Technical Education

5/25/2018 Technical Education

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SECOND CHAPTER

The Technical and Vocational Education and Training Sector inSri LankaThe present education system in Sri Lanka comprises of primary, secondary,

senior secondary and higher education. Primary education consists of five

years, secondary education of four years and senior secondary education

consists of two years of education. Generally junior and senior secondary

school leavers go for Technical and Vocational schools if they do not continue

on to higher education. Higher education in Sri Lanka begins after passing

GCE (A.L) Examination, on completing the higher secondary education or

the 13thgrade. A university degree can be obtained within three- to five years

depending on the course followed. However, in Sri Lanka the term technical

education refers to post-secondary courses of study and practical training

aimed at the preparation of technicians to work as supervisory staff. The

term vocational training refers to lower level education and training for the

population of skilled or semi-skilled workers in various fields.

The aim of this chapter is to examine the importance of improving Technical

Education and Vocational Training (TEVT) sector and to describe briefly

about the present TVET policies and the structure in Sri Lanka. The first

section of the chapter examines the importance of improving the (TVET)

sector in Sri Lanka. The second section briefly explains the overview of the

TVET policies, structure of the TVET, courses offered, National Vocational

Qualification Framework and the budgetary provisions.

2.1 Human Capital Development: The Importance of Improving theTVET Sector in Sri LankaThe quality and importance of Technical and Vocational Education and

Training (TVET) have been the focus of policy dialogues in Sri Lanka for

several decades. There are several major reasons for giving priority to

human capital development by improving the TVET sector in Sri Lanka.

These are low educational attainments of certain segments of the population;

the drop-out rate of students from certain disadvantaged communities at the

junior high school level; lack of opportunities to enter higher educational


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institutions even after qualifying at the GCE Advanced Level (A/L)

examination; lack of other alternative path ways for students who could not

enter universities to continue higher studies; higher rates of unemploymentamong the youth mainly due to low skill levels; mismatch between the

supply and the demand of the labor market and inability of Sri Lanka to use

the national and international labor demand fully to meet the new

development of an expanding private sector and public sector; high

competition in the international market and relatively high inflation and low

productivity of Sri Lanka and the shrinking labor force due to a shrinking

demographic transition.

2.1.1 Low Educational Attainments of the PopulationSri Lanka is recognized as a country with high literacy - 92% in 2012.

However these statistics mask major short comings of the education system.

Among educational attainments of the total population, the highest

percentages were those who passed grade 9-10(21.6%) and grade 6-8 (18.6%).

Those who passed GCE O/L comprise18.8% while those with GCE A/L was

9.4%. Only 1.8% of the total student population above age 5 record

attainment of a degree. (statistics.gov.lk/education/schools_university.pdf.).

Table: 2:1Educational Attainment of the Population 2000 & 2012

Educationalattainment

2000 - 2012 -Total Male Female Total Male Female

No Schooling 8.7 5.0 12.2 7.1Primary 26.3 26.9 25.8 23.9Secondary 37.2 39.3 35.3 39.6GCE O/L 17.5 18.2 16.9 18.8GCE A/L 7.9 7.9 7.9 9.4Degree/higher 2.3 2.7 2.0 1.2Source: www.statistics.gov.lk (retrieved on 2013.10.13).Table 2: 1 shows that more than half of the population has not completed


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Grade 10 and that they join/ed the labor market without proper employment

skills. This is a serious challenge to national development in Sri Lanka

which prioritizes the need to develop vocational and technical skills.

2.1.2 Increasing the Drop-out Rates at Junior High School LevelsIn Sri Lanka, children in the 5-14 year age group comprise the student

population, for education is compulsory. Nearly 88.7% of this age group

attends school, with almost no gender discrepancies. .However, the average

attendance of 15-19 years age group was 52.6% and it shows that a large

number of students, (around 47%) dropped out from school before or after the

GCE O/L examinations. Though these school leavers expect to join the labor

market they do not have any formal vocational training or employment skills

which suit the needs of the ever widening economy.

Table: 2:2School attendance by age and sex 2011

Age in Years Total Male Female6-9 94.4 94.3 94.4

10-14 92.2 91.7 92.8

15-19 52.6 50.6 54.6

Source: Dept. of Census and Statistics, 2012.2.1.3 Lack of Opportunities to Enter the Higher Educational InstitutionsSri Lanka has 15 public universities and only around 9% of students who sit

for the GCE A/L examination can obtain admission to universities as at

present. This examination is highly competitive, and only about around 58%

of the candidates qualifies for university admissions. For example in 2011,

239,775 students sat for the GCE A/L examination. Out of these, 141,411

(58.9%) qualified for university entrance. However, in 2011 only 22,016

students were admitted to the state universities and that represented only

15.6% of the total qualified (at least minimum S pass for all 3 subjects)

students and 9.2% of the total who sat for the GCE A/L examination. It

shows that the balance 90.8% of the students (except the small number who

enters private or public technical and vocational institutes or local branches


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of foreign based private universities or foreign universities) do not have a

clear path to continue their formal education due to limited opportunities in

the public universities and limited access to private sector universities, dueto considerations of both affordability and quality education. Students who

drop out of schools after GCE O/L and A/L examinations, even though

recognized as academically educated; they would still not be attractive to the

labor market due to their lack of specific job skills.

Table 2:3Performance of Candidates GCE O/L and A/L and University

Admissions 2010 - 20122010 2011 2012

All sat for GCEO/L

433,673 443,298 451,039

Qualified forGCE A/L

57.62 56.54 60.87

All sat for GCEA/L

233,354 239,775 233,634

All qualified foruniversityentrance

142,415 141,411 144,745

Qualified foruniversityentrance

61.3 58.99 61.95

Total admissionto university&of eligible

21,547 (17 ) 22,016(15 ) not given yet

Source: statistics.gov.lk/education/school_university.pdf (retrieved on2013.11.17)

2.1.4 Youth UnemploymentIn Sri Lanka, since independence in 1948, the emphasis has been on general

education followed by vocational education at the end. This has resulted in

large numbers of people educated up to GCE O/L and A/L remaining


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unemployed, mainly due to the lack of technical skills and training necessary

for employment in the real world of work. The unemployment rate in Sri

Lanka decreased to 3.9% in the fourth quarter of 2012 from 4.1% in the thirdquarter of the same year. According to the Migration Profile2013,[ in Sri

Lanka the highest total unemployment rate is found among those with a

higher secondary education.

In Sri Lanka the highest unemployment rate is of those with a higher

secondary education- 5.5% for men and 11.7% for women in 2012

(statistics.gov.lk). The total unemployment rate in the first quarter of 2013

was 4.6% (for male 3.3% and female 7.0%) and for the second quarter 4.4%

(3.1% for male and 6.9% for female). Youth unemployment rate of 15-24

years for the second quarter of 2013 was 20.1% and it was the highest

unemployment rate among this age group. The rates for males and females

were 15.0% and 27.8% respectively. Unemployed youth between 15-24 years,

represent 59.7% of the total unemployed in the country and it is much higher

than the overall unemployment rate. Total unemployment rates of specific

age categories are as follows: for between 15-19 years -12.9%; 20-24 years -

42.0%; 25-29- years -17.7%; 40 + years -13.4% in the first quarter of 2013

(Dept. of Census and Statistics, first quarter of 2013- statstics.gov.lk.).

