance,ateachermightaskthemtowritealettertoafriend.

10Howdoestheteacherrespondtostudenterrors?Errorsofformaretoleratedduringfluency-basedactivitiesandareseenasanaturaloutcomeofthedevelopmentofcommunicationskills.Studentscanhavelimitedlinguisticknowledgeandstillbesuccessfulcommunicators.Theteachermaynotetheerrorsduringfluencyactivitiesandreturntothemlaterwithanaccuracy-based

activity.

ReviewingtheTechniquesTheremaybeaspectsofCLTthatyoufindappealing.ThisreviewhasbeenprovidedintheeventyouwishtotrytouseanyofthetechniquesormaterialsassociatedwithCLT.

•AuthenticMaterialsToovercomethetypicalproblemthatstudentscannottransferwhattheylearnintheclassroomtotheoutsideworld,andtoexposestudentstonaturallanguageinavarietyofsituations,adherentsofCLTadvocatetheuseofauthenticlanguagematerials.1Inthislessonweseethattheteacherusesanewspaperarticle.Healsoassignsthestudentshomework,requiringthattheylearnabouttwopoliticalcandidateswhoarerunningforelection.

Ofcourse,theclassthatweobservedwasatthehigh-intermediatelevelofproficiency.Forstudentswithlowerproficiencyinthetargetlanguage,itmaynotbepossibletouseauthenticlanguagematerialssuchasthese.Simplerauthenticmaterials(forexample,theuseofaweatherforecastwhenworkingonpredictions),oratleastonesthatarerealistic,aremostdesirable.Itisnotsoimportantthatthematerialsbegenuineasitisthattheybeusedauthentically,withacommunicativeintent.

Anotherpossibilityfortheuseofauthenticmaterialswithalower-levelclassistouseitemsofrealiathatdonotcontainalotoflanguage,butaboutwhichalotofdiscussioncouldbegenerated.Menusinthetargetlanguageareanexample;timetablesareanother.

•ScrambledSentencesThestudentsaregivenapassage(atext)inwhichthesentencesareinascrambledorder.Thismaybeapassagetheyhaveworkedwithoronetheyhavenotseenbefore.Theyaretoldtounscramblethesentencessothatthesentencesarerestoredtotheiroriginalorder.Thistypeofexerciseteachesstudentsaboutthecohesionandcoherencepropertiesoflanguage.Theylearnhowsentencesareboundtogetheratthesuprasententiallevelthroughformallinguisticdevicessuchaspronouns,whichmakeatextcohesive,andsemanticpropositions,whichunifyatextandmakeitcoherent.

Inadditiontowrittenpassages,studentsmightalsobeaskedtounscramblethelinesofamixed-updialogue.Ortheymightbeaskedtoputthepicturesofapicturestripstoryinorderandwritelinestoaccompanythepictures.

•LanguageGames

GamesareusedfrequentlyinCLT.Thestudentsfindthemenjoyable,andiftheyareproperlydesigned,theygivestudentsvaluablecommunicativepractice.Gamesthataretrulycommunicative,accordingtoMorrow(ibid.1981),havethethreefeaturesofcommunication:informationgap,choice,andfeedback.

Thesethreefeaturesweremanifestinthecardgameweobservedinthefollowingway:Aninformationgapexistedbecausethespeakerdidnotknowwhatherclassmatewasgoingtodothefollowingweekend.Thespeakerhadachoiceastowhatshewouldpredict(whichsport)andhowshewouldpredictit(whichformherpredictionwouldtake).Thespeakerreceivedfeedbackfromthemembersofhergroup.Ifherpredictionwasincomprehensible,thennoneofthemembersofhergroupwouldrespond.Ifshegotameaningfulresponse,shecouldpresumeherpredictionwasunderstood.

•PictureStripStoryManyactivitiescanbedonewithpicturestripstories.Wesuggestedoneinourdiscussionofscrambledsentences.

Intheactivityweobserved,onestudentinasmallgroupwasgivenastripstory.Sheshowedthefirstpictureofthestorytotheothermembersofhergroupandaskedthemtopredictwhatthesecondpicturewouldlooklike.Aninformationgapexisted—thestudentsinthegroupsdidnotknowwhatthepicturecontained.Theyhadachoiceastowhattheirpredictionwouldbeandhowtheywouldwordit.Theyreceivedfeedback,notontheformbutonthecontentoftheprediction,bybeingabletoviewthepictureandcompareitwiththeirprediction.

Theactivityjustdescribedisanexampleofusingaproblem-solvingtaskasacommunicativetechnique.Problem-solvingtasksworkwellinCLTbecausetheyusuallyincludethethreefeaturesofcommunication.Whatismore,theycanbestructuredsothatstudentsshareinformationorworktogethertoarriveatasolution.Thisgivesstudentspracticeinnegotiatingmeaning.

•Role-playWealreadyencounteredtheuseofrole-playsasatechniquewhenwelookedatDesuggestopedia.Role-playsareveryimportantinCLTbecausetheygivestudentsanopportunitytopracticecommunicatingindifferentsocialcontextsandindifferentsocialroles.Role-playscanbesetupsothattheyareverystructured(forexample,theteachertellsthestudentswhotheyareandwhattheyshouldsay)orinalessstructuredway(forexample,theteachertellsthestudentswhotheyare,whatthesituationis,andwhattheyaretalkingabout,butthestudentsdeterminewhattheywillsay).ThelatterismoreinkeepingwithCLT,ofcourse,becauseitgivesthestudentsmoreofachoice.Noticethatrole-playsstructuredlikethisalso

provideinformationgapssincestudentscannotbesure(aswithmostformsofcommunication)whattheotherpersonorpeoplewillsay(thereisanaturalunpredictability).Studentsalsoreceivefeedbackonwhetherornottheyhavecommunicatedeffectively.

ConclusionPerhapsthegreatestcontributionofCLTisaskingteacherstolookcloselyatwhatisinvolved in communication. If teachers intend students to use the target language,then they must truly understand more than grammar rules and target languagevocabulary.Isachievingcommunicativecompetenceagoalforwhichyoushouldprepareyour

students?Wouldyouadoptafunctionalsyllabus?Shouldavarietyoflanguageformsbepresentedatone time?Are there timeswhenyouwouldemphasize fluencyoveraccuracy?DotheseoranyotherprinciplesofCLTmakesensetoyou?Wouldyoueveruselanguagegames,problem-solvingtasks,orrole-plays?Should

all your activities include the three features of communication? Should authenticlanguagebeused?ArethereanyothertechniquesormaterialsofCLTthatyouwouldfinduseful?

Activities

ACheckyourunderstandingofCommunicativeLanguageTeaching.1ExplaininyourownwordsMorrow’sthreefeaturesofcommunication:informationgap,choice,andfeedback.Chooseoneoftheactivitiesinthelessonweobservedandsaywhetherornotthesethreefeaturesarepresent.

2Whydowesaythatcommunicationisaprocess?3Whatdoesitmeantosaythatthelinguisticformsaspeakerusesshouldbeappropriatetothesocialcontext?

BApplywhatyouhaveunderstoodaboutCommunicativeLanguageTeaching.1IfyouwantedtointroduceyourfriendPaulatoRoger,youmightsay:Roger,thisis(myfriend)Paula.IwouldlikeyoutomeetPaula.LetmepresentPaulatoyou.Roger,meetPaula.AllowmetointroducePaula.

Inotherwords,thereareavarietyofformsforthisonefunction.Whichwouldyouteachtoabeginningclass,anintermediateclass,anadvancedclass?Why?

Listlinguisticformsyoucanuseforthefunctionofinviting.Whichwouldyouteachtobeginners?Tointermediates?Toanadvancedclass?

2Imaginethatyouareworkingwithyourstudentsonthefunctionofrequestinginformation.Theauthenticmaterialyouhaveselectedisarailroadtimetable.Designacommunicativegameorproblem-solvingtaskinwhichthetimetableisusedtogiveyourstudentspracticeinrequestinginformation.

3Planarole-playtoworkonthesamefunctionasin2above.

References/AdditionalResourcesBreen,M.andC.Candlin.1980.‘Theessentialsofacommunicativecurriculuminlanguageteaching.’AppliedLinguistics1/2:89–112.

Brumfit,C.andK.Johnson(eds.).1979.TheCommunicativeApproachtoLanguageTeaching.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

Canale,M.andM.Swain.1980.‘Theoreticalbasesofcommunicativeapproachestosecondlanguageteachingandtesting.’AppliedLinguistics1:1–47.

Halliday,M.A.K.1973.ExplorationsintheFunctionsofLanguage.London:EdwardArnold.

Hymes,D.1971.‘Competenceandperformanceinlinguistictheory’inR.HuxleyandE.Ingram(eds.).LanguageAcquisition:ModelsandMethods,3–28.London:AcademicPress.

Johnson,K.andK.Morrow(eds.).1981.CommunicationintheClassroom.Essex:Longman.

Klapper,J.2003.‘Takingcommunicationtotask?Acriticalreviewofrecenttrendsinlanguageteaching.’LanguageLearningJournal27:33–42.

Lee,J.andB.vanPatten.1995.MakingCommunicativeLanguageTeachingHappen.NewYork:McGraw-Hill.

Littlewood,W.1981.CommunicativeLanguageTeaching.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Savignon,S.1997.CommunicativeCompetence:TheoryandClassroomPractice(2ndedn.).NewYork:McGraw-Hill.

Widdowson,H.G.1978.TeachingLanguageasCommunication.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

____.1990.AspectsofLanguageTeaching.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.____.1998.‘Context,community,andauthenticlanguage.’TESOLQuarterly32/4:705–15.

Wilkins,D.1976.NotionalSyllabuses.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.Yalden,J.1987.TheCommunicativeSyllabus:Evolution,Design,andImplementation.EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:Prentice-Hall.

1Of course,what is authentic andnatural to native speakers of the target language is not so to learners in theclassroom.What is important is that thesematerials are used in away that is real for learners (Widdowson1998).

10

Content-basedInstruction

IntroductionHowatt (1984)notes that thereare twoversionsof theCommunicativeApproach:astrong version and a weak version. The weak version, which we illustrated in thepreviouschapter,recognizestheimportanceofprovidinglearnerswithopportunitiesto practice English for communicative purposes. For instance, we saw in the CLTlesson we observed that students were provided with a great deal of practice inlearningtheformsforaparticularfunction,i.e.predicting.ThestrongversionoftheCommunicative Approach goes beyond giving students opportunities to practicecommunication. The strong version asserts that language is acquired throughcommunication.Theweakversion could be described as ‘learning to use’English;the strong version entails ‘using English to learn it’ (Howatt 1984: 279). Content-basedinstruction,whichweexploreinthischapter,andtask-basedandparticipatoryapproaches, which we will look at in the next two chapters, belong in the strong-versioncategory.Whilethethreemayseemdifferentatfirstglance,whattheyhaveincommon is that they give priority to communicating, over predetermined linguisticcontent,teachingthroughcommunicationratherthanforit.Before we examine the three approaches in detail, two points need to bemade.

First, some languageeducatorsmightobject to the inclusionofcontent-based, task-based, and participatory approaches in a methods book, for they might be morecomfortable calling these ‘syllabus types’.Nevertheless, others feel that a ‘method’designation is very appropriate. Snow (1991), for instance, characterizes content-basedinstructionasa‘methodwithmanyfaces’—bothtomakethecaseforcontent-basedinstructionasamethodoflanguageteachingandtoportraythegreatvarietyofforms and settings in which it takes place. In addition, Kumaravadivelu (1993)observes that the term ‘task’ is often used with reference to both content andmethodology of language teaching. Indeed, within the strong version of acommunicative approach, the traditional separation of syllabus design andmethodologyisblurred.Ifstudents learn tocommunicatebycommunicating(Breen1984),thenthedestinationandtheroutebecomeoneandthesame(Nunan1989).Second,somemightquestionwhether the threearedifferentenoughtobetreated

separately.Forexample,Skehan(1998)makesthepointthatonecouldregardmuch

content-basedinstruction(aswellasprojectwork,whichwewillbrieflydiscussinthenext chapter) as particular examples of a task-based approach. And others havesuggested that task-based and participatory approaches are a form of content-basedinstruction. Inanycase,although it shouldbeacknowledged that thesemethodsareunifiedbytheassumptionthatstudentslearntocommunicatebycommunicating,theirscope and their particular foci seem distinctive enough to warrant independenttreatment,whichwedo,startinginthischapterwithcontent-basedinstruction.

RationaleforContent-basedInstructionUsingcontentfromotherdisciplinesinlanguagecoursesisnotanewidea.Foryears,specialized languagecourseshave treatedcontent relevant toaparticularprofessionoracademicdiscipline.So,forexample,thecontentofalanguagecourseforairlinepilots is different from one for computer technicians. This is usually thought of asteachingalanguageforspecificpurposes.Inanacademicsetting,itmightbecalledteaching language for academic purposes. Other examples of language programsthatusespecificcontenttoteachlanguagetoadultsareprogramsthatteachworkplaceliteracyforadultimmigrantsandcompetency-basedprograms,whichservethesamepopulation. In the former, adult learners learn at theirworkplace to read andwriteaboutcontentthatrelatestowhattheyneedintheirworkenvironment,forexample,beingabletoreadtechnicalmanuals.Incompetency-basedinstruction,adultslearnlanguageskillsbystudyingvital ‘life-coping’or ‘survival’ skills, suchas fillingoutjobapplicationsorusingthetelephone.The special contribution of content-based instruction (CBI)1 is that it is not

exclusivelyalanguageprogram,butinsteaditintegratesthelearningoflanguagewiththelearningofsomeothercontent.Thecontentcanbethemes,i.e.sometopicsuchaspopular music or sports in which students are interested. Often, the content isacademicsubjectmatter(Brinton,Snow,andWesche2003).Ithasbeenobservedthatacademic subjects provide natural content for language study. Such observationsmotivatedthe‘languageacrossthecurriculum’movementfornativeEnglishspeakersinEngland,whichwaslaunchedinthe1970stointegratetheteachingofreadingandwritingintoallothersubjectareas.InCanada,secondlanguageimmersionprograms,inwhichAnglophonechildren learn theiracademicsubjects inFrench,haveexistedfor many years. In the United States, CBI instruction was begun to help Englishlanguage learners inpublicschools.2 Ithadbeen found thatwhenEnglish languagelearners (ELLs)wereput in regular school classeswithnative speakers ofEnglish,someELLsdidnotmastereithercontentorEnglish.Ontheotherhand,whenthesestudentsstudiedEnglishfirst,theirstudyofacademiccontentwasdelayed.Inordertopreventbothproblems,instructorsteachacademicsubjects,suchashistoryorscience,while also teaching the language that is related to that content. Language thusbecomesthemediumforlearningcontent(Mohan1986).In theEuropeancontext, thename for the same instructional approach is content

andlanguageintegratedlearning(CLIL).MarshdefinesCLILas:

…anydual-focusededucationalcontextinwhichanadditionallanguage,thusnotusually the first language of the learners involved, is used as amedium in theteachingandlearningofnon-languagecontent.(Marsh2002:15)

‘This approach can be viewed as being neither language learning, nor subjectlearning,butratheranamalgamofboth’(Marsh2008:233).Inrecentyears,anumber

ofcountries(Estonia,Finland,Latvia,theNetherlands,andSpain)haveimplementedawidespreadCLILapproachtolanguageandcontentlearning.SinceCBIandCLILaregrowing rapidly, itwouldbegood to interject anoteof

caution here. The teaching of language to younger and younger learners has takenplace around the world, partly because governments are not satisfied with what isachievedinlanguagestudy,andpartlybecausetheyounglearners’parentsnaturallywant their children to have the opportunities in life that knowledge of anotherlanguagepotentiallyaffords.However,thisdrivetoteachyounglearnersanadditionallanguageneedstobecarefullyconsideredwithregardtotwoimportantfactors.First,itisimportantforchildrentoestablishliteracyintheirnativelanguagebeforelearningtoreadandwriteanotherlanguage.Second,itisimportanttodrawonwhatisknownabout how children learn in order to develop a program that meets their needs(Cameron2003;CaliforniaStateDepartmentofEducation2010).Itisnotsimplythecasethattheearlierthebetterwhenitcomestolanguageinstruction.Naturally,whenstudentsdostudyacademicsubjectsinanotherlanguage,theywill

needagreatdealofassistanceinunderstandingsubjectmattertextsandinlearningtousetheacademiclanguageassociatedwiththesubject.Therefore,teachersmusthaveclear language objectives as well as content learning objectives for their lessons.Sherrisunderscoresthispointbyusingthelanguageofmathematicsasanexample:

For instance, in planning to teach the concept of quadratic equations, a teachermightconstructthefollowingpossibleoutcomestatement:‘Studentswillbeableto solve quadratic equations, discuss different methods of solving the samequadratic equations, andwrite a summary of eachmethod.’ Solve, discuss, andwrite are the descriptive verbs that determine whether a particular outcomeaddressestheknowledgeandskillofacontentareaorspecificlanguagefunctions.Solvingaquadraticequationdescribesacontentoutcome,whereasdiscussingandwriting about themethodsused to solve aquadratic equationdescribe languageoutcomesrelatedtothecontent.(Sherris2008:1)

Ofcourse, considering theverbs in theobjectives isonly the first step.TeachersofCBIhavetobeconcernedwithlanguageobjectivesthatincludevocabulary,structure,anddiscourseorganization.Wewillseehowtheseareimplementedbyobservingthefollowinglesson.

ExperienceLetusstepintotheclassroom,whereasixthgradeclassinaninternationalschoolinTaipei is studying both geography and English through content-based instruction.3MostofthestudentsareChinesespeakers,butthereareseveralwhospeakJapanesenatively and a few who speak Korean. Their English proficiency is at a lowintermediatelevel.TheteacherasksthestudentsinEnglishwhataglobeis.Afewcallout‘world.’Othersmakeacirclewiththeirarms.Othersaresilent.Theteacherthenreachesunderherdeskandtakesoutaglobe.Sheputstheglobeonthedeskandasksthestudentswhattheyknowaboutit.

Figure10.1TeachingageographylessonthroughthemediumofEnglish

They call out answers enthusiastically as she records their answers on the board.When they have trouble explaining a concept, the teacher supplies the missinglanguage.Next, she distributes a handout that she has prepared, based on a video,‘UnderstandingGlobes.’Thetopsectiononthehandoutisentitled‘SomeVocabularytoKnow.’Listedaresomekeygeographicaltermsusedinthevideo.Theteacherasksthestudentstolistenasshereadsthe10words:‘degree,’‘distance,’‘equator,’‘globe,’‘hemisphere,’‘imaginary,’‘latitude,’‘longitude,’‘model,’‘parallel.’Belowthislistisamodifiedclozepassage.Theteachertellsthestudentstoreadthe

passage.Theyshouldfillintheblanksinthepassagewiththenewvocabularywherethey are able to do so.After they are finished, she shows them the video.As theywatchthevideo,theyfillintheremainingblankswithcertainofthevocabularywordsthattheteacherhasreadaloud.

Thepassagebegins:

A_____isathree-dimensional______oftheearth.Pointsofinterestarelocatedon a globe by using a system of ______lines. For instance, the equator is animaginarylinethatdividestheearthinhalf.Linesthatareparalleltotheequatorarecalledlinesof______.Latitudeisusedtomeasure______ontheearthnorthandsouthoftheequator…

Afterthevideoisover,thestudentspairuptochecktheiranswers.Next,theteachercallsattentiontoaparticularverbpatternintheclozepassage:are

located, are called, is used, etc. She tells students that these are examples of thepresentpassive,whichtheywillbestudyinginthislessonandlaterintheweek.Sheexplainsthatthepassiveisusedto‘defocus’theagentordoerofanaction.Infact,indescriptions of the sort that they have just read, the agent of the action is notmentionedatallbecausetheagentisnotrelevant.The teacher then explains how latitude and longitude can be used to locate any

placeintheworld.Shegivesthemseveralexamples.Shehasthestudentsuselatitudeand longitudecoordinates to locatecities inothercountries.Bystating ‘Thiscity islocatedat60°northlatitudeand11°eastlongitude,’theteacherintegratesthepresentpassiveandthecontentfocusatthesametime.Handsgoup.Shecallsononegirltocometothefrontoftheroomtofindthecity.ShecorrectlypointstoOslo,Norway,ontheglobe.Theteacherprovidesanumberofotherexamples.Later,thestudentsplayaguessinggame.Insmallgroups,theythinkofthenames

offivecities.Theythenlocatethecityontheglobeandwritedownthelatitudeandlongitudecoordinates.Whentheyarefinished,theyreadthecoordinatesoutloudandseeiftheotherstudentscanguessthenameofthecity.Thefirstgroupsays:‘Thiscityis locatedat5°north latitudeand74°west longitude.’Afterseveralmissesby theirclassmates,group4gets thecorrectanswer: ‘Bogotá.’Group4 thengive theothersnewcoordinates:‘Thiscityislocatedat34°southlatitudeand151°eastlongitude.’Theanswer:‘Sydney!’Next,theteachertellsthestudentsthattheywilldoadictogloss.Theteacherreads

to the students two paragraphs about Australia. The first time she reads them, thestudentsaresupposed to listen for themain ideas.Thesecond timeshe reads them,shetellsthestudentstolistenfordetails.Followingthesecondreading,sheexplainsto the students that they should reconstructwhat she has read asmuch as they canfrommemory. The students are hard at work. After 10 minutes, she tells them todiscusstheirdraftswithapartnerandthatthetwopartnersshouldcombineandedittheirdraftsintoone,makingitascloseaspossibletotheoriginal.Shethenhaseachpair of students read their draft to the other students, and the class votes onwhichversion is theclosest to theoriginal.The teacherpointsouthowtheparagraphsareorganized,withageneralopeningsentencefollowedbyspecificexamples.

For homework, the students are given a description of Australia and a graphicorganizer tohelp themorganizeandrecall thenew information.Theyhave to readthe description and label the major cities and points of interest on the map andcompletetheitemsinthegraphicorganizer.

Figure10.2Anexampleofagraphicorganizer

ThinkingabouttheExperienceLetusfollowourcustomaryprocedurebylistingourobservationsandtheprinciplesthatunderliethem.

Observations Principles

1Theclassisstudyinggeographythroughthetargetlanguage.

Boththecontentandthelanguagearetargetsforlearning.

2Theteacherasksthestudentswhattheyknowaboutaglobe.

Teachingshouldbuildonstudents’previousexperience.

3Theteachersuppliesthemissinglanguagewhenthestudentshavetroubleinexplainingaconceptinthetargetlanguage.

Theteacherscaffoldsthelinguisticcontent,i.e.helpslearnerssaywhatitistheywanttosaybybuildingacompleteutterancetogetherwiththestudents.

4Thestudentscallouttheiranswersenthusiasticallyastheteacherwritesthemontheblackboard.

Whenlearnersperceivetherelevanceoftheirlanguageuse,theyaremotivatedtolearn.Theyknowthatitisameanstoanend,ratherthananendinitself.

5Theteacherreadsthenewvocabularyandthenthestudentswatchavideoentitled‘UnderstandingGlobes.’

Languageislearnedmosteffectivelywhenitisusedasamediumtoconveycontentofinteresttothestudents.

6Thestudentsfillinthevocabularywordsintheblanksinthemodifiedclozepassageastheywatchthevideo.

Vocabularyiseasiertoacquirewhentherearecontextualcluestohelpconveymeaning.Itisimportanttointegratealltheskills,aswellasvocabularyandgrammarinanauthenticcontext.

7Theteacherprovidesanumberofexamplesusingthepresentpassivewithlatitudeandlongitudecoordinates.

Whentheyworkwithauthenticsubjectmatter,studentsneedlanguagesupport.Forinstance,theteachermayprovideanumberofexamples,buildinsomeredundancy,usecomprehensionchecks,etc.

8Thestudentsaregiventhelatitudeandlongitudecoordinates,andtheyhavetocometothefrontoftheclassroomtofindthecityontheglobe.

Learnersworkwithmeaningful,cognitivelydemandinglanguageandcontentwithinthecontextofauthenticmaterialandtasks.

9Theteacherusesadictogloss.Shediscussesitsorganization.

Itisimportantforstudentstolearnthediscourseorganizationofacademictexts.

10Forhomework,thestudentsaregivenagraphicorganizer,whichtheyaretolabelbasedonadescriptivereadingtheyhavebeengiven.

Graphicorganizershelpstudentsdeveloptheskillsthattheyneedtolearnacademiccontent.

ReviewingthePrinciplesLetusnowseewhatprinciplesunderliecontent-based instructionbyansweringourusual10questionsandconsideringanumberofadditionalprinciples.

1WhatarethegoalsofteacherswhouseCBI?InaCBIclass,teacherswantthestudentstomasterbothlanguageandcontent.Thecontentcanbethemesofgeneralinteresttostudents,suchascurrenteventsortheirhobbies,oritcanbeanacademicsubject,whichprovidesnaturalcontentforthestudyoflanguage.Teachersdonotwanttodelaystudents’academicstudyorlanguagestudy,soteachersencouragethedevelopmentofbothsimultaneously.

2Whatistheroleoftheteacher?Whatistheroleofthestudents?Theteacherneedstosetclearlearningobjectivesforbothcontentandlanguage.Theteacherthencreatesactivitiestoteachboth,scaffoldingthelanguageneededforstudyofthecontent.Thestudents’roleistoengageactivelywithbothcontentandlanguage,usingeachtolearntheother.

3Whataresomecharacteristicsoftheteaching/learningprocess?Teachersmusthelplearnersunderstandauthentictexts.Teachersmakemeaningclearthroughtheuseofvisuals,realia,repeating,andbygivingalotofexamples,buildingonstudents’previousexperiences.Teachersalsodesignactivitiesthataddressbothlanguageandcontent,andthediscourseorganizationofthecontent,withspecificlanguageactivitieshighlightinghowlanguageisusedinaparticularsubject—thelanguageofmathematics(BallandGoffney2006)differsfromthelanguageforhistory(Schleppegrell,Achugar,andOteiza2004),forexample.Studentsareactivelyinvolvedinlearninglanguageandcontent,oftenthroughinteractionwithotherstudents.Thinkingskillsarealsotaughtinordertohelpstudentsundertakeacademictasks.Graphicorganizersareonetoolusedtoassistthisprocess.

4Whatisthenatureofstudent–teacherinteraction?Whatisthenatureofstudent–studentinteraction?Theteacherguidesstudentlearning.Shesupportsthembyhavingstudentspayattentiontohowlanguageisusedtodelivercontentandbyscaffoldingtheirlanguagedevelopment.Studentsoftenworkcollaborativelytounderstandcontentwhileactivelyusingthelanguagetheyarestudying.

5Howarethefeelingsofthestudentsdealtwith?

Itisassumedthatlearningcontentandlanguagetogetherkeepsstudentsinterestedandmotivated.Theyunderstandtherelevanceofwhattheyarestudyingandthatlanguageisameanstoanend.

6Howisthelanguageviewed?Howiscultureviewed?Languageismeaningfulandamediumthroughwhichcontentisconveyed.Cultureisaddressedinteachingtotheextentthatitispresentinthecontentareabeingstudied.

7Whatareasoflanguageareemphasized?Whatlanguageskillsareemphasized?Thecontentdetermineswhatlanguageisworkedon.Thelanguageincludesnotonlyvocabularyitemsandgrammarstructures,butalsohowthesecontributetothediscourseorganizationoftexts.Allfourskillsareintegratedinauthenticcontexts.

8Whatistheroleofthestudents’nativelanguage?Thereisnoovertroleforthestudents’nativelanguage.

9Howisevaluationaccomplished?Studentsareevaluatedontheirknowledgeofcontentandtheirlanguageability.

10Howdoestheteacherrespondtostudenterrors?Theteachercorrectsstudenterrorsbygivingstudentsthecorrectformorallowingstudentstoself-correct.Shenotestheerrors,andrecyclescontenttoensurethatstudentsarelearningtouselanguagetheywillneedinaschoolcontext.

•TeacherPreparationCBIinspiresquestionsaboutappropriateteacherpreparation.Clearlyteachersneedtohavecontentandlanguageknowledgeandteachingskills.Teacherpreparationcanalsohelpteacherstounderstandtherationaleforintegratedinstructionandgivethempracticedesigninglessonswithlanguageandcontentobjectives,andinteresting,stimulatingcontentmaterial.Onewell-knownresourceistheShelteredInstructionObservationProtocol(SIOP)(ShortandEchevarria1999),whichhelpsteachersbydescribingeffectivepractices.Sheltered-languageinstruction,suchasinthelessonweobserved,supportsstudentsthroughtheuseofparticularinstructionaltechniquesandmaterialssuchasspecializedvocabulary-buildingactivities,graphicorganizers,andclozeactivities.Insomesettings,teamteachinghasbeenadopted,withoneteacherintheclassfocusingoncontentandanotheron

languagesupport.Attheuniversitylevel,sometimesanadjunctmodelisused.Intheadjunctmodelforuniversitystudents,studentsenrollinaregularacademiccourse.Inaddition,theytakealanguagecoursethatislinkedtotheacademiccourse.Duringthelanguageclass,thelanguageteacher’sfocusisonhelpingstudentsprocessthelanguageinordertounderstandtheacademiccontentpresentedbythecontentteacher.Thelanguageteacheralsohelpsstudentstocompleteacademictaskssuchaswritingtermpapers,improvingtheirnote-takingabilities,andreadingacademictextbooksassignedbythecontentteacher.

WhatallCBImodelshaveincommonislearningbothspecificcontentandrelatedlanguageskills.‘Incontent-basedlanguageteaching,theclaiminasenseisthatstudentsget‘twoforone’—bothcontentknowledgeandincreasedlanguageproficiency’(Wesche1993).

•WholeLanguageBeforemovingon,itwouldbeworthwhiletotouchbrieflyupononemoreapproachheresinceitsphilosophyhasmuchincommonwithCBI.AlthoughitoriginatedinclassesforchildrenwhospeakEnglishasanativelanguage,theWholeLanguageApproachhasoftenbeenusedwithsecondlanguagelearnersaswell.TheWholeLanguage(WL)approach,asthenamesuggests,callsforlanguagetoberegardedholistically,ratherthanaspieces,i.e.thevocabularywords,grammarstructures,andpronunciationpoints.Inotherwords,studentsworkfromthetop-down,attemptingfirsttounderstandthemeaningoftheoveralltextbeforetheyworkonthelinguisticformscomprisingit.Thiscontrastswiththebottom-upapproachwehaveseeninothermethodsinthisbook,wherestudentslearnalanguagepiecebypieceandthenworktoputthepiecesinplace,constructingwholemeaningfultextsoutofthepieces.Itisthoughtthatthetop-downprocesswillworkbestwhenstudentsareengagedinpurposefuluseoflanguage,andnotlearninglinguisticformsfortheirownsake.‘ThereforeWL[WholeLanguage]educatorsprovidecontent-richcurriculumwherelanguageandthinkingcanbeaboutinterestingandsignificantcontent’(Edelsky,Altwerger,andFlores1991:11).WLeducatorsseeerrorsaspartoflearningandtheyencouragestudentstoexperimentwithreadingandwritingtopromoteboththeirenjoymentandownership.

WLandCBIeducatorsembracetheideasofVygotsky(1978)aboutthesocialnatureoflearning.Asasocialprocess,itisassumedthatlearningisbestservedbycollaborationbetweenteacherandstudentsandamongstudents.AccordingtoVygotsky,itisthroughsocialinteractionthathigherorderthinkingemerges.The‘place’wherethisismostlikelytobefacilitatedisinthezoneofproximaldevelopment(ZPD):

… the distance between the actual developmental level [of the learner] asdetermined by independent problem-solving and the level of potentialdevelopment asdetermined throughproblemsolvingunder adult guidanceor incollaborationwithmorecapablepeers.(Vygotsky1978:86)

OneexampleofsuchatechniquetoteachWListheLanguageExperienceApproach.TwowritingtechniquesthatareconsonantwithWLphilosophyareprocesswritingandjournalkeeping.Allthreeofthesetechniquesaredescribedinthenextsection.