Table 2:4Youth Unemployment in Sri Lanka by Age categories

& Educational LevelBy Gender 2010 2011 2012 2013*Total 4.9 4.2 4.0 4.6Male 3.5 2.7 2.8 3.3Female 7.7 7.0 6.2 7.0By age20-29 13.8 12.3 11.3 13.620-24 19.1 17.7 16.8 20.725-29 9.2 7.6 6.6 7.5Educationallevel GCEA/L & over


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Total 11.6 9.0 7.5 9.2Male 7.8 5.4 4.5 6.1Female 15.8 13.1 10.8 12.5Source: Dept. of Census & Statistics and Ministry of Finance and Planning,

First quarter of 2013

*2013 first quarter only

Table: 2: 5Unemployed Persons by Level of Education and Gender -2012

Gender Below GCCO/L

GCE O/L GCE A/L &above

TotalMale 49.9 29.8 20.3 100.0

Female 31.2 25.2 43.6 100.0

Total 40.3 27.4 32.33 100.0

Source:Quarterly Labor Force Survey, Dept. of Census and Statistics, 2012.Table: 2: 6

Unemployed Persons by Level of Education and Age -2012Level ofEducation

Less than 29years

30-39 years 40+years TotalBelow GCEO/L

65.0 18.9 16.2 100

GCE O/L 72.6 15.9 11.5 100.0GCE A/L &above

84.1 12.2 100.0

Total 73.0 15.8 11.2 100.0Source:Quarterly Labor Force Survey, Dept. of Census and Statistics, 2012.

Table 2: 7Unemployed Persons by Age Groups (2010-13)

Year Total 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-39 40 +2010 100.0 14.8 38.7 21.2 14.7 10.6


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2011 100.0 12.8 42.5 20.6 15.6 8.52012 100.0 14.2 40.6 18.8 15.6 10.72013* 100.0 12.9 42.0 17.7 13.9 13.4Source: Dept. of Census a& Statistics and Ministry of Finance and Planning,

First quarter 2013

*2013 first quarter only

2.1.5 High Unemployment among Educated YouthHigh unemployment rates among educated young people and their low skill

levels also has become an issue of critical policy concern for the governmentof Sri Lanka. Generally the unemployment rate is higher among the

educated groups. For example, in 2013, 39.6% (male - 29.6% and female -

48.0%) of persons who passed GCE A/L examination and above were

unemployed. The total unemployment rate in the first quarter of 2013

according to the education level is as follows: Grade 5 and below - 3.8%;

Grade 6-10 -40.9%; GCE O/L - 25.7% and GCE A/L - 29.6%. This

phenomenon of high unemployment among youth along with low overall

unemployment signals the existence of a mismatch between the demand and

supply within a particular section of the labor force.

Table 2: 8Unemployment Rates according to the Educational Level 2013 First

and Second quarters

Source:Dept. of Census and Statistics, 2013 First and Second QuartersAccording to observations made in the Labor Force Survey -2013, the

Level ofEducation

Total2013

Malefirst

FemaleQuarter

Total2013

Malesecond

FemaleQuarter

Total 4.6 3.3 7.0 4.4 3.1 6.9BelowGCE O/L

2.9 2.2 4.4 2.6 2.2 3.7

GCE O/L 6.0 5.4 7.0 5.4 3.9 8.3GCE A/L& above

9.2 6.1 12.5 10.2 6.8 14.0


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statistics on youth unemployment emphasize that Sri Lanka should not only

focus on GCE O/L and A/L passed categories but also on the school leavers

before they enter Grade 10 on specialized education and skills development,including technical and vocational training to improve employability (Dept.

of Census and Statistics, first quarter of 2013- statstics.gov.lk.).Youth

unemployment has remained a critical social and political issue for policy

makers (Wickramsekera, 2010). Youth uprisings in the early 1970s and mid

1980s in Sri Lanka were attributed to some degree to the unemployment

situation (Gajaweera, 2010). Several studies have found that youth unrest

both in the north and south indicated largely the frustration and

disappointment of unemployed young people (Hettige, 1996; Lakshman,

2004 & Yen-Nap, 2006).It is increasingly clear that conflict renders young

particularly vulnerable: they are often alienated from socio-economic

structures and support such as adequate education, training and job

opportunities, they are overlooked in national planning and policies, they

face discrimination on both sides of the war, and they experience immense

psychological trauma and social-marginalization. The most urgent issue

facing young people in Sri Lanka is the lack of desirable jobs. According to

Hettige et. al. (1996) this has been the case for several decades; however, it is

still a situation that development interventions and state policies have been

unable to resolve (Hettige and Shanmugam, 2010). An employment oriented

program to enhance the skills and training of educated youth, preferred

mainly by the private sector, leading to a strong developed TVET sector can

immensely and definitely contribute to find an answer not only to the gap

between employable skills and the labor market but also to the ever

emerging situation of youth unrest in Sri Lanka.

2.1.6 Mismatch between the Supply and the Demand of the NationalLabor MarketIn Sri Lanka school leavers, not only the grade 9 and GCE - O/L and A/L

passed students but also some university graduates, mainly the Social

sciences and humanitiesare entering the labor market ill-prepared for the

world of work (Tan and Chandrasiri, 2004). A large number of students

coming out of the formal schools are unemployed even though opportunities

for skilled workers do exist in the economy. There is a disconnect between

education and employability, and it is largely blamed on the lack of skills of


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school leavers in finding jobs or becoming self-employed (UK Trade and

Investment, 2011). Even though consecutive governments have attempted to

attract students to the TVET sector, by introducing new courses and careerguidance programs etc. theydo not seem to have found solutions to address

the existing mismatch between employment expectations and skill

development of young people,on the one hand,and employability in the real

world of the current labor market. As a result, the local labor market has

also suffered a set-back and has not grown to realize its vast potential

(Koralage, 2012).According to the labor market information in 2012,

(://www.tvec.gov.lk/lmi/labor_market_eployment.htm).

The ten jobs with the highest demand in the Sri Lankan labor market are:

for graphic designers, sales executives, marketing officers, computer

operators, technical officers, supervisor-generals, office assistants, assistant

managers, customer service executives and electricians. A Sri Lankan

private company, Top Jobs Labor Market Informationhas gathered relevant

information from the TVEC and identified that:

1. Sales marketing;

2. IT, Web designing, graphic design and GIS

3. Accounting

4. Automobile & Electrical engineering

5. Administrative support, receptionist, secretary

6. Hotel industry, cooks and chefs

7. Positions in the apparel and clothing industry

8. Human resource, training

9. Customer relations

10. Civil construction

are the employment categories with the highest demand.(http://www.TopJobs).However, the highest number of certificates issued by

the public and private TVET institutes are for those trained as computer

applicant, electrician, beautician, automobile mechanic, welder, hair dresser,

construction craftsman (masonry) wood craftsman furniture, motor cycle

mechanic, refrigeration and air conditioning mechanic. This means that

except the demand for computer applicants and electricians the demand for

the other categories is not met by the output of the TVET sector in Sri Lanka.

Due to this gap between the demand-supply, Sri Lanka has been unable to
http://www.topjobs/http://www.topjobs/http://www.topjobs/http://www.topjobs/


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fill most of the vacancies in the local labor market.

A study done by Amarasuriya (2010) illustrates that although the privatesector in Sri Lanka has been expanding since late 1970s, even the educated

youth graduating mainly from public schools and universities have not been

employed in significant numbers. This is mainly due to the fact that they are

thought to be incompetent and unsuitable to fit the vacancies as they do not

have the preferred personality: a more cosmopolitan and urban lifestyle

and/or, self-confidence and competence in English language skills

(Jayaweera and Shanmugam, 2002). Wickramasekera (2010) too emphasizes

this stating that the Sri Lankan private sector has been reluctant to employ

the Arts and Social Science graduates who were thought to be lacking

practical and employable skills although the prejudice may have largely

emanated from their lack of fluency in the English .Language .Proficiency in

the English language is recognized not only as a language skill but is also

associated with social skills encouraged in the private sector. However, the

majority of state school and university graduates do not reach out to acquire

this competence. Further even though the public sector has been the

traditional source of employment for these graduates since independence,

various socio-economic and political, factors seem to have prevented the full

acquirement of both professional skills and social attributes sought by the

labor market. Politicization and corruption in the public sector too have

further narrowed down the dynamics and opportunities for jobs within this

sector (Amarasuriya, 2010).

2.1.7 Labor Market Mismatch in Foreign EmploymentAccording to the Economic and Social Statistic Report of Sri Lanka (2013)

migrant employment by skills is as follows: professional- 1.5%; middle level-3.3%; Clerical and related -5.7%; skilled labor -24.9%; unskilled labor- 22.3%

and housemaid 42.3% (2012). This shows that nearly 65% of migrant

employees are unskilled. Their earnings are comparatively small and many

of them, mainly the majority of the housemaids face immense problems in

the receiving countries. In 2010, 78.7% of the foreign job offers which

amounted to 592,891 jobs in all manpower levels were unutilized. The

highest percentage of unutilized job opportunities was recorded at the skilled

level where 72% of the jobs were unutilized. Similarly, 17% middle level, 52%


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of clerical and related level and 47% of semi-skilled level jobs were unutilized

(Ministry of Foreign Employment Promotion and Welfare, 2013).

Foreign employment during the year 2011 decreased by 1.7% (262,960 in

2011 and 267,507 in 2010).The rate of male participation increased in 2011

and it was 51.67% for males and for females - 48.33%. About 85% female

migrant workers were unskilled housemaids. As the Table 2: 9 shows, in

2011 also 76.7% of total foreign job demands were not utilized by Sri Lanka.

For example, in 2011 there were 1019 vacancies for nurses but Sri Lanka

could supply only 84 nurses. Similarly there were vacancies for cooks in 2010

- 50,606 and 2011 - 20,413 but Sri Lanka sent only 753 and 478 cooks

respectively to foreign countries. There were 9,188-2010 and 7,477 -2011

vacancies for semi-skilled jobs such as baker, electrician, barman, plumber,

welder, room boy, yard man and attendant etc. but Sri Lanka was able to

supply only 1,709 and 1,046 positions in 2010 and 2011 respectively.

Moreover, this study shows that departures for skilled categories will be

increased by 28% in 2015 (Sri Lanka Foreign Employment Bureau, 2011).

According to the 2013 Budget in Sri Lanka the government plans to reduce

the number of house maids seeking employment in the Middle Eastern

countries and instead increase the number of skilled workers in other

categories with higher earning capacities seeking foreign employment

(www.lanka.university-new.com/.../srilankan-budget-2...).

Table 2: 9Received Job Vacancies and Foreign Employment Departures

Job Category Job orders Departures Not utilized -Professional level2010 5,383 438 84.6

2011 5,988 885 85.2

Middle level2010 8,183 832 89.8

2011 11,266 2,485 77.9

Clerical &related2010 15,949 2,239 85.9

2011 17,162 3,798 77.9
http://www.lanka.university-new.com/.../srilankan-budget-2http://www.lanka.university-new.com/.../srilankan-budget-2http://www.lanka.university-new.com/.../srilankan-budget-2http://www.lanka.university-new.com/.../srilankan-budget-2


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Skilled level2010 254,583 41,074 83.9

2011 203,001 31,679 84.4Semi-skilledlevel2010 9,188 1,709 81.4

2011 7,477 1,046 86.0

Unskilled level2010 118,256 27,289 76.9

2011 125,418 24,997 80.1

Housemaid2010 341,847 86,917 74.6

2011 259,939 81,566 68.6

Al Foreign jobsdemand2010 753,389 160,498 78.7

2011 630,251 146,456 76.7

Source: Sri Lanka Bureau of Foreign Employment, 2011.In Sri Lanka there is a significant mismatch between its resource base of

labor supply and the international demand for labor and employment

especially with regard to the type of skills (IOM, 2008). One reason for this is

the skill mismatch hypothesis which argues the existence of a divergence

between the type of skills produced by the Sri Lankan education system and

labor market needs. The ILO Seers Report of 1971 described this as an issue

of matching employment expectations with aspirations (ILO, 1971). The

current demand from the foreign labor market is mainly for skilled labor,

while the Sri Lankan labor migration has concentrated mainly on

housemaids and other low skilled categories.

So far Sri Lanka has not been able to take advantage of the high demand in

the foreign labor market mainly due to a lack of skilled labor to meet that

demand.

In Sri Lanka the supply of technicians and mid-level professionals is

falling short of demand, while Sri Lanka has been unable to fill a


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significant portion of job orders abroad for mid-level and skilled worker

categories. Despite the large supply-demand gap, unemployment

especially among educated youth is high. The large number of schoolleavers lacks the skills for jobs or self- employment. These youth could

be employed in industry if they are trained in relevant technical and

vocational skill s (Fernando, 2011: 3).

To be competitive in the foreign labor market it is important that Sri Lanka

focuses on the development of technical and vocational skills of mainly youth

to meet both national and international demand. Such a strategy would

undoubtedly alleviate the shortage of skilled labor both for the internal and

external labor markets of Sri Lanka (IOM, 2008).

According to Kottegoda (2004) while migration is characteristic of the Sri

Lankan labor market, at the individual level it is mostly a temporary

phenomenon. However, Abeyasekara (2010) argues that this temporary

migration can be promoted as a viable employment option for youth. Dias &

Jayasundera (2004) recommend that foreign employment can be a valuable

opportunity for young people to gain and strengthen professional and /or

vocational experience. Even though Sri Lanka does have some training

programs to train workers for foreign labor markets, these courses are not

sufficiently matched with the skills demanded by the foreign labor market.

For instance, in 2010, a significant number of vacancies were for

carpenter-joiner, but most of the training courses offered by the TVET

institutes in Sri Lanka were in the field of carpenter-furniture. The short

term training given to women aspiring to migrate to foreign countries as

housemaids is not sufficient to produce an efficient workforce. For example, a

study of the Chamber of Commerce of Sri Lanka reveals that care for theelderly has great potential as a new service area for migrant workers. With

an increasing aging population in the developed countries, mainly in Europe

and Japan, the study suggested that Sri Lanka should provide training in

relevant skills (Abeyasekera, 2010).

By giving the TVET skills to the potential work force, mainly youth aspiring

for foreign employment, they can be equipped with marketable skills to

secure higher wages. On the domestic front, Sri Lankas economy would also


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benefit from a higher skilled workforce to address the countrys labor gaps,

especially in areas such as computer application, design, agriculture, food

processing and electronic sector etc.(National Education Commission, 2009quoted in Koralage and Hewapathirana, 2012).Therefore to minimize the

demand and supply gap of both local and foreign labor market and to fully

utilize the foreign job opportunities the TVET sector can play a vital role by

introducing new technical and vocational courses or reforming existing

courses to meet the current needs and demands.

2.1.8 Meeting the Needs of the Competitive EconomyDue to the economic changes identified mainly after the 1970s, issues such

as addressing the growing mismatch between labor market supply and

demand from industry in the face of opening up the economy; limited or

restricted educational and career development avenues for youth; and the

need for increased productivity and competitiveness and a flexible and

globally employable workforce etc. have become the main issues of the

human resource development agenda in Sri Lanka.

The widening of the economy and the diversification of sectors into many

avenues of manufacturing industries, agriculture-food processing, garment

production, service sectors including finance, information and

communication technology, trading etc. have led to concerns about the

quality of the human resources produced and their relevance to economic

needs (Gajaweera, 2010). Globalization has brought new challenges to

developing countries. To face these challenges it is necessary to be

competitive in the world market, which to a large extent is driven by

scientific and technological innovations. Similarly, new production methods

of goods and services, technology revolution, increasing regional andinternational competition for exports and foreign investment, and new forms

of business organization and production etc. have created a demand for new,

diversified industry relevant skills and knowledge (Kazmi, n.d.). Therefore,

it is necessary to improve the quality and relevance of tertiary education and

vocational training and prepare this youth category with the advanced skills

set that a competitive economy demands. (www.undp.org/contents/srilanka/

en/home/Countryinfor/...).
http://www.undp.org/contents/srilanka/%20en/home/Countryinfor/http://www.undp.org/contents/srilanka/%20en/home/Countryinfor/http://www.undp.org/contents/srilanka/%20en/home/Countryinfor/http://www.undp.org/contents/srilanka/%20en/home/Countryinfor/http://www.undp.org/contents/srilanka/%20en/home/Countryinfor/http://www.undp.org/contents/srilanka/%20en/home/Countryinfor/


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Sri Lanka has had an economic growth of the GDP 7.8% in the third quarter

of 2013 (statistics.gov.lk). The private sector shows a gradual growth.