ReviewingtheTechniques

•DictoglossInadictogloss(Wajnryb1990),studentslistentwicetoashorttalkorareadingonappropriatecontent.Thefirsttimethrough,studentslistenforthemainidea,andthenthesecondtimetheylistenfordetails.Next,studentswritedownwhattheyhaverememberedfromthetalkorreading.Someteachershavetheirstudentstakenoteswhilelistening.Thestudentsthenusetheirnotestoreformulatewhathasbeenread.Studentsgetpracticeinnote-takinginthisway.Next,theyworkwithapartnerorinasmallgrouptoconstructtogetherthebestversionofwhattheyhaveheard.Whattheywriteissharedwiththewholeclassforapeer-editingsession.Throughtheseprocesses,studentsbecomefamiliarwiththeorganizationofavarietyoftextswithinacontentarea.

•GraphicOrganizersGraphicorganizersarevisualdisplaysthathelpstudentstoorganizeandremembernewinformation.Theyinvolvedrawingorwritingdownideasandmakingconnections.Theycombinewordsandphrases,symbols,andarrowstomapknowledge.Theyincludediagrams,tables,columns,andwebs.Throughtheuseofgraphicorganizers,studentscanunderstandtextorganization,whichhelpsthemlearntoreadacademictextsandtocompleteacademictasks,suchaswritingasummaryofwhattheyhaveread.AkeyrationalefortheuseofgraphicorganizersinCBIisthattheyfacilitaterecallofcognitivelydemandingcontent,enablingstudentstoprocessthecontentmaterialatadeeperlevelandthenbeabletouseitforlanguagepractice.

•LanguageExperienceApproachStudentstaketurnsdictatingastoryabouttheirlifeexperiencestotheteacherwhowritesitdowninthetargetlanguage.Eachstudentthenpracticesreadinghisorherstorywiththeteacher’sassistance.TheLanguageExperienceApproachappliestheprinciplesofWL:Thetextisaboutcontentthatissignificanttothestudents,itiscollaborativelyproduced,itiswhole,andsinceitisthestudent’sstory,thelinkbetweentextandmeaningisfacilitated.

•ProcessWritingTraditionally,whenteachersteachwriting,theyassigntopicsforstudentstowriteon;perhapstheydoabitofbrainstormingaboutthetopicduringapre-writingphase,andthenhavestudentswriteaboutthetopicwithoutinterruption.Subsequently,teacherscollectandevaluatewhatstudentshavewritten.Such

instructionisvery‘product-oriented;’thereisnoinvolvementoftheteacherintheactor‘process’ofwriting.Inprocesswriting,ontheotherhand,studentsmayinitiallybrainstormideasaboutatopicandbeginwriting,butthentheyhaverepeatedconferenceswiththeteacherandtheotherstudents,duringwhichtheyreceivefeedbackontheirwritinguptothatpoint,makerevisions,basedonthefeedbacktheyreceive,andcarryonwriting.Inthisway,studentslearntoviewtheirwritingassomeoneelse’sreadingandtoimproveboththeexpressionofmeaningandtheformoftheirwritingastheydraftandredraft.Processwritingshiftstheemphasisinteachingwritingfromevaluationtorevision.

•DialogueJournalsAnotherwaytoworkonliteracyskillsistohavestudentskeepdialoguejournals.Theparticularwaythatjournalsareusedvaries,butitessentiallyinvolvesstudentswritingintheirjournalsinclassorforhomeworkregularly,perhapsaftereachclassoronceaweek.Theremaybeaparticularfocusforthewriting,suchasthestudents’expressingtheirfeelingstowardhowandwhattheyarelearning,orthewritingfocuscouldbeonanythingthatthestudentwishestocommunicatetotheteacher.Usuallyitistheteacherwho‘dialogues’withthestudent,i.e.istheaudienceforthejournal.Theteacherreadsthestudent’sjournalentryandwritesaresponsetoit,butdoesnotcorrectitsform.

ConclusionContent-basedinstruction,withallitsmanyfaces,offersteachersawayofaddressingissuesoflanguageandcontentlearningandallowsstudentstomakeongoingprogressinboth.Thiscanprovideanefficientmannerof learning,ensuring thatstudentsarenotleftbehindwhilelearninglanguageorwhilelearningcontent.Forthisreason,CBIcanalsobeaneffectivewayforstudentstolearnlanguageinthelanguageclass,usingthemes that students find of interest. Such themes provide sustained motivationbeyondintermediatelevelsofproficiencyandpreparestudents,iftheychoose,forthetransitiontocontentareaclassesinschool,college,oruniversity.Somequestionsforyourconsideration:Whatdoyouseeasthebenefitstolearnersofintegratingcontentand language? Are there situations that would not be appropriate for the use ofcontent-basedinstruction?Doyouthinkthatcontent-basedinstructionlendsitselftocertainagegroupsmorethanothers?Whyorwhynot?

Activities

ACheckyourunderstandingofContent-basedInstruction.1Inyourownwordsdescribethedifferencebetweentheapproachtoteachingcommunicationtakeninthepreviouschapterandthisone.

2WhydoyouthinkthatCBIhasbeencalledamethodwithmanyfaces(Snow1991)?

3Whattype(s)ofpreparationmightbeusefulforateacherwhowillteachcontentalongwithlanguage?

BApplywhatyouhaveunderstoodaboutContent-basedInstruction.1EvenifyoudonotteachinaprogramthatregularlyusesCBI,tryincorporatingtheteachingofcontentintoyourlanguageclass.Teachapoemoradoptathemeofinteresttoyourstudents,forinstance.Seewhatyoulearnfromthatexperience.

2HowareprocesswritingandjournalkeepingconsistentwiththeWholeLanguageApproach?Canyouthinkofanyotherwritingtechniqueswhichare?

References/AdditionalResourcesBall,D.andI.Goffney.2006.Theroleofmathematicallanguageinlearningandsucceedinginmathematics.ApresentationattheAssociationofState1SupervisorsofMathematics.2006AnnualMeeting,St.Louis,MO.

Breen,M.1984.‘Processsyllabusesforthelanguageclassroom’inC.Brumfit,(ed.).GeneralEnglishSyllabusDesign—CurriculumandSyllabusDesignfortheGeneralEnglishClassroom(EFLDocuments118).Oxford:PergamonPressfortheBritishCouncil.

Brinton,D.,A.Snow,andM.Wesche.1989.Content-basedSecondLanguageInstruction.Boston,MA:Heinle&Heinle.

____.2003.Content-basedSecondLanguageInstruction.MichiganClassicsEdition.AnnArbor,MI:UniversityofMichiganPress.

Byrnes,H.2005.‘Content-basedforeignlanguageinstruction’inC.Sanz(ed.).MindandContextinAdultSecondLanguageAcquisition,282–302.Washington,DC:GeorgetownUniversityPress.

CaliforniaStateDepartmentofEducation.2010.ImprovingEducationforEnglishLearners:Research-basedApproaches.Sacramento,CA:CDEPress.

Cameron,L.2003.‘ChallengesforELTfromtheexpansioninteachingchildren.’ELTJournal57/2:105–12.

Cantoni-Harvey,G.1987.Content-areaLanguageInstruction:ApproachesandStrategies.Reading,MA:Addison-Wesley.

Coyle,D.,P.Hood,andD.Marsh.2007.ContentandLanguageIntegratedLearning.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Crandall,J-A.(ed.).1987.ESLthroughContent-areaInstruction.EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:PrenticeHallRegents.

DeGraaff,R.,G.Koopman,Y.Anikina,andG.Westhoff.2007.‘AnobservationtoolforeffectiveL2pedagogyincontentandlanguageintegratedlearning(CLIL).’InternationalJournalofBilingualEducationandBilingualism10/5:603–24.

Echevarria,J.,M-E.Vogt,andD.Short.2008.MakingContentComprehensibletoEnglishLearners:TheSIOPModel.Boston,MA:Pearson/AllynandBacon.

Edelsky,C.,B.Altwerger,andB.Flores.1991.WholeLanguage:What’stheDifference?Portsmouth,NH:Heinemann.

Freeman,Y.andD.Freeman.1992.WholeLanguageforSecondLanguageLearners.Portsmouth,NH:Heinemann.

Gibbons,P.2003.‘Mediatinglanguagelearning:TeacherinteractionswithESLstudentsinacontent-basedclassroom.’TESOLQuarterly37/2:247–73.

Goodman,K.1986.What’sWholeinWholeLanguage?Portsmouth,NH:Heinemann.

Heald-Taylor,G.1989.WholeLanguageStrategiesforESLstudents.SanDiego,CA:Dormac,Inc.

Howatt,A.P.R.1984.AHistoryofEnglishLanguageTeaching.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

Kumaravadivelu,B.1993.‘Thenameofthetaskandthetaskofnaming:Methodologicalaspectsoftask-basedpedagogy’inG.CrookesandS.Gass(eds.).TasksinaPedagogicalContext.Clevedon:MultilingualMattersLtd.

Marsh,D.(ed.).2002.CLIL/EMILEEuropeanDimension:Actions,TrendsandForesightPotential.EuropeanCommission,PublicServicesContractDG3406/001–001.

____.2008inJ.CenozandN.Hornberger(eds.).EncyclopediaofLanguageandEducation(2ndedn.)Volume6:‘KnowledgeaboutLanguage,’233–46.NewYork:Springer.

Mehisto,P.,M-J.Frigols,andD.Marsh.2008.UncoveringCLIL:ContentandLanguageIntegratedLearningandMultilingualEducation.Oxford:Macmillan.

Met,M.1999.Content-basedInstruction:DefiningTerms,MakingDecisions.Washington,DC:TheNationalForeignLanguageCenter,Washington,DC.

Mohan,B.1986.LanguageandContent.Reading,MA:Addison-Wesley.Nordmeyer,J.andS.Barduhn(eds.).2010.IntegratingLanguageandContent.Alexandria,VA:TESOL,Inc.

Nunan,D.1989.DesigningTasksfortheCommunicativeClassroom.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Riggs,P.1991.‘WholelanguageinTESOL.’TESOLQuarterly25/3:521–42.Schleppegrell,M.,M.Achugar,andT.Oteiza.2004.‘Thegrammarofhistory:Enhancingcontent-basedinstructionthroughafunctionalfocusonlanguage.’TESOLQuarterly38/1:67–93.

Sherris,A.2008.‘Integratedlanguageandcontentinstruction.’CALDigest.Washington,DC:CenterforAppliedLinguistics.

Short,D.andJ.Echevarría.1999.TheShelteredInstructionObservationProtocol:AToolforTeacher–ResearcherCollaborationandProfessionalDevelopment.EducationalPracticeReport,SantaCruz,CAandWashington,DC:CenterforResearchonEducation,Diversity&Excellence.

Skehan,P.1998.‘Task-basedinstruction.’AnnualReviewofAppliedLinguistics:FoundationsofSecondLanguageTeaching.Volume18.

Snow,M.1991.‘Content-basedinstruction:Amethodwithmanyfaces’inJ.Alatis.(ed.).GeorgetownUniversityRoundTableonLanguagesandLinguistics1991:LinguisticsandLanguagePedagogy,461–70.Washington,DC:GeorgetownUniversityPress.

____,andD.Brinton.1997.TheContent-basedClassroom:PerspectivesonIntegratingLanguageandContent.WhitePlains,NewYork:AddisonWesleyLongmanPublishingCompany.

Staton,J.,R.Shuy,J.Peyton,andL.Reed.1988.DialogueJournalCommunication:Classroom,Linguistic,Social,andCognitiveViews.Norwood,NJ:Ablex.

Stryker,S.andB.Weaver.1997.Content-basedInstructioninForeignLanguageEducation:MethodsandModels.Washington,DC:GeorgetownUniversityPress.

Vygotsky,L.1978.MindinSociety.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress.Wajnryb,R.1990.GrammarDictation.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.Wesche,M.1993.‘Discipline-basedapproachestolanguagestudy:Researchissuesandoutcomes’inM.KruegerandF.Ryan(eds.).LanguageandContent:DisciplineandContent-basedApproachestoLanguageStudy.Lexington,MA:D.C.Heath.

Zamel,V.1982.‘Writing:Theprocessofdiscoveringmeaning.’TESOLQuarterly16/2:195–209.

1Forthesakeofsimplicity,fortheremainderofthischapter,wewilluseCBItomeantheintegrationoflanguageandcontentininstruction.

2Althoughithassincebeenusedwithotherpopulations,suchasuniversitystudents(seeByrnes2005).3This lesson isbasedpartlyonCristelli (1994) ‘An Integrated,Content-basedCurriculumforBeginningLevelEnglishasaSecondLanguageLearnersofMiddleSchoolAge:FourPilotUnits,’anIndependentProfessionalProject,SchoolforInternationalTraining.

11

Task-basedLanguageTeaching

IntroductionIn1976,Wilkinsdistinguishedbetween two typesof syllabi—syntheticsyllabiandanalytic syllabi. Synthetic syllabi comprise linguistic units: grammar structures,vocabularyitems,functions,etc.Theunitsareusuallyorderedlogically,inasequencefromlinguisticsimplicitytolinguisticcomplexity.Itisthelearners’responsibilitytosynthesizethelinguisticunitsforthepurposeofcommunication.Analyticsyllabi,onthe other hand, ‘… are organised in terms of the purposes for which people arelearninglanguageandthekindsoflanguageperformancethatarenecessarytomeetthosepurposes’(Wilkins1976:13).Content-basedinstruction,whichwelookedatinthe previous chapter, employs an analytic syllabus. Rather than learning languageitemsonebyoneinaspecificsequence,learnersworkonrelevantcontenttextsandthe languageof the texts.Second language acquisition (SLA) research supports theuse of analytic syllabi because such research shows that learners do not learnlinguistic items one at a time. Instead, they induce linguistic information from thelanguagesamplestheyworkon,andtheyacquirelanguageitemsonlywhentheyarereadytodoso.Atask-basedsyllabus,whichwetakeupinthischapter,fallsintothecategoryofananalyticsyllabus.Thesyllabusiscomposedoftasks,notasequenceoflinguisticitems.Tasks aremeaningful, and in doing them, students need to communicate. Tasks

have a clear outcome so that the teacher and students know whether or not thecommunicationhasbeensuccessful.Anexampleofataskinatask-basedsyllabusisforstudentstoplananitineraryforatrip.Studentsworkinsmallgroupswithatrainschedule.Theyaregivencertaindestinations to include,andtheyhavetodecideonthemost direct route to travel by train—the one thatwill take the least amount oftraveltime.Asthestudentsseektocompletethetask,theyhavetoworktounderstandeachotherandtoexpresstheirownthoughts.Bysodoing,theyhavetochecktoseeiftheyhavecomprehendedcorrectlyand,attimes,theyhavetoseekclarification.Thisinteraction and checking is thought to facilitate language acquisition (Long 1996;Gass1997).AsCandlinandMurphynote:

Thecentralpurposeweareconcernedwithislanguagelearning,andtaskspresentthis in the form of a problem-solving negotiation between knowledge that the

learnerholdsandnewknowledge.(CandlinandMurphy1987:1)

Task-based Language Teaching is another example of the ‘strong version’ of thecommunicative approach, where language is acquired through use. In otherwords,studentsacquirethelanguagetheyneedwhentheyneeditinordertoaccomplishthetaskthathasbeensetbeforethem.Before proceeding to the lesson, followingEllis (2009)we should point out that

thereisadifferencebetweentask-basedsyllabiandtask-basedlanguageteachingorTBLT.Task-basedsyllabihavebeencriticizedfor theabsenceofgrammatical items(Sheen2003;Swan2005).Whileitmaybetruethattask-basedsyllabi,beinganalyticinnature,donotexpressly featuregrammarstructures, task-based teachingor task-supported teaching (Ellis 2003), in the minds of some methodologists, does notexclude it. For instance, Loschky and Bley-Vroman (1993) see value in engagingstudentsinstructure-basedcommunicativetasks,whicharedesignedtohavestudentsautomatizetheuseofastructurethattheyhavealreadyinternalized.Astructure-basedcommunicative taskmight involvemaking inferencesabout the identityofsomeonewhose briefcase has been left in the back of a taxi (Riggenbach, Samuda, andWisniewska 2007). Completing such a task by identifying the owner is likely tonecessitatetheuseofcertainmodalverbsand/oradverbsofprobability(‘Itmightbeawoman.’‘Sheisprobablyabusinesswoman.’).Other methodologists claim that along with communicative tasks, there can be

focusedtasksthatdonotcallforspeaking,butinstead,aredesignedtoraiselearners’consciousness with regard to specific linguistic items (Ellis 2009). For instance,studentsmightbeaskedtotraceapathonamapofatown,followingdirectionsgivenby the teacher. In thisway, studentswould receive comprehensible input involvingimperatives, prepositions of location and direction, and the names of differentbuildings. Other communicative tasks can be designed in such a way that theyencouragestudentstonoticeaparticulartargetlanguagefeature,possiblybymeansofinputenhancement,suchasusingboldfacetypeforaparticularstructureinareadingpassage or input flooding, which means using particular vocabulary items orgrammar structures with great frequency in the input. Such input enhancementtechniquesarethoughttoworkwellforstructuresthatarenoteasilyperceived,suchasgrammaticalmorphemes.Then,too,Ellis(2003)suggeststhatthereareanumberofwaysinwhichgrammar

can be addressed as a follow-up to a communicative task, including direct explicitinstructionand traditionalpractice-typeexercises.Willis (1996)hasalsoproposedavarietyofsuchoptionsforthepost-taskphase.Stillothers,whilerejectingaroleforsuch direct explicit instruction, claim that even within communicative tasks, someattentionshouldbepaidtolinguisticform,throughafocusonform,notareturntogrammardrillsandexercises,whichistermedafocusonforms(Long1991).Afocus

on form might involve a teacher’s reformulating or recasting a student’s error orproviding a brief grammar explanation. It is said that focusing student attention ongrammatical form in these ways can have a positive effect, provided that suchattention is brief and reactive, in that it takes placewhen problemsof grammaticalinaccuracyarise(Long2009).SamudaandBygate(2008)reachbackintohistoryevenfurtherthanSLAresearch

to find theoretical support for task-based language teaching. They do so citing theworkofJohnDewey(1913),whoemphasizedtheneedforexperience,relevance,and‘intelligent effort’ for effective learning. Dewey is generally considered to be thefounder of constructivism. He rejected approaches that viewed learners asreceptaclesoftheteacher’sknowledgeandfavoredoneswherestudentsareactivelyinvolved in constructing their own knowledge through experience and problemsolving.Letusseehowthisplaysoutinourlesson.

ExperienceThefollowinglessonisonethathasbeenadaptedandexpandedfromPrabhu(1987).IttakesplaceinsouthernIndia.Theclassconsistsofforty10-year-oldchildren,whoare advanced beginners in English. As we enter the classroom, the teacher isspeaking:

‘Wearegoingtodoalessontodayontimetables.OK?’

Theteacherdraws thecolumnsandrowsofaclass timetableon thewhiteboard.Attheheadof thefirstcolumn,hewrites9:30–10:15.Thestudentsunderstandthat theteacherhaswrittenthedurationofthefirstclassperiodoftheday.‘What should Iwrite here?’ asks the teacher, pointing to the head of the second

column.Thestudentsrespond,‘Tenfifteen.’Andthen‘Eleveno’clock,’astheteachermoves his finger across the top row. The teacher points in turn to the top of eachcolumn,andthestudentschorusthetimethateachclassperiodbeginsandends.Thentheteacherasks:‘Whowillwritethenamesforthedaysoftheweekhere?’

Several students raise their hands. The teacher calls on one. ‘Come,’ he says. Thestudenthehascalledoncomestothefrontoftheroom,takesthemarker,andwritesthenamesofeachweekdaybesideeachrow,MondaytoFriday,correctly,astherestoftheclasshelpswiththespelling.

‘Isthatcorrect?’theteacherasks.‘Correct!’thestudentschorusback.

‘WhataboutSaturday?DowehaveschoolonSaturday?’

Thestudentsreplyinunison,‘No…weekend.’

The teacher responds, ‘Yes. Saturday is on theweekend. Saturday’s aweekendday.’

Next, the teacherhas thestudentscopytheblankschedulefromtheboard.Ashetalks,eachstudentfillsintheschedule.Hetellsthem,‘OnMonday,youstudyEnglishduringthefirstperiod.HowmanyofyouliketostudyEnglish?’Mosthandsgoupinresponse.Then,hesays,‘IguessthatEnglishisyourfavoriteperiod,secondonlytolunch.’ The students laugh. The teacher goes on, ‘You also study English onWednesday and Friday, first period. During the second period on these days, youstudymath.’Theteachercontinuesuntiltheschedulesarecompleted.Studentscheckeachother’swork.Theteacherthendividestheclassintoeightgroupsoffivestudents.Eachstudentin

agroupreceivesthescheduleforonedayoftheschoolweek.Thestudents’taskistocomplete the week’s schedule by sharing the information on their cards with eachother.Thereismuchdiscussionaseachgroupworkstodrawupafullschedule.As he circulates among the groups, the teacher hears studentsmaking errors.He

doesnotsayanything,buthenotesthemandcontinuesaroundtheclassroom.Ashemoves about the room listening to the groups, the teacher reminds the students tospeakinEnglish.Thefirstgroupthatisfinishedcomesuptotheboardandwritesuptheschedule.

Afterthestudentshavecheckedtheirwork,theteachercollectseachgroup’sschedulesohecanreaditandreturnittothemthenextday.Hecheckstheirschedulesmainlytoseethatthecontentiscorrect.Next,stillworkingintheirgroups,thestudentsaretoldthattheyaretofindaway

todeterminetheirclassmates’favoriteschoolsubjects.Theymustfindoutfromclassmemberswhicharethethreemostpopularsubjectsandthethreeleastpopular.Eachgroup is todiscussways itmightgather the information.Thegroupmightdesignasurvey, for instance, or go around the room interviewing other students.After theyhavecompletedtheirsurveyorinterviews,thegroupshavetosummarizeandreportthe results. They have to decide how to do this. For example, they may usepercentages,abargraph,apiechart,orsomeothervisualdisplay.Onceagain,muchconversation takesplace.Studentsarebusily talkingabouthow theywillobtain theinformationtheyneedtocompletethetaskandlatertoreporttheirfindings.

Figure11.1Studentscompletingascheduleontheboard

Thesewillhavetowaitforanotherdaytoreport,though,becausethereisnotimelefttoday.Inthefollowingperiod,theteacherwillgivethemanothertask,wherehewilldothetalkingandthestudentswilllistenanddosomething.Theinputtasktheteacherhaschosentakes intoaccountwhaterrorshehasnotedandwrittendownin today’sclass.

ThinkingabouttheExperienceWehaveseenthattasksarealsousedinCommunicativeLanguageTeaching(CLT),soatfirstglancethisshortlessonmaynotseemsodifferent.ButnoticethatwhilethetaskinourCLTlessoninChapter9wasdesignedtogetstudentstopracticemakingpredictions(acommunicativefunction),thetask-basedlessonwehavejustobserveddidnot focusonaparticular function,orevenaparticular formof the language. Infact, the teacherusedawidevarietyof linguistic forms, themeaningofwhichwasmadeclearbythecontext.The‘departurefromCLT[insuchlessons]…laynotinthetasks themselves, but in the accompanying pedagogic focus on task completioninsteadofonthelanguageusedintheprocess’(LongandCrookes1993:31).Thisisamajorshiftofperspective.Letuscompiletheprinciplesunderlyingthetask-basedmethodshowninthelesson

fromPrabhu (1987) bymaking some observations and then attempting to infer theunderlyingprinciplesfromthem.

Observations Principles

1Theteachertellstheclassthattheyaregoingtocompleteatimetable.

Theclassactivitieshaveaperceivedpurposeandaclearoutcome.

2Theteacherbeginsbyhavingtheclasshelphimtofilloutaclassschedule.Thisisdonethroughwholeclassinteractionintheformofteacherquestionandstudentresponse.

Apre-task,inwhichstudentsworkthroughataskthattheywilllaterdoindividually,isahelpfulwaytohavestudentsseethelogicinvolvedinwhattheyarebeingaskedtodo.Itwillalsoallowthelanguagenecessarytocompletethetasktocomeintoplay.

3Theteacherfirsthasthestudentslabelthetimeperiodsandthenthedays.

Theteacherbreaksdownintosmallerstepsthelogicalthinkingprocessnecessarytocompletethetask.Thedemandonthinkingmadebytheactivityshouldbejustabovethelevelwhichlearnerscanmeetwithouthelp.

4Theteacherasksthestudentsifaparticularanswerisright.

Theteacherneedstoseekwaysofknowinghowinvolvedthestudentsareintheprocess,sohecanmakeadjustmentsinlightofthelearners’perceptionsofrelevanceandtheirreadinesstolearn.Suchteacher–classnegotiationensuresthatasmanystudentsaspossibleina

mixed-abilityclassgraspthenatureoftheactivity.

5Theteacherasks,‘WhataboutSaturday?DowehaveschoolonSaturday?’

Theteacherdoesn’tconsciouslysimplifyhislanguage;heuseswhateverlanguageisnecessarytohavestudentscomprehendthecurrentstepinthepre-task.HereheswitchedfromanabbreviatedWh-questiontoayes/noquestion.Thisswitchisanaturalstrategythatproficientspeakersusewheninteractingwithlessproficientspeakersinsideandoutsideoftheclassroom.

6Thestudentsreply,‘Weekend.’Theteacherresponds,‘Yes.Saturdayisontheweekend.Saturday’saweekendday.’

Theteachersuppliesthecorrecttargetformbyreformulatingorrecastingwhatthestudentshavesaid.

7Theteachertalksabouttheschedule. Theteacherprovidesgoodmodelsofthetargetlanguage.

8Thestudentsthendothetaskingroups,followingtheteacher’sinstructions.Theyareeachgivensomeoftheinformationtheyneedtocompletethetask.

Thisjigsawtask,wherestudentshavetopiecetogetherinformationtheyneedtocompleteatask,givesthemanopportunityforinteraction.

9Theymakeerrors.Theteachernotesthem.

Theteachershouldnotnecessarilyinterruptthestudentswhentheyarefocusedonmeaning.

10Thestudents’papersweremarkedforcontent.

Studentsshouldreceivefeedbackontheirlevelofsuccessincompletingthetask.Theneedtoachieveanoutcomemakesstudentspayattention.

11Studentsareaskedtodesignawaytosurveytheotherstudentsabouttheirfavoriteandleastfavoritesubjects.Theyaretofigureoutawaytoreporttheirfindingstotherestoftheclass.

Studentshaveinputintothedesignandthewaythattheycarryoutthetask.Thisgivesthemmoreopportunityforinteraction.

12Studentsreportinthenextclass. Apublicpresentationencourages

studentstoworkonaccuracyandorganization,aswellasmeaning.

13Intheirreports,studentsusethelanguagetheyhavebeenworkingon.

Repeatingthelanguagethattheyhavebeenworkingonshowslearnerswhattheycanandwhattheycannotyetdo.

14Theteacherpreparesanewtaskbasedontheerrorshehasnoted.

‘Listen-and-do’taskspromoteacquisitionofnewvocabularyandprovideagoodmodelforgrammaticalform.Thistaskfollow-upcanenhancethelearningthathastakenplaceearlier.

ReviewingthePrinciplesWe will now follow our customary procedure and review the answers to our 10questions.

1WhatarethegoalsofteacherswhouseTBLT?Thegoalofteachersistofacilitatestudents’languagelearningbyengagingtheminavarietyoftasksthathaveaclearoutcome.

2Whatistheroleoftheteacher?Whatistheroleofthestudents?Theteacher’sroleistochoosetasks,basedonananalysisofstudents’needs,thatareappropriatetothelevelofthestudentsandtocreatepre-taskandtaskfollow-upphasesthatareinlinewiththeabilitiesandneedsofthestudents.Theteacheralsomonitorsthestudents’performance,andintervenesasnecessary.Theroleofthestudentsistocommunicatewiththeirpeerstocompleteatask.

3Whataresomecharacteristicsoftheteaching/learningprocess?Apre-taskphasetypicallybeginsatasksequence.Duringthisphase,ateachercanintroducethestudentstothelanguagetheywillneedtocompletethetask.Thetasksaremeaningfulandrelevantsothatthestudentsseethereasonfordoingthetaskandcanseehowthetaskrelatestopossiblesituationsintheirlivesoutsidetheclassroom.Studentsareactivelyengagedwiththetask,withtheteachermonitoringtheirperformanceandinterveningwhennecessary.Thetaskhasclearoutcomessothatbothstudentsandteacherscantellifthetaskhasbeensuccessfullycompleted.Apost-taskphasetakesplacetoreinforcestudents’learningortoaddressanyproblemsthatmayhavearisen.

4Whatisthenatureofstudent–teacherinteraction?Whatisthenatureofstudent–studentinteraction?Theteacheristheinputproviderduringtheinitialphaseofthelesson.Healsosetsthetaskforstudentstoperform.Theteacherpaysattentionduringthetask,makingnoteoflanguagethatshouldbefocusedon.Heprovidesfeedbacksuchasrecasts.Studentsoftenworkcloselytogethertohelpeachotheraccomplishthetaskandtoproblem-solve.

5Howarethefeelingsofthestudentsdealtwith?Studentsaremotivatedbydoingtasksthatpreparethemfortherealworld.

6Howisthelanguageviewed?Howiscultureviewed?Languageisforcommunicatingandfor‘doing.’Cultureisnotexplicitlydealtwithalthoughcertaintasksmighthaveaculturalfocus,suchaswhenstudentspreparedifferentethnicfoodstoshare.

7Whatareasoflanguageareemphasized?Whatlanguageskillsareemphasized?Themeaningdimensionoflanguageisemphasized.Dependingonthenatureofthetask,anyofthefourskillscanbeutilized.

8Whatistheroleofthestudents’nativelanguage?Thereisnoexplicitroleforthestudents’nativelanguage.

9Howisevaluationaccomplished?Theteacherconstantlyevaluatesstudentsinlightoftaskoutcomesandthelanguagetheyuse.

10Howdoestheteacherrespondtostudenterrors?Focusonformisessentialtostudents’learning.Errorcorrectionisdonethroughrecastsormodelingorbygivingbriefgrammarexplanations.

Aswesawinthelessonwehavejustobserved,inPrabhu’sapproachtheteacherdesignswhichtasksaretobeworkedon.Alternatively,Breen(1987)suggeststhatthechoiceoftaskshouldbenegotiatedbetweentheteacherandstudents.Athirdwaytodecideonwhichtaskstoincludeinacourseistoconductaneedsanalysistodeterminewhichreal-worldtasksstudentswillneedtoperform(Long,citedinSkehan1998).

•ProjectWorkAnotherapproach,whichisalsoconcernedwithreal-worldlanguageuse,butisdistinctiveenoughtomeritspecialconsideration,isprojectwork.Aswithatask-basedapproach,thelanguagepracticedintheclassroomisnotpredetermined,butratherderivesfromthenatureofaparticularprojectthatstudentselecttodo.Forexample,studentsmightdecidetotakeonaprojectsuchaspublishingaschoolnewspaperinthetargetlanguage.Thisprojectwouldfollowthesamethreestagesofallprojects(basedonFried-Booth2002):

Duringthefirststage,thestudentswouldworkintheirclass,collaboratingwiththeirteacher,toplanthecontentandscopeoftheprojectandspecificlanguage

needstheymighthave.Theymightalsodevisesomestrategiesforhowtheywouldcarryoutthetasks,suchasassigningeachotherspecificrolestofulfill.

Thesecondstagetypicallytakesplaceoutsidetheclassroomandinvolvesthegatheringofanynecessaryinformation.Forexample,ifthestudentshavedecidedtopublishaschoolnewspaper,thenthisstagemightinvolvetheirconductinginterviews,takingphotographs,andgatheringprintedorvisualmaterial.Itwouldalsoincludewritinguptheirinterviewsandlayingout,printing,anddistributingthefirsteditionoftheirnewspaper.Duringthisstage,studentsmaywelluseallfourskillsinanatural,integratedfashion.