Post-war reconstruction, public sector investment, service sector and creditexpansion can also be recognized as growing sectors. To match these

economic and social needs it is necessary for Sri Lanka to develop the

entrepreneur ability of the people, mainly the youth. A study done by

Weeratunge (2010) on Developing Youth Entrepreneurs a Viable Youth

Employment Strategy in Sri Lanka, recommends to promote

entrepreneurship abilities among youth, mainly school leavers, graduates of

TVET and universities to help them select appropriate entrepreneurship and

to enhance the enterprise culture. Though many private educational

institutions offer various entrepreneurship training programs, the numbers

of successful trainees is not known. Similarly, no systematic and rigorous

assessment on quantity and quality of such courses has been done. TVET

institutions should take a clue from the high demand for jobs related to

banking, commerce, accounting and related fields particularly in the private

sect and plan for new training courses to meet the demand in these and

related areas.

2.1.9 Challenges in Achieving Sustainable DevelopmentIn development efforts to foster sustainable growth Sri Lanka faces two

challenges, particularly related to the labor market. The first is high and

increasing competition in the international market and high inflation and

relatively lower productivity compared to almost all nations. One effective

solution to this problem is to raise productivity of the labor force. The second

is the shrinking relative size of theeconomically active population, the labor

force with demographic transition. By 2031 the population aged between

15-49 years will be 47.2% while the over 60 population will be 23.1%. Thisindicates an increasing dependent elderly population that would need to be

taken care of by the shrinking labor force, whilst contributing to foster

economic growth and sustain it. The only option available to address this

issue is to raise productivity (Karunathileka, n.d). TEVT is the systematic

and orderly transmission of knowledge, skills and values to develop a

workforce that is able to enhance productivity and sustain competitiveness

in the global economy. It is not merely an option but a necessity. Education

alone is democracy but with technology, it becomes power. TVET is both


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democracy and power. It is democracy because it liberates the learner from

the bondage of ignorance and illiteracy. It is considered power because it

brings technological superiority thereby breeding competitiveness andproductivity to a country (Park, 2005).

Skills and knowledge are key ingredients necessary for economic growth and

social development of any country. Countries with higher and better levels of

knowledge and skills respond more effectively and promptly to challenges

and opportunities of globalization. Sri Lanka is in transition to a knowledge

based economy and its competitive edge will be determined by the abilities of

its people to create, share and use knowledge more effectively. This

transition will require Sri Lanka to develop well informed and highly skilled

and multi-skilled, flexible, analytical and adaptable workers. Moreover, such

development will contribute to find solutions to the long-term youth unrest

and social and political conflicts of the country and will pave the way to

successful reconciliation and sustainable peace to a certain extent. To fulfill

this requirement Sri Lanka definitely has to pay more attention to

developing systematically, a flexible technical and vocational education and

training sector. As Quisumbing (2005) emphasized, if education is the key to

development, vocational and technical education is the master key that

opens the door to the world of work and the economy, alleviate poverty, save

the environment and improve the quality of life.

Skills development of youth have been done by some developed and newly

developed countries by improving the TEVT sector but Sri Lanka lacks

significant resources and the expertise needed to develop and expand the

required TVET system. The existing institutions are unable to offer either

the required quality or quantity of programs that are geared to the needs ofthe local and foreign labor market while fostering peace-building and social

integration and development (www.giz.de/the.men/en/36722.htm).

Although some efforts have been taken to improve the TVET sector in Sri

Lanka mainly since the 1990s, with the support of various international

organizations such as the World Bank, British Council, Japan International

Cooperation Agency (JICA), International Labor Organization (ILO),

German Technical Co-operation (GTZ), German Development Bank (GDB),
http://www.giz.de/the.men/en/36722.htmhttp://www.giz.de/the.men/en/36722.htmhttp://www.giz.de/the.men/en/36722.htmhttp://www.giz.de/the.men/en/36722.htm


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International Organization for Migration (IOM), Canadian International

Development Agency (CIDA), Norway, India, European Union (EU), UNICEF,

UNDP, UNHCR, USAID, AusAID, Asian Development Bank (ADB) andKorean International Cooperation Agency (KOICA) etc. (Knutson., 2011)it

has not been successful as expected. Although the reforms were instituted to

respond to changing national and global environments, still the issues

related to harmonization and standardization are not fully resolved. Sri

Lanka needs to reorient its planning and policy framework to suit the

requirements of a middle-income country, drawing on the experiences of

other Asian countries. In this present context the ADB has emphasized the

importance of Sri Lanka to develop financial services and to strengthen the

construction industry. Therefore, the Sri Lanka Country Operation Business

Plan (2013-15) has identified education and skill development as a key

strategic priority (Asian Development Bank, 2013).

2.2 Overview of the Polices Related to TVET Sector in Sri LankaTechnical and vocational education and training has been used by many

developed countries as a strategy to develop their countries. It also has

emerged as one of the most effective human resource development strategies

that developing countries need to concentrate on, in order to train their work

force for overall development. However, in Sri Lanka TVET was left at the

periphery and its significance has not really been incorporated into

development strategies. Thirty eight Technical Colleges have been

established in the country since the establishment of the Maradana

Technical College in 1837 but the government has not really focused

systematically on the TVET sector. In late 1960s Prof. Dudley Seers, who

conducted a social and economic survey in Sri Lanka found that educationpolicy structure of the country has commented that it is a grave error that

less priority has been given to TVET education and that the university

education was purely focused on academic skills beyond practical

skills. .Matching employment opportunities and expectations under the

existing education policies in the country was a remote task addressed by

that the government in the policy making process. In 1965, the Sri Lankan

government realized the seriousness of these issues and introduced the

Junior University concept with a view to encourage TEVT sector in the


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country. Unfortunately it was blocked by some educators and youth

motivated by left politics (Wanigasekera, 2009).

However, considerable socio-economic and political changes occurred mainly

after the 1970s forced the Sri Lankan governments to pay some attention to

the development of the TVET sector. Among the most significant changes Sri

Lanka experienced during the last four decades that brought about social

upheavals were the youth insurrections of 1971 and 1989 and the 30 year

long (1979 -2009, May) ethnic conflict. In 1977, the introduction of liberal

economic policies set in motion a radical shift in the economy. As a response

to youth insurrection in 1971, the government established the National

Apprenticeship Board, which was upgraded as National Apprenticeship and

Industrial Training Authority (NAITA) in 1990. One of the recommendations

of the Youth Commission, which probed into the youth uprising of 1989, was

the establishment of the National Education Commission. In 1990, the

government set up the Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission

(Fernando, 2011).

After introducing the liberal economic policies in 1977 the necessity for

promoting TVET became very visible. The 1977 policy reforms of trade and

industry, and adoption of export-led growth strategies led to expansion of the

secondary and tertiary sectors of the economy, creating additional demand

for skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled labor. The state TVET sector did not

have the resources or the institutional flexibility to respond, which created

opportunities for private sector providers to enter and fill this high demand

for training. There was a considerable mismatch between the outputs of

vocational education and labor market demands (Asian Development Bank,

1999). The private sector training role was explicitly recognized as a part of alarger strategy of promoting TVET for national competitiveness in the 1989

Industrialization Strategy of the Ministry of Industrial Development (MID).

To develop specific skills and expertise required by an outward looking

industrial sector, MID made upgrading of technical training institutes and

establishment of a Vocational and Tertiary Education Commission (VTEC)

priorities for immediate action.

The Tertiary and Vocational Education Act No 20 was passed by the


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legislature in 1990 and it became the main legal document guiding the TVET

sector in Sri Lanka. It stipulates the establishment of the Tertiary and

Vocational Education Commission (TVEC) in 1991. It also stressed the needto expand the role for private industry and NGOs in TEVT development,

with industry providing more training facilities at lower levels and voluntary

organizations offering training in technology and management skills (Tan

and Chandrasiri, 2004).

The 1994 government paid more attention to developing the TVET sector.

The Executive President of Sri Lanka at the opening of the new Parliament

set the stage for TVET reforms by emphasizing the issue as follows:

The Sri Lankan workforce lacks the required skills that are

essential for industrial upgrading and diversification. The numerous

state-run skill development programs are essentially supply-oriented

and therefore have a poor record of providing industry relevant skills.

The vocational training system will be extensively restructured so as

to be demand-driven, in cooperation with the private sector who will

be the eventual employers. (The Presidential Task Force on Technical

Education and Vocational Training Reforms, 1997:5).

The 1995 budget speech also emphasized the importance of consolidating

the variety of dispersed and uncoordinated facilities for vocational training

and directing them to create skills which are sorely needed by the growing

economy(Ibid.).

Technical education was traditionally with the Ministry of Education and

vocational training was a part of the employment services of the labor

Department. In 1994, the government decided to bring together all the main

public agencies responsible for TVET under one ministry (Fernando, 2011).In 1995, the New Industrialization Strategy of MID identified three major

areas for TEVT reforms: i) restructuring tertiary education and vocational

training system, ii) setting up a Skills Development Fund, iii) reorienting

public sector technical institutes to meet market needs. In 1995 a Special

Task Force was appointed by the Executive President of Sri Lanka to study

inter-ministerial barriers and to come up with policy recommendations for

TVET sector development involving both the public and private sectors. The

report of the Task Force was presented in 1998, focused on TVET policies


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under the broad topics of the role of government involvement of the private

sector in training; linkages between general education and TVET; and

training for self-employment and the unorganized sector. The Task Forcerecommended that the government should move away from being the main

provider of training and become a facilitator, standard setter, regulator and

coordinator (Fernando, 2011).

The Skills Development Project (SDP), implemented subsequent to this

report, introduced three major reforms to the TVET sector. These are: i)

establishment of a unified Qualification framework on national Competency

Standards, ii) conversion of certificate level TVET courses into Competency

Based Training Mode of Training and iii) establishment of career guidance

centers and Learning Resources Development Centre with a network of

Learning Resources Utilization Centers. Thus its findings led to major

changes in the TVET sector in terms of rationalization, recognition of

vocational training as a Ministerial function, and co-ordination of TVET

activities at the national level. These reforms commenced with the

establishment of Ministry of Skills Development, Vocational and Technical

Education in 2004 (at present Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skill

Development), and an executive order was issued under the TVE Act for

implementation of the National Vocational Qualification (NVQ) system. A

policy was made to develop one technical college in each province as a

College of Technology to award NVQ level 5 and 6 qualifications. Further, the

University of Vocational Technology (Univotec) was established in 2008 to

award NVQ level 7 degree qualifications. The Tertiary and Vocational

Education Commission (TVEC) Department of Technical Education and

Training (DTET), Vocational Training Authority (VTA) and National

Institute of Technical Education of Sri Lanka (NITESL) were taken underthis ministry (The Presidential Taskforce on Technical Education and

Vocational Training Reforms, 1997). According to the TVE Act No 20 -1990

and its Amendment Act No 50 -1999, TVEC has been given power to

coordinate all relevant institutions (National Education Commission, 2009).

The Presidential Task Force -1997 presented some policies, strategies and

action programs to strengthen the policy formulation and co-ordination

capacity of the TVEC. Accordingly, it was reconstituted as a statutory body


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under the Amendment Act No 50in 1999 (Tertiary and Vocational Education

Commission, 2013). The other major strategies recommended by the Task

Force were to allow the private sector to be the main provider ofpre-employment and job-entry training, to improve the national skill

standards, testing and certification system, to re-define the role of training

agencies such as VTA, NYSC, DTET and NAITA in order to focus their

efforts on planning and delivery of training for self-employment, for special

groups and for the unorganized sector, to set up guidelines for the evaluation

of training institutions, to establish Training Advisory Boards consisting of

mainly the private sector representatives covering strategic economic sectors,

to inculcate value of work ethics at instate levels and to introduce a

competitive mechanism for the allocation of public funds for TEVT sector

(The Presidential Task Force on Technical Education and Vocational

Training Reforms, 1997).

Since 2001, a large number of policy documents have been published

highlighting the challenges facing the TVET sector, proposing further

reforms to and rationalization of public training institutions, introducing

competency standards and accreditation, and offering new financial

incentives and policy instruments for fostering demand led-training (Tang

and Chandrasiri, 2004).In 2004, MahindaChinthana Vision for the Future,

which has been considered as the present governments development policy

statement, emphasizes the need for expanding and improving quality and

relevance of vocational education and training facilities according to the

changing trends of national and international labor market requirements. It

outlines three policy objectives related to TVET. Those are: i) improving

quality and relevance of TVET programs, ii) increasing enrolments in TVET

institutions and iii) improving operational and managerial efficiency ofTVET institutions (Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission, 2013).

The 2005 - 10 Year Horizon National Development Plan of the present

government also emphasizes equity by ensuring greater access to vocational

training for rural youth and those disadvantaged and conflict affected areas.

Moreover, it addressed the mismatch between labor market supply and

demand; limited educational and career development avenues for youth and

the need to increase productivity and competitiveness and a flexible and

globally employable workforce (Ministry of Finance and Planning, 2005).


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This plan ensures higher education and technical and vocational education

institutions to develop and offer internationally recognized and market

oriented skills required by emerging market conditions.(www.treasuary.gov.lk/depts/fpd/.../policydeve-annualreport2011.pdf).Accordi

ngly, a national policy framework for the TVET has been developed in

partnership with local and foreign stakeholders in 2009 (www.tvec.gov.lk).

The National Human Resources and Employment Policy (NHREP), which

has been developed since 2005 as a state policy in human resources

development and employment promotion work also has emphasized the

reform of the TVET sector in Sri Lanka. It highlighted policy actions to

establish a program for vocational and technical education targeting

students who do not qualify at GCE O/L and A/L examinations; to add

vocational and training component to secondary school curricula, to

commence a technology stream at the GCE A/L, to grant NVQ qualifications

to school leavers acquiring competencies by direct entry to industry, to link

secondary education, TVET and higher education institutes, to promote

multi-skilled labor in training programs and to establish public-private

partnership in TEV training (Secretariat for Senior Ministers, 2012).

In 2000 a Skills Development Project (2000-1006) was initiated with the

support mainly by the Asian Development Bank (ADB). Its main objectives

were to improve the quality and relevance of skills training programs, to

build high quality workforce, to address the mismatch of skill in the labor

market of Sri Lanka, and to strengthen NGO and private sector

participation. The project supported 6 national vocational training institutes,

6 technical colleges, and 200 rural vocational training centers to develop

their facilities. Developing a policy framework for the institutionalization ofCompetency Based Training also was assisted by the project. The second

project (2006-2011) supported by the ADB was initiated with the aim of

preparing and implementing a staff development plan

(http://www.unevoc.unesco.org/worldtvetdatabase1.php?ct=LKA).

A National Strategy on Technical and Vocational Education and Training

Provision for Vulnerable People (women heads of households, differently
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abled, disadvantaged youth, poor, persons affected by conflicts internally

displaced & ex-combatants and migrant workers) was formulated by the

TVEC in 2008. It included strategies to introduce livelihood andentrepreneurship training courses relevant to needs of each vulnerable

group, to give special facilities and support, to recognize skills through prior

learning and to introduce career guidance and counseling (Tertiary and

Vocational Education Commission, 2008).

In 2009, the National Policy Framework for TVET obtained the approval of

the President of the country. This is regarded as the current key guiding

document for development of institutional policies of TVET institutions in

Sri Lanka (Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission, 2013). This

policy gave recommendations for new legislation mainly economic and

financial aspects; image, effectiveness and employability; human resource

management; linking different educational and vocational qualifications and

NVQ programs (National Education Commission, 2009).

In 2009, 2010 and 2011 three provincial policy plans were made for

Sabaragamuwa, Eastern and Southern provinces respectively with the

support of academics, trainers, industry and some other public organizations.