Inthethirdandfinalstage,studentsreviewtheirproject.Theymonitortheirownworkandreceivefeedbackfromtheteacherontheirperformance.Ateachofthesethreestages,theteacherwillbeworkingwiththestudents,actingascounselorandconsultant,notastheprojectdirector.

Byencouragingstudentstomoveoutoftheclassroomandintotheworld,projectworkhelpstobridgethegapbetweenlanguagestudyandlanguageuse.Projectworkalsoappealstoboththesocialandcognitiveaspectsoflearning,whichmanyteachersfindimportant.

ReviewingtheTechniquesPrabhuidentifiedthreetypesoftasks,allofwhichwererepresentedinthelessonwehavejustobserved:aninformation-gap,anopinion-gap,andareasoning-gaptask.

•Information-gapTaskAninformation-gapactivity,whichwesawusedpreviouslyinCLTandnowinTBLT,involvestheexchangeofinformationamongparticipantsinordertocompleteatask.IntheTBLTlesson,studentshadtoexchangeinformationwithintheirgroupsinordertocompletetheschedule.Otherexamplesmightbewhereonestudentisgivenapictureanddescribesthepictureforanotherstudenttodraw,orwherestudentsdraweachother’sfamilytrees.

•Opinion-gapTaskAnopinion-gaptaskrequiresthatstudentsexpresstheirpersonalpreferences,feelings,orattitudesinordertocompletethetask.Forinstance,studentsmightbegivenasocialproblem,suchashighunemployment,andbeaskedtocomeupwithaseriesofpossiblesolutions,ortheymightbeaskedtocomposealetterofadvicetoafriendwhohassoughttheircounselaboutadilemma.Inourlesson,thestudentswereonlyattheadvanced-beginninglevel.Theiropinion-gaptaskwasarathersimpleone,whichinvolvedstudents’surveyingtheirclassmatesabouttheirmostandleastfavoritesubjects.1

•Reasoning-gapTaskAreasoning-gapactivityrequiresthatstudentsderivesomenewinformationbyinferringitfrominformationtheyhavealreadybeengiven.Forexample,studentsmightbegivenarailroadscheduleandaskedtoworkoutthebestroutetogetfromoneparticularcitytoanother,ortheymightbeaskedtosolveariddle.Inthelessonweobserved,studentswereaskedtousetheresultsoftheirsurveysorinterviewstofindoutwhichwerethethreemostpopularandtheleastpopularsubjects.Prabhu(1987)feelsthatreasoning-gaptasksworkbestsinceinformation-gaptasksoftenrequireasinglesteptransferofinformation,ratherthansustainednegotiation,andopinion-gaptaskstendtoberatheropen-ended.Reasoning-gaptasks,ontheotherhand,encourageamoresustainedengagementwithmeaning,thoughtheyarestillcharacterizedbyasomewhatpredictableuseoflanguage.

AccordingtoEllis(2009),TBLTtaskscanbeunfocusedorfocused:

•UnfocusedTasksUnfocusedtasksaretasksdesignedtoprovidelearnerswithopportunitiesfor

communicatinggenerally.Thetaskdescribedintheintroductiontothischapter,wherestudentshavetoplananitineraryforatraintrip,isanexample.Studentsdrawontheirownlanguageresourcestofulfillthetask.

•FocusedTasksFocusedtasksaretasksdesignedtoprovideopportunitiesforcommunicatingusingsomespecificlinguisticitem,typicallyagrammarstructure.Thetaskoftryingtoidentifytheownerofabriefcaseleftinataxiisanexample.Ofcourse,thereisnoguaranteethatthetaskwillelicitthegrammarstructurethatthetaskdesignersintended(LoschkyandBley-Vroman1993).Aswithalltasks,focusedtasksshouldbemeaningful.Forthisreason,thetargetlinguisticfeatureofafocusedtaskis‘hidden’(thelearnersarenottoldexplicitlywhatthefeatureis)(Ellis2009).2

OneotherdistinctionthatEllis(2009)makesisbetweeninput-providingandoutput-promptingtasks:

•Input-providingTasksInput-providingtasksengagelearnerswiththereceptiveskillsoflisteningandreading.Wesawinthelessoninthischapterthatthestudentscompletedaschedulewiththecontentthattheteacherprovided.

Input-providing(e.g.‘listenanddo’tasks)notonlyworkonthereceptiveskills,butalsogiveteachersanopportunitytointroducenewlanguage.

•Output-promptingTasksOutput-promptingtasksstimulatethestudentstowriteorspeakmeaningfully.Inourlesson,therewasanoutput-promptingtaskwhenstudentshadtosharetheinformationontheircardssothattheirgroupmemberscouldcompleteaschedule.

ConclusionTask-basedlanguageteachingchallengesmainstreamviewsaboutlanguageteachingin that it is based on the principle that language learning will progress mostsuccessfullyifteachingaimssimplytocreatecontextsinwhichthelearner’snaturallanguagelearningcapacitycanbenurturedratherthanmakingasystematicattempttoteachthelanguagebitbybit(Ellis2009:222).Forsomemethodologists, there isnocontradiction insaying thisandat thesame

timesayingthatTBLTcanalsobecomplementedbyexplicitinstructioningrammarandvocabulary;forothers,focusingonformsisanunacceptablecompromise.Inanycase,itisprobablyfairtosaythatTBLTistheonemethodthathassupportfromSLAresearchers.Still, the questionmust always be asked if TBLT is appropriate for all teaching

contexts(AndonandEckerth2009).Whilelearnersmaywelllearneffectivelyusinganalyticsyllabi,theadoptionofsuchsyllabimaybeparticularlydifficultinsituationswhere the success of language instruction is judged by examinations containinggrammarandvocabularyitemsandquestions.Nevertheless, we have seen that task-based instruction can help to encourage

studentstousethetargetlanguageactivelyandmeaningfully.Therefore,ifyoudecidethatTBLT is appropriate in your teaching context,what appeals to you about task-basedinstruction?Whatreservationsdoyouhave?Howwouldyougoaboutchoosingtasks? Can you imagine challenges inmanaging your task-based class? If so, howwouldyouaddressthem,orplantomakethemostoftheopportunitiesintask-basedteachingwhileworkingeffectivelywiththechallenges?

Activities

ACheckyourunderstandingofTask-basedLanguageTeaching.1ExplainhowTBLTisconsistentwiththeuseofananalyticsyllabus.2Whatisinputenhancement?Giveanexample.Whywouldyoudoit?

BApplywhatyouhaveunderstoodaboutTask-basedLanguageTeaching.1ThinkofoneexampleofeachofPrahbu’sthreetypesoftask:information-gap,opinion-gap,andreasoning-gap.Trythemoutintheclassroomandseewhatyoucanlearn.

2Drawupalistofprojectsthatmightbeundertakenbyyourstudents.Rememberthattheprojectisnotdesignedtosuitaparticularsyllabusunit.Alsorememberthecrucialfactthatstudentswanttobeinvolved.Onyourlistcouldbesomethinglikepublishingaschoolnewspaperasdescribedinthischapter.Otherideasmightbeplanningafieldtrip,conductingasurvey,orresearchingatopicsuchasanenvironmentalconcern.Ifyoudodecidetohaveyourstudentsgoaheadandworkonaproject,youmaywishtoconsultFried-Booth(2002).

References/AdditionalResourcesAdams,R.2009.‘Recentpublicationsontask-basedlanguageteaching:Areview.’InternationalJournalofAppliedLinguistics19/3:339–55.

Andon,N.andJ.Eckerth.2009.‘Chacunàsongoût?Task-basedL2pedagogyfromtheteacher’spointofview.’InternationalJournalofAppliedLinguistics19/3:286–310.

Breen,M.1987.‘Learnercontributionstotaskdesign’inC.CandlinandD.Murphy(eds.).LanguageLearningTasks,23–46:EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:PrenticeHall.

Candlin,C.andD.Murphy(eds.).1987.LanguageLearningTasks.EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:PrenticeHall.

Cohen,J.2009.‘Usingstudent-generatedsurveystoenhancecommunication.’EssentialTeacher6/3–4:42–4.

Dewey,J.1913.InterestandEffortinEducation.Boston:Houghton-Mifflin.Eckerth,J.andS.Siekmann.2008.Task-basedLanguageLearningandTeaching:Theoretical,Methodological,andPedagogicalPerspectives.Frankfurt:PeterLang.

Ellis,R.2003.Task-basedLanguageLearningandTeaching.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

____.2009.‘Task-basedlanguageteaching:Sortingoutthemisunderstandings.’InternationalJournalofAppliedLinguistics19/3:221–46.

Fried-Booth,D.2002.ProjectWork(2ndedn.).Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.GarcíaMayo,M.(ed.).2007.InvestigatingTasksinFormalLanguageLearning.Clevedon:MultilingualMatters.

Gass,S.1997.Input,Interaction,andtheSecondLanguageLearner.Mahwah,NJ:LawrenceErlbaum.

Haines,S.1989.ProjectsfortheEFLClassroom.London:Nelson.Larsen-Freeman,D.(SeriesDirector)2007.GrammarDimensions:Form,Meaning,andUse(4thedn.).Boston:Heinle/Cengage.

Long,M.1991.‘Focusonform:Adesignfeatureinlanguageteachingmethodology’inK.deBot,R.Ginsberg,andC.Kramsch(eds.).ForeignLanguageResearchinCross-culturalPerspective,39–52.Amsterdam:JohnBenjamins.

____.1996.‘Theroleofthelinguisticenvironmentinsecondlanguageacquisition’inW.Ritchie,andT.Bahtia(eds.).HandbookofSecondLanguageAcquisition,413–68.NewYork:AcademicPress.

____.2009.‘Methodologicalprinciplesforlanguageteaching’inM.Long,andC.Doughty(eds.).TheHandbookofLanguageTeaching,373–94.Malden,MA:Wiley-Blackwell.

____.andG.Crookes.1993.‘Unitsofanalysisinsyllabusdesign:Thecasefortask’inG.CrookesandS.Gass(eds.).TasksinaPedagogicalContext,9–54.Clevedon:MultilingualMatters.

Loschky,L.andR.Bley-Vroman.1993.‘Grammarandtask-basedmethodology’inG.CrookesandS.Gass(eds.).TasksinLanguageLearning,123–67.Clevedon:MultilingualMatters.

Norris,J.2009.‘Task-basedteachingandtesting’inM.LongandC.Doughty(eds.).TheHandbookofLanguageTeaching,578–94.Malden,MA:Wiley-Blackwell.

Nunan,D.2004.Task-basedLanguageTeaching.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Prabhu,N.S.1987.SecondLanguagePedagogy.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.Riggenbach,H.,V.Samuda,andI.Wisniewska.2007.GrammarDimensions(Book2,4thedn.).Boston:Heinle/Cengage.

Rott,S.2000.‘TeachingGermangrammarthroughcommunicativetasks:Somesuggestions.’DieUnterrichtspraxis33/2:125–33.

Samuda,V.andM.Bygate.2008.TasksinSecondLanguageLearning.Basingstoke:PalgraveMacmillan.

Sheen,R.2003.‘Focus-on-form:Amythinthemaking.’ELTJournal57:225–33.Skehan,P.1998.‘Task-basedinstruction.’AnnualReviewofAppliedLinguistics:FoundationsofSecondLanguageTeaching18.

Swan,M.2005.‘Legislatingbyhypothesis:Thecaseoftask-basedinstruction.’AppliedLinguistics26/3:376–401.

vandenBranden,K.2006.Task-basedLanguageTeaching:FromTheorytoPractice.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

____.2009.‘Mediatingbetweenpredeterminedorderandchaos:Theroleoftheteacherintask-basedlanguageeducation.’InternationalJournalofAppliedLinguistics19/3:264–85.

——,M.Bygate,andJ.Norris.2009.Task-basedLanguageTeaching:AReader.Amsterdam:JohnBenjamins.

Wilkins,D.1976.NotionalSyllabuses.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.Willis,D.andJ.Willis.2007.DoingTask-basedTeaching.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

Willis,J.1996.AFrameworkforTask-basedLearning.London:Longman.

1SeeCohen(2009)foranotherexampleofusingsurveysinTBLT.2Forfurtherexamples,seetheseriesGrammarDimensions,directedbyLarsen-Freeman(2007).

12

ThePoliticalDimensionsofLanguageTeachingandtheParticipatoryApproach

IntroductionInthischapter,welookatthepoliticsoflanguageuseandlanguageteaching.Wealsodiscuss one language teaching method, the Participatory Approach, which paysparticularattentiontothepoliticaldimensionsofeducation.

ThePoliticsofLanguageLearningalanguageisapoliticalact.Thosethatknowalanguageareempoweredinaway that thosewho do not know the language are not. These days, because of itsstatus as an international language, it is English that is seen to be the language ofpower.1Many people around theworldwant to learnEnglish because they believethatitwillhelpthemtogetagoodeducationorjob.TheyfeelthatknowingEnglishgivesthemagreaterchanceforeconomicadvancement.‘Ontheonehand,’Graddol(2006: 22) notes, ‘the availability of English as a global language is acceleratingglobalisation.Ontheother,theglobalisationisacceleratingtheuseofEnglish.’Thisview seesEnglish as a tool that benefits the individualwho learns it.Other

people, however, express concern about what is lost when an individual learnsEnglish or ‘adds’ an English-speaking identity. They worry that learning Englishmight mean losing some ability in another language—even an individual’s nativelanguage—orthatanewidentityasanEnglishspeakermightcauseanotheridentitytofadeortodie.Theyarealsoconcernedabouttheeducationalinequalitythatresults.After all, not everyone has the opportunity to studyEnglish.More generally, someworryaboutEnglishdominanceleadingtothelossofendangeredlanguages,suchasthosespokenbyindigenouspeopleandimmigrantslivingincountrieswhereEnglishusepredominates,especiallywhen‘Englishonly’policiesareadopted.

WhoseEnglishShouldbeTaught?RelatedtotheseissuesisthepoliticalquestionofwhoseEnglishistobethelanguageofinstruction.Shoulditbenative-speakerEnglishasspokenintheUnitedKingdom?The United States? Or what Kachru (1992) calls other ‘inner circle’ countries

(Anglophone Canada, Australia, Ireland, Malta, New Zealand, South Africa, andcertain countries in theCaribbean)?2 There are clear differenceswithin and amongthese varieties, so a choicemust bemade.Then,what about the variety ofEnglishspoken in other countrieswhereEnglish is commonly used and is often an officiallanguage—countriessuchas India,Nigeria,andSingapore—whichKachrurefers toasthe‘outercircle’countries?TheseformerBritishcolonieshaveevolvedtheirownvarietiesofnative-speakerEnglish,whichhavebecomeestablished,amongothers,asWorldEnglishes.Shouldthesevarietiesbethetargetofinstructionaswell?ThetruthisthattherearemanydifferentformsofEnglish,whicharemutuallyintelligibleforthemostpart,butwhichalsohaveuniquecharacteristics.Evenwithinacountry,thisisthecase.Forexample,inSingapore,thereisStandardSingaporeanEnglishusedforeducation,andthereis‘Singlish’,oftenusedforcommunicationwithinfamiliesandamongfriends.

EnglishasaLinguaFrancaThen there is the fact that there aremillions of users of English inKachru’s thirdcircle, ‘the expanding circle,’who have learned English as an additional language.Theyuseitprimarilytocommunicateinmultilingualcontexts,sometimeseventhosewithin the same country. In other words, English is used primarily as a contactlanguage (Canagarajah 2006). This variety has been called English as a LinguaFranca, ‘English as an International Language,’ or ‘Global English.’ English as aLingua Franca or ELF has features that are different from the English spoken incountriesbelonging to the inneror theoutercircles,whosenormsarecontrolledbynativespeakers.It might be asked who ‘owns’ the English language? (Widdowson 1994) One

answer to this question (Cummins and Davison 2007) is that English ‘belongs’ tothose forwhom it is amother tongue, thosewho speak it fromchildhood.Anotheranswer is thatEnglishisownedbywhoeveruses it regularly,forwhateverpurpose.Thissecondanswer is theanswer thatSeidlhofer,Breitender,andPitzl (2006)give.They recognize that a common language like English is needed for a sense ofcommunity, but they also recognize that a common language can be a threat tomultilingualism. In order to have both a unified community and at the same timeprotecttherightsforspeakersofalllanguages,theiransweristoconsiderEnglishasnolongerapossessionofnativespeakersofEnglish.Aswithalllanguages,then,thenormsforEnglishasaLinguaFrancaaredeterminedbyitsusers(Walker2010).Of course, as it is widely spoken around the world, ELF is not a homogenous

language,andthereiscertainlynosingleculturewithwhichitisassociated.Scholarswhoaccept the secondanswer to thequestionabout theownershipofEnglishhaveidentifiedfeaturesofELFthatwouldnotbeconsideredaccuratebyinnercirclenativespeakerstandards,buttheyareonesthatareregularinELF.OneexampleisthatELF

speakers frequently omit the ‘s’ on the end of third person singular present tenseverbs.Theysay‘Hewalktoschooleveryday,’ratherthan‘Hewalkstoschooleveryday.’Omitting the ‘s’would not be seen as an ‘error’ if comprehensibility ismoreimportant than conformity to native-speaker norms. The fact is that few learnersaspiretobeorneedtobenative-likespeakersofEnglish.BecauseELFisanaturallanguage,itisvariablejustlikeothernaturallanguages.

Therefore,notallELFspeakersomitthe‘s.’Nevertheless,therecognitionofELFhasprompted teachers to ask questions about which form of English is correct. Someteachers point out that while the omission of the ‘s’ does not seem to affect thesubstanceofamessage,itmayaffecthowthespeakerisperceived(Ur2010).Others(Kuo2006;seealsoBruthiaux2010)arguethatoneofthe‘dominantmodels’shouldbe the starting point, including one of theWorldEnglishes, if that is the dominantmodelinaparticularplace.Indeed:

ELFdoesnotatalldiscouragespeakersfromlearningandusingtheirlocalvarietyinlocalcommunicativecontexts,regardlessofwhether this isaninner,outer,orexpandingcircleEnglish.(Jenkins2006:161)

Of course, no one outside of the local educational context can really answer thequestionofwhichEnglishshouldbetaughtinaparticularplaceataparticulartime.

CriticalDiscourseAnalysisCritical discourse analysis is the study of how identity and power relations areconstructedinlanguage.Criticaldiscourseanalysts(suchasFairclough2001)observeandcommentonhowlanguage is linked tosocialpracticeand the implicitmessagethatissometimesconveyed.Forinstance,Stubbs(inBatstone1995)citestheexampleof a headline from an apartheid-era SouthAfrican newspaper. Upon the release ofNelsonMandelafromprison,theheadlineread:‘JubilantBlacksClashedwithPolice.’It would have been possible for this headline to have had a different word order:‘PoliceClashedwithJubilantBlacks,’butthiswouldhaveassignedresponsibilityforinitiating theconfrontation to thepolicenot to theBlacks. Inotherwords, textsarenot ideologically neutral.The lackof neutrality extends to other aspects of identitybesides race. Gender discrimination occurs, for example, when language teachingmaterialspresentwomenasalwaysbeingsubservienttomen.Of course, these issues can apply to languages other than English as well. We

would find that inmost countries thathavebeenatone timedominatedbyanotherworldpower,questionsandissuesaboutlanguageuseandpowerdynamicswouldbepresent, be that language Dutch, English, French, German, Portuguese, Russian,Spanish, or another.No one is suggesting that teachers not teach the language thattheir students want to learn. What, then, can teachers do about the politics of

language?

CriticalApproachestoPedagogyAminimal answer to thisquestion is that it is important for teachers todevelopanawarenessofpolitical issuesaround theuseof language.Language teachersarenotmerelyteachinglanguageasaneutralvehiclefortheexpressionofmeaning.Criticalpedagogyisanapproachtoteachingthataimstocreateamoreegalitariansocietybyraisingawarenessofsocialinjusticeasanecessarypartofthecurriculum.Whatyoushould do about critical pedagogy should not be determined by someone else,whomay be unfamiliar with your teaching context or your own political orientation.However,ifyouwishtobecomemore‘critical’inyourteaching,hereareafewideasthathavebeendiscussed.

LiteraciesSome educators (Gee 1996, Luke 2004) have explored literacies as a plural ratherthansingularconcept,stressingthefactthatparticipationinaliterateEnglishculturemeans more than being able to read English—learners need to gain access to thespecificEnglish languagenorms,grammar,andvocabularyusedby those inpower.Sostudentsarenot just learningtoreadinEnglish; theywouldalsobe learningthediscourse of politics, or education, or business. Learning the unique forms,vocabulary,andnormsofdifferentdiscoursesisempowering.Teacherswhoembracethis idea will find themselves examining their teaching practice, choice of texts,activities, and assessment tools, looking forwhen and how power is explicitly andimplicitlyexpressed.Inaddition,theymaydecidetoworkwithstudentsonasampleoflanguage,lookingattheauthor’swordchoices,whatgrammarstructuresareused,and other aspects of language use. This activitymight increase students’ ability tomakevocabularyandgrammarchoiceswithintherangeavailabletothem.

PlurilingualismandMulticompetenceTo keep one language from complete domination, teachers can foster positiveattitudes towards all languages. All language learning should be additive, notsubtractive.Inotherwords, thelanguagebeingstudiedshouldnotreplaceanyotherlanguage,butshouldratherenrich the learners’ languagecapacity.Many learnersofEnglishareplurilingual,whichreferstoanindividual’sabilitytospeakmorethanonelanguageto theextent that theyneedto,withoutsacrificinganylanguagetheyhaveacquired (see Council of Europe document, 2007). Teachers need to respect theirstudents’identitiesasplurilinguals.Inaddition,accordingtoCook(2002),thegoaloflanguage teaching should be successful language use and multicompetence, nottryingtogetstudentstoimitatemonolingualnative-speakeruse.

Non-nativeSpeakersasTeachersAnotherpolitical issue is theone regarding thespeakerstatusofa teacher (whethernativespeakerornon-nativespeaker).Many languageeducationprogramsprefer tohirenativespeakers,presumablyforthemodeltheyprovideandtheaccesstheyhaveto intuitionsaboutwhat iscorrect andhow the languageworks.However, inactualfact,non-nativespeakersbringagreatnumberofstrengthstolanguageteaching,notthe least of which is that they are role models of successful learning themselves.Besides, if they speak the language of their students, they know the obstacles toacquisitionandhowtosurmountthem.Theteacher’sstatusisapoliticalissue,then,notan issueofcompetence. It isnotwhetherornot theyarenative speakersof thelanguagetheyareteachingthatmakesforagoodteacher.

HiddenCurriculumAnother topic has to do with a teacher’s awareness of the hidden curriculum of alanguage class—what is being taught and learned that is not explicit. What doteachers indicate, for example, when they move their students’ desks into a circleformationrather than leaving themin rows?Whena teacherasks thestudentswhattheywanttolearnintheclass,whatmessageissent?Howisthismessagedifferentfromateacherpresentingacarefully-plannedsyllabusonthefirstdayofclass?Whatif a teacher does not choose to do certain activities in the coursebook and insteadreplacesthemwithactivitieswithstudents’backgroundsandinterestsinmind?Whatmeaningmight be attributed to these actions by the students (and potentially thoseconcerned observers such as parents and administrators) and is that meaningsomethingpositiveornegative?Inordertoanswerthesequestions,youmayneedtothinkdifferentlyaboutbothwhatyouteachandhow.As we have seen, the politics of teaching and learning English has become a

conversation—and often a debate—in English programs aswell as English teachereducation programsworldwide. To conclude this introductory discussion, here is aquestionandsomesuggestionstoconsider.Firstthequestion:DoyouseeEnglishassomethinghelpfulinallowingpeoplefromaroundtheworld

to communicatewith eachother or as something that is potentially a problem—theproblemofEnglishtakingovertheworld(Phillipson2008)?Youmightwanttofindout what your students think about this question. You might also want to explorewhich form(s) of English and English literacies to include in your classroom,especially ones that are not included in the curriculum or textbook you have beengiven.Finally,youmightthinkabouttheextenttowhichyourstudents’lives,issues,and struggles related to learning English could be discussed in your languageclassrooms.Itisthislastpointthatourlessoninthischapteraddresses.

TheParticipatoryApproach:OneResponsetothePoliticsofLanguageTeachingAlthough it originated in the late1950swith theworkofPauloFreire (perhaps themostfamousofallcriticaleducators),itwasnotuntilthe1980sthattheParticipatoryApproachstartedbeingwidelydiscussedinthelanguageteachingliterature.Insomeways the Participatory Approach is similar to content-based instruction in that itbeginswithcontent that ismeaningful to the students.The language that isworkeduponemergesfromit.Whatisstrikinglydifferent,though,isthenatureofthecontent.It isnot thecontentof subject-matter texts,but rather it iscontent thatcomes fromissues of concern to students. The Participatory Approach is based on a growingawarenessoftherolethateducation,ingeneral,andlanguageeducation,specifically,have in creating and perpetuating power dynamics in society.AsAnnBerthoff haswritten:

Education does not substitute for political action, but it is indispensable to itbecauseoftheroleitplaysinthedevelopmentofcriticalconsciousness.That,inturn,isdependentonthetransformingpoweroflanguage.(Berthoff1987:xix)

In the late 1950s, Freire, a Brazilian, developed a Portuguese literacy program forilliterate adults living in slums and rural areas. Members of Freire’s literacy teamspent time in the communities engaging adults in dialogues about the problems intheirlives.Fromthesedialogues,membersoftheteamdevelopedvocabularylistsofwordsthatwereimportant to thepeople in thecommunities.Certainof thesewordsbecamegenerativewordsthatwereusedtoteachbasicdecodingandencodingskills,thefirststepsinbecomingliterate.Sincethen,Freire’sideashavebeenadoptedbyadultliteracyprogramsaroundthe

world.ThecentralpremiseofFreire’sapproachisthateducationandknowledgehavevalueonlyinsofarastheyhelppeopleliberatethemselvesfromthesocialconditionsthat oppress them. The dialogues, therefore, not only have become the basis forliteracy development, but also for reflection and action to improve students’ lives.Education is not value-free—it occurs within a particular context. The goal of aParticipatory Approach is to help students to understand the social, historical, orculturalforcesthatshapedaparticularcontext,andthentohelpempowerstudentstotakeactionandmakedecisionsinordertogaincontrolovertheirlivesinthatcontext(Wallerstein1983).LikeJohnDewey,Freire(1970)criticizedwhathecalledthebankingmethodof

teaching in which the teacher ‘deposits’ information in the students, making theassumption that the teacher knows what the students need to learn. Instead, headvocated educational processes where students’ lives, local cultural norms, andissuesbecomethecontentforlearning.Heencouragedteacherstousethesetopicsto

create the basis for all teaching and learning. In thisway, the teacher is no longerdepositing information but is rather allowing learning to emerge from within thestudents.Acorepracticeof theParticipatoryApproach isproblemposing.Problemposinginvolvestheselectionofreal-life issuesfromthestudents’ livesandengagesthestudentsinanopen-endedprocessofproblemsolving.

ExperienceLetusnowseealessoninwhichtheParticipatoryApproachisbeingpracticed.3Thestudents are recent immigrants to theUnited States fromCentral Europe. They areadults who work part-time during the day and study English at night. Althoughattendance fluctuates somewhat due to family and work demands placed on thestudents,tonightthereare10adultspresentastheclassgetsunderway.Theteacherbegins,‘Goodeveningeveryone.Howareyoutonight?’Thestudents

return the greeting warmly and interact with the teacher and each other, onlyinterrupting togreet latecomers.Theyknow fromprevious experience that this is atimetocatchuponanythingofsignificancethathashappenedintheirlivessincelastweek’sclass.Onestudentdiscusses thefact thatoneofherchildren isstrugglingatschool.Heneverwantstogotoschool.Shedoesnotknowwhattheproblemis,butsheisworried.MuchofthisconversationtakesplaceinhaltingEnglishandgesturesince the students are still of low-intermediateEnglishproficiency.Another studentdiscusses the problem she has been having with her landlord. She can never getenough heat to make her comfortable. When she tries to communicate with thelandlord,hetellsherthatithasalwaysbeenthatway.Onebitofgoodnewsisthatoneofthestudent’sbrothershasjustgottenwordthathewillbepermittedentryintotheUnitedStatessoonandsowillbeabletojointherestofthefamily.Having dialogued with the students and having taken note of their issues, the

teachercontinues, ‘Lastweek,wewere talkingaboutwhyit isdifficult forsomeofyoutocometoclassregularly.NowIknowthatmostofyouworkduringthedayandyouhaveyourfamilytotakecareofintheevening.Inaddition,severalofthewomenwere speaking about choosing not to come to class a few times because of notwantingtobeoutaloneinthecityafterdark.Iwouldlikeustolookatthissituationalittlemoreindepthtonight.’Theteachershowsthestudentsapicture.Itisadrawingofanapartmentbuilding.

Figure12.1Ateacherusingapicturetounderstandtheproblemandelicitsolutions

Inoneof thewindowsof thebuilding, there isawoman lookingout.On the streetbelow, threeyoungmenare standingaround.The teacher tells the students that thewomanhasanEnglishclassthatshedoesnotwanttomiss,startinginanhour.Thenshebeginsadiscussion:‘Whatdoyousee?’Thestudentsreply,‘Awoman.’Andonestudentadds,‘Men.’

‘Whoisthewoman?Whatisshedoing?’theteacherqueries.ThestudentsdecidethatthewomanisLina,oneofthewomenwhoexpressedherfearofbeingoutinthecitybyherself afterdark.The teacher continueswith thequestions. ‘Whoare themen?Whataretheydoing?’‘Wherearethey?’ThestudentsreplyaswellastheycanusingtheEnglishtheyknow.Next the teacher asks the students to imaginehow thepeople in thepicture feel.

‘Howdoes thewomanfeel? Isshehappy?Sad?Afraid?’ ‘Why?’ ‘Howdo themenfeel?’‘Dotheylikestandinginthestreet?’Theteacherthenpursuesalineofquestioningthatattemptstogetstudentstorelate

theproblemtotheirownexperience.‘Hasthiseverhappenedtoyou?’sheasks.‘Howdidyoufeel?’‘Didyouleavethehouse?’‘Inyourcountryorculturearepeoplealonemuch?’theteacherasksinanattempt

tocontextualize theproblem.‘Dowomenwalk in thestreetsalone?’Finally, toendthissegmentoftheclass,theteacherinvitesthestudentstodiscusswhattheycandoaboutthisproblem.Shedoesthisbyposingaseriesofquestions:‘WhatcanLinadoaboutthis?’‘Whatdoyouthinkwillhappenifshedoes?’‘Whatwouldyoudoaboutthis?’andsoforth.

Since one of the suggestions for a solution to Lina’s problemwas to havemorestreetlightinginstalledinherneighborhood,theteacheraskstheclassiftheywouldlike to write a group letter to the mayor’s office to request better lighting. Thestudentsthinkthatthisisagoodidea,andtheytakeouttheirnotebooks.Theteacherelicitscontentfor the letterwithquestionssuchas‘What’s important in this letter?’‘Howdoyouwantittostart?’‘Whatdoyouwantmetowrite?’‘Whatcomesnext?’Theteacherfaithfullyrecordsthestudents’answersontheboard,makingsurenottochangetheirwords.Shereadsthetextaloudasshewritesitandsheinvitesstudentstoread along.When they are through, the teacher asks them if they want to changeanything,pointingtoeachwordasit isread.Shethenpointsoutsomechangesthatneedtobemade.Whentheyarefinishedwiththeirchanges,eachstudentreadsoneline.Theydothisseveraltimeswithstudentsreadingdifferentlineseachtime.Thestudentsnextcopytheirgroupletterintotheirnotebooks.Sincetheyactually

intendtosendtheletterout,theywanttomakesurethattheEnglishisgood.Sheasksthemtorereadandedittheletterforhomework.Theywillreadeachother’slettersinthefollowingclassandincorporateanynecessaryrevisionsinthegroupletterbeforesendingitout.Theclassconcludeswiththestudentstalkingaboutwhattheylikedinthat evening’s class and what they didn’t like. They also respond to the teacher’squestionsaboutwhattheyhavelearnedandwhattheywanttolearninthefuture.