The implementation of the provincial plan is done by a steering committee of

the province and in all three provinces these committees have started

implementing their plans. The TVEC has taken actions to develop provincial

VET plans for Northern and North Western provinces in 2012. In 2011 three

new TVET plans on telecommunication, electrical and electronic industry

and hotel and tourism sector were made by the Sri Lankan government

(Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission (TVEC), 2013). Moreover,

the National Competency Standards (NCS) are developed for occupations inthe labor market and training is delivered according to NCSs and national

curricula adopting Competency Based Training (CBT) methods.

In the 2013 Budget speech, the Sri Lankan Executive President mentioned

that it is necessary to ensure that avenues are created for 10% of children

entering schools each year to move into universities and 40% to enter

technical and vocational education. Further he emphasized that skills

education and university education should be re-oriented to ensure that all


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graduates who pass out will be gainfully employed in the economy which

should be the priority in education reforms. Rs. 1600 (million) was allocated

to set up Technical colleges attached to the Univotec that will accommodateover 50,000 A/L students who will be given new diplomas, that will cater to

the demands of the international market. Also he stated that recognizing

prospects for overseas employment for youths with technical skills, dedicated

vocational educational facilities in these colleges will be made available to all

prospective youth identified by the Foreign Employment Bureau. Another Rs.

350 (million) was allocated to expand the capacity of 5 Agriculture Training

Schools to be equipped with modern technology and research facilities to

increase the student intake from 400-1500 from 2013 for 2 year Diploma

programs (www.treasury.gov.lk/depts/...budgetspeech2013-eng.p.).

The Corporate plan for 2013 -2017 has been prepared by the TVEC and it

outlines 3 broad policy objectives related to the TVET sector as follows: i)

improving quality and relevance of TVET programs; ii) increasing

enrolments in TVET institutions and iii) improving operational and

managerial efficiency of TVET institutions. This plan has a 5 year

development horizon underpinned with a coherent Annual Implementation

Plan for each year prepared based on physical and financial targets based on

the governments budgetary allocations. The time horizon of this plan will be

extended as the activities progress and new activities introduced in line with

policies and objectives of the TVEC (Tertiary and Vocational Education

Commission (TVEC), 2013).

The Asian Development Banks (ADB) country partnership strategy,

2012-2016 focuses on three pillars, namely, i. Inclusive and sustainable

economic growth, ii. Catalyzing private investment and, iii. enhancing theeffectiveness of public investment and human resource and knowledge

development. The ADB is supporting a human capital development

investment program by expanding and improving the quality of technical

and vocational institutes and related infrastructure (ADB, 2013).Thus the

TVET policies in Sri Lanka have been changing over the last three and a half

decades in a rapid manner. One policy objective, however, has remained

constantgovernment provision of pre-employment technical and vocational

training to address the problem of high youth unemployment. Over time,
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however, other policy considerations have emerged with changes in the

macro-economic environment, including meeting the skill needs of industrial

restructuring and competitiveness in a global economy (Tan and Chandrasiri,2004).

2.3 TVET StructureThe Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills Development (MYASD) is

responsible for ensuring the countrys tertiary education and vocational

training efforts meet the skills needs of the industry and the national

development programs. The Ministry encompasses 17 statutory bodies such

as the Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission (TVEC), University of

Vocational Technology (Univotec), Dept. of Technical Education and Training

(DTET), Vocational Training Authority (VTA) and National Apprenticeship

and Industrial Training Authority (NAITA), National Institute of Business

Management (NIBM), Skills Development Fund Ltd. (SDFL), Ceylon

German Technical Training Institute (CGTTI), National Youth Services

Council (NYSC), National Human resources Development Council (NHRDC),

National Youth Award Authority (NYAA), National Youth Corps (NYC),

National Youth Service Ltd.(NYS), International Centre for Training of

Rural Leaders (ICTRL), Sri Lanka Institute of Printers (SLIOP), National

Institute of Fisheries and Nautical Engineering (NIFNE), and the National

Youth Services Cooperative Ltd. (NYSCO) (National Education Commission,

2009).Line ministries lead implementation agencies in the form of

government departments (established by Acts of the Parliament), statutory

agencies (corporate bodies authorized by the cabinet through a general act)

and commissions (think-tank or regulatory bodies established by act of

parliaments) (Gajaweera, 2010).

The (TVEC) which was established under the Tertiary and Vocational

Education Act No. 20 of 1990 is the regulatory body or the national apex

agency of the MYASD. It supports the ministry to formulate policy, plan and

coordinate as well as set standards and regulate the TVET sector for

relevance and quality for training. The TVEC is empowered to advise the

Minister on the general policy related to the TVET, to ensure the policy

implementation, to co-ordinate the TVET system, to undertake research and


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development activities, to submit financial and other relevant reports, to

establish and maintain labor market information system and quality

assurance system in TVET. The functions of the TVEC are: planning,coordination and development of the tertiary and vocational education,

development of nationally recognized systems for the granting of vocational

education awards and certificates, and maintenance of academic training

and standards of all TVET institutions (Tertiary and Vocational Education

Commission, 2013).

The TEVC has established a Planning and Research Division which is

responsible for giving effect to the planning, co-ordination and development

of the TEVT education at all levels in keeping with human resource needs of

the economy. Its functions are: assisting the public, private and NGO sector

TVET institutions, prepare and update VET plans, prepare, co-ordinate and

implement provincial VET plans, review and update existing TVET policies

and develop new policies, implement relevant research, conduct monitoring

programs and review and update corporate plans and prepare annual plans

(Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission, 2011, on line - tvec.gov.lk).

The TVEC has established a Labor Market Information (LMI) system which

carries information on labor market statistics including occupations in

demand locally and internationally with the view of providing labor market

signals to relevant parties. This information is published and disseminated

through LMI website and Labor Market Information Bulletin issued

bi-annually. The TVEC has also established an Educational Management

Information System (EMIS) with the objective of providing relevant

information for planning and decision making. A Geographical Information

System (GIS) also has been established to geographical information aboutTVET sector.

The main TVET policy implementation agencies are the Dept. of Technical

Education and Training (DTET), The Vocational Training Authority (VTA)

and the National Apprenticeship and Industrial Training Authority (NAITA).

TVET is imparted through vocational training centers, polytechnics,

apprenticeships and training centers under various ministries and

departments. The Department of Technical Education and Training (DTET)


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operates 38 Technical Colleges which offer technical and commerce related

courses at National Vocational Qualification (NVQ) levels 3, and 4, and some

tertiary courses throughout the country. Out of these 38, 9 Colleges havebeen upgraded as Colleges of Technology to offer Diploma courses (NVQ

level 5 & 6) in response to several labor market issues, particularly the

supply-demand gap for middle level technicians and technologists in

emerging industries (with Foreign Direct Investment FDI) and the

unemployment of educated youth with the support of an Asian Development

Bank (ADB) project (National Education Commission, 2009).

The National Apprentice Board (NAB) established in 1971 was upgraded by

Part 11 of TVE Act No. 20 -1990 as National Apprenticeship and Industrial

Training Authority (NAITA). The NAITA functions as the leading agency in

providing apprenticeship training. It manages 3 national training institutes,

viz. Apprenticeship Technical Institution (AIT), Automobile Engineering

Training Institute (AETI) and Institute of Engineering Technology (IET). It

conducts island-wide training programs aimed at small, medium and large

scale enterprises in 75 (3- national and 25 district) training institutes.

There is a considerable number of other providers all regulated by the TVEC.