ThinkingabouttheExperienceLetusnowexaminethepracticesandprinciplesoftheParticipatoryApproach.

Observations Principles

1Theteacherdialogueswithstudentsinordertolearnwhatishappeningintheirlives.

Whathappensintheclassroomshouldbeconnectedwithwhathappensoutside.Theteacherlistensforthemesinwhatstudentssaythatwillprovidethecontentforfuturelessons.

2Theteacherposesaproblemthatwasvoicedbyseveralwomenduringadiscussionfromapreviousclass.

Thecurriculumisnotapredeterminedproduct,buttheresultofanongoingcontext-specificproblem-posingprocess.

3Theteacherasksanumberofquestionsandleadstheclassindiscussingtheproblem.

Educationismosteffectivewhenitisexperience-centered—whenitrelatestostudents’realneeds.Studentsaremotivatedbytheirpersonalinvolvement.Teachersareco-learners,askingquestionsofthestudents,whoaretheexpertsontheirownlives.

4Theteacherasksthestudentsiftheywanttowriteagroupletter.Sheelicitsthecontentoftheletterfromthestudentsbyaskingleadingquestions.

Whenknowledgeisjointlyconstructed,itbecomesatooltohelpstudentsfindavoice;andbyfindingtheirvoices,studentscanactintheworld.Studentslearntoseethemselvesassocialandpoliticalbeings.

5Theteacherwritesdownwhatthestudentstellher.Shereadsthetextaloud,andthestudentsdo,too.Sheasksthemiftheywanttomakeanychanges.Sheoffersfeedbackaswell.Afterthechangeshavebeenmade,theteacherhasthestudentsreadtheletteroutloudseveraltimes.

Languageteachingoccurswithtextsthatthestudentshaveco-constructed.

6Afterwards,thestudentscopytheletterintheirnotebooks.Theyworkoneditingitforhomework.

Focusonlinguisticformoccurswithinafocusoncontent.Languageskillsaretaughtinserviceofactionforchange,ratherthaninisolation.

7Thestudentsareaskedtobringtheirrevisedversionsoftheletterstothenextclassforotherstoread.

Studentscancreatetheirownmaterials,which,inturn,canbecometextsforotherstudents.

8Thestudentsdiscusswhattheyhavelearnedintheclassandwhattheywanttolearninthefuture.

AgoaloftheParticipatoryApproachisforstudentstoevaluatetheirownlearningandtoincreasinglydirectitthemselves.Thisisonewaythattheycanfeelempowered.

ReviewingthePrinciplesAsyoucansee,thelanguagefocusintheParticipatoryApproachisnotestablishedinadvance. Rather, it follows from content, which itself emerges from ongoing,collaborativeinvestigationsofcriticalthemesinstudents’lives.AsAuerbach(1992:14) puts it, ‘Real communication, accompanied by appropriate feedback thatsubordinatesformtotheelaborationofmeaning,iskeyforlanguagelearning.’Letusnowexaminetheprinciplesmorespecifically.

1WhatarethegoalsofteacherswhousetheParticipatoryApproach?Theteachers’goalsaretoteachlanguagethatismeaningfulandtoraisethepoliticalconsciousnessofherstudents.Teacherswanttheirstudentstobeempoweredtousethelanguagetheyarelearninginordertosolvepoliticalproblemsintheirlives.

2Whatistheroleoftheteacher?Whatistheroleofthestudents?Theteacherdialogueswiththestudentsinordertoidentifyproblemstheyarehaving.Shethenlooksforwaystoincorporatetheseproblemsintothelessons.Theseproblemsbecomethecontentshefocusesoninlanguageinstruction.Thestudentsareencouragedtosharethedailyconcernsoftheirliveswiththeteacherandtheclass.

3Whataresomecharacteristicsoftheteaching/learningprocess?Theteacherleadsthestudentsinadiscussionabouttheirlives.Fromthisdiscussion,sheidentifiesproblemsthattheclasscanworkonasawhole.Shethenposestheseproblemstothestudents.Studentslearnhowtouselanguageinreal-worldsituationsinordertoaddresstheirproblems.Knowledgeisjointlyconstructedwiththeteacheraskingquestionsandthestudentsresponding.Collaborationamongstudentsisalsoencouraged.Focusingonlanguageformoccurswithinafocusoncontentrelevanttostudents’lives.Studentsareencouragedtoevaluatetheirownlearning.

4Whatisthenatureofstudent–teacherinteraction?Whatisthenatureofstudent–studentinteraction?Theteacherissupportiveofherstudents.Shehelpsthemadvocateforthemselves.Shehelpsthestudentsfindsolutionstoproblemswhilealsoteachingthemthenecessarylanguagetounderstand,discussand,addresstheseproblems.Studentsworksupportivelywithoneanother.

5Howarethefeelingsofthestudentsdealtwith?Thestudentslearnthattheirfeelingsareimportantandthattheirstudyoflanguageisrelevanttotheirlives.Thestudentsareinvitedtoexpresstheirfeelings.Theyarealsoempoweredbydirectingandevaluatingtheirownlearning.

6Howisthelanguageviewed?Howiscultureviewed?Languageisaninstrumentofpowernecessaryforactiveandequalparticipationinsociety.Languageisnotaneutralsubject.Culturerelatestostudents’dailyexperiences.

7Whatareasoflanguageareemphasized?Whatlanguageskillsareemphasized?Languageisusedmeaningfully,withafocusonformsubordinatetocommunicationinitially.Ultimately,correctnessofformistaughtandvaluedsothatstudentscanbesuccessfulinusinglanguagewithauthorities.Literacyisthoughttobeveryimportant,althoughnoskillisneglected.

8Whatistheroleofthestudents’nativelanguage?Thestudents’nativelanguageisvalued.Itshouldnotbelostwhenstudentslearnanewlanguage.

9Howisevaluationaccomplished?Asmuchaspossiblethestudentsareencouragedtodirectandtoevaluatetheirownlearningsothatitisconnectedwiththeirlives.

10Howdoestheteacherrespondtostudenterrors?Studentsareencouragedtoself-correct.Theteacheralsopointsoutstudenterrorsandprovidesfeedbackonhowtocorrecterrors.

ReviewingtheTechniquesThe Participatory Approach is another example of a ‘strong version’ of theCommunicativeApproach.Ananalyticsyllabusisadopted,andtheuseofmeaningfullanguagepredominatesoverlearninglinguisticitemsonebyone.HerearethetwospecialtechniquesassociatedwiththeParticipatoryApproach:

•DialoguingIntheParticipatoryApproach,teacherandstudentsdialogueaboutissuesinthestudents’livesthatrelatetotheirpowerandthepowerofothers.Studentsareencouraged‘toperceivecriticallythewaytheyexistintheworldwithwhichandinwhichtheyfindthemselves’(Freire1970:64).

•ProblemPosingTheteacherposesaproblemthatshehasidentifiedfromdialoguingwithstudents.Studentsareencouragedtoexaminetheirownpracticesandbeliefsandtoengageincollaborativeplanningandproblemsolvingaroundtheproblemthathasbeenposed.Problemposinghelpsstudentstounderstandthesocial,historical,andculturalforcesthatshapedthecontextinwhichtheylive,andthenhelpsempowerthemtotakeactionandmakedecisionsinordertogaincontrolovertheirlivesinthatcontext.

ConclusionInthischapterwehaveinvestigatedthepoliticaldimensionsoflanguageteachingandlearning,andwehavehadanexperiencewiththeParticipatoryApproachasonewayto address these issues through classroom practice. In her Introduction toParticipatory Practices in Adult Education, Campbell (2001) defines the goal ofparticipatory practices as ‘building a just society through individual andsocioeconomic transformation and ending domination through changing powerrelations.’While this is an ambitious goal, teachers can contribute tomeeting it. AsNorth

AmericanteachereducatorsHawkinsandNortonhavewritten:

Because language, culture, and identity are integrally related, language teachersare in a key position to address educational inequality, both because of theparticular learners they serve,many ofwhom aremarginalizedmembers of thewider community, and because of the subject matter they teach—language—whichcanserveitselftobothempowerandmarginalize…(HawkinsandNorton2009:31)

Of course, in some settings even to suggest that there are social problems is toimplicitlycriticizethegovernment,whichcanbeseenasthreatening.Clearly,whetheror not to address the political dimensions of language teaching will have to bedeterminedbyeachteacher.Whateveryoubelieveabout thepoliticaldimensionsoflanguageteaching,doyouseethevalueofworkingonissues,ifnotproblems,thatarerelevant to your students’ lives so that your teaching can be a vehicle for theirpersonal empowerment aswell as their language experience? If so, you should askyourselfwhich, if any,of the techniquespresentedhereyoucanadapt toyourownteachingcontext.

Activities

ACheckyourunderstandingofthepoliticaldimensionsoflanguageteachingandtheParticipatoryApproach.1ProponentsofELFsuggestthatthetargetlanguagemodelnotbethenativespeakerofEnglish,butafluentbilingualspeaker,whocannegotiatemeaningwithothernon-nativespeakers.Whatdoyouthinkaboutthisproposal?

2HowistheParticipatoryApproachanexampleofamethodthattakesthepoliticsoflanguageteachingseriously?

BApplywhatyouhaveunderstoodaboutthepoliticaldimensionsoflanguageteachingandtheParticipatoryApproach.1Muchhasbeenwritteninthischapteraboutpoliticsintermsofnationalidentity.Buteducationalinequalityarisesduetootherissuesaswell.Oneexamplementionedinthischapterisgenderdiscrimination.Canyouthinkofothers?Whatshouldyoudoaboutsuchissues?

2Speakwithyourstudentsaboutwhatishappeningintheirlives.Aretherethemesthatemergearoundwhichyoucanplanlessons?

References/AdditionalResourcesAuerbach,E.1992.MakingMeaning,MakingChange:AGuidetoParticipatoryCurriculumDevelopmentforAdultESLandFamilyLiteracy.McHenry,IL:CenterforAppliedLinguisticsandDeltaSystems,Inc.

____.andN.Wallerstein.1987.ESLforAction:ProblemPosingatWork.Reading,MA:Addison-Wesley.

Batstone,R.1995.‘Grammarindiscourse:Attitudesanddeniability’inG.CookandB.Seidlhofer(eds.).PrinciplesandPracticeinAppliedLinguistics,197–213.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

Berlin,L.2005.ContextualizingCollegeESLClassroomPractice:AParticipatoryApproachtoEffectiveInstruction.Mahwah,NJ:LawrenceErlbaumAssociates.

Berthoff,A.1987.‘Foreword’inP.FreireandD.Macedo.1987.Bruthiaux,P.2010.‘WorldEnglishesandtheclassroom:AnEFLperspective.’TESOLQuarterly44/2:365–9.

Campbell,P.andB.Burnaby(eds.).2001.ParticipatoryPracticesinAdultEducation.Mahwah,NJ:LawrenceErlbaumAssociates.

Canagarajah,A.1999.ResistingLinguisticImperialisminEnglishTeaching.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

____.2006.‘TESOLatforty:Whataretheissues?’TESOLQuarterly40,9–34.Cook,V.(ed.).2002.PortraitsoftheL2User.Clevedon:MultilingualMatters.CouncilofEurope.2007.FromLinguisticDiversitytoPlurilingualEducation:GuidefortheDevelopmentofLanguageEducationPoliciesinEurope.Strasbourg:CouncilofEurope.

Crystal,D.2003.EnglishasaGlobalLanguage.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Cummins,J.andC.Davison(eds.).2007.InternationalHandbookofEnglishLanguageTeaching.NewYork:SpringerInternational.

Fairclough,N.2001.LanguageandPower:LanguageinSocialLife(2ndedn.).London:Pearson.

Freire,P.1970.PedagogyoftheOppressed.NewYork:Continuum.____andD.Macedo.1987.Literacy:ReadingtheWordandtheWorld.SouthHadley,MA:BerginandGarvey.

Gee,J.1996.SocialLinguisticsandLiteracies:IdeologyinDiscourses.London:TaylorandFrancis.

Graddol,D.2006.EnglishNext.London:TheBritishCouncil.

Hawkins,M.andB.Norton.2009.‘Criticallanguageteachereducation’inA.BurnsandJ.Richards(eds.).SecondLanguageTeacherEducation,310–39.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Holliday,A.2005.TheStruggletoTeachEnglishasanInternationalLanguage.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

Jenkins,J.2006.‘CurrentperspectivesonteachingWorldEnglishesandEnglishasalinguafranca.’TESOLQuarterly40/1:157–81.

____.2007.EnglishasaLinguaFranca:AttitudeandIdentity.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

Kachru,B.1992.TheOtherTongue:EnglishacrossCultures(2ndedn.).UrbanaIL:UniversityofIllinoisPress.

Kirkpatrick,A.2007.WorldEnglishes:ImplicationsforInternationalCommunicationandEnglishLanguageTeaching.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Kuo,I-C.2006.‘AddressingtheissueofteachingEnglishasalinguafranca.’ELTJournal60/3:213–21.

Luke,A.2004.‘Twotakesonthecritical’inB.Norton,andK.Toohey(eds.).CriticalPedagogyandLanguageLearning,21–9.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

McKay,S.2002.TeachingEnglishasanInternationalLanguage:RethinkingGoalsandApproaches.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

McLaren,P.andP.Leonard.1993.PauloFreire:ACriticalEncounter.NewYork:Routledge.

Morgan,B.1998.TheESLClassroom:Teaching,CriticalPracticeandCommunityDevelopment.Toronto:UniversityofTorontoPress.

Nash,A.1992.TalkingShop:ACurriculumSourcebookforParticipatoryESL.McHenry,IL:CenterforAppliedLinguisticsandDeltaSystems,Inc.

Phillipson,R.2008.‘English,PanaceaorPandemic?’Keynotelecture.Internationalconference‘LanguageissuesinEnglish-mediumuniversities.’UniversityofHongKong,June.

Roberts,P.2000.Education,LiteracyandHumanization.Westport,CT:BerginandGarvey.

Seidlhofer,B.2011.UnderstandingEnglishasaLinguaFranca.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

——,A.Breiteneder,andM-L.Pitzl.2006.‘EnglishasalinguafrancainEurope:Challengesforappliedlinguistics.’AnnualReviewofAppliedLinguistics26,3–34.

Ur,Penny.2010.Teacher,isitOKtosay‘shecome’?PaperpresentedattheThirdInternationalConferenceofEnglishasaLinguaFranca.Vienna,May22.

Walker,R.2010.TeachingthePronunciationofEnglishasaLinguaFranca.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

Wallerstein,N.1983.LanguageandCultureinConflict:Problem-posingintheESLClassroom.Reading,MA:AddisonWesley.

Widdowson,H.G.1994.‘TheownershipofEnglish.’TESOLQuarterly28/2:377–89.

1AlthoughGraddol(2006)suggeststhatotherlanguagessuchasArabic,Chinese,andSpanishmayincreasinglyplayaroleasinternationallanguages.

2LanguagesotherthanEnglisharespokeninthesecountries,ofcourse,andsometimesEnglishisonlyspokenasanativelanguagebyaminorityofthecitizens.Forexample,Crystal(2003)estimatesthatonlyabout10percentofSouthAfricansarenativespeakersofEnglish.

3ThislessonisbasedonElsaAuerbach’spresentationattheSchoolforInternationalTraining(SIT)onOctober18,1993,entitled“ParticipatoryApproaches:Problem-PosingandBeyond.”WehavealsodrawnfromCarolynLayzerandBillPerry’sworkshopatSITonMay28,1993andAuerbach(1992).

13

LearningStrategyTraining,CooperativeLearning,andMultipleIntelligences

IntroductionIn this chapter, we discuss three methodological innovations: learning strategytraining,cooperative learning,andmultiple intelligences.What these threehave incommondiffersfromtheapproachesinthepreviouschaptersinthattheyarenotfull-blown methods, and their main concern is the language learner. Because of theirdifferentfocus, theycomplement,ratherthanchallenge, languageteachingmethods.While these innovations arenot comprehensivemethodsof language teaching, theyreflectinterestingandenduringmethodologicalpractices,andthusarepresentedhere.

LearningStrategyTrainingItwasnotedinChapter5,whendiscussingtheCognitiveApproach,thatbeginningintheearly1970s,languagelearnerswereseentobemoreactivelyresponsiblefortheirownlearning.Inkeepingwiththisperception,in1975Rubininvestigatedwhat‘goodlanguage learners’ did to facilitate their learning. From this investigation, sheidentifiedsomeoftheirlearningstrategies,‘thetechniquesordeviceswhichalearnermayuse toacquireknowledge’ (p.43).Good language learners,according toRubin,arewillingandaccurateguesserswhohaveastrongdesiretocommunicate,andwillattempttodosoevenattheriskofappearingfoolish.Theyattendtoboththemeaningand the formof theirmessage.Theyalsopractice andmonitor theirown speechaswellasthespeechofothers.Whileearlyresearchwenttowardidentifyingjustthesekindsoflearningstrategies,

itwasnot longbefore languageeducatorsrealized thatsimplyrecognizing learners’contributions to theprocesswasnot sufficient. In order tomaximize their potentialandcontributetotheirautonomy,languagelearners—andespeciallythosenotamongthegroupofso-called‘good’learners—neededtraininginlearningstrategies.Indeed,Wenden (1985) observed that language teachers’ timemight be profitably spent inlearnertraining,asmuchasinlanguagetraining.Suchsuggestionsledtotheideaoflearningstrategytraining—trainingstudentsintheuseoflearningstrategiesinordertoimprovetheirlearningeffectiveness.

Experience1Letusnowseeonemodel for such training.Weentera secondaryschool in Japan.There are 32 students in the class at intermediate-level target language proficiency.Prior to the lesson, the teacher has read the students’ learning journals and hasinterviewed the students.Oneof theproblems that students havebeen complainingaboutisthattheirreadingassignmentsarelengthy.Thereisalotofnewvocabularyinthe readings, and it takes a long time for them to lookupall thenewwords in thedictionary.Basedonthesecomments,theteacherhasdecidedtoteachthestrategyofadvanceorganization.He begins the class with a presentation. He tells students that they are going to

work on a learning strategy called advance organization. Theywill beworking onimprovingtheirreadingbylearningtopreviewandtoskimtogetthegistofareadingpassage. Learning this strategywill improve their comprehension and the speed atwhich they read, he explains. He begins by modeling. He uses the think-aloudtechnique, telling studentswhathe isdoingashe ismodeling.Hehasdistributedareadingpassage.Letuslistenin.‘WhatIdofirstisreadthetitle.Itrytofigureoutwhatthepassageisabout.Ilook

atthesubheadingsandpictures,too,ifthereareany.IaskmyselfwhatIknowaboutthetopicandwhatquestionsIhave.Next,Ireadthefirstparagraph.Idon’treadeveryword,however.Iletmyeyesskimitveryquickly—justpickingoutwhatIthinkarethemain ideas. I especially look at the content ormeaning-bearingwords—usuallythenounsandverbs.’Theteachercallsoutthewordsthatheconsiderskeyinthefirstparagraph.‘From

doingthesethings,Iknowthatthispassageisaboutwildhorses.Idonotknowverymuch about the topic, but from skimming the first paragraph, I have gotten theimpression that the passage is about the challenges of catching and taming wildhorses.’

Figure 13.1 Teacher and class working on the learning strategy of advanceorganization

‘I’d likeyou topractice just thismuchnow. I amgoing tohandout anew readingpassageforyoutopracticeon.Whenyougetit,keepitfacedown.Don’treadityet.Doeseveryonehaveone?Good.Nowremember,beforeyouturnthepaperover,youaregoingtobepracticingthestrategythatIhavejustintroduced.Ready?Turnoverthepaper.Takealook.Nowquicklyturnitfacedownagain.Whatdoyouthinkthatthispassageisabout?Whocanguess?’Onestudentsayshethinksthatitisaboutwhales.‘Whydoyouthinkso?’asksthe

teacher.Thestudentsayshehasguessedfromthetitle,whichisRescuingtheWorld’sLargestMammal.’‘Whatdoyouknowaboutwhales?’theteacheraskstheclass.Onestudentrepliesthattherearemanydifferentkindsofwhales.Anotheraddsthattheytravellongdistances.Athirdsaysthattheyareveryintelligent.‘Whatdoyouthinkismeant by “rescuing”?’ the teacher asks.Noone knows so the teacher asks them tokeepthisquestioninmindastheyread.‘Turnyourpageoveragain.Readthroughthefirstparagraphquickly.Donotread

everyword.Skipthoseyoudon’tknowthemeaningof.Don’tuseyourdictionaries.’Theteachergivesthestudentstwominutestoreadthefirstparagraph.Hethenasks,‘Whocantelluswhatthemainideaofthepassageis—whatis the

gist?’Astudentrepliesthatthepassageisaboutcertaintypesofwhalesbeingputonthe endangered list. Another student immediately raises his hand. ‘What does“endangered”mean?’heasks.Theteacherencourageshimtotakeaguess.‘Is thereanypartof theword“endangered” thatyou recognize?Whatdoyou think itmight

mean in the context of a passage about whales?’ The student pauses, thinks for aminute,andthensays,‘Thewhales,theyaredisappearing?’‘Yes,’ replies the teacher; ‘scientists are concerned that whales will disappear if

conditionsdonotimprove.Good.Doyouknowwhat“rescuing”meansnow?’Thestudentsnod.Onevolunteers, ‘saving.’ ‘OK,’says the teacher. ‘Doesanyone

wanttomakeapredictionaboutwhatthemainideaisinthesecondparagraph?’Severalstudentsventurethatitmaytalkabouttheconditionsthatarenotgoodfor

whales.‘That’s agoodguess,’ says the teacher. ‘Let’s see if yourpredictions are correct.

Skimthesecondparagraphnow.Thistime,however,Iamonlygoingtogiveyouoneandahalfminutes.’Thelessonproceedslikethisuntilbythefourthparagraph,thestudentsaregiven

onlyahalfaminutetoskimforthemainidea.‘Great.Weareofftoagoodbeginning.Wewillpracticemorewiththistomorrow.’Nextthestudentsevaluatehowtheyhavedone.Somefeeldistressedbecausethey

stillfeelthattheyneedtounderstandeveryword.However,othersarefeelingbetterbecausetheyrealizethattheirreadingassignmentsneednottakeaslongastheyhavebeentaking.Somestudentsdiscusstheirimplementationofthestrategyandhowtheymodifiedit.The teacher encourages them to share any innovations they made. All of the

studentsfeelthattheyneedalotmorepracticewiththisnewstrategy.‘Yes,’ responds the teacher, ‘andyouwill begin tonight. For homework, Iwould

like you to use your new strategy on something that you would like to read—anewspaper or magazine article, for example. Don’t just begin by reading the firstsentence.Seewhatyoucanlearnfromreadingtheheadlineor title.See if thereareanypictureswithcaptions.Thenwhenyoudogotoread,readthefirstparagraphfirst.Whenyoucometoawordyoudon’tknow,skipoveritandcontinue.Seewhatyoucan learn about the main idea of the article in this way. Then write about thisexperienceinyourlearningjournals.That’sallfortoday.’

ThinkingabouttheExperienceLetus examine this experiencenow inourusualmanner—observationson the left,andtheprinciplesthatmightaccountforthemontheright.

Observations Principles

1Priortothelessontheteacherhasbeenreadingthestudents’learningjournals,wherethestudentsregularlywriteaboutwhatandhowtheyarelearning.Theteacherhasalsobeeninterviewingthestudents.

Thestudents’priorknowledgeandlearningexperiencesshouldbevaluedandbuiltupon.

2Theteacherdecidestohavethestudentsworkonthestrategyofadvanceorganization.

Studyingcertainlearningstrategieswillcontributetoacademicsuccess.

3Theteachermodelstheuseofthestrategyusingathink-alouddemonstration.

Theteacher’sjobisnotonlytoteachlanguage,buttoteachlearning.

4Thestudentspracticethenewlearningstrategy.

Formanystudents,strategieshavetobelearned.Thebestwaytodothisiswith‘hands-on’experience.

5Thestudentsevaluatetheirownsuccessinlearningthestrategy.Theymodifythestrategytomeettheirownlearningneeds.Theysharetheirinnovationswiththeirclassmates.

Studentsneedtobecomeindependent,self-regulatedlearners.Self-assessmentcontributestolearnerautonomy.

6Theteacherasksthestudentstotryoutthenewstrategyonadifferentreadingtheychooseforhomeworkthatnight.

Animportantpartoflearningastrategyisbeingabletotransferit,i.e.useitinadifferentsituation.

Itwaspointedoutat thebeginningof thischapter that themethodological trends inthischaptercomplementtheonespresentedinpreviouschapters.Itiseasytoseehowlearning strategy training would fit with content-based instruction, for example.Indeed, research has shown that to be effective, strategies should not be taught inisolation, but rather as part of the content-area or language curriculum (Grabe andStoller1997).Anaddedbenefitoflearningstrategytrainingisthatitcanhelplearnersto continue to learn after they have completed their formal study of the targetlanguage.

ThestrategyinthelessonwehavejustobservedisanexampleofwhatChamotandO’Malley (1994) call metacognitive strategies, strategies that are used to plan,monitor, and evaluate a learning task. Other examples of metacognitive strategiesincludearrangingtheconditionsthathelponelearn(Whatconditionshelpyoulearnbest?),settinglongandshort-termgoals(Whatdoyouwanttolearn?),andcheckingone’s comprehension during listening or reading (What have you understood?).Chamot and O’Malley identify two other categories. One is cognitive strategies,whichinvolvelearnersinteractingandmanipulatingwhatistobelearned.Examplesinclude replaying a word or phrase mentally to ‘listen’ to it again, outlining andsummarizingwhat has been learned from reading or listening, and using keywords(rememberinganewtargetlanguagewordbyassociatingitwithafamiliarwordorbycreatingavisualimageofit).Theothercategoryissocial/affectivestrategieswherelearners interact with other persons or ‘use affective control to assist learning.’Examplesincludecreatingsituationstopracticethetargetlanguagewithothers,usingself-talk,whereone thinkspositively and talks oneself through a difficult task, andcooperating or working with others to share information, obtain feedback, andcompletea task.This last strategy, cooperation,givesus a convenientbridge to thenexttopic.

CooperativeLearningCooperativelearning (sometimescalledcollaborative learning)essentially involvesstudentslearningfromeachotheringroups.Butitisnotthegroupconfigurationthatmakescooperativelearningdistinctive;it isthewaythatstudentsandteachersworktogether that is important.Aswehave justseen,with learningstrategy training, theteacher helps students learn how to learnmore effectively. In cooperative learning,teachers teach students collaborative or social skills so that they canwork togethermoreeffectively.Indeed,cooperationisnotonlyawayoflearning,butalsoathemeto be communicated about and studied (Jacobs 1998). Let us see how this isaccomplished.

Experience2As the 24 fifth grade ESL students inAlexandria,Virginia,USA settle down afterlunch, the teacherasks forattentionandannounces that theday’svocabulary lessonwillbedoneincooperativegroups.Severalstudentsask,‘Whichgroups,teacher?’‘We’ll stay in the samegroupsof six thatyouhavebeen in so far thisweek,’he

replies.‘Iwillgiveeachgroupadifferentpartofastory.Therearefourparts.Yourgroup’s job is to read the part of a story that I will give you and to discuss themeaning of any newvocabularywords.Use your dictionaries or askmewhenyoucan’t figureout themeaningof aword. In tenminutes, youwill formnewgroups.Threeofyouwillmovetoanothergroup,andthreeofyouwillstaywhereyouareandotherswilljoinyou.Ineachnewgroupyouwilltellyourpartofthestory.Youwillteachyournewgroupthemeaningsofanyvocabularywordsthatthegroupmembersdon’tknow.Listentotheirpartofthestory.Learnthemeaningofthenewvocabularyin it.Thenwewill changegroupsagain,andyouwilldo the same thing.The thirdtimeyouwillreturntoyouroriginalgroupandtellthestoryfrombeginningtoend.Youwill work together to learn the new vocabulary. After tenminutes of practicetime,youwillbeaskedtomatcheachnewvocabularywordwithitsdefinitiononaworksheet that Iwill give you.Your groupwill help you during the practice time.Duringthetestyou’reeachonyourown.Yourscorewilldependonyourresultsasagroup,sinceyourscoreswillbeaddedtogether.’Theteacherthenwritesthecriteriaontheboardasheexplainsthem:90–100percent=Nooneinyourgrouphastotakethetestagain.89percentorless=Everyoneinyourgrouptakesthetestagain.‘Everyoneintheclasswillgetanextrafiveminutesofrecesstomorrowiftheroom

scoreis90percentorbetter.’Thereisabuzzofexcitementaboutthatpossibility.One student asks, ‘What social skills, teacher?’ In response, the teacher says,

‘Todayyouarealltopracticeencouragingotherswhileyourgroupworksonlearningthevocabularywords.’Hethenasks,‘Whatcanencouragingotherssoundlike?’One student responds, ‘Nice job!’ Another says, ‘Way to go!’ ‘Clapping and

cheering,’offersathird.‘Yes,’saystheteacher.‘Nowwhatcanencouragingotherslooklike?’‘Asmile.’‘Anod.’‘Apatontheback.’‘Allright.You’vegottheidea.TodayIwillobserveeachgroup.Iwillbelooking

foryoutopracticethissocialskill.Now,getintoyourgroups.’

Figure13.2Theteacherorganizingcooperativelearninggroups

Theteacherpointsoutinwhichpartoftheroomthegroupsaretosit.Onegroupofstudentssitsinacircleonthefloor,twoputchairsaroundtwodesks,andonegroupsitsatatableinthebackoftheroom.Theteacherdistributeshandoutswithadifferentpartofthestorytoeachgroup.He

thenmovesfromgrouptogroupspendingtwoorthreeminuteswitheachone.Thestudentsappeartobebusyworkingintheirgroups;thereismuchtalking.After

10minutes,theteachertellsthestudentstostopandasksforthreestudentstoleavetheirgroupandtojoinanothergroup.After10moreminutes,theydothisagain.Thenthestudentsreturntotheiroriginalgroupsandworkonputtingthepartsofthestorytogetherandteachingeachotherthenewvocabulary.Itisthentimefortheindividualvocabularytest.Afterthetest,thestudentscorrecttheirownwork.Studentscompareandcombinescores.Thestudentsputtheirgroups’scoresoneachoftheirpapers.Theteacherpicksupeachgroup’spaperandquicklyfigurestheroomscore.There

ismuchcheeringandapplaudingwhenheannouncesthattherewillbefiveminutesofextra recess for everyone.He then tells the groups to look at how they did on thesocial skill of encouraging others and to complete two statements, which he haswrittenontheboardwhiletheyweretakingthevocabularytest:

Our group did best on encouraging others by ________, __________, and__________(threespecificbehaviors).

Goal setting: The social skill we will practice more often tomorrow is________________.

Hesuggeststhatoneofthestudentsbethetaskmastertokeepthegroupfocusedonthe task of completing the statements, one be the recorder to write the group’sanswers,onebe the timekeeper tokeep trackof the time,onebe thechecker toseethatallof thework isdone,andonebe thereporterwhowillgive thegroupreportlater.Hetellsthemthattheyhave10minutesforthediscussion.The teacher circulates among the groups, but does not say anything. After 10

minutes, he asks each group’s reporter to share the group’s responses. The teacherconsults the notes that he has made during his observation and he offers hiscomments.

ThinkingabouttheExperienceLetuslistourobservationsandreviewtheprinciplesofcooperativelearning.

Observations Principles

1Thevocabularylessonwillbedoneincooperativegroups.Eachstudentistohelptheotherstudentslearnthenewvocabularywords.

Studentsareencouragedtothinkintermsof‘positiveinterdependence,’whichmeansthatthestudentsarenotthinkingcompetitivelyandindividualistically,butrathercooperativelyandintermsofthegroup.

2Thestudentsaskwhichgroupstheyshouldform.Theteachertellsthemtostayinthesamegroupstheyhavebeeninthisweek.

Incooperativelearning,studentsoftenstaytogetherinthesamegroupsforaperiodoftimesotheycanlearnhowtoworkbettertogether.Theteacherusuallyassignsstudentstothegroupssothatthegroupsaremixed—malesandfemales,differentethnicgroups,differentproficiencylevels,etc.Thisallowsstudentstolearnfromeachotherandalsogivesthempracticeinhowtogetalongwithpeopledifferentfromthemselves.

3Theteachergivesthestudentsthecriteriaforjudginghowwelltheyhaveperformedthetasktheyhavebeengiven.Thereareconsequencesforthegroupandthewholeclass.

Theeffortsofanindividualhelpnotonlytheindividualtoberewarded,butalsoothersintheclass.

4Thestudentsaretoworkonthesocialskillofencouragingothers.

Socialskillssuchasacknowledginganother’scontribution,askingotherstocontribute,andkeepingtheconversationcalmneedtobeexplicitlytaught.

5Thestudentsappeartobebusyworkingintheirgroups.Thereismuchtalkinginthegroups.

Languageacquisitionisfacilitatedbystudents’interactinginthetargetlanguage.

6Studentstakethetestindividually. Althoughstudentsworktogether,eachstudentisindividuallyaccountable.

7Studentscompareandcombinescores.Thestudentsputtheirgroup’sscores

Responsibilityandaccountabilityforeachother’slearningisshared.Each

oneachoftheirpapers. groupmembershouldbeencouragedtofeelresponsibleforparticipatingandforlearning.

8Thegroupdiscusseshowthetargetsocialskillhasbeenpracticed.Eachstudentisgivenarole.Theteachergivesfeedbackonhowstudentsdidonthetargetsocialskill.

Leadershipis‘distributed.’Teachersnotonlyteachlanguage;theyteachcooperationaswell.Ofcourse,sincesocialskillsinvolvetheuseoflanguage,cooperativelearningteacheslanguageforbothacademicandsocialpurposes.

Once again note how cooperative learning complements methods presented inpreviouschapters.Forinstance,cooperativelearninggroupscaneasilyworkontasksfromatask-basedapproachtolanguageinstruction.The same holds for the last methodological innovation we will consider in this

chapter—multiple intelligences. Teachers who adopt this approach expand beyondlanguage, learning strategy, and social skills training, to address other qualities oflanguagelearners.

MultipleIntelligencesTeachers have always known that their students have different strengths. In thelanguageteachingfield,someofthedifferencesamongstudentshavebeenattributedtostudents’havingdifferentlearningorcognitivestyles.Forinstance,somestudentsarebettervisuallearnersthanaurallearners.Theylearnbetterwhentheyareabletoreadnewmaterialratherthansimplylistentoit.Ofcourse,manylearnerscanlearnequallywelleitherway;however,ithasbeenestimatedthatforupto25percentofthepopulation,themodeofinstructiondoesmakeadifferenceintheirsuccessaslearners(Levin et al. 1974, cited in Larsen-Freeman and Long 1991).Hatch (1974) furtherdistinguishesbetweenlearnerswhoaredata-gatherersandthosewhoarerule-formers.Data-gatherers are fluent but inaccurate; rule-formers are more accurate, but oftenspeakhaltingly.Related work by psychologist Howard Gardner (1983, 1993, 1999, 2006) on

multipleintelligenceshasbeeninfluentialinlanguageteachingcircles.Teacherswhorecognizethemultipleintelligencesoftheirstudentsacknowledgethatstudentsbringwith them specific and unique strengths,which are often not taken into account inclassroom situations. Gardner has theorized that individuals have at least eight3distinctintelligencesthatcanbedevelopedoveralifetime.Theeightare:1Logical/mathematical—theabilitytousenumberseffectively,toseeabstractpatterns,andtoreasonwell

2Visual/spatial—theabilitytoorientoneselfintheenvironment,tocreatemental

images,andasensitivitytoshape,size,color3Body/kinesthetic—theabilitytouseone’sbodytoexpressoneselfandtosolveproblems

4Musical/rhythmic—theabilitytorecognizetonalpatternsandasensitivitytorhythm,pitch,melody

5Interpersonal—theabilitytounderstandanotherperson’smoods,feelings,motivations,andintentions

6Intrapersonal—theabilitytounderstandoneselfandtopracticeself-discipline7Verbal/linguistic—theabilitytouselanguageeffectivelyandcreatively8Naturalist—theabilitytorelatetonatureandtoclassifywhatisobserved.

While everyone might possess these eight intelligences, they are not equallydevelopedinanyoneindividual.Someteachersfeelthattheyneedtocreateactivitiesthat draw on all eight, not only to facilitate language acquisition among diversestudents,butalsotohelpthemrealizetheirfullpotentialwithalloftheintelligences.Onewayof doing so is to think about the activities that are frequently used in theclassroomand tocategorize themaccording to intelligence type.Bybeingawareofwhichtypeofintelligenceisbeingtappedbyaparticularactivity,teacherscankeeptrackofwhichtypetheyareemphasizingorneglectingintheclassroomandaimforadifferent representation if they so choose. Christison (1996, 2005) and Armstrong(1994)giveusexamplesofactivitiesthatfiteachtypeofintelligence:1Logical/mathematical—puzzlesandgames,logical,sequentialpresentations,classificationsandcategorizations

2Visual/spatial—chartsandgrids,videos,drawing3Body/kinesthetic—hands-onactivities,fieldtrips,pantomime4Musical/rhythmic—singing,playingmusic,jazzchants5Interpersonal—pairwork,projectwork,groupproblemsolving6Intrapersonal—self-evaluation,journalkeeping,optionsforhomework7Verbal/linguistic—note-taking,storytelling,debates8Naturalist—collectingobjectsfromthenaturalworld;learningtheirnamesandaboutthem.

Asecondwaytoteachfromamultipleintelligenceperspectiveistodeliberatelyplanlessons so that the different intelligences are represented. Here is one lesson plan,adapted and expanded from Emanuela Agostini,4 which addresses all of theintelligences:

Step1—Givestudentsariddleandaskthemtosolveitinpairs:

Ihaveeyes,butIseenothing.Ihaveears,butIhearnothing.Ihaveamouth,butIcannotspeak.IfIamyoung,Istayyoung;ifIamold,Istayold.WhatamI?

Answer:Apersoninapaintingorphotograph.(Intelligences:interpersonal,verbal/linguistic)

Step 2—Guided imagery: Tell students to close their eyes and to relax; thendescribe a picture of a scene or a portrait. Ask them to imagine it. Playmusicwhileyouaregivingthestudentsthedescription.(Intelligences:spatial/visualintelligence,musical)

Step 3—Distribute to each person in a small group awritten description of thesame picture they have just heard described. Each description is incomplete,however,andnotwointhegrouparequitethesame.Forexample,onedescriptionhascertainwordsmissing;theothershavedifferentwordsmissing.Thestudentsworktogetherwiththeothermembersoftheirgrouptofillinthemissingwordssothattheyallendupwithacompletedescriptionofthepicture.(Intelligences:interpersonal,verbal/linguistic)

Step 4—Ask the groups to create a tableau of the picture by acting out thedescriptiontheyhavejustcompleted.(Intelligence:body/kinesthetic)

Figure 13.3 Forming a tableau representing a portrait to illustrate kinestheticintelligence

Step5—Showthestudentsthepicture.Askthemtofindfivethingsaboutitthatdifferfromtheirtableauorfromhowtheyimaginedthepaintingtolook.

(Intelligence:logical/mathematical)Step6—Askstudentstoidentifythetreeinthepainting.(Intelligence:naturalist)Step7—Reflection:Askstudentsiftheyhavelearnedanythingabouthowtolookat a picture. Ask them if they have learned anything new about the targetlanguage.(Intelligence:intrapersonal)

Ofcourse,noteveryintelligencehastobepresentineverylessonplan.Thepointisthat, typically, linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligences are most prized inschools. In language classrooms, without any special attention, it is likely thatverbal/linguisticintelligenceandinterpersonalintelligencewillberegularlyactivated.The challenge for teacherswhowish to honor the diversity of intelligences amongtheir students is how to activate the other intelligences and enable each student toreachhisorherfullpotential,whilenotlosingsightoftheteachers’purpose,whichistoteachlanguage.Morerecently,Gardner(2007)hasdevelopedarelatedtheory,focusedoncognitive

abilities that individuals need to develop in order to be successful in a changingworld.Gardnerproposesfiveminds,waysofthinkingandactingintheworld,whichstudentsneedtodevelop.Ofthefiveminds,threefocusonintellectualdevelopmentandtwomindsoncharacterdevelopment.1TheDisciplinaryMindisthefirstoftheintellectualminds,inwhichstudentsmasteratraditionalbodyofinformation,suchasimportanthistoricaldevelopmentsinaparticularcountryorcountries.

2ThesecondmindthatdealswithintellectualdevelopmentistheSynthesizingMind,wherethefocusshiftstobringingtogether,organizing,understanding,andarticulatinginformationfromvariousdisciplinesinaunifiedandcoherentwhole.AnexampleiscomparingliteratureinSpanish,Arabic,andEnglishtolearnhowthehistoryofpeoplespeakingtheselanguageshasshapedliterarystyles.

3ThethirdmindistheCreatingMind,wherestudentsareencouragedtocomeupwithnewideas,originalsolutionstoproblems,andcreativequestions.Thiscouldincludecreativewritingororiginalhistoricalorpoliticalanalysis.WemightconsideruseoftheCreatingMindasanexampleof‘thinkingoutsidethebox’,thinkinginanunusualway.

ThetwomindsfocusingoncharacterormoraldevelopmentaretheRespectfulMindandtheEthicalMind.

4Awell-developedRespectfulMindisreflectedbyanawarenessof,appreciationfor,andopennesstothedifferencesandindividualityofothers.Thiswouldnaturallyincludefosteringtoleranceforpeoplefromotherculturalbackgrounds,religions,

races,andidentitieswithinandbeyondtheclassroom.5TheEthicalMindencouragesstudentstocultivateasenseofresponsibilityforthemselvesandforthewellbeingofothers.

Teachingstudentsinawaythatincludesthesefivemindsmightencouragestudentstodevelopimportantskillsforlifeandworkintheworldwhilealsolearningalanguage.

ConclusionIn this chapter we have consideredmethodological innovations that have revolvedaround language learners.Does itmake sense to you that language teachers shouldthink about teaching skills such asworking cooperatively, in addition to skills thatrelate directly to language? Can you think of any learning strategies that you canintroducetoyourstudentstofacilitatetheirlanguageacquisition?Wouldyouwanttoadoptanyof thepractices fromcooperative learningwhenyouaskyourstudents toworkinsmallgroups?Doesitmakesensetodiversifyyourinstructionalpracticesinorder to accommodate your students’ learning styles, multiple intelligences, orcultivatetheirfiveminds?Asteachers, itcanbeusefultoberemindedabouttheuniquequalitiesofeachof

ourstudents.Keeping this inmindwillprovideausefulbackdroptoChapter15, inwhichweaddressthequestionofmethodologicalchoice.

Activities

ACheckyourunderstandingofLearningStrategyTraining,CooperativeLearning,andMultipleIntelligences.1Stateinyourownwordsthedifferencebetweenlanguagetrainingandlearnertraining.

2Ithasbeensaidaboutcooperativelearningthatitattemptstoteachstudentsto‘thinkus,notme.’Whatdoyouthinkthatthismeans?

3Categorizeeachofthefollowingeightactivitytypesintothetypeofintelligenceitlikelytaps.Thereisoneintelligenceforeach:Listeningtolectures,tappingoutthestresspatternsofsentences,cooperativetasks,goalsetting,mapreading,TPR,growingplantsinawindowboxintheclassroom,surveyingstudents’likesanddislikes,andgraphingtheresults.

BApplywhatyouhaveunderstoodaboutLearningStrategyTraining,CooperativeLearning,andMultipleIntelligences.1Interviewagroupofstudentsaboutthelearningstrategiestheyusetofacilitatetheirlanguageacquisition.Arethereanypatterns?Aretherestrategiesthatmighthelpyourstudentsiftheyknewhowtousethem?Ifso,planalessontoteachone.Seewhatresults.

2Goodman(1998:6)haswrittenthat‘oneessentialtenetofcooperativelearningisthenotionthatanyexercise,coursematerial,orobjective…maybereformulatedintoacooperativeexperience.’Withthisinmind,thinkbacktoarecentexerciseyouaskedyourlanguagestudentstodo.Howcouldyouhavereformulateditinsuchawayastobeconsistentwithcooperativelearningprinciples?

3Makealistofyourmostcommonlyusedlanguageteachingactivities.TrytodeterminewhichintelligencesorwhichofGardner’sfivemindstheyworkon.Ifthereareintelligences/mindsthatarenotincludedinyourlist,seeifyoucanchangethewayyoudotheactivitiestoincludeit/them.Alternatively,consideraddingactivitieswhichworkonthemissingintelligence(s)/mindstoyourrepertoire.

References/AdditionalResources

LearningStrategyTrainingAnderson,N.2005.‘L2learningstrategies’inE.Hinkel(ed.).HandbookofResearchinSecondLanguageTeachingandLearning,757–72.Mahwah,NJ:LawrenceErlbaum.

Breen,M.(ed.).2001.LearnerContributionstoLanguageLearning.Essex:PearsonEducation.

Brown,H.D.2002.StrategiesforSuccess:APracticalGuidetoLearningEnglish.WhitePlains,NY:PearsonEducation.

Chamot,A.andM.O’Malley.1994.TheCALLAHandbook:HowtoImplementtheCognitive–AcademicLanguageLearningApproach.WhitePlains,NY:Addison-WesleyLongman.

——,S.Barnhardt,P.El-Dinary,andJ.Robins.1999.TheLearningStrategiesHandbook.WhitePlains,NY:Addison-WesleyLongman.

Cohen,A.1998.StrategiesinLearningandUsingaSecondLanguage.NewYork:Longman.

Dickinson,L.1987.Self-instructioninLanguageLearning.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Ellis,G.andB.Sinclair.1989.LearningtoLearnEnglish:ACourseinLearnerTraining.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Ehrman,M.1996.UnderstandingSecondLanguageLearningDifficulties.ThousandOaks,CA:SagePublications.

Grabe,W.andF.Stoller.1997.‘Asix-T’sapproachtocontent-basedinstruction’inM.SnowandD.Brinton(eds.).TheContent-basedClassroom:PerspectivesonIntegratingLanguageandContent,78–94.NY:Longman.

Grenfell,M.andV.Harris.1999.ModernLanguagesandLearningStrategies:InTheoryandPractice.London:Routledge.

O’Malley,M.andA.Chamot.1990.LearningStrategiesinSecondLanguageAcquisition.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Oxford,R.1989.LanguageLearningStrategies:WhatEveryTeacherShouldKnow.Boston,MA:Heinle/Cengage.

____.2001.‘Languagelearningstylesandstrategies’inM.Celce-Murcia(ed.).TeachingEnglishasaSecondorForeignLanguage(3rdedn.),359–66.Boston:Heinle/Cengage.

Rubin,J.1975.‘Whatthe‘goodlanguagelearner’canteachus.’TESOLQuarterly9:

41–51.Wenden,A.1985.‘LearnerStategies’.TESOLNewsletter19/1:4–5,7.____.1991.LearnerStrategiesforLearnerAutonomy.London:Prentice-HallInternational.

____andJ.Rubin.1987.LearnerStrategiesinLanguageLearning.EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:Prentice-Hall.

CooperativeLearningCohen,E.,C.Brody,andM.Sapon-Shevin(eds.).2004.TeachingCooperativeLearning:TheChallengeforTeacherEducation.Albany,NY:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress.

Dishon,D.andP.O’Leary.1984.AGuidebookforCooperativeLearning.HolmesBeach,FL:LearningPublications.

Gillies,R.2007.CooperativeLearning:IntegratingTheoryandPractice.ThousandOaks:Sage.

____andA.Ashman(eds.).2003.Co-operativeLearning:TheSocialandIntellectualOutcomesofLearninginGroups.London:Routledge.

Goodman,M.1998.‘Cooperativelearning.TheEnglishConnection.’TheNewsletterofKoreaTeachersofEnglishtoSpeakersofOtherLanguages2/3:1,6–7.

Jacobs,G.1998.‘Cooperativelearningorjustgroupingstudents:Thedifferencemakesadifference’inW.RenandyaandG.Jacobs(eds.).LearnersandLanguageLearning.Singapore:SEAMEORegionalLanguageCentre.

Johnson,D.,R.Johnson,andE.JohnsonHolubec.1988.CooperationintheClassroom.Edina,MN:InteractionBooks.

Kagan,S.1990.CooperativeLearning:ResourcesforTeachers.SanJuanCapistrano,CA:ResourcesforTeachers.

Kessler,C.(ed.).1992.CooperativeLanguageLearning:ATeacher’sResourceBook.EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:PrenticeHallRegents.

McCafferty,S.,G.Jacobs,andC.DaSilvaIddings(eds.).2006.CooperativeLearningandSecondLanguageTeaching.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Slavin,R.1995.CooperativeLearning(2ndedn.).Boston,MA:Allyn&Bacon.

LearningStylesHatch,E.1974.‘SecondLanguageLearners—Universals?’WorkingPapersonBilingualism3:1–17.

Larsen-Freeman,D.andM.Long.1991.AnIntroductiontoSecondLanguageAcquisitionResearch.London:Longman.

Levin,J.,P.Divine-Hawkins,S.Kerst,andJ.Guttman.1974.‘Individualdifferencesinlearningfrompicturesandwords:Thedevelopmentandapplicationofaninstrument.’JournalofEducationalPsychology66/3:296–303.

MultipleIntelligencesArmstrong,T.1993.SevenKindsofSmart:DiscoveringandUsingyourNaturalIntelligences.NewYork:Plume/Penguin.

____.1994.MultipleIntelligencesintheClassroom.Alexandria,VA:ASCD.Berman,M.2002.AMultipleIntelligencesRoadtoanELTClassroom(2ndedn.).Carmarthen:CrownHousePublishing.

Chen,J-Q.,S.Moran,andH.Gardner(eds.).2009.MultipleIntelligencesAroundtheWorld.SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass.

Christison,M.1996.‘Teachingandlearninglanguagethroughmultipleintelligences.’TESOLJournal,Autumn:10–14.

____.2005.MultipleIntelligencesandLanguageLearning:AGuidebookofTheory,Activities,Inventories,andResources.SanFrancisco,CA:AltaBankCenterPublishers.

Gardner,H.1983.FramesofMind:TheTheoryofMultipleIntelligences.NewYork:BasicBooks.

____.1993.MultipleIntelligences:TheTheoryinPractice.NewYork:BasicBooks.____.1999.IntelligenceReframed.MultipleIntelligencesforthe21stCentury.NewYork:BasicBooks.

____.2006.MultipleIntelligences:NewHorizonsinTheoryandPractice.NewYork:BasicBooks.

____.2007.FiveMindsfortheFuture.Cambridge,MA:HarvardBusinessSchoolPress.

Lazear,D.1997.SevenWaysofTeaching:TheArtistryofTeachingwithMultipleIntelligences.ArlingtonHeights,IL:SkylightPublishing.

Puchta,H.andM.Rinvolucri.2007.MultipleIntelligencesinEFL:ExercisesforSecondaryandAdultStudents.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

1Thelessonoutline,notcontent,isbasedonapresentationbyAnnaChamot(1998),entitled‘LanguageLearningStrategies Instruction:Promises andPitfalls’ at theTwenty-thirdAnnualCongressof theAppliedLinguisticsAssociation of Australia, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia. Chamot and Michael O’Malley havedevelopedtheCognitiveAcademicLanguageLearningApproach(CALLA),whichintegratescontent,academic

languagedevelopment,andexplicitinstructioninlearningstrategies.2ThislessonhasbeenadaptedfromtheonepresentedinChapter2ofDishonandO’Leary1984.3 We have drawn on descriptions from Christison (1996) and Lazear (1997) to explain seven of the eightintelligences.Gardneraddedtheeighthintelligencesomeyearsafterheproposedtheoriginalseven.WehavealsolearnedfromJohnBalbi’spresentationonmultipleintelligencesattheNewYorkStateTESOLConference,SaratogaSprings,NewYork,24November1996.

4BasedonEmanuelaAgostini’spresentation‘SevenEasyPieces,’atTESOLItalyon6December1997.

14

EmergingUsesofTechnologyinLanguageTeachingandLearning

IntroductionTherearetwomainwaystothinkabouttechnologyforlanguagelearning:technologyas providing teaching resources and technology as providing enhanced learningexperiences.Ontheonehand,ifwethinkoftechnologyasprovidingresources,thenitisclearthattechnologyhaslongbeenassociatedwithlanguageteaching.Foryears,thetechnologymayhaveonlybeenchalkandablackboard.Later,filmstrips,audio,andvideorecordingandplaybackequipmentwereadditionstothetechnologicaltoolsavailable to many teachers. These days, of course, there are digital technologicalresources that teachers can draw on. The Internet, which connects millions ofcomputersaroundtheworld,makesitpossibletocommunicatefromonecomputertoanother.As a result, theworldwideweb (wwwor ‘theweb’), away of accessinginformation over the Internet, has enabled teachers to find authenticwritten, audio,and visual texts on most any topic imaginable. There is a breadth and depth ofmaterialavailable for thosewhoknowhowtosurf theweb, i.e.useonlineresearchtoolsknownas‘searchengines’tofindit.1Computersalsoprovidethemeanstoaccessonlinedictionaries,grammarandstyle

checkers, and concordances (which we will discuss later in this chapter). On theother hand, if we think of technology as providing enhanced learning experiences,then the implicationsareevengreater:Technology isno longer simplycontributingmachineryormakingauthenticmaterialormoreresourcesavailablethatteacherscanuse;italsoprovideslearnerswithgreateraccesstothetargetlanguage.Asaresult,ithasthepotentialtochangewhereandwhenlearningtakesplace.Furthermore,itcanevenshapehowweviewthenatureofwhatitisthatweteach.Atfirstglance,neitherdefinitionoftechnology—providingteachingresourcesand

providing enhanced learning experiences—would appear to constitute a method.However,theuseoftechnologyforthelatterisat leastasignificantmethodologicalinnovationanddeservesaplaceinthisbook.AsKernhasputit:

Rapidevolutionofcommunicationtechnologieshaschangedlanguagepedagogyandlanguageuse,enablingnewformsofdiscourse,newformsofauthorship,and

newwaystocreateandparticipateincommunities.(Kern2006:183)

A classroom setting with a teacher in front at the blackboard/whiteboard and withstudentsat theirdesks readingfroma textbook,whilestill thenorminmuchof theworld, is giving way to the practice of students working independently orcollaborativelyatcomputersandusingothertechnology,suchascellphones(mobilephones),insideandoutsideofclassrooms.Thenewdiscourse,whichstudentsusetoauthorandpostmessagesonline,hasfeaturesofbothwrittenandorallanguage,andstudentsparticipateinonlineorvirtualcommunitiesthathavenoborders.Evenifalltheirlanguagelearningisdoneinformallearningcontexts,learnerswho

haveaccesstocomputershavemoreautonomyinwhattheychoosetofocuson.Withtheuseoftechnology,studentsaremorelikelytouselanguagefor:

…ongoing identity formation and personallymeaningful communication in theserviceofgoalsthatextendbeyond‘practice’or‘learning’intherestrictivesensesassociatedwithinstitutionalsettings.(Thorne2006:14)

Technology also allows teaching to be tailored to the individual to a greater extentthan isnormallypossible.A fewComputer-assistedLanguageLearning (CALL)programscan even adapt todiverse learnersby analyzing their input andprovidingcustomizedfeedbackandremedialexercisessuitedtotheirproficiency.Therearealsoprograms that feature computer adaptive testing so that students respond to testquestionsatanappropriatelevel.2Complementing the greater individualization is the greater social interaction that

can result from the ability to link students throughnetworked computers.YoumayrecallfromourdiscussioninChapter10 theclaimthat learning takesplace throughsocialinteraction(Vygotsky1978).Socialinteractionhelpsstudentsco-constructtheirknowledge by building on one another’s experience. The fact that interaction intechnologyhappensmainlythroughwritingmeansthattheinteractionisavailableforlaterreflectionandanalysis.HereishowEric,astudentofFrench,describeslearningfrome-mailinteractionswithanativespeakerofFrench:

… e-mail is kind of like not awritten thing…when you read e-mail, you getconversationbutinawrittenformsoyoucangobackandlookatthem….I’vehadthatexperiencewhereconversationalconstructionsappearinane-mailformfromanative speakerofFrench,which is reallyneat.Because itdoesn’t flybyyou…(KramschandThorne2002:97)

So technology makes possible greater individualization, social interaction, andreflection on language, and inferring from Eric’s comments, greater student

motivation.At the same time as technology enhances language learning experiences, it also

contributestoreshapingourunderstandingofthenatureoflanguage:Languageisnotafixedsystem.Instead,itisalwayschangingandbeingchangedbythosewhouseit(Larsen-FreemanandCameron2008).Becausetechnologyallowslearnerstoexplorelanguageusedinprocess(forexample,Eric’scommentaboveaboutlanguageinuse‘flyingby’),ithelpsmakevisibletheemergent,changingnatureoflanguage.Infact,this more dynamic view of language has even been applied to grammar in whatLarsen-Freeman (2003) calls grammaring. Grammaring is not knowledge ofgrammar rules, but is rather the ability to use grammar structures accurately,meaningfully,appropriately,andcreativelyaswell.Despitewhattechnologyhastooffer,weshouldalwaysremember:

…thatitisnottechnologypersethataffectsthelearningoflanguageandculturebuttheparticularusesoftechnology.Thisemphasisonusehighlightsthecentralimportanceofpedagogyandtheteacher.(Kern2006:200)

Technologyshouldbeintegratedintothecurriculumandnotjustaddedinbecauseitisnew.Before observing a class, as we customarily do at this point, we are going to

introduceafewofthetermsthatwillbeusedinthelesson.Wewillelaborateonthesetermslaterinthischapter.

ABlogAblog(anabbreviationofweb+log) isapersonalonline journal.Theauthorof thejournal can update it as often as he or she desires with personal reflections or byaddingmaterialfromothersources.

ASocialNetworkingSiteA social networking website such as Facebook is accessed via the web (for webaddress, seepage218).Participantshave theirownhomepageon the site, towhichtheyaddpersonalinformation,linkstootheronlinesources,photos,etc.Aparticipanthas ‘friends’whoareotherparticipantswithwhom theychoose tobeconnected. Ifsomeoneisyourfriend,youcanseeinformationandphotosheorshehaschosentoshare.

YouTube

YouTubeisawebsitewhereonecanwatchandshareshortvideos(forwebaddress,seepage218).MostYouTubevideosareavailable toanyonewhohasahigh-speedconnection to the Internet.The rangeof topics isvast, includingactualvideos fromlanguageclassrooms,lectures,andsmallvignettesfromeverydaylife.

WikiAwikiisaquickwayofbeingabletocreateandeditweb-documents.Wikisareveryuseful in collaborative writing tasks, and they are very good for highlighting andobservingtheprocessofwriting.

ElectronicTextCorpusAnelectronictextcorpusisacollectionofauthenticspokenandwrittentexts,oftenconsistingofthousands,ifnotmillions,ofwords.Thecorpusiscomputer-searchable.Ateacherorastudentcanfindmanyinstancesofaparticularwordorphraseasitisusedinasentence.Theinstancescanthenbeanalyzedfortheform,meaning,anduseofawordorexpression,itsfrequency,andforwhatprecedesandwhatfollowsitinasentence.

ExperienceNow, we turn to the experience. The following class takes place at an EnglishlanguageinstituteinThailand.Theclassconsistsof16studentsbetweentheagesof16and30,whoarehigh-intermediatelearnersofEnglish.Theymeetforoneandone-halfhourstwotimesaweek.Theclassesareheldintheeveningbecausethestudentsare alsoattending schoolorworkingat jobs.The institutehas classroomsequippedwith the following technology: a computer and a liquid crystal display (LCD)projector, an overhead projector, and a TV and VCR/DVD unit. There are twocomputerlabsintheinstitute,eachhaving20computers,offeringhigh-speedInternetaccessandprinters.Inaddition,theentirebuildingisawirelesszoneforInternetuse.Theclassmeetsinoneofthecomputerlabs.Thelabissetupwithcomputertablestoppedbycomputersaroundtheedgesoftheroom,facingthewall.Thisallowstheteacher to have students turn their chairs to face inwards to form a circle fordiscussionandtheneasilyturnbacktoworkonthecomputers.Priortothislessonthestudentshavebeenrequiredtoparticipateregularlyinthree

online tasks. First, they have been asked tomaintain an online blog, inwhich theyregularlyrecord theirexperiences in learningEnglish.Somestudentshaveused thisasarecordofnewvocabularyortocommentonaparticularEnglishlanguagewebsitethey have found useful. Other students have chosen to use their blog for personalreflection.Thesestudentswriteaboutwhatishappeningintheclassorwhattheyarelearning. They also discuss experiences they are having in findingways to use thelanguageor reactions that others (such as tourists andvisitors) have to their useofEnglish. Each student has also been told to comment on at least three otherclassmates’blogseveryweek.As a second ongoing task, the students have created a profile on a social

networking site. Their teacher has chosen to use Facebook, where many of thestudentshadaprofilealready.ThestudentshavetologontoFacebookaminimumofthreetimesperweekinordertoreadwhattheirclassmateshavepostedandtoupdatetheir‘status.’Theyhavealsobeenencouragedtorespondtothestatusupdatesoftheirclassmates.Inaddition,asis thenatureofsocialnetworkingsites, thestudentseachhavetheirownsetof‘friends,’whoarenotmembersoftheclassandwithwhomtheyalsoexchangeinformationandupdates.Forthefinalongoingtask,thestudentsareaskedtodosomeresearchforthewiki

that theyhavecreatedwithclassmates.Earlier inthecourse, theychoseatopicthattheywantedtheworldtoknowabout.TheychosetraditionalThaidanceforms.Onanongoingbasistheyeditawikidocumentonthistopic,addinginformationandlinkstoexternalwebsitesandcommentingoneachother’scontributions.Someof thestudentshavealsochosentocorrespondwith‘e-penpals,’andsome

evenchatelectronicallyinrealtimewiththeirpenpals.Theteacherhashelpedmatch

these studentswithAustralians that shemetwhen shewas a student herself at theAustralianNationalUniversityinCanberra.As the class begins, there is lively chatter about the assignments they have been

workingon,bothinEnglishandinThai.Theteachergreetsthestudents,alsoinbothlanguages.With each student now seated at his and her own computer, the teacherasks the students to check their language learning blogs and to read any newcomments that have been made to their blog entries. The teacher peers over theshouldersof each student to look at the computer screen and tomake sure that theassignmenthasbeendone.Aftergivingthestudentsachancetochecktheirblogs,theteacherasksthestudentstoturntheirchairsinwardstoformadiscussioncircle.Shebeginsthediscussionbyasking‘Howmanyofyouhavereceivedcommentsonyourblogs?’All thestudentsraisetheirhands.‘Didyoureceiveanycommentsthatweresurprising?’‘Didyoureceiveanycommentsfromsomeonenotintheclass?’‘Whoiswillingtoshareacomment?’3Onestudent,Tuk,says,‘IreceivedacommentfromanEnglish language student in Jakarta, Indonesia,whowants toknow if I use awordthatIhadwritten,“segue,”inmyeverydayspeaking.ThisIndonesianstudent,Dedi,saidhehadonlyseenthiswordwrittenandneverspoken.’Theteacheraskedforideasfromtheclass.‘HowmightTukrespondtoDedi’scomment?Howhaveyouheardtheword“segue”used?’sheasks.Manystudentshavenotheardthewordbefore;thosethatarefamiliarwiththewordhaveonlyseenit inprint.Theteacher tells theclassthat later in the lesson theywill use a computer corpus to seewhat they can learnabout‘segue’.A second student, Lek, says, ‘I received a comment from an English student in

CostaRica,namedAlejandro,thatIdon’tunderstand.’Theteacherasks,‘HowcanwehelpLekunderstandwhatAlejandrowas trying to tellher?’Theclassswitches toamixtureofEnglishandThai for a fewminutes as theybrainstorm thebestways torespond toAlejandro.Lek thinks thatshewillbeable touse thesuggestionsofherteacherandclassmatetocommunicatewithAlejandro.Next, the teacherasks thestudents to formpairsatacomputer.She tells themto

take turns opening up their Facebook pages and reviewing togetherwhat has beenpostedthere.Thereisagooddealoflaughterasmanypostsarefunny.Onestudentintheclass,Sunni,hadwrittenonhis‘wall’(thelocationonFacebookwhereindividualscansharetheircurrentstatus),‘Ilovecoffee.’OtherFacebookfriendscommentedonthewall:‘Ifyoulovecoffee,marryit.’and‘Aren’tyougettingenoughsleep?’Onhiswall,Sunnialsoreadaninvitationtogetcoffeeatanearbycaféfromamemberoftheclass, Waew. He turned around and called over to her saying, ‘Sure. Let’s drinkcoffee.Howaboutafterclass?’After10minutes,theteacherasksthestudentsagaintoturntheirchairstoforma

circle. She asks a few questions: ‘What idioms or special use of English did youencounteroruseonyourFacebookpage?’‘Whatdoyouthinktheseidiomsmean?’