Although training is provided by Non- Governmental Organizations (NGO)

and private sector providers, the major providers are the government centers

spread across 11 ministries (ILO, 2010). The Vocational Training Authority

(VTA) established by Act No 12 -1995 has a special focus on training youth in

rural areas. The VTA offers NVQ level 3 & 4 level training through a

network of (261 centers) Rural Vocational Training Centers (RVTC), Special

Vocational Centers (SVTC), District Vocational Training Centers (DVTS) and

National Vocational Training Centers (NVT). The National Youth ServiceCouncil (NYSC) established in 1970 under the National Youth Services

Council Act, undertakes the training of youth mainly in rural areas as a

subsidiary function. It has 43 centers, under the purview of the Ministry of

Youth Affairs and provides entrepreneurship development, life-skills and

livelihood-focused programs mainly for young persons. Sri Lanka Institute of

Advanced Technical Education (SLIATE) established by Act No.29 1995,

under the Ministry of Higher Education, provides training towards higher

national Diploma and Diploma level qualifications (National Policy on


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Higher Education and Vocational Education, 2009). The National Institute of

Business Management (NIBM) has three schools, viz. School of Business

Management, Computer and Engineering. The School of BusinessManagement which is affiliated to 5 international universities has

commenced 12 graduate programs. It has planned to establish Asias First

Green University in Homagama. The Skills Development Fund Ltd. (SDFL),

the Ceylon German Technical Training Institute (CGTTI), the National

Human Resources Development Council (NHRDC), the National Youth

Award Authority (NYAA), the National Youth Corps (NYC) and Provincial

Councils are also some of the main TVET providers. Thus Sri Lankas TVET

system is characterized by a multitude of agencies including training

providers of public and private sectors, standards and curriculum

development agencies and a regulatory body (see Figure: 1 Technical and

Vocational Education and Training System of Sri Lanka take from

corporate plan -2013 p.9). will add the chart

Figure 2: 1TEVT System of Sri Lanka ( from page 4)

Source: Corporate Plan 2013- 2017

The National Institute of Teacher Education of Sri Lanka (NITESL) was

given the functions of training the teachers and developing the curriculum

of the TVET sector. In 2008, The University of Vocational Technology

(Univotec) was established under the Univotec Act (2007) and absorbed the

functions, staff and premises of the NITESL. The Univotec was established

with the purpose of providing education at degree level for those who come

through National Vocational Qualification (NVQ) system as well as those

who work in industry and wish to acquire degree level of education. The


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NITESL was made a Faculty of the Univotec as per the provision of the

Univotec Act.

In 2007, the Technical Education Development Project (TEDP) the successor

to the Skills Development Project (SDP) came to put into effect that mainly

activities related to NVQ level 5 and above Diploma level courses and setting

up of the Univotec for award of NVQ 7 degree equivalent qualification. The

MYASD has planned to set up 20 University Colleges affiliated to the

Univotec to create alternate pathways up to the degree level for students

who are leaving formal education. The Government of Sri Lanka has already

allocated Rs 1.6 billion in the 2013 budget for this project. Another 5

University Colleges will be established in collaboration with the private

sector (interviews done with the executive staff of the TVEC on 05th Nov.

2013).

The Ministry of Education has also launched non-formal vocational

education programs which allow school drop-outs and adults who have not

completed their school education to engage in self-employment activities. In

addition, Departments such as agriculture, rural development, health,

construction, telecommunication, transport, textiles & garments, labor,

science & technology and industry and Samurdhi Authority also provide

training in different areas. Private sector establishments in the industry

provide industry-specific TVET courses for their own workers as well as

outsiders in different occupations. As recorded at the end of 2012 Sep. there

were 337 - government, 766 - Statutory Boards, 1,051 private and 267

NGO TVET institutions registered under the TVEC. Thus the number of

total registered TVET institute is 2,421 (Tertiary and Vocational education

Commission (TVEC), 2013) and the number has been increasing rapidly. Forexample in 2013 there were 164 public, private, NGO and religious

institution based registered computer training centers only in the Western

province. However, both private and public TVET institutes are required to

register under the TVEC Act No 20, 1990. Thus, TVET in Sri Lanka is

fragmented by separate administrative arrangements, that operates at

many levels and areas, and incorporates different delivery systems.


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Figure _ 2:2 (take from corporate plan)Institutional Development of TVET Sector -2011 & 2012

Source: Corporate Plan 2013-2017

2.4 Subject and CoursesBy Sep. 2012, a total of 1,148 TVET courses have been accredited by the

TVEC. There are more than 150 craft training courses operating under 22

vocational fields. Draughtsman-ship (civil), quantity surveying computer

application, computer graphic designer, web designer, scientific plumbing

techniques, domestic electrical installation, Leema creation program

(woodwork), motor mechanism, auto electric technology, auto air condition

and Auto CAD etc. are the major courses. National curricular, teaching and

learning guides are designed centrally and made available through TVECs

Central Learning Resource Centre. The TVET general courses are taught in

all College of Technology, Technical Colleges, institutes, NAITA centers, VTA

Centers, and Youth Council centers etc. but courses up to the degree level is

offered at the Open University of Sri Lanka (OUSL) and the Univotec, as

well as at diploma level at 37 Technical Colleges, Sri Lanka Institute of

Advanced Technical Education (SLIATE) and the Sri Lanka School of

Agriculture (SLSA). Several government ministries, departments, and TVET

centers offer variety of training programs targeting different groups such asunemployed youth, rural women, school leavers, unskilled and semi-skilled

workers and differently abled persons. Different training delivery methods,

such as formal, institutional, apprenticeship, in-plant and on-the-job are

designed to cater to the varying educational attainments and learning

abilities of the target groups.

Table 2: 10Number of TVET Courses Accredited by the TVEC Sep. 2012


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Category No of Courses accreditedVTA 488NAITA 64

DTET 182

NYSC 60

Private and NGO 348

Youth Corps 05

Sri Lanka Institute

of Printing

01

Total 1,148

Source: Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission, 2013: 21Courses vary in duration from two days (16 hours) to several weeks in the

case of part time livelihood programs and from six months to one or two to

three years in the case of full time vocational programs, depending on the

levels of skill to be attained (The Presidential Task Report on Technical

Education and Vocational Training Reforms, 1997).All courses require a

practical component but for short term part time courses it is around 8 hours.

But courses last between one and three years and include a work placement

of between six months and one year. NAITA is mandated through the TVE

Act No. 20 -1990 to arrange apprenticeship training and it has made several

hundreds of partnerships with various enterprises. Mainly they provide

on-site-training- for the TVE trainees ((National Education Commission,

2009). Qualifications to apply for courses also vary according to the nature of

the study course. For example, the required qualification for the course in

Gardening is Grade 8 passed and for Computer or Information Technology it

is GCE O/L passed with 6 subjects including language, mathematics, science

and English (http://www.tvec.gov.lk) and (http://www.naita.gov.lk). The
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average age of the TVET students is between 17-30 years.

Though a few courses are offered free (such as carpentry and gardening orshort term- one week courses) fees for other courses vary from Rs.2000.00 to

Rs. 50,000.00.

Generally the theoretical and practical component of training is offered at a

TVET institution and institutional training is given in a public or private

institution as on-the-job training. Trade apprenticeships have been

formalized through the NAITA which provides industrial placements for a

large number of youths seeking training. Though apprenticeships were

limited mainly to the government institutions, recently there are signs that

leading local firms with international reputations such as Coca-Cola, and

Holcim cement etc. are considering TVET trainees as interns (Gajaweera,

2010).

According to the NVQ certificates issued in 2012 the highest number of

students have obtained certificates for computer application assistants, the

second highest was the Electrician and the third was for the course on

Beautician. An increasing number of students have followed the courses

offered by the private/NGO sector (Table 2: 11).

Table 2: 11NVQ Certificates Issued by Training Provider only

for Five Highest Subjects -2012Sector DTET NAITA VTA NYSC PVT/NGO TotalComputer

applicant

384 724 1,076 57 768 3,009

Electrician 96 388 953 51 409 1,897

Beautician 425 780 123 554 1,882

Automobile

Mechanic

103 848 218 31 310 1,205

Welder 21 305 604 16 185 1,131

Source: http;//www.tvec.gov.lk/lmi/labor_market_vocationa_training_htm


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There was no path way from vocational and tertiary education to university

level until the establishment of the Univotec which ensures an academictrack for those with vocational qualifications. The general objective of the

Univotec is to provide progressive upward movement to students in the

TVET sector. It offers degrees at three faculties: Faculty of Training

Technology providing pedagogical training, Faculty of Industrial Technology

and Faculty of Vocational Technology. At present 9 degree programs, 5

Diploma programs and a training course for assessors are offered by the

Univotec. The students are mainly teachers of Colleges of Technology and

other public and private TVET institutes, who have been released on a full

pay basis from their current positions to attend the degree courses in the

Univotec.