‘DidyoutrytouseanynewlanguageonFacebook?’Lamtellstheclassthatsheusedtheidiom‘getagrip’onFacebook.Thestudents

comparetheirideasonthemeaningof‘getagrip.’Theteacherthensuggeststhattheyconsultanonlinecorpus,theBritishNationalCorpus(forwebaddress,seepage218).(TheBritishNationalCorpus(BNC) isa100-millionwordcollectionofsamplesofwrittenandspokenlanguagefromawiderangeofsources).Theytypeinthewords‘get a grip,’ and they are taken to a page with 50 examples of this expression (aconcordance),eachusedinasentence.

Screenshot14.1Apartialconcordance:theexpression‘getagrip’fromtheBNC.

The teacher asks thenwhat they notice about the phrase ‘get a grip.’ The studentsquicklyrealizethatitisalways,oralmostalways,followedbythepreposition‘on.’Inchecking further examples, they see that it can sometimes be followed by thepreposition ‘of.’ They note that itwas also used as a command ‘Get a grip!’ Theydiscusswhetherornotthisformhasadifferentmeaningfromthephrasewith‘on’init.With the teacher’s guidance, they see that ‘get a grip’ could be used literally tomeanaphysicalholdormoremetaphoricallytomeanincontrol.Theythengotoanonlinedictionaryandtype‘getagripon’andfindoutthatitmeans‘toobtainmasteryorcontroloversomethingorsomeone’andthatitcanalsooccurwiththeverb‘have.’Theteacherasksthemtomakeupafewsentenceswiththephrase,whichtheythen

readoutloudasshechecks.They also do a corpus search and create a concordance for Tuk’sword ‘segue.’

Theydiscoverthatitisonlyusedinfrequently—therewereonlytwoinstancesintheentire100-millionwordBNC.Moreover,oneofthemwasinthenameofacompany,andboth instanceswere found inwritten texts.Theyconcluded that the Indonesianstudentwasprobablyright.Itprobablyisnotlikelytobeusedofteninconversation.Tuksaysthatshewilllethimknow.The teacher tells the students again to turnback to their computers in pairs.The

teacherdirectsthepairstoaYouTubesite,wheretheywatcharockbandperformingits latest hit song. The students watch the video and listen to the song. Then theteachertellsthem,‘Pleasenowworktogetherwithyourpartnertopostacommentonyour reactions to theperformance.Whatdidyou think about it?Didyouenjoy theperformance?Why?’TheyfollowthesameprocedurewithanotherYouTubesite,thisonefocusingondiet-relatedhealthconcerns.Mostofthepairsfocusonthepostingson their page and work together on writing and co-editing clever and relevantcommentsinresponse.Oneofthepairsaskstheteacherwhichiscorrect:‘There’salot of reasons to like this performance’ or ‘There are a lot of reasons to like thisperformance.’Theteacherrepliesthatthesecondsentenceiscorrectaccordingtothegrammarrule,butsentenceslikethefirstsentenceareoftenusedbynativespeakersofEnglishthesedays.The final step in the lesson is for the students todoaquick reviewof theirwiki

project.Forthisstep,theyworkinsmallgroups,witheachworkingatonecomputer.Each group has decided upon a particular Thai dance to research andwrite about.There isnot time in theclasson thatday toaddanynewmaterial; the teacher tellsthem theywill do this in the next class. For now, themembers of each group arehelpingeachotherdecidewhat theyneed toaddorhow to improvewhat ison thewiki.Laterinthesemester,theywillbemakinggrouppresentationsinclassontheirdances,usingPowerPointslides.Theassignmentforthenextclassisthreefold.Studentsshould:

1Updatetheirblogs.2VisitandupdatetheirFacebookpagesandrespondtoclassmates’pages.3Thinkaboutanddosomeresearchonthewikitopic.Theyshouldeachwritearoughdraftofthenewmaterialthattheywanttoadd,ande-mailittotheteacherbeforethenextclass.Theteacherwillcommentontheirdrafts,returnthedraftstothemelectronically,andarchive,orsavethestudents’draftsinanelectronicportfoliothatshehascreatedforeachstudent.

ThinkingabouttheExperienceLetusreviewsomeobservationsonthelessonandseewhatprinciplesunderliethem.

Observations Principles

1Astheclassbegins,thereislivelychatterabouttheassignmentsthatthestudentshavebeenworkingon.

Studentsfindonlinetaskstobemotivating.

2Theteacherasksthestudentstoformacirclewheretheycanseeeachotherfacetoface.

Languagelearningtakesplacethroughsocialinteraction.

3Studentschoosecommentsfromtheirblogstoshare.

Studentsareautonomousinwhattheyshareaboutthemselves.

4Thelanguagethattheyworkoncomesfromcommentsthatlanguagelearnersinotherpartsoftheworldhavemadeontheirblogs.

Studentsworkonauthenticlanguage,whichcomesfrominteractionswithothersthroughonlineorvirtualcommunities.

5Theteacherworkswiththestudents,andthestudentsworktogethertounderstandaconfusingmessageandtodeterminehowtorespondtoit.

Learningtonegotiatemeaningisimportant.

6Studentsusetheirnativelanguagetodiscussaresponse.

Useofstudents’nativelanguagecanaidcomprehension.

7Theteacherisnotfocusedonspecificlanguageitems,butratherrespondstowhatlanguageemergesasaresultofthestudents’onlinework.

Thereislessinterestinlinguisticstructureandmoreinterestinhelpingstudentsdealwithspecificcommunicativesituationsusingthelanguageresourcesthatareavailabletothem.

8StudentshavecreatedaFacebookpagewiththeirprofile.

Studentsconstructtheironlineidentitiesinawaythatiscomfortableforthem.

9StudentsreadtheirFacebookpagesinpairs.

Languageislearnedbyusingit.

10Sunnisays‘Let’sdrinkcoffee.’Whilethisisgrammaticallyaccurate,itisnot

Nativespeakerusageisnotnecessarilywhattheaimis.

thewaythatanEnglishspeakerwouldconveythismessage.However,theteacherdoesnotcorrecthim.

11Theyconsultaconcordanceandanonlinedictionarytoworkonaphrase.

Studentsaretaughttousethetoolsthattechnologyprovides.Reflectingonlanguageanddevelopinglanguageawarenessareimportant.

12Studentsobservewhatprecedesandwhatfollowsaparticularwordorphrase.

Languageconsistsofpatterns,includingcollocations,orwordsthatgotogether.

13Theyobservethat‘segue’isnotusedveryfrequently.

Knowingthefrequencywithwhichawordisusedispartoflearningtousealanguage.

14StudentswatchYouTubevideosandwritearesponse.

Studentsneedtobecomeliterateinthenewtechnology.

15Studentsco-edittheirresponses. Studentscanlearnfromeachother.

16Inresponsetoastudentquestionaboutwhichsentenceiscorrect,theteacheranswersthatoneofthesentencesiscorrectaccordingtothegrammarrule,buttheotherisusedbynativespeakersofthelanguage.

Languageischangedthroughuse.Itisadynamicandevolvingentity.

17Studentschoosewhattowriteandwhichtopicstoresearch.

Studentshaveagooddealoffreedominchoosingwhattheywillengagewithinandoutofclass.

18Studentsaretowritearoughdraftoftheirwikiupdateande-mailittotheteacher.Sheaddsittoeachstudent’selectronicportfolios.Theteacherreadstheupdatedversionandgivesthemfeedback.

Teachersusearchivesofonlinestudentworktoevaluateandtoguidethem.

ReviewingthePrinciples

1Whatarethegoalsoftheteacher?Theteacherseekstoprovidestudentswithaccesstoauthenticlanguage.Thelanguageshouldbeusedininteractionwithothersandinrelationtoknowledgecreation.Learningtousetechnologytosupportone’slanguagelearningisalsoimportantbecauseitmakesstudentsmoreautonomouslearners.

2Whatistheroleoftheteacher?Whatistheroleofthestudents?Theteacher’sroleistoplanactivitiesthatstudentsaccomplishviatechnologicalmeans.Thentheteachermonitorstheirworkandguidesthestudentsastheylearnthelanguage.Thestudents’roleistobeactivelyinvolvedinusingthelanguage,intakingriskswiththelanguagebyconnectingwithothers,andinexploringinformationviathetargetlanguage.Studentshelpeachothertolearn.

3Whataresomecharacteristicsoftheteaching–learningprocess?Learninglanguagesthroughtheuseoftechnologybringslearnersintocontactwithauthenticlanguageuse.Student-generatedlanguageiswhatisfocusedupon.Sinceitisunderstoodthatlanguagelearningisanon-linearprocess,thereisnoparticularpre-setordertothelanguageitemsthatarelearned.Languageisemergent,dynamic,andcontinuouslyevolving.Itisinfluencedbothbythetopicalfocusandbythepersonalrelationshipsthataredeveloping.Cultivatingstudents’languageawarenessisimportant.Muchonlineworkinvolvesreadingandwriting;therefore,agoodportionofclasstimeinvolvesspeakingandlisteninginthetargetlanguage.Alanguageislearnedbyusingit(emergentism—EllisandLarsen-Freeman2006).

4Whatisthenatureofstudent–teacherinteraction?Whatisthenatureofstudent–studentinteraction?Theteacherguidestheprocesswhilestudentsenjoyagreatdealofautonomyoverwhatisfocusedonandonhowthetasksareachieved.Student-to-studentinteractioncantakeanumberofforms,includingstudentsworkingtogetheronwebsitesorblogs,editingoneanother’swriting,andparticipatinginonlinediscussions,called‘onlinechats.’

5Howarethefeelingsofthestudentsdealtwith?Studentsaremotivatedbyonlinetasks.Theyareabletochoosehowtheywishtorepresentthemselvesintheirprofilesonsocialnetworksandinonlinecommunities.Theyenjoyautonomyinwhattheywanttofocusonandlearnabout.

6Howislanguageviewed?Howiscultureviewed?Languageisseenasatoolforsocialinteraction,relationshipbuilding,andforknowledgecreation.Itisusedforcommunication.Nativespeakerusageisnotnecessarilythemodelorindeedthegoal.Languageconsistsofpatterns.Somelanguagepatternsarestable,andothersarereshapedthroughuse.Studentslearnabouttheeverydaylifeorcultureofspeakersofthetargetlanguagethroughtheironlineinteractions,suchasthosefrome-penpals.Theycanalso‘visit’andlearnvirtuallyaboutdifferentpartsoftheworld.

7Whatareasoflanguageareemphasized?Whatlanguageskillsareemphasized?Personalstatements,sharingofopinionorfacts,reportingandreflectingareemphasized.Computerusenaturallyrequirestheskillsofreadingandwriting,althoughspeakingandlisteningmayalsobeworkedondependingonthetype(s)oftechnologyused.Becauseoftheemphasisonthewrittenmedium,classtimecanbeprofitablyspentinface-to-faceinteraction.

8Whatistheroleofthestudents’nativelanguage?Astudent’snativelanguagecanbeusedforcommunicationandsupportforlearningthetargetlanguage,asneeded.

9Howisevaluationaccomplished?Evaluationishandledviaanelectronicorvirtualportfolioofstudentworkthatateacherarchives.

10Howdoestheteacherrespondtostudenterrors?Giventhedynamicenvironmentthattechnologyaffords,editingone’sownworkisanongoingprocess.Therefore,errorsarenotapreoccupationoftheteacher.Languageuseiscreativeandforgiving.Newformsandusesoflanguageareconstantlyemerging.Studentshavearecordoftheirinteractionandcanalwaysreturntoittoimproveit,iftheywanttooriftheteacherdirectsthemto.

ReviewingtheTechniques

TechnologyUsedforProvidingLanguageLearningExperiencesHereisabriefreviewofsomeoftheoptionsthatteachersuse.ThisreviewincludesoptionsnotfeaturedintheExperienceabovebutonesthatyoushouldbeawareof.Itwould not be possible to include all of the options within a single lesson, and, ofcourse,theoptionsarealwaysincreasing—giventherateofdevelopmentinthefield.

•BlogsOnerichsourceoflanguagetextsareblogs,whichcanbethoughtofasonlinediariesorjournals.Thewordcomesfromacombinationof‘web’+‘log.’Blogscanbeprivateandcontrolledwithpasswords,orpublic,dependingonthedesireoftheauthor.Mostblogsallowforvisitorstopostcomments.Sinceblogsarewrittenbypeopleremarkingontheirtravels,dailylife,currentevents,etc.,theyarearichsourceofauthenticmaterialforreading,discussion,andstudy.Blogsareavailableinmanylanguagesandareoftencreatedasanopensource,whichmakesthemsearchableviaanybrowserandsearchengine.Someblogsarespecificallydevotedtotheauthor’slanguagelearningprocessorhisorherexperienceinteachingalanguage.Searchingonthewebfor‘languagelearningblogs’willyieldsomeinterestingsites.Studentscanalsobeencouragedtocreateandwritetheirownblogsasaregularassignmentorongoingreflectiveactivity.Inthisway,theyarenotalwayswritingonlyfortheteacher.Sinceblogentriesarechronologicallyordered,studentsandteachercancreateaprogressivearchiveofstudentwork.

•Computer-assistedLanguageLearningSoftwareThereisawidevarietyofComputer-assistedLanguageLearning(CALL)software(computerprograms)and/orwebsitesavailableforusebylanguagelearners.SomeoftheCALLprogramsareopensource,whichmeansthattheyarefreeandcaneasilybedownloadedontoindividualcomputers;otherscanbepurchased.SomeCALLprogramsfocusonspecificelementsoflanguagesuchasvocabularyorgrammarpractice.Othershaveareadingcomprehensionfocusorprovideguidanceandpracticeforimprovingpronunciation.Aswithanymaterialsforteachersorlearners,thereisarangeofqualityandusefulnessamongCALLprograms.

•DigitalPortfoliosWesawinthelessonthatweobservedthattheteacherwascompilingadigitalarchiveorportfolioofstudentwork.Inthisway,theteacherhasafileofstudentworkthatshecanaddtothroughouttheterm.TheEuropeanLanguagePortfolioisastandardizedportfolioassessmenttoolthatstudentscanusetodocumenttheir

languagelearningexperienceandproficiency.

•DistanceEducationOneoftheapplicationsoftechnologytolanguageteachingisinthedirectdeliveryoflanguageinstructionviatheweb.Anadvantageofweb-basedinstructionisthatitprovidesaccesstolanguagesthatmightnotbeavailableotherwise.Forinstance,recentlytheUniversityofCalifornia,LosAngeles(UCLA)wentlivewithitsweb-basedinstructionalprogramsinAzeriandtheIraqidialectofArabic.ThisdevelopmentallowsUCLAtosendlanguageinstructiontoothercampusesoftheUniversityofCaliforniasystem,andinturntoreceiveinstructionalprogramsinDanish,Filipino,Khmer,andZulufromtheUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley.Suchexchangespresentapartialsolutiontotheproblemofkeepingalivethelesscommonlytaught,evenendangered,languages.Althoughmostresearchsuggeststhatblendedorhybridinstruction,whichissomecombinationofface-to-faceanddistanceeducation,isbetterthantotaldistanceeducation,obviouslydistanceeducationisbetterthanhavingnoopportunitytostudyalanguageatall.

•ElectronicChattingElectronicchattingisasynchronousactivity:Atleasttwopeoplemustbeonlinesimultaneouslyinordertochat.Whilethegreatmajorityofchatsareinwriting,thereisalsoafast-growingnumberthatalsooffervoiceorvideocommunication.Skypeisperhapsthebestknownexample(forwebaddress,seepage218).Itallowsforrealspokencommunicationacrosscountriesandcontinents.Itcouldalsobeusedlocally,ofcourse.Forexample,theteachermighthavestudentsconductaninterviewofalocalcelebrity,usingthetargetlanguage.

•E-PenPalsOncetheuseofe-mailbecamesomewhatcommon,itwasnaturaltouseitforcommunicatingwithelectronicor‘e-penpals.’Sometimes,thepenpalconnectionsoriginateoutofrelationshipsbetween‘sisterschools,’extendedfamilyties,orthepersonalnetworksoflanguageteachers.Similartotheoriginalpenpalidea,studentsareencouragedtoshareinwritingaboutthemselves,theirlives,andtheirculturesinthetargetlanguage.Thereareanumberofmodelsordesignsforthee-penpalapproach.Sometimes,teachersprovideguidingquestionsthatstudentscanusetocommunicatewiththeire-penpal(suchas‘Howwouldyoudescribeyourtown?’‘Whatisdistinctiveaboutyourcommunity?’‘Whatwouldadayinyourschoolbelike?’‘Tellyourpalaboutyourfamily.’).Anotherapproachhasstudentsfocusingonspecifictopics,suchascurrentevents.

•ElectronicPresentationsMicrosoft’sPowerPointisatoolthatallowspresenterstousetemplateswithavarietyofformatstocreateslidesforpresentations.Theycanbemultimedia,usingtext,images,sound,animation,andvideo.TheslidesarepresentedbyacomputerhookeduptoanLCDprojector.PowerPointisbeingusedbyincreasingnumbersofteachersandstudentsforin-classpresentations.

•ElectronicTextCorporaElectronictextcorporaarecollectionsoflanguagetexts,mostoftenwritten,butsometimesspokentextsintranscriptform.Thetextshavebeendigitizedandarethereforecomputer-searchable.Byenteringawordoraphraseintoawebsite,aconcordance,alistwiththetargetitemasitisusedinlimitedcontexts,isproduced.Knowingthedistributionandfrequencyoflinguisticformscanbeveryhelpfultolanguagelearners.Someofthecorporaarefreetouse,andothersyoumustpayfor.Corporaforspecificpurposesorprofessionsarealsoavailable.

Corpusanalysis,aformoflinguisticresearch,providesdataonthereal-worldusesofwordsandcollocationsacrossvariousgenres,registers,andlanguagevarieties.Pedagogically,itcanbeusedtosupportdata-drivenlearning,thatis,languagestudywherelearnersanalyzelanguagefeaturesbasedoncorpusevidence.Certaincorpuslinguistshavebasedlanguageteachingmaterialsmostlyorentirelyontheircorpusfindings(Sinclair2004;McCarthy1998;Biberetal.1998).Othermethodologistsadvisethatteachingmaterialsshouldnotbecorpus-driven,butrathercorpus-informed.

•CellPhone-basedApplications:TextMessagingandTwitterWiththerapidexpansionoftheuseofcellormobilephonesthroughouttheworld,languagelearnershavefoundnewwaysoflearning.UsersoftextmessagingandTwitterhavedevelopedtheirownformoflanguage.Twitterisaninstantmessagingsystemthatletspeoplesendbrief(nomorethan140characters)textmessagestoasetofinterestedpeopleonanyactivityoreventinwhichtheyareparticipatingoropiniontheywishtooffer.Thelanguageusedistypicallyinformal,wherethewrittenlanguage‘sounds’morelikespokenlanguage.Forexample,‘RUOK?’(AreyouOK?)isacommonlyusedexpression.

•PodcastsPodcastsaredigitalaudioandvisualrecordingsthatcanbecreatedanddownloaded(movedfromtheInternettoanindividualcomputer).YoucanwatchandsharesuchrecordingsonYouTube.MostYouTuberecordingsareavailabletoanyonewhohas

ahigh-speedconnectiontotheInternet.Therangeoftopicsisvast,includingactualvideosfromlanguageclassrooms,lectures,andsmallvignettesfromeverydaylife.

•SocialNetworkingSocialnetworkingsitesincludeFacebook,Myspace,LinkedIn,tonameafewofthedozensthatareinexistence.Thepurposeofsuchsitesisforparticipantstosharethoughts,activities,photos,videos,andlinkstowebsiteswithotherswhomtheyareconnectedtothroughtheirsocialnetworksite.Throughthenetworkprovidedatthesite,onecanshareakeyeventorideawithmanyotherparticipantssimultaneously.Thewholeclasscanhavefunwiththese.Studentsdonothavetobehighlyproficientinalanguageinordertoparticipate.Youshouldbeaware,though,ofprivacyconcerns.Onceyouoryourstudentspostamessageonline,itcanbeavailabletoanyonewhoisafriendorafriendoffriends.YouneedthereforetoeducateyourselfandothersonInternetsafety.

Screenshot14.2ExampleofaFacebooksite

•WikisTheprefix‘wiki’comesfromtheHawaiianexpression‘wikiwiki,’whichmeans‘quick,’anditreferstoaquickwaytocreateandeditweb-documents.Wikiscanbeveryusefulincollaborativewritingtasks.Multipleauthors—agroupofstudents—canwriteonetexttogether.Agoodwiki-toolwillkeeptrackofauthorshipofthedifferentversions/partsofthedocumentthatthestudentsarecreating.Inthiswaytheteachercanhavearecordofthestudents’writingasaprocess.Theotherconceptassociatedwithwikisiswabi-sabi.Itreferstothingsalwaysbeingchangeable—neverfinished,neverperfect.

Wikipediaisasharedonlineencyclopedia(forwebaddress,seepage218).Whatmakesituniqueisthatanyonecancontributeinformationonatopic,sotheinformationisalwaysbeingupdated.

Screenshot14.3ExampleofaWikipediapage

NoteverythingthatispublishedonWikipediaisaccurate;however,informationandknowledgeaboutatopicchange,andthegoodthingisthatwikisareabletoreflectthesechanges.

Forexample,fortheconceptofglobalwarming,auser-participantbeginsbydescribingwhatheknowsaboutthetopic.Withindays,severalotherparticipantsaddtowhatwassharedbythefirst.Overweeksandmonths,theinformationaboutglobalwarmingbecomesricheranddeeper.Then,participantsaddlinkstoother,

relatedWikipediatopics,suchasfossilfuels,changingweatherpatterns,theKyotoagreement,etc.Morereferencesareaddedeachweek,andgraduallytheWikipediaexplanationofglobalwarminghasbecomeenrichedthroughthesharedeffortsofallthosewhochoosetoparticipate.

ConclusionTechnology is always evolving, and new forms of connection are constantly beingdeveloped.Werealize,therefore,thatanytechnologywerefertointhischapterwilllikelychangeinthecomingmonths.Still,wefeltthatitwasimportanttodiscusstheuseoftechnologyinprovidingenhancedlanguagelearningexperiences.Although this is the lastmethodological innovationwe introduce in this book, it

doesnotmeanthatwehavesavedthebestforlastorthattechnologyshouldbeusedbyeveryone.Foronething,noteveryonehasaccesstothetechnologydescribedhere,althoughhavingevenonecomputer in class canbehelpful.For another, theuseoftechnologyisnotanymoreneutralthananyothermethodormedium.Forexample,Reeder, Macfadyen, Roche, and Chase (2004) claim that certain e-tools forcommunication andeducationarebasedonWestern-stylenotionsof efficiency, andthey question whether they are necessarily appropriate for international groups oflearners. Nonetheless, there is no doubt that technology will have an increasingpresence in education. What is important from our perspective is that teachers beknowledgeable about technology, and if they choose to use it, that they do so inpedagogicallysoundways.WeagreewithvanLierwhowrote:

…if[technology]istobeapositiveforceineducation,[it]shouldnotbecastasanalternativetoclassroomteaching,orasreplacingtheteacher,butasatoolthatfacilitatesmeaningfulandchallengingclassroomwork.(vanLier2003:2)

With this inmind,canyouseeyourself integrating theuseof technologywithyourteachingapproach?Whichofthetechniquespresentedinthischapterareyoulikelytomakeuseof?Howwillyoubuildintoyourteachingwhatstudentsdooutsideoftheclassroom?

Activities

ACheckyourunderstandingofhowtechnologycanbeusedinlanguageteaching.1Whatisthedifferencebetweentheuseoftechnologytoprovideresourcesforteachingandtheuseoftechnologytoprovideenhancedlanguagelearningexperiences?Whataresomeexamplesofeach?

2Howcantechnologybeusedtoconstructauthenticsocialrelationships,bothvirtualandface-to-face?

BApplywhatyouunderstandaboutusingtechnologyforlanguageteaching.1IfyoucannotsetupyourclassroominthesamemannerastheonedescribedintheExperience,howcouldyoucombineface-to-facediscussionswithtimestudentsspendonacomputerelsewheresuchasinanInternetcafé?

2Whatisyourpositionontheemergentnatureoflanguageinatechnology-drivenclassroom?Shouldallusagesbeaccepted?

References/AdditionalResourcesBiber,D.,S.Conrad,andR.Reppen.1998.CorpusLinguistics:InvestigatingLanguageStructureandUse.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Chapelle,C.2003.EnglishLanguageLearningandTechnology.Amsterdam:JohnBenjamins.

Egbert,J.2008.SupportingLearningwithTechnology:EssentialsofClassroomPractice.UpperSaddleRiver,NJ:Merrill/Prentice-Hall.

Ellis,N.andD.Larsen-Freeman.2006.‘Languageemergence:implicationsforappliedlinguistics.’AppliedLinguistics27/4:558–89.

Heift,T.andM.Schulze.2003.‘Studentmodelingandabinitiolanguagelearning.’System31:519–35.

Kern,R.2006.‘Perspectivesontechnologyinlearningandteachinglanguages.’TESOLQuarterly40/1:183–210.

Kramsch,C.andS.Thorne.2002.‘Foreignlanguagelearningasglobalcommunicativepractice’inD.BlockandD.Cameron(eds.).GlobalizationandLanguageTeaching,83–100.London:Routledge.

Larsen-Freeman,D.2003.TeachingLanguage:FromGrammartoGrammaring.Boston:Heinle/Cengage.

____andL.Cameron.2008.ComplexSystemsandAppliedLinguistics.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

Lewis,G.2009.BringingTechnologyintotheClassroom.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

McCarthy,M.1998.SpokenLanguageandAppliedLinguistics.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Morrison,G.andD.Lowther.2005.IntegratingComputerTechnologyintotheClassroom.UpperSalleRiver,NJ:PearsonEducation.

Oxford,R.andJ.Oxford(eds.).2009.SecondLanguageTeachingandLearningintheNetGeneration.HonoluluHI:NationalForeignLanguageResourceCenter.

Pritchard.A.2007.EffectiveTeachingwithInternetTechnologies.London:PaulChapmanPublishing.

Reeder,K.,L.Macfadyen,J.Roche,andM.Chase.2004.‘Negotiatingculturesincyberspace:Participationpatternsandproblematics.’LanguageLearningandTechnology8/2:88–105.

Sinclair,J.(ed.).2004.HowtoUseCorporainLanguageTeaching.Philadelphia:JohnBenjamins.

Thorne,S.2006.NewTechnologiesandAdditionalLanguageLearning.CALPER

WorkingPapersSeries,No.7.PennsylvaniaStateUniversity:CenterforAdvancedLanguageProficiency,EducationandResearch.

vanLier,L.2003.‘Ataleoftwocomputerclassrooms:Theecologyofproject-basedlanguagelearning’inJ.LeatherandJ.vanDam(eds.).TheEcologyofLanguageAcquisition,49–64.Dordrecht:KluwerAcademic.

____.1998.‘Allhookedup:Anecologicallookatcomputersintheclassroom’inJ.Fisiak(ed.).StudiaAnglicaPosnaniensiaXXXIII,281–301.Berlin:MoutonDeGruyter.

Vygotsky,L.1978.MindandSociety:TheDevelopmentofHigherMentalProcesses.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress.

Warshauer,M.2003.TechnologyandSocialInclusion:RethinkingtheDigitalDivide.Cambridge,MA:MITPress.

Warschauer,M.,H.Shetzer,andC.Meloni.2000.InternetforEnglishTeaching.Alexandria,VA:TESOLPublications.

AdditionalResourcesThere are also two online journals: Calico Journal (see below) and LanguageLearningandTechnology(seebelow).Theycanbehelpfulinkeepingup-to-datewithlanguagelearningandtechnology.

Websiteshttp://www.eslcafe.com/http://www.facebook.comhttp://www.youtube.comhttp://www.natcorp.ox.ac.ukhttp://www.wikipedia.orghttp://www.skype.comhttp://www.calico.orghttp://llt.msu.edu

1Forreferencetooneofthebest-knownandlong-standingwebsitesforteachingEnglish,seepage218.2SeeHeiftandSchulz(2003)foranexampleofaCALLprogramwiththiscapacity,designedtoteachGerman.3Commentsfrompeoplenotintheclassarepossibleonlyiftheblogissetupthatwayatthebeginning.Thisisachoiceteachershavetomake—publicorprivateblogs.

15

Conclusion

IntroductionNowthatwehaveconsideredthemethodsindividually,itwillbeusefultoviewthemcollectively. The table on pages 222–3 has been compiled to summarize eachmethod/approach/methodological innovation with regard to which aspects oflanguage/culture are focused upon, how the method seeks to promote languagelearning, and the associated language teaching practices. What is in the table isselective,highlightingonlymajorfeaturesofeachmethodorapproach.Whilethistableprovidesausefulsummaryofthemethods/approachesconcerning

the global categories of language/culture, learning, and teaching, there are threelimitationstopresentinginformationinthisform.Oneisthatthistablefailstocapturethedynamicsofmethodologicalchange.Second,itobscuresthesimilaritiesthatexistamongthemethods.Third,therearecertainareasofdifferencethatarenotrevealedbytreatingthecategoriesglobally.Eachofthesethreeareaswillbediscussedinturn.

TheDynamicsofMethodologicalChangeWhile it is true, as wasmentioned at the beginning of this book, that all of thesemethodsarebeingpracticedtoday,itisalsotruethattheyarenotequallydistributedin classrooms around theworld. In someparts of theworld, certainolder languageteachingmethods,suchastheGrammar-TranslationMethod,haveenduredforyears.Similarly, theDirectMethodhas been preserved in particular commercial languageteachingenterprises,suchastheBerlitzSchools.Inotherpartsoftheworld,someofthesemethodshavehadmoreinfluenceduring

certaintimesthanatothers.Forinstance,intheUSAinthe1950sand1960s,althoughother language teaching methods were practiced, the Audio-Lingual Method wasclearlydominant.WhenNoamChomskychallengedtheviewthatlanguagewasasetofpatternsacquiredthroughhabitformation,itsinfluencebegantowane.Followingits decline, the field entered into a period of great methodological diversity in the1970s and early 1980s (Larsen-Freeman 1987), a period in which a number of‘innovativemethods’emerged,suchastheSilentWay(1972),CommunityLanguageLearning (1976), Total Physical Response (1977), Suggestopedia (1978), and theNaturalApproach(1983).Interest in developing students’ communicative competence reunified the field in

the1980s.AlthoughcertainlytheCommunicativeApproachhasnotbeenuniversallyadopted (Ellis1996;Li1998),many teachers around theworld report that theyuseCLT,eveniftheirinterpretationofitsprinciplesvariesgreatly.Itseemsthenthatitisprimarilyevolvingconceptionsoflanguagethatspurredchange.Bywayofcontrast,innovationinthelanguageteachingfieldinthelate1980sand

1990s has been stimulated by a special concern for the language learning process.New methods propose that language learning is best served when students areinteracting—completing a task or learning content or resolving real-life issues—wherelinguisticstructuresarenottaughtonebyone,butwhereattentiontolinguisticformisgivenasnecessary.Theseviewsoflanguagelearninghavebeeninformedbyresearch in second language acquisition. Also giving learning a special focus aremethodological innovations of the late 1980s and 1990s. These include teachinglearning strategies, using cooperative learning, and planning lessons in such awaythatdifferentintelligencesareaddressed.Inthe2000ssofar,itseemsthatchangesinthelanguageteachingfieldhavebeen

made in response to two influences from outside the field. One is the continuingdevelopmentoftechnology.Muchofthelanguagelearningintheworldtakesplaceinclassrooms, though thismaybechangingwith thepossibility formore autonomouslearning,aidedbytechnologicaladvances.Forexample,inanewstudyconductedinAustria,itwasreportedthat15percentofAustriansovertheageof15havelearnedone or more foreign languages outside of high school or university in the last 10

years.Much of the autonomous learning is taking place through social networkingsites, listening to popular music, and watching undubbed movies and televisionshows. With increasing access to popular media available in different languagesthrough theworldwideweb, it is clear that the potential of technology has hardlybeenrealized.Then,too,itislikelyintheforeseeablefuturethattherewillbemorecorpus-informed teachingmaterialsandmorecoursesdeliveredentirelyonlineor inblendedformat,combiningonlinewithface-to-faceinstruction.The other external influence comes fromglobalization.While globalization also

may not be a new phenomenon, there is no doubt that with growing transnationalpopulationflows,therehasbeenincreaseddemandforworkershavingproficiencyindifferent languages. Further, seeing language proficiency as a means for economicadvancement has also led to the perception that knowledge of languages is anindispensable tool. This has resulted in calls for starting language instruction atyounger and younger ages and for enhanced efficiency in instruction, such as the‘two-for-one’ promise of content-based teaching.Moreover, this utilitarian view oflanguagehasmeant that language is taughtapart fromculture,1withculturalvaluesoftenbeingdeemedirrelevant.Respondingtothepotentialforexploitationthatcanaccompanyglobalizationisa

criticalapproachtopedagogy.Incriticalpedagogy,languageisnotseenassomethingpoliticallyneutral,anditisnottheexclusivepropertyofnativespeakers.Thereisalsoan appreciation for how much of one’s identity comes from speaking a particularlanguageorlanguages(Norton2011).Therefore,somebelievethatholdinglearnerstonative-speakerstandardsisinappropriateandunnecessary.AsOrtega(2010)notes,inmuchSLA research,monolingualism is taken as thenorm,with thegoal of secondlanguageacquisitionbeinganunnecessary,andoftenunattainable,monolingual-likeperformanceinanotherlanguage.Instead,itshouldnotbemonolingualswithwhomemergent bilinguals (Garcia and Kleifgen 2010) are compared, but rather otherproficientusersofthetargetlanguage.Inthecategoryofexternalinfluencesinthelanguageteachingfieldcouldalsobe

governmentalnationalandinternational languagepolicies.Forexample, intheUSAthere has been growing support for the teaching of languages deemed ‘critical’ forpoliticalorsecuritypurposes(Larsen-FreemanandFreeman2008),andincountriescomprising the former Soviet Union, Russian language programs have beenterminated.While teachers’ rolesmaybe redefined by technology, their responsibilities have

multipliedinotherways.Forinstance,withproponentsoftheParticipatoryApproachremindingusofthepoliticalnatureoflanguageteaching,someteachersareassumingtheroleofadvocates—notonlyadvocatesonbehalfoftheirdisempoweredstudents,but also advocates on such topics as the treatment of immigrants, environmentalissues,ethicalissuesconcerningglobalization,socialissuessuchasAIDSeducation,

andinternationaleducationissuessuchascallsforworldpeaceeducation(GomesdeMatos2006).Suchteachersfeelthattheycannolongerbecontenttoteachlanguagein classrooms ignoring issues in their own and their students’ lives outside theclassroomwalls(Clarke2003).

Table15.1Comparisonofdifferentmethodsandapproaches

Despitetherecognitionwithinthefieldthatdecision-makingauthorityforeducationalmattersshouldrestwithlocaleducators,thereseemstobearesistancetothisnotionfrom outside the field. As Clarke (2007) argues, teachers should have the say ineducational matters, but this is not always the case, given today’s political reality.Decisions affecting education beyond the control of teachers can be seen in theincreasing relianceon languageexaminations and in thedemand formore effectivepreparation and in-service professional development for teachers. There are alsowidespreadcallsforestablishingstandards.AsRichards(2008)expressesit:

Thestandardsmovementhastakenholdinmanypartsoftheworldandpromotestheadoptionofclearstatementsofinstructionaloutcomesineducationalprogramsasawayof improvinglearningoutcomesinprogramsandtoprovideguidelinesforprogramdevelopment,curriculumdevelopment,andassessment.Richards(2008:172)

Of course, examinations, teacher education, and standards are not in and ofthemselves worrisome. Everyone wants education to be conducted to the highestpossible standards,buthow that is tobeaccomplished iswhat isdisputed.Wewillreturntothispointlaterinthechapter,butfornowwewilldiscussthesimilaritiesand

differencesofthemethodspresentedinthisbook,andsummarizedonpages222–3.

SimilaritiesamongLanguageTeachingMethodsIndisplayingtheessentialfeaturesofthelanguageteachingmethodsintableform,itisthesalientdifferencesthatgethighlighted.Notapparentfromthisdisplayisthefactthatthesemethodsoverlapinsignificantwaysaswell.Despitetherebeingcontinueddebate on what communication entails, and on the means to bring it about, it isneverthelesstruethatoneofthemostimportantsimilaritiesinmanyofthesemethodsisthattheirgoalhasbeentoteachstudentstocommunicateinthetargetlanguage.Thosewhoadvocatecontent-based,task-based,andparticipatoryapproacheshave

anotherthingincommon.Theyrelyonanalyticsyllabi,believingthatthebestwaytoachievecommunicativeproficiencyinalanguageistouseit,notlearnitbitbybit.Inotherwords,studentsshouldlearntocommunicatebycommunicating.Another similarity, which has only recently become obvious, is that all of the

language teaching methods described in this book are practiced in classrooms inschools.Withtheincreasinginfluenceoftechnology,thismaynotbethecaseinthefuture. Classroom instruction is already often supplemented with visits to thecomputer lab. In certain situations, distance education may make classes, fixedschedules,andlearninginface-to-facegroupsobsolete.Finally, it is interesting to note thatmost of thesemethods seem to treat culture

implicitly, having no clearly articulated viewof it or its teaching.Certainmethods,suchasDesuggestopedia,makeuseofthefinearts,buttheartsthemselvesarenottheobjectofstudy; rather theyaredrawnupon to facilitate theacquisitionof the targetlanguage.Wherecultureisincluded,itmaybeseenasa‘fifth’skill,anotherskilltoteachinaddition toreading,writing,speaking,andlistening.Alternatively,asnotedearlier in this chapter, theremay be a deliberate attempt, in the case of thosewhoteach international languages, toomit explicit teachingof culture, even though it isknown that culture values are transmitted through language (Kramsch 1993) andlanguageteachingmethods.

ComplementaryandContradictoryDifferencesamongLanguageTeachingMethodsTherearealsodifferencesamongthemethods,whichgetlostonaselectivetablesuchasours.Therearetwoparticularkindsofdifferences.Thefirstisonewemightcallcomplementary differences. While each method may emphasize a differentperspectiveonalearner,ateacher,orlearning,takentogether,theydonotnecessarilycontradict each other, but rather help us to construct a more complete view. Forinstance, the languagelearner isnotonlyamimic,but isalsoacognitive,affective,social,andpoliticalbeing.Thesameappliestotheroleofthelanguageteacher—not

only is the teacher a model, a drill conductor and a linguist, but possibly also acounselor, facilitator, technician, collaborator, learner trainer, andmost recently, anadvocate(Larsen-Freeman1998a).Theothertypeofdifferenceisonethatiscontradictory.Forinstance,noticethatthe

use of the students’ native language in the Direct Method and ComprehensionApproach(Chapter8)isproscribed,whereasintheGrammar-TranslationMethodandCommunity Language Learning, it is prescribed. Most recently, the restriction toavoid use of the students’ language has been challenged,with the students’ L1 notbeing seen as an impediment to, but rather as a resource for language learning(Widdowson2003;Cook2010).Witness also the divergent views regarding the level of control of the input that

learners receive, fromhighly controlled input in theAudio-LingualMethod, to lesscontrolled in theNaturalApproach, tovirtuallyuncontrolled in task-based,content-based, and participatory approaches. Contrast the views regardingwhat to dowithlearners’errors,whichrangefromdoingeverythingtopreventtheminthefirstplace(Audio-LingualMethod),toignoringthemwhentheyaremadeundertheassumptionthattheywillworkthemselvesoutatsomefuturepoint(forexample,TPR).There are no doubt other differences as well. However, it is the existence of

contradictorydifferencesthatleadsustothequestionwewillbediscussingnext:Howisateachertochoose?

ChoosingamongLanguageTeachingMethodsAttheendofthisbookareasonablequestiontoaskis,‘Whichmethodisbest?’Afterall, while we have seen that many of the methods presented in this book havecharacteristicsincommon,therearealsosomefundamentaldifferencesamongthem.Andsointheend,onedoesneedtochoose.However,thereisatwo-partanswertothequestionofwhichmethod isbest.The first is to rememberwhatwe saidat thebeginningofthisbook:Thereisnosinglebestmethod.Thesecondpartoftheanswerto this question is that for individual teachers and their students, there may be aparticularmethod that they are drawn to—which it is not likely to be a decision ateacherreachesonceandforall. It isalso thecase thata teacherwillhave tomakemanyotherdecisionsbesides thatof choosingamethod. In anycase, thematterofdecidingneedssomecarefulthoughtbecause:

… if we intend to make choices that are informed and not just intuitive orideological, thenwe need to expend no little effort first in identifying our ownvalues,next in tying thosevalues to anappropriate setof larger aims, andonlythendevisingorrejecting,adoptingoradaptingtechniques.(Stevick1993:434;seealsoEdge1996)

ThefirststepintheStevickquote,identifyingvalues,iswhatthisbookhasbeenall

about. Our goal has been that you will use the principles and techniques in themethodswehavewrittenaboutasawaytomakeexplicityourownbeliefsabouttheteaching/learningprocess,beliefsbaseduponyourexperienceandyourprofessionaltraining,includingtheresearchyouknowabout.Ofcourse,astudyofmethodsisnottheonlywaytomakeyourbeliefsexplicit,butunlessyoubecomeclearaboutyourbeliefs, you will continue to make decisions that are conditioned, rather thanconscious.Inaway,thissetofexplicitbeliefscouldbesaidtobeyourtheory,whichwillinformyourmethodologicalchoices.Itwillalsobeyourtheorythatwillinteractwith those of others. As we wrote in Chapter 1, ‘Engaging with the professionalbeliefsofothers[their theories] inanongoingmanner isalso important forkeepingyourteachingpracticealive.’Furthermore:

… if the teacher engages in classroom activity with a sense of intellectualexcitement,thereisatleastafairprobabilitythatlearnerswillbegintoparticipateintheexcitementandtoperceiveclassroomlessonsmainlyaslearningevents—asexperiencesofgrowthforthemselves.(Prabhu1992:239)

This has been true for Tim McNamara. He describes what transpired after heinteractedwiththetheoriesofothersinaMaster’sdegreeprogram:

Ibecameanobserver inmyownclassroom,ofmyselfand, inparticular,ofmystudents, and kept thinking aboutwhat Iwas doing andwhat alternatives theremightbe.Once Ihaddevelopedanappetite for thatunderstanding, it never leftme.Tolearnthatasiteofpracticewasalsoasiteforthinkinggaveadimensiontomyexperienceofteachingwhichhasremainedwithme.(McNamara2008:302)

Larsen-Freemanframesitthisway:

A theoryhelps us learn to look (Larsen-Freeman2000). It allowsus to see andnamethingsthatmightotherwisehaveescapedourattention.Ourintuitionsmaybequitesound,butconsciousawarenessofwhywedowhatwedoallowsustomakeachoice—tocontinuetodothingsthesamewayortochangethewaywedothem.Atheoryalsostimulatesnewquestionsinteachers,aswellasinresearchers…Additionally,ourtheorieshelpusmakesenseofourexperience.(Larsen-Freeman2008:291)

For some teachers, the choice among methods is easy. These teachers find that aparticularmethodresonateswiththeirownvalues,experience,andfundamentalviewsabout teaching and learning. It fits with what they are trying to achieve, and it isappropriate for their students and their context. We might call the position suchteachers adopt,when confrontedwith the issue ofmethodological diversity, one ofabsolutism:Onemethodisbestforthem.Whatmakesitsoisbecauseitistheonethe

teacher knows, having been trained in it, and/or because it is consonant with theteacher’s thinking (values, beliefs, assumptions), and/or because there is researchevidencesupportingit.Suchteachersmaychoosetobecomespecialistsinaparticularmethod;theymayevenpursueadvancedleveltraininginit.Before being persuaded that onemethod is absolutely best, however, we should

remembermethods themselves are decontextualized. They describe a certain ideal,based on certain beliefs. They deal with what, how, and why. They say little ornothing aboutwho/whom,when, andwhere.Eachmethodput intopracticewill beshaped at least by the teacher, the students, the conditions of instruction, and thebroadersocioculturalcontext.Aparticularmethodcannot,therefore,beaprescriptionforsuccessforeveryone.AsParkerPalmerhassaid,‘WhenpersonAspeaks,Irealizethatthemethodthatworksforhimwouldnotworkforme,foritisnotgroundedinwhoIam’(Palmer1998:147).Whatmakesamethodsuccessfulforsometeachersistheir investment in it.This isonereasonwhytheresearchbasedonmethodologicalcomparisons has often been so inconclusive. It sought to reduce teaching to thefaithfulfollowingofpedagogicprescriptions—butteachingismuchmorethanthis.

Agoodsystemofeducation…isnotoneinwhichallormostteacherscarryoutthe same recommended procedures, but rather a system where all, or most,teachers operate with a sense of plausibility about whatever procedures theychoose to adopt and each teacher’s sense of plausibility is alive or active andhenceasopentofurtherdevelopmentorchangeasitcanbe.(Prabhu1987:106)

AsAllwrightandHanks(2009)note:

Arguing against standardisation, then, is very different from being againststandards.Wewantteacherstoworktothehigheststandardstheyarecapableof,butthatisaverypersonalprofessionalmatterandonethatismuchmoredifficultif institutions insist on standardisation, making everyone work in precisely thesameway.(AllwrightandHanks2009:9)

Some use this concern of coercion to argue that there can be no right method foreveryone. They point out that some methods are more suitable for older learners;others for younger—or that some might be more appropriate for beginning-levellanguage study, but not for intermediate or advanced.They say that somemethodsclearlycallforaleveloflanguageproficiencythatnotalllanguageteacherspossess.They warn that methods should not be exported from one situation to another(Holliday1994).Wemightcallthispositionrelativism.Eachmethodhasitsstrengthsandweaknesses, relativistsbelieve,but theyarenotequallysuitedforallsituations.Differentmethodsaresuitablefordifferentteachersandlearnersindifferentcontexts.Suchapositionringstrueformanyteachers.Theymayhavefoundthemselves,when

readingofaparticularmethodinthisbooksaying,‘ThiswouldneverworkwhereIteach.’Whilethereisnodoubtsometruthtothisposition,andcertainlyteachersareinagoodpositiontojudgethefeasibilityofamethod,itwouldbeamistaketoreasonthateverysituationissouniquethatnosimilaritiesexistamongthem.Indeed,‘itisaverylargeclaimthattheprocessoflanguageacquisition—abasichumanattribute—itselfvariesaccordingtocontextualfactors’(Prabhu1990:166).Indeed,learnersarevery versatile and can learn well sometimes despite a given method rather thanbecauseofit.Whatistrue,though,isthattherearesociopoliticalreasonsordemandson teacherswhichmaymake onemethodmore acceptable than another in a givencontext.Thereisanotherversionoftherelativistposition,onethatwemightcallpluralism,

whichmanyother teachers find reasonable.Rather than deciding to adopt or rejectmethodsintheirentiretyasbeingsuitableorunsuitableforaparticularcontext,theybelieve that there is some value to eachmethod. Instead of believing that differentmethodsshouldbepracticedindifferentcontexts,theybelievethatdifferentmethods,or parts of methods, should be practiced in the same context (Prabhu 1990). Forexample, by playing the believing game, they see that themultiple perspectives onlanguage representedbymethods in this book—that language is literary, dealswitheveryday situations, ismade up of patterns, rules, sounds, vocabulary, notions, andfunctions, ismeaningful, comprises texts, is used for interactions, and is amediumthrough which to learn certain content, accomplish certain tasks, or becomeempowered—arealltrue.Moreover,iflanguageiscomplex,thenitmakessensethatlearning it is also complex, and therefore thatassociationism, habit formation, ruleformation, interactionism,emergentism,etc.canallbe trueorat leastpartially true,althoughnosingle truthnecessarilyaccounts for thewholeof languageacquisition.Then, too, although teachersknow that there aremany similarities among students,theyalsoknowthat‘eachgrouphasitsownspecialcharacteristics,andthatsuccessfulteaching requires the recognitionandacknowledgementof thisuniqueness’ (Bolster1983:298,citedinLarsen-Freeman1990;AllwrightandHanks2009).When teacherswhosubscribe to thepluralisticviewofmethodspickandchoose

fromamongmethods tocreate theirownblend, theirpractice is said tobeeclectic.Remember, though, that methods are coherent combinations of techniques andprinciples. Thus, teachers who have made their beliefs explicit—have constructedtheirowntheories—andfashionateachingapproachinaccordancewiththeirtheories(whichmayverywellmakeallowancesfordifferencesamongstudents),couldbesaidtobepracticingprincipledeclecticism.Theyareineffectcreatingtheirownmethodbyblendingaspectsofothersinaprincipledmanner.We shouldhasten to add that froman external perspective, itmaybedifficult to

distinguisheclecticismfromprincipledeclecticism.Rememberthatamethodinvolvesboththoughtsandactions.Wewouldnotwant to label teachers’methodssimplyby

whatisvisible—theiractions.Itwouldonlybeinlisteningtoteacherstalkabouttheirpractice thatwemight be able to tell.Teacherswhopractice principled eclecticismshouldbeabletogiveareasonforwhytheydowhattheydo.Whenaskedwhetherornot they would use a role-play, for instance, they will likely invoke the commonteacher response, ‘It depends… .’ ‘It depends,’ they will say, ‘on what we arepracticing,’or ‘onwhetherornotwehavedonea role-play recently,’ revealing thattheir teaching philosophy might include such principles as the need to match aparticulartargetlanguagepointwithaparticulartechniqueorontheneedforvarietyamongteachingactivities.Theymightevensaythatitdependsonwhattimeofdayitis or what day of the week it is, recognizing that they frequently have to makedecisions resulting from the complexity of classroom reality, including what ishappeningsociallyamongtheparticipantsatthetime(Allwright1984;AllwrightandHanks2009;Nunan1992;Prabhu1992;Clarke1994).Now the answer ‘it depends’ might be seen by some to be a sign of teachers’

avoidingtakingaposition.But‘itdepends’answersmightbetakenbyothersassignsofthewisdomofpractice.For,afterall,teachingisacontingentactivitythatrequiresaresponseinthemoment.It isalsotruethatwithushumanbeings, thereisoftenagapbetweenourintentionsandouractions(Clarke2007),despitethefactthat‘weareall seeking coherence in the world—ways of aligning our behavior with ourconvictions …’ (ibid. 2007: 200). Of course, even if we were to achieve totalcongruencebetweenourbeliefsandouractions,wecannotcontroleverythinginourinteraction with our students. In complex systems, sometimes unintendedconsequencesoccur(Larsen-FreemanandCameron2008).Andfinally,itistruethatmanymethodologicaldecisionsareoutsidethecontrolof

teachers. Theymust teach for a test, for instance.Or theymay have a classwherestudentscomewithnegativeattitudestowardthestudyoflanguage.Fanselow(1987)observes that perhaps as little as two percent of the variance that contributes tolearningmaybecontrolledbytheteacher.Andyetashesays:

Butsowhat?Iflearningequalsonehundredpercent,andlackoflearningmeansanything less than one hundred percent, the two percentwe are responsible formakesthedifferencebetweenlearningandnotlearning.(Fanselow1987:11)

TeachingastheManagementofLearningTeacherswhoteachasiftheirpracticecauseslearning,whilerecognizingthattheyarenot in control of all of the relevant factors, and that at the very least they are inpartnershipwith their students in thisenterprise, canbe truemanagersof learning.2Wearenotspeakingnarrowlyofclassroommanagement,butrathermorebroadlyofsomeone who can live with the paradox of knowing that teaching does not cause

learning, all thewhile knowing that to be successful, onemust act as if it does.Amanageroflearning‘isconcernedwiththequalityoftheeducationalenvironmentandthe learning opportunities it affords—and explicitly with the values and ideals wewishtopromoteinoureducationalwork’(vanLier2003:51).Itisthiscommitmenttocreatinglearningopportunitiesthatmotivatesateacherto

make informed methodological choices. Teachers who are managers of learningrecognize in general that a number of methodological options exist, but they areguided in any particular moment by a compass consisting of a set of values,professional knowledge and experience, and a commitment to (particular) learningoutcomes.Suchteachersdonotdespairinmethodologicalprofusion;theywelcomeit.Theyknowthat themore tools theyhaveat theirdisposal, thebetteroff theyare inhaving a large repertoire to choose fromwhen a teachablemoment presents itself.Theyrecognizethattheymustfocusstudents’attentiononthelearningchallenge,andthenstepbackandrespondinservicetotheirlearning.When asked if they would use a particular technique—say, assign a particular

readingpassage, ask a particular question, they answer, ‘It depends.’Theremaybetimeswhenapatterndrillisappropriate,orgivingagrammarrule,oraninteractivetask,oranactivitywhichinvolvesnegotiationofmeaning,dependingonthelearningchallenge or what the students are struggling with at the moment. ‘It depends’statementsprovideuswith evidenceof thehighly complex, interpretive, contingentknowledgewhichteachers/managersmustpossessinordertodotheworkofteaching.

LearningtoTeach:ADevelopmentalProcessBut there is another important dimension to the question of teachingmethods thatmust be considered. And that is that learning to teach is a developmental process(Freeman1991);indeed,whiletheremaynotbeanystrictsequenceofdevelopmentalstagesinteaching,learningitissaidtobealifelongprocess.Thus,beforeconcluding,Larsen-Freemanoffersabriefautobiographicalsketchofherowndevelopmentasateacher,asanillustration,onenotmeanttobeamodel(Larsen-Freeman1998b).

When I was first learning to teach, I was trained in a particular method.Fortunately for me, I was oblivious to alternatives. I practiced one methodexclusively,usingthebooksthatIhadbeengiven.Iwaslearningtoteachandallofmyattentionwason trying to thebestofmyability toadhere to themethod,whilelearningtheclassroomroutinesandmaintainingsomesenseofdecoruminthe meantime. I was the teacher (while learning to be one) and was teaching(whilelearningtodosoatthesametime).

Afterawhile,Igrewdissatisfiedwithmyteaching.IfoundthatithadreachedalevelwhereIcouldgivelessattentiontowhatIwasdoingandmoretowhatmystudentswerelearning.TheconsequencewasthatIdidnotlikewhatIsaw.Ifelt

thattherehadtobeabettermethodthantheoneIwaspracticing.Isoughtfurthereducation.What I discovered from this educationwas that although therewereothermethods,therewasverylittleagreementonthebestwaytoteach.Whatwasimportant thoughwas forme to be able to rationalizewhat I was doing. I feltduringthisphaseofmydevelopmentthatIwasnolongerlearningtoteach.Myviewofteachinghadchanged.Iknewalot,butIrealizedthattherewasalotmoreto learn. I found that I was learning teaching. I no longerwas preparing to dosomething. I was experiencing it, and I was learning a great deal from theexperience.

Learningteachinghassustainedmeformanyyears—andstilldoes,eventhoughmy area of concern is now less language teaching than language teachereducation.Oneoftheproblemswithrelatingmyexperienceinthisfashion,isthatit appears thatmydevelopmentasa teacher isa linearprocess,witheachstagebeingdiscrete.This isnot thecase. Iamstill learning to teach insomerespects(suchasevery timeImeetanewgroupofstudentsfor thefirst time),andIamstill learning teaching. In fact, I amstill learningabout the subjectmatter that Ihave been teaching for over forty years! However, I believe I can identify anadditionalchapterinmyownstorybecauseIrealizeinretrospectthatduringmylearning teaching phase Iwas still operating under the assumption that at somepoint I could master teaching. Sure, there would always be some newdevelopmentsinthefield,butforthemostpart,IthoughtIcouldmakeroomforthemwithoutupsettingmypracticeverymuch.Iwasmistaken.Ifinallycametorealize that I could never master teaching. Practically everything I needed toknow,includingmystudents,wasalwayschanging.

Language, learning, teaching are dynamic, fluid, mutable processes. There isnothing fixed about them (Larsen-Freeman 1997; Ellis and Larsen-Freeman2006). Iwouldcharacterizemy third stage thenas just learning.This isnot thewillful learning of teaching, but the egoless following of learning. Further, thislearning is not a gerund; this learning is a participle. It is not something thatresults inastaticproduct; it isadynamicprocess.Learning in thissensemeansbeingopen towhat comes, relating to it, andbecomingdifferent in itspresence(CalebGattegno,personalcommunication).Andbysodoing,whenIamabletodoit,Iamlearningallthetime.

Let us restate that we are not being prescriptive. Larsen-Freeman was simplydescribingherownexperience.Differentteachersnodoubthavetheirownstoriestotell. And surely one can mature professionally in this field by deepening one’spractice inaparticularmethod,rather thanbyswitchingmethods.Butwhatmaybemorecommonthanisusuallyacknowledgedis thateachofourstoriesunfoldsoverourlifespansasteachers(FreemanandRichards1993).Andwhatseemstoleadtothe

unfoldingofthestoryisaneagernesstowanttoteachbetter—toreachmorestudentsmoreeffectivelyandmorecompassionately.Forthisreason,teachingisperhapsbestservedbyteachers’cultivatinganattitude

of inquiry (Larsen-Freeman 2000).Much is unknown about the teaching–learningprocess, and those teacherswhoapproach it asamystery tobe solved (recognizingthatsomeaspectsof teachingandlearningmaybeforeverbeyondexplanation)willseetheirteachingasasourceofcontinuingprofessionalrenewalandrefreshment.

ConclusionByconfrontingthediversityofmethodsinthisbook,andbyviewingtheirthought-in-actionlinks,wehopethatyouwillbehelpedtoarriveatyourownconceptualizationofhowthoughtleadstoactionsinyourteaching,andhow,inturn,yourteachingleadstothedesiredlearninginyourstudents.Whatwehopeyourreadingofthisbookhasalso done is challenged you to identify your values, and to question them, perhapsleading to reaffirmation,perhapsnot.But teaching isnotonly thinkingandholdingcertainvalues;itisalsoaction.Wehope,therefore,thatthisbookhasencouragedyouto experiment with new techniques—to try them, observe the consequences, makeadjustments,andthentotrythemagain.In order to move from ideology to inquiry, teachers need to inquire into their

practice.Theyneedtoreflectonwhattheydoandwhytheydoit,andtheyneedtobeopentolearningaboutthepracticesandresearchofothers.Theyneedtointeractwithothers,andneedtotrynewpracticesinordertosearchcontinuallyforordevisethebestmethodtheycanforwhotheyare,whotheirstudentsare,andtheconditionsandcontextoftheirteaching.Itistothisquestthatwehopethisbookhasinasmallwaycontributed.

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1Althoughsome(Kramsch2011)seethisasanimpossibility.2Allwright(1984)wasperhapsthefirsttousethisterm.

Glossary

Activephase:thesecondphaseofaDesuggestopedialesson,inwhichstudentsactivelyworkwiththelanguagetheyhavebeenintroducedtointhereceptivephase.

Adjunctmodel:studentsenrolledinaregularacademiccoursealsotakealanguagecourselinkedtotheacademiccourse.

Advanceorganization:alearningstrategyfocusedonimprovingreadingskillsbylearningtopreviewandtoskimtogetthegistofareadingpassage.

Affectivefilter:ametaphoricalfilterthatiscausedbyastudent’snegativeemotions,whichreducethestudent’sabilitytounderstandthelanguagespokentothem.

Analyticsyllabus:‘[O]rganizedintermsofthepurposesforwhichpeoplearelearninglanguageandthekindsoflanguageperformancethatarenecessarytomeetthosepurposes’(Wilkins1976:13).

Antonym:awordwiththeoppositemeaningtoanotherword,e.g.‘cold’istheantonymof‘hot.’

Apprenticeshipofobservation:atermtodescribethefactthatteacherscometoteachertrainingwithideasabouttheteaching/learningprocessformedfromtheyearstheyhavespentasstudentsthemselves(Lortie1975).

Associationism:alearningtheorythatassumesthatlanguagelearningtakesplacewhenlearnersassociateformswiththeirmeanings.

Attitudeofinquiry:ateacher’scommitmenttoinquireandreflectonhisorherteachingpractice,learningfromeveryexperience(Larsen-Freeman2000).

Authenticlanguage:languageusedinarealcontext.Bankingmethodofeducation:amore‘traditional’formofeducationwheretheteacher‘deposits’informationinthestudents,makingtheassumptionthattheteacherknowswhatthestudentsneedtolearn.

Bottom-upapproachtoreadinginstruction:alearningtoreadapproachthatbeginswithstudentslearningthebasicelementsoflanguage,e.g.sound–symbolcorrespondences.

Cognate:awordwithasimilarappearance(andusuallyasimilarmeaning)acrosslanguages.

Cognitivecodeapproach:anapproachinwhichlearnersareseentobeactively

responsiblefortheirownlearning,engagedinformulatinghypothesesinordertodiscovertherulesofthetargetlanguage.

Cognitivestrategies:learningstrategieswhichinvolvelearnersinteractingandmanipulatingwhatistobelearned.

Coherence:apropertyofdiscoursewheresentencesareconnectedinameaningfulway.

Cohesion:apropertyofdiscoursewheresentencesareconnectedwithexplicitlinguisticforms,suchasconjunctions.

Communicativeapproach:anapproachtolanguageteachingthatmakeslearningtocommunicatecentral.

Communicativecompetence:knowingwhenandhowtosaywhattowhom.Beingcommunicativelycompetentinthetargetlanguagemeansbeingabletocommunicateappropriatelywithothers.

Communityofpractice:agroupofpeoplewhoshareacommoninterestand/oraprofession.Astheyshareinformation,theylearnfromeachother(LaveandWenger1991).

Competency-basedinstruction:adultsstudycertainvitallife-copingorsurvivalskills,suchashowtofilloutajobapplicationorusethetelephone.

Comprehensibleinput:languagethatisunderstoodbystudents.Theteacherensuresthatsheorheisunderstoodbyusingpictures,gestures,andoccasionalwordsinthestudents’nativelanguage.

Comprehensionapproach:ageneralapproachthatincludesmethodsthatgiveimportancetoinput,especiallyintheformoflisteningcomprehension.

Computer-assistedlanguagelearning(CALL):instructionthatusescomputerorweb-basedtechnologytoteachlanguage.

Concordance:acomputer-generatedlistofwordsorphrases,usedinlimitedcontexts.Conditioning:associatedwithbehaviorism,conditioningisaprocesswherebystudentslearntorespondcorrectlytostimulithroughshapingandreinforcement.

Consciousandsubconsciousplanes:communicationtakesplaceontwoplanes.Ontheconsciousplane,thelearnerattendstothelanguage.Onthesubconsciousplane,thelearnerreceivesmessagesabouttheeaseofthelearningprocess.Learningisenhancedwhenthereisunitybetweentheconsciousandsubconsciousplanes.

Constructivism:studentsareactivelyinvolvedinconstructingtheirownknowledgethroughexperienceandproblemsolving(Dewey1913).

Controlandinitiative:ateacherexerciseslesserorgreatercontrolintheclassroom,whichinfluenceshowmuchinitiativestudentsareencouragedandabletotake(Stevick1980).

Cooperativelearning:studentslearnfromandwitheachotheringroups.Counsel:inCounseling-Learning/CommunityLanguageLearning,theteacherdoesnotofferadvice,butrather‘counsels’thestudentsbyshowingthatheisreallylisteningtothemandunderstandingwhattheyaresaying.Thisistypicallydemonstratedbyan‘understandingresponse.’

Criticaldiscourseanalysis:thestudyofhowidentityandpowerrelationsareconstructedinlanguage.

Criticalpedagogy:instructionthatispremisedonthebeliefthat‘whathappensintheclassroomshouldendupmakingadifferenceoutsideoftheclassroom’(Baynham2006:28).

Deductivegrammarteaching:theteacherexplainsgrammarrulestostudents,whothenapplythemtodifferentexamples.

Discourseorsuprasententialleveloflanguage:theorganizationoflanguageastexts,e.g.howsentencesgotogethertomakeupaparagraph.

Discrete-pointtest:ananalyticalapproachtolanguagetestinginwhicheachtestquestionassessesonedistinctfeatureofthelanguage.

Displayquestion:aquestiontowhichbothteacherandstudentknowtheanswer,butthatisusedbytheteachertofindoutwhatastudentknowsorisabletodo.

Doubtinggameandbelievinggame:thedoubtinggamerequiressomeonetoevaluateanideausinglogicandevidence.Thebelievinggamerequirestakingontheperspectiveoftheoriginatoroftheidea,toseeitthroughhisorhereyes.Itisimportanttoplaybothgames.Thegoalistounderstandanideafullybeforejudgingit(Elbow1973).

Emergentism:alanguagelearningtheorythatseeslanguageasemergingfrommeaningfullanguageuse.Speakers’languageisshapedandreshapedbyexperience.

Endangeredlanguages:languagesthatareindangerofdisappearingduetothedecliningnumbersofpeoplewhospeakthem.

Englishasalinguafranca:thelanguageusedbymillionsofnon-nativeEnglishspeakers,primarilyforuseinmultilinguallanguagecontactsituations.

Fidelcharts:color-codedSilentWaychartsthatshowsoundsofthelanguageandthevariouswaysthesamesoundcanbespelled.

Fiveminds:atheoryfocusedoncognitiveabilitiesor‘minds’thatindividualsneedtodevelopinordertobesuccessfulinachangingworld(Gardner2007).

Focusonform:theteacherdirectslearners’attentionbrieflytolinguisticstructurewhilethelearnersareengagedinameaningfulactivity.

Functions:speechacts,suchasinviting,promising,introducingonepersontoanother,

thatareperformedwithinasocialcontext.Generativewords:fromFreire’sworkinliteracyeducation,wordsthatareimportanttothepeopleintheircommunity,whichareusedtoteachbasicdecodingandcodingskills.

Genres:differenttypesoflanguagetexts,e.g.poetryorscientificwriting.Globalization:theexpansionofbusinessesinternationally.Grammaring:anapproachtoteachinggrammarthattreatsgrammarasanabilitytousegrammarstructuresaccurately,meaningfully,andappropriately,ratherthanasasetofstaticrulestobeapplied(Larsen-Freeman2003).

Graphicorganizer:adiagramusedbyteacherstohelpstudentsorganizeandremembernewinformation.

Humancomputer™:inCounseling-Learning/CommunityLanguageLearning,thestudentchooseswhichaspectoflanguagetopracticeandcontrolshowmuchtopracticeit.Theteacherrepeatscorrectlywhatthestudentsaysasoftenasthestudentdesires.

i+1:languagethatisjustinadvanceofstudents’currentleveloflanguageproficiency(‘i’).

Inductivegrammarteaching:theteachergivesstudentsexampleswithaparticulargrammarstructure.Thestudentsfigureouttherule.

Infantilization:Desuggestopediateachersconsciouslycreateanenvironmentinwhichstudentscanreleasetheirfearsandbecome‘childlike’intheirclassroominteractions.

Informationgap:anactivitywherenotalltheinformationisknownbyalltheparticipants.Theyhavetosharetheinformationtheyhaveinordertocompletetheactivity.

Innercriteria:studentsdeveloptheirowninnercriteriaforcorrectness—totrustandtoberesponsiblefortheirownproductioninthetargetlanguage(Gattegno1972).

Inputenhancement:promotingstudents’noticingofaparticularlanguagefeature,suchasputtinginboldfacetypeaparticularstructureinareadingpassage.

Inputflooding:promotingstudents’noticingbyusingparticularlanguageitemswithgreatfrequency.

Languageforacademicpurposes:languagestudiedsoastobeabletoparticipatesuccessfullyinacademiccontexts.

Languageforspecificpurposes:languagestudiedinordertoparticipateinaspecificactivityorprofession,e.g.Germanforbusinesspurposes.

Learningstrategies:‘thetechniquesordeviceswhichalearnermayusetoacquire

knowledge’(Rubin1975:43).Linguisticcompetence:masteryofthelinguisticstructuresofthetargetlanguage.Literacies:literacyintheuniqueforms,vocabulary,andnormsofdifferentdiscourses,e.g.thoseofpoliticsorbusiness.

Metacognitivestrategies:learningstrategiesthatareusedtoplan,monitor,andevaluatealearningtask,e.g.arrangingconditionsforlearning,settinglongandshort-termgoalsandcheckingone’scomprehensionduringlisteningandreading(ChamotandO’Malley1994).

Minimalpair:pairsofwordswhichdifferinonlyonesound,e.g.‘ship’and‘sheep.’Multicompetence:beingabletousemorethanonelanguageinawaythatone’sneedsaremetwithoutnecessarilyimitatingmonolingualnativespeakeruse.

Peripherallearning:studentslearnfromwhatispresentintheenvironment,eveniftheirattentionisnotdirectedtoit.

Pluralism:thebeliefthatthereissomevalueineachmethod.Plurilingualism:anindividual’slanguageproficiencyinseverallanguages.Principledeclecticism:teachersbuildtheirownmethodbyblendingaspectsofothermethodsinaprincipledmanner.

Recast:aformofcorrectivefeedbackinwhichateacherreformulatescorrectlywhatastudenthassaidincorrectly.

Receptivephase:thefirstphaseinaDesuggestopedialessonwhereadialogueisreadwithmusicalaccompanimentandreadasecondtimeatnormalspeed.

Register:thelevelofformalityofatext.Relativism:thebeliefthateachmethodhasitsstrengthsandweaknessesandthatthereforedifferentmethodsaresuitablefordifferentcontexts.

SAARRD:inCounseling-Learning/CommunityLanguageLearning,thisacronymrepresentsthesixelementsnecessaryfornondefensivelearning:S=Security;A=Aggression(studentsaregiventheopportunitytoassertthemselves);A=Attention(students’attentionisfocused);R=Reflection;R=Retention(integrationofthenewmaterialtakesplacewithinthewholeself);D=Discrimination(sortingoutthedifferencesamongtargetlanguageforms).

Scaffolding:languagesupportprovidedbyateacher,whichenableslearnerstocommunicatesomethingtheycouldnotdootherwise,e.g.buildingacompleteutterancetogetherwiththestudents.

ShelteredInstructionObservationProtocol(SIOP):effectivepracticesforshelteredinstruction(ShortandEchevarria1999).

Sheltered-languageinstruction:aninstructionalapproachthatallowsforthe

integrationoflanguageandcontentbysupportingstudents’understandingofthecontentinthetargetlanguage.

Social/affectivelearningstrategies:learningstrategieswherelearnersinteractwithotherpersonsorpayattentiontotheaffectivedomaintoimprovelearning(ChamotandO’Malley1994).

Strongandweakversionofthecommunicativeapproach:intheweakversionofthecommunicativeapproachstudentsarelearningtouseEnglish;inthestrongversion,studentsuseEnglishtolearnit(Howatt1984).

Synonym:awordwithasimilarmeaningtoanotherword,e.g.‘sick’isasynonymof‘ill.’

Syntheticsyllabus:asyllabuscomprisinglinguisticunits:grammarstructures,vocabularyitems,functions,etc.Itisthelearner’sresponsibilitytosynthesizethelinguisticunitsforthepurposeofcommunication(Wilkins1976).

Task:anactivity,withaclearoutcome,inwhichlearnerscommunicatemeaningfully.Task-supportedteaching:teachingwithmeaningfulcommunicativetasks,withoutexcludingthepossibilityofusingtaskswithagrammaticalfocus.

Top-downapproachtoreadinginstruction:alearningtoreadapproachthatbeginswithstudentsengagingwiththegeneralideasofthetextasawayintounderstandingthetext.

Understandingresponse:aresponsefromalistenerthatparaphraseswhatthespeakerhasjustsaid,withoutquestions,opinions,orjudgments.

Whole-personlearning:teachersconsidernotonlytheirstudents’intellect,buttheyalsohavesomeunderstandingabouttherelationshipamongstudents’feelings,physicalreactions,instinctualprotectivereactions,anddesiretolearn.

Workplaceliteracy:theskilladultlearnersneedattheirworkplacetoreadandwriteaboutrelevantcontent.

World‘Englishes’:differentvarietiesofEnglish,eachspokeninacountrythatwasaformerBritishcolony,e.g.IndianEnglish.

Worldwideweb(wwwor‘theweb’):awayofaccessinginformationovertheInternet.Zoneofproximaldevelopment(ZPD):anareaoflearningpotentiallyingbetweenthelearner’sabilitytooperateindependentlyandthelearner’sabilitytooperatewiththehelpofateacheroramorecompetentpeer(Vygotsky1978).

Index

absolutisminchoiceofmethods227academicpurposes,languagefor132academicsubjects,learningalongsidelanguages,seeContent-basedInstructionactionsequences(‘operations’)111actions,useofinclassroom(TotalPhysicalResponsemethod)105–7,seealsogestures/actions/demonstrations(teachers’)

activephaseinDesuggestopediaclasses79,82Adamson,B.ixadjunctmodels141adultlearners,andContent-basedInstruction132advanceorganizationstrategies182–4affectivefilterintheNaturalApproach104affectivelearningstrategies186Agostini,E.192Akbari,R.xi,xiii,5Allwright,D.228,229,230Altwerger,B.141analyticsyllabi149,160,177,224Andon,N.160Anthony,E.xvi,8nanxiety/stress(student)96,104,108,110Arends,R.xii,9Armstrong,T.192Asher,J.103,104,109,110,111,112,113associationism229attention,student60attitudeofinquiry233Audio-Lingualmethod35–50,220

AuerbachE.171n,175authenticmaterials:CommunicativeLanguageTeaching119,123,126Content-basedInstruction131–47usingonlinetools199–209

autonomy,student59,62,185,200,209

backwardbuild-up(expansion)drills36,42,47Balbi,J.191nBall,D.139bankingmethod171Bartolome,L.xiiBatstone,R.167Baynham,M.xiiibelievinggame6–8Bell,D.xivBerlitzSchools219,seealsoDirectMethodBerthoff,A.170Biber,D.213Bley-Vroman,R.150,159blogs201,203,207,210–11Bolster,A.229Borg,S.xibottom-upapproaches,defined141–2Breen,M.132,157Breiteneder,A.166Brinton,D.132BritishNationalCorpus(BNC)204–5Brumfit,C.ixBruthiaux,P.167Bygate,M.151Byrnes,H.133n

CaliforniaStateDepartmentofEducation133

calmstate,conducivetolearning77Cameron,L.xiv,133,201,230Campbell,P.177Canagarajah,A.xiv,166Canale,M.124Candlin,C.150cellphone-basedapplications213chaindrills37,47,123Chamot,A.182n,186chatting,electronic212childlanguageacquisition,asmodelforlanguagelearning43,44,52,103choice:ofteachingmethod226–33ofwhatandhowtosayit(students)123,127,128ofwhatskillstopractice93

Chomsky,N.51,220Christison,M.191n,192chunks,learning,preferredtowordbyword107,110Clarke,M.xi,221,224,230ClassicalMethod13,seealsoGrammar-Translationmethodclassroomset-up72,75,81clozepassageexercises,seefill-in-the-blanksexercisesco-communicator,teacheras122,123cognates15,21CognitiveAcademicLanguageLearningApproach(CALLA)182nCognitiveCodeApproach51cognitivelearningstrategies,defined186Cohen,J.159ncohesionandcoherence124–5,126collaboration,seealsostudent–studentinteractionCollaborativeLearning186–90,220ParticipatoryApproach176Vygotskianprinciples142

wikis202,203,206,214–15commandsinTotalPhysicalResponsemethod105–7,111–12CommonEuropeanFramework(CEFR)5communicativeapproaches:generally220

communicativefocusofCommunityLanguageLearning94CommunicativeLanguageTeaching(CLT)115–30Content-basedInstruction131–47ParticipatoryApproach170–80,221Task-basedInstruction149–63

communicativecompetenceversuslinguisticcompetence:CommunicativeLanguageTeaching(CLT)115DirectMethod25–34notagoalofGrammar-Translationmethod18

communitiesofpracticexiicommunities,virtual200CommunityLanguageLearning5,85–102,220competency-basedinstruction132composition22comprehensibleinput,andtheNaturalApproach103comprehension:ComprehensionApproach103Grammar-Translationmethod21,26–7

Computer-assistedLanguageLearning(CALL)200,211computers,seetechnology,useofconcordances199,204–6conditioning35confidence,importanceofteacher’s76constructivism151ContentandLanguageIntegratedLearning(CLIL)133Content-basedInstruction131–47contrastiveanalysistechniques40–1,44conversationpractice:

CommunityLanguageLearning86DirectMethod32recordingstudentconversationtechnique86–90,98

Cook,G.5,225Cook,V.169CooperativeLearning186–90,220corpora,using202,204–5,212–13corpusanalysis213Counseling-Learningapproach85counsellors:teacheraslanguagecounselor85teacheraslearningcounselor92

criticaldiscourseanalysis167–8criticalpedagogyxiii,168,221Crookes,G.153Crystal,D.166nculturalissues:fineartsinDesuggestopedia73,76,77,80implicittreatmentof225literatureforemost20proverbsusedtoteach28,30separationoflanguagefrom221usingdailylifematerial28,41,44,80,176usingrealobjectstoteach25–8,74,77,126,139

Cummins,J.166Curran,C.A.85,95,96

Davison,C.166deductiveapproachestogrammar15–16,18,19,21demonstration,asmethodpreferredtoexplanationortranslation29,30Desuggestopedia71–84,220Dewey,J.151,171dialoguejournals143

dialoguerepetition36–7,46,73dialoguing(ParticipatoryApproachtechnique)177dictationexercises28,33,136dictoglossexercises136,142digitalportfolios211DirectMethod25–34,219discourselevelwork116–17,120,124,126,136,138–9displayquestions122–3distanceeducation211–12,225distributedleadership190doubtinggame6–8dramatizationandfantasyasaidstolearning74,77,82drills:backwardbuild-up(expansion)drills36,42,47chaindrills37,47,123definedasfocusonforms151askeypartofAudio-Lingualmethod45repetitiondrilltechnique37,47substitutiondrills37–9,43,45,47transformationdrills39,48,123

Echevarria,J.141Eckerth,J.160Edelsky,C.141Edge,J.226Elbow,P.7electronicchatting212electronictextcorpora202,204–5,212–13Ellis,R.x,150,159,160,209,220,232e-mailinlanguagelearning200–1emergentism209empowerment,languagelearningas175,176,178,221endangeredlanguages165,212

engineer,teacheras62English,politicsofteaching/learning165–70enjoymentandfun:Desuggestopedia74TotalPhysicalResponsemethod109,110environment(classroom),importanceofinDesuggestopedia72,75,81

e-penpals203,212errorcorrection:summary226Audio-Lingualmethod36,42,46backwardbuild-up(expansion)drills36,42,47CommunicativeLanguageTeaching117,120,122Content-basedInstruction140focusonform157gentle,inDesuggestopedia78,80Grammar-Translationmethod14,18,20importanceoferrorsinlearningprocess60,64–5inevitableinCognitiveCodeApproach51nonthreatening,inCommunityLanguageLearning93,97notamainfocuswhenusingonlinetools210peercorrection(studentshelpingeachother)59,60,63,66preventionoferrors42,46recasts97,151,155,156,157scaffolding138,139self-correction27,29,32,65,66,99,177SilentWay56–7,60,64–5studentsdeveloping‘innercriteria’59,60,65Task-basedLanguageTeaching155toleratedduringfluency-basedactivities125TotalPhysicalResponsemethod108,111EuropeanLanguagePortfolio211

evaluation:andanalyticsyllabi160fluency125

integrativetests97,125self-evaluation97,175,177andstandards224usingtechnology210

expansion(backwardbuild-up)drills36,42,47

Facebook202,203,204,213facilitator,teacheras121,122,123Fairclough,N.167Fanselow,J.230fantasyanddramatizationasaidstolearning74,77,82feedback(fromstudentstoteachers):CommunityLanguageLearning88,90,93,96ParticipatoryApproach174SilentWay61,67feedback(fromteachersonstudents’work),seealsoerrorcorrectionCommunicativeLanguageTeaching128Content-basedInstruction143Task-basedLanguageTeaching158

Fidelcharts57,62,67fill-in-the-blanksexercises,seealsosubstitutiondrillsAudio-Lingualmethod48Content-basedInstruction135DirectMethod27,29,32Grammar-Translationmethod16,21

finearts,useof17,20,22,28,71,73,76,80,225‘fiveminds’194Flores,B.141focusedtasks159focusonform151,157,175,176,220focusonforms151,160form/meaningrelationshipsinDirectMethod29,30formsversusfunctions120,122,124

Freeman,D.xi,xiii,221,231,233Freire,P.170,177Fried-Booth,D.157Fries,C.35funandenjoyment:Desuggestopedia74TotalPhysicalResponse109,110functions,languageintheCommunicativeApproach115

games:Audio-Lingualmethod41,48CommunicativeLanguageTeaching117–18,120,127Content-basedInstruction136Desuggestopedia74–5

Garcia,O.221Gardner,H.191,194Gass,S.150Gatbonton,E.ixGateva,E.71Gattegno,C.6,52,62,71,232Gee,J.168generativewords170–1gestures/actions/demonstrations(teachers’):Desuggestopedia72–3DirectMethod37asmethodpreferredtoexplanationortranslation29,30SilentWay53,58,59,63,66

globalization221globallanguage,Englishas165,170Goffney,I.139GomesdeMatos,F.221Grabe,W.185Graddol,D.165

‘grammaring’201Grammar-Translationmethod13–23,219grammaticalpatternsinAudio-Lingualmethod35–50grammaticalrules:deductiveapproaches15–16,18,19,21inductiveapproaches29,30,40,43

graphicorganizers136–7,139,142–3groupwork:cooperativelearning186–90

smallgrouptasks99–100,120,123

habitformation,languagelearningas42,44,51habitsofmind(fiveminds)194Halliday,M.A.K.115Hanks,J.228,229,230Hatch,E.191Hawkins,M.x,178Heift,T.200nhiddencurriculum169Hinkel,E.xiiHolliday,A.228Howatt,A.P.R.131HumanComputerTM89–90,93,99Hymes,D.115

i+1levelofproficiency103identity:andthepoliticsoflanguage165,167–8,221studentschoosingnew72,76,80,81idioms16,21immersionprograms133imperatives,inTotalPhysicalResponsemethod105–7,108,110,111–12indirectpositivesuggestions76,80,81

infantilization78informationgaps122–3,127,128,158initiative,student:Desuggestopedia79‘Heather’example2–3lackofinGrammar-Translationapproaches19

innercriteria,developing59,62,65input:comprehensibleinputandtheNaturalApproach103

inputcontrol225inputenhancement150inputflooding150input-providingtasks160quantityofexposureto104

intelligences,multiple191–4interaction,student–student:Audio-Lingualmethod45CollaborativeLearning186–90,220CommunicativeLanguageTeaching123CooperativeLearning186–90,220DirectMethod31lackofinGrammar-Translationapproaches19smallgrouptasks99–100,120,123studentshelpingeachother59,60,63,93Task-basedLanguageTeaching155,156viaonlinemeans209

internet199,seealsoelectronicchatting;socialnetworkingsites

Jacobs,G.186Jenkins,J.167Johnson,K.x,122

Kachru,B.166

Katz,A.xiiKern,R.200,201Klapper,J.115Kleifgen,J.221Kramsch,C.201,221n,225Krashen,S.103Kumaravadivelu,B.xiii,131Kuo,I-C.167

‘languageacrossthecurriculum’132languagecounselors,teachersas85,94LanguageExperienceApproach142,143LanguageTeachingResearchxLarsen-Freeman,D.xiii,xiv,xv,2,3,6,7,191,201,209,220,221,225,227,229,230,231–2,233

Lave,J.xiiLazear,D.191nLearnables,The104learnerroles,summary225learningcounselors,teachersas92learning,definitionof232learningstrategytraining181–6,220learningstyles,individual191–4learningtoteach231–2Levin,J.191Lewis,M.104LexicalApproach104Li,D.220linguafranca,Englishas166–7linguistics,Audio-Lingualmethodbasedon35‘listen-and-do’tasks155,160listening:ComprehensionApproach103

DirectMethod33Grammar-Translationmethod18

literacies(conceptof)168literature,foreign:importanceof13,17,19usingpassagesforteaching13–14,20–1

Littlewood,W.122Long,M.xii,xiii,150,151,153,157,191Lortie,D.ix,xiLoschky,L.150,159Lozanov.G.71Luke,A.168

managersoflearning,teachersas230–1maps,lessonusing25–8Marsh,D.133McCarthy,M.213McNamara,T.227meaning,focuson157,175meaning,negotiationof121,127,207meaningful:language61,138,140,175,176,177,201,229tasks149,156,159

memorization:Audio-Lingualmethod35,46Grammar-Translationmethod18,19,22

mentalexercise,languagelearningas13,18,19metacognitivelearningstrategies186‘method’,definitionoftermxvi,1methodologicalchange219–21methodologicalinnovation181methodsfatigue4methods,studyofxi–xii

‘MichiganMethod’,seeAudio-LingualmethodMiller.A.71nminimalpairexercises41,48mobilephone-basedapplications213modelling:Audio-Lingualmethod37,44notusedinSilentWay59Task-basedLanguageTeaching155think-aloudtechnique182TotalPhysicalResponsemethod109,110

Mohan,B.133Morrow,K.122,127motivation,student:Content-basedInstruction138,140ParticipatoryApproach174andpurposefulcommunication123–4studentautonomy59,62,185,200,209Task-basedLanguageTeaching156–7andworkingwithtechnology206

Mullock,B.ixmulticompetence169multilingualism5multipleintelligences191–4multiple-slotsubstitutiondrills38–9,47Murphy,D.150Murray,D.xmusic,useof73,74,75,76,77,82

nativelanguageuseintheclassroom:summary5,225Audio-Lingualmethod35,42,46CommunicativeLanguageTeaching125CommunityLanguageLearning86,88,97

inconjunctionwithtechnology207,210Content-basedInstruction140Desuggestopedia72,80DirectMethod5,25,29Grammar-Translationmethod5,14,20SilentWay57,59,64TotalPhysicalResponsemethod105,110

nativespeakersasteachers169NaturalApproach103,220‘naturalorder’oflanguageacquisition45,seealsochildlanguageacquisitionnegotiationofmeaning121,127,207newspaperarticles,seerealia,picturesandobjects,useofnon-nativespeakersasteachers169nonverbalbehavior,startingwith107,109,seealsogestures/actions/demonstrations(teachers’)

Norton,B.178,221novelty77,93,106,108Nunan,D.x,132,230

O’Malley,M.182n,186opinion-gaptasks158–9orchestraleader,teacheras43,44Ortega,L.221output-promotingtasks160‘overlearning’43,44

Palmer,P.228Paradowski,M.5paragraphwritingexercises33ParticipatoryApproach170–80,221patternpractice43,seealsodrillspeercorrection(studentshelpingeachother)59,60,63,66Pennycook,A.xii,xiv

peripherallearning75,79,81Phillipson,R.170pictures,seealsorealia,picturesandobjects,useofAudio-Lingualmethod43CommunicativeLanguageTeaching117differentinferencesfromusing3–4DirectMethod25–8TheLearnables104

ParticipatoryApproach172picturestripstories118,127Pitzl,M-L.166pluralism(ofmethodchoice)229plurilingualism5,169,221podcasts213politicsoflanguage165–70,178,221‘positiveinterdependence’189positivereinforcement/praise:Audio-Lingualmethod43cooperativelearning187notusedinSilentWay60,64

postersandwallcharts:Desuggestopedia72sound–colorcharts52–8,62,65

PowerPointpresentations212Prabhu,N.S.ix,xi,xii,4,151,157,158,159,227,228,229,230predictions,exercisesinvolving116–19,184principledeclecticism229priorknowledge,usingasstartingpoint:CommunityLanguageLearning92Content-basedInstruction138inlearningstrategytraining185SilentWay58,59,61

problemposing171,174,175–6,177

processwriting143projectwork157–8pronunciation:DirectMethod27,29Grammar-Translationmethod18,20minimalpairexercises41,48SilentWay52–8,60,62sound–colorchart52–8,62,65

propsandobjects,useof74,77,seealsorealia,picturesandobjects,useofproverbs,usedtoteachculturalissues28,30psychology:Audio-Lingualmethodbasedon35

psychologicalbarrierstolearning71,76,78purposefulcommunication,seeCommunicativeLanguageTeaching(CLT)

question-and-answerexercises,seealsodrillsAudio-Lingualmethod39,48Desuggestopedia78DirectMethod26–7Grammar-Translationmethod14

Rajagopalan,K.xii,4Rardin,J.95readingaloud25–6,32readingcomprehensionquestions21realia,picturesandobjects,useof,seealsopicturesAudio-Lingualmethod42CommunicativeLanguageTeaching126Content-basedInstruction139Desuggestopedia74,77DirectMethod25–8

reasoning-gaptasks159recasts97,151,155

receptivephase79Reeder,K.216reflection:reflectivelistening99student92,95,99teacherxirelativism228

repetition:inputflooding150lackofinSilentWay61,62,77necessityofinAudio-Lingualmethod42

repetitiondrilltechnique37,47Richards,J.x,224,233Riggenbach,H.150rightbrainhemisphere,addressing107Rinpoche,S.7rods,astoolinSilentWay54–7,66role-playing:CommunicativeLanguageTeaching118–19,121,127–8Desuggestopedia82

Rubin,J.181ruleformation,languagelearningas51

Samuda,V.150,151Savignon,S.xi,115scaffolding138,139Schleppegrell,M.139Schulze,M.200n‘secondlanguage’,non-useofterm13Seidlhofer,B.166self-correction27,29,32,65,66,99,177self-evaluation97,175,177self-expression,languagefor61–2

self-reliance62Sheen,R.150ShelteredInstructionObservationProtocol(SIOP)141sheltered-languageinstruction141Sherris,A.134Short,D.141Shulman,L.xisilence,asatool59,60,63,66SilentWay6,51–69,220Sinclair,J.213single-slotsubstitutiondrills37,47Skehan,P.132,157skimreading183–4Skinner,B.35Skype212sleep,learningduring63,77,79Snow,M.A.131,132social/affectivelearningstrategies186socialcontextoflanguage:Audio-Lingualmethod42CommunicativeLanguageTeaching115–30CommunityLanguageLearning85–102viatechnology200Vygotskianprinciples142

socialnetworkingsites201–2,203,213–14socialskills,teaching186–90songs,useof74,78sound-colorcharts52–8,62,65speaking:comingafterlistening103inGrammar-Translationmethod18primacyofspeechinAudio-LingualMethod44primacyofspeechinDirectMethod28,29,31

speakingwhenready110,112specificpurposes,languagefor132,seealsoContent-basedInstructionstandards,callsformore224,228Stevick,E.2,3,226Stoller,F.185student–studentinteraction:Audio-Lingualmethod45CollaborativeLearning186–90,220CommunicativeLanguageTeaching123CooperativeLearning186–90,220DirectMethod31lackofinGrammar-Translationapproaches19

smallgrouptasks99–100,120,123studentshelpingeachother59,60,63,93Task-basedLanguageTeaching155,156viaonlinemeans209

subconsciousplane,accessing77substitutiondrills37–9,43,45,47suggestioninteaching,seeDesuggestopediasuprasentential(discourse)levelwork116–17,120,124,126,136Swain,M.124Swan,M.150syllabi,analytic149,160,177,224‘syllabus’createdbystudents93‘syllabustypes’,approachesseenas131,150syntheticsyllabi149

‘targetlanguage’,definitionoftermxvi,13targetlanguageusedasvehicleforclassroomcommunication120,seealsonativelanguageuseintheclassroomTask-basedLanguageTeaching149–63‘task’,definitionof131teacherlearningx–xi

teacherpreparation140–1,224teacher,roleof:summary225co-communicator122,123engineer62facilitator121,122,123languagecounselor85,94learningcounselor92manageroflearning230–1orchestraleader43,44partnerwithstudent30

technician62‘traditional’teacherrole19teachers,native/non-nativespeakersasteachers169teaching,subordinatetolearning52teamteaching141technology,useof199–218,220Terrell,T.103textmessaging213think-aloudtechnique182Thorne,S.200,201thought-in-actionlinks1–2top-downapproaches,defined141–2topics,focusoninsteadoflinguisticstructures30TotalPhysicalResponsemethod103–14,220transformationdrills39,48,123translation:CommunityLanguageLearning5,86,88,92,94,97Desuggestopedia73,74,76asgoal,seeGrammar-TranslationmethodnotallowedinDirectMethod25notusedinSilentWay60

trust,studentsandteachers’78,96Tudor,I.xTwitter213

unfocusedtasks159Ur,P.167

vanLier,L.216,231varietiesofEnglish166virtualcommunities200vocabulary:cognates15,21DirectMethod31asemphasisforDesuggestopedia80Grammar-Translationmethod14–15,21idioms16,21

Vygotsky,L.142,200

Wajnryb,R.142Walker,R.167wallchartsandposters:Desuggestopedia72sound–colorcharts52–8,62,65

Wallerstein,N.171Wenden,A.182Wenger,E.xiiWesche,M.132,141WholeLanguageapproach(WL)141–2whole-personlearning85,91,94Widdowson,H.G.xiii,xiv,115,126n,166,225wikis202,203,206,214–15Wilkins,D.115,149Willis,J.151Winitz,H.104Wisniewska,I.150Woods,D.xi

wordcharts66wordsinsentencesexercises22,seealsofill-in-the-blanksexercisesworkplaceliteracyprograms132WorldEnglishes166worldwideweb199

YouTube202,205–6

zoneofproximaldevelopment(ZPD)142