Due to some special projects supported by the World Bank, GTZ, JICA,

British Council, ILO, and ADB since 1990s,around 18 VET plans for key

industry sectors (Information and Communication Technology,

Telecommunication, Hotel and Tourism and Electrical & Electronic sector

etc.) have been developed and some curricular revisions were done. The

introduction of new teacher training programs, making changes to the

administration and management of the TVEC and NVQ system have also

been initiated. Further new learning materials, such as modules, equipment,

training of assessors and accreditors and development of physical facilities

have also been provided to the TVET sector (Tertiary and Vocational

Education Commission, 2013).

2.5 National Vocational Qualification Framework (NVQF)The TVE Act No. 20 -1990 has mandated TVEC to set up a nationally and

internationally recognized system to award qualifications on TVET for those

who seek certificates for employment and other purposes. In order to fulfill

this objective and to support the efforts in enhancing the development of an

internationally competitive work force the TVEC has set up the NVQF in

2005. It is a nationally and internationally recognized vocational

certification system which unifies the national system covering all agencies

providing vocational and tertiary level education and training (Tertiary and


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Vocational Education Commission, 2009). The NVQF followed initial

proposals of the 1990s, as a part of attempts to deal with youth

unemployment, the mismatch between education institutions and the labormarket, and limited career development opportunities for youth. Sri Lanka

previously had a National Skills Standards and Trade Testing system, which

was largely focused on the construction sector and was limited to four grades,

the highest of which was tradesmen category. In this system TEV training

was delivered through different providers and curriculum design, training

processes and assessment varied from institution to institution. It is believed

that this was a major reason for the gap between training output and the

demand in industry (International Labor Organization, 2010).

The NVQF has three key features, viz. assurance of quality training and

education; industry based vocational training and equal accessibility and

uniformity. This is a national competency standard set in consultation with

the industry, national quality standards for teaching and assessment using a

competency based approach and certification of learners and workers (Asian

Development Bank, 2011). Competency based training remains as the mode

of delivery of vocational training that is leading to offer qualification under

the NVQF. This framework attempts to bring coherence through a single set

of standards and curricula, as well as a single set of agencies overseeing the

TVE training (Ministry of Vocational and Technical Training, 2009). Training

institutions are expected to establish and maintain a Quality Management

System (QMS) in consultation with the TVEC that ensures smooth

functioning of the organization (Tertiary and Vocational Education

Commission, 2013). The objectives of the NVQF is to increase the relevance

and quality of skills development and vocational and technical education and

training through: greater alignment to national development goals, strongerresponsiveness to industry and training needs, convenient and flexible

access for potential trainees, proactive education and training strategies,

improved international linkages and recognition for the TVET sector and its

products, collaboration between training agencies and enhanced quality,

relevance, effectiveness, efficiency and transparency or training delivery.

The key agencies of implementing NVQF are TVEC, NITESL, NAITA, DTET,

VTA and Univotec. Though the Sri Lankan NVQF is based on the Australian

and New Zealand systems it has been adapted according to the local needs


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(Gajaweera, 2010).

The NVQF consists of 7 levels, with different levels of courses such ascertificates, diplomas and degree at each level which follows a single track

up to level 6. Certifications of 1-6 levels are carried out by institutions

accredited by the TVEC. Level 7 is carried out by the Univotec which has

degree level (9 degree programs) tracks in three Faculties. National

Certificate for level 1 recognizes the acquisition of a core of entry level skills.

Levels 2, 3 and 4 recognize the increasing levels of competencies. Level 4

qualification awards for full national craftsmanship. Level 5 & 6 is a

National Diploma and it recognizes the increasing levels of competencies

ranging from technical level to management level. Level 7 is a Bachelors

Degree. The certifications of these levels are carried out by the institutions

accredited by the TVEC and they are nationally recognized (Education Guide

Sri Lanka, 2009-2010). The NVQF recognizes competencies acquired through

informal learning such as work place and life experiences, self- study,

informal and formal uncertified learning, in-service training, distance

education, communitybased learning and overseas training or experiences.

Competencies are assessed through Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL)

against NVQF before candidates are awarded a National Vocational

Qualification certificate at the appropriate level (National Education

Commission, 2009).

Table 2:12National Vocational Qualifications Framework Seven Levels

Level No Qualification Generalized descriptionLevel 1 National Certificate Entry level competencyLevel, 2; 3 and 4 National Certificate Increasing levels of

competencies Level 4 full

craftsmanship/workmanship

Level 5 and 6 National Diploma Increasing level of

competencies of technicians-

supervision and process

management

Level 7 Bachelors Degree Vocational/technological


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competencies at degree level

Source:http://www.unevoc.unesco.org/worldtvetdatabase1.php?ct=LKA

The NCS have centrally-developed curricula which contain specified

learning outcomes. Teacher and Learner guides are also centrally developed

and assessment procedures are specified. About 90% of the public sector

TVET institutions implement the NVQF and some private institutes have

also been registered and accredited to provide NVQF courses. The NVQF

includes specifications for testing and certification, through the TVEC and

other associated government agencies (ILO, 2010). Competency standard

units can be acquired individually or progressively and lead towards a full

award. The NVQF encourages flexible skills acquisition both on and off the

job and also recognizes prior learning policies and processes. These are

established to allow knowledge and skills acquired informally to be assessed,

and competencies recognized towards national vocational qualifications

(Ministry of Vocational and Technical Training, 2009).The NVQF also plays a

role in managing resource allocation to TVET institutions.

Up to 2012, the NVQF has reviewed and updated 131 (Level 1 to 4 - 114 and

level 5 & 6 - 17) National Competency Standards (NCS) for more than 45

qualifications, based on 63 skill standards (Tertiary and Vocational

Education Commission (TVEC), 2013). NAITA which plays a key role in

implementing NVQF is responsible for the development of NCS, curriculum

validation and development of assessment resources. It also implements

Competency Based Training (CBT), conducting CBT assessment including

recognition of prior learning and industrial placement of trainees.

In the area of quality assurance, a total of 800 TVET courses in the publicsector and 348 in the private and NGO sector were accredited for award of

NVQ to those who completed courses successfully. A total of 16,573 NVQ

certificates in 2011 and 67,810 in 2012 were issued by the TVEC (Tertiary

and Vocational Education Commission, 2013). Assessor training is done by

the Univotec and selection is carried out by the TVEC. The NVQ division of

the TVEC coordinates and manages the overall NVQ development and

implementation operations.
http://www.unevoc.unesco.org/worldtvetdatabase1.php?ct=LKAhttp://www.unevoc.unesco.org/worldtvetdatabase1.php?ct=LKAhttp://www.unevoc.unesco.org/worldtvetdatabase1.php?ct=LKAhttp://www.unevoc.unesco.org/worldtvetdatabase1.php?ct=LKA


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Before 2005, curriculum design, delivery and assessment were largely an

ad-hoc process leading to disparities in quality and relevance to industry

across multiple sites. According to some studies, the NVQ system hasimproved the delivery of vocational training, primarily due to the

specification of curricular learning outcomes tagged to NVQ competency

standards; the provision of structured curricular materials with teacher and

learner guides; improved assessment procedures linked to outcomes;

provision of equipment to meet the standards and technological environment

set out in the standards, and ultimately, the training of trainers in both

methodology and core technical knowledge. Mainly due to the ADB project

support and international expertise, TVEC and NITESLs capacity and

allocation of funds by the Sri Lankan Treasury to vocational training centers

for NVQ-accredited courses and for equipping the centers, the NVQF

appears to be well established (Gajaweera, 2010).

2. 6 Students and StaffIn 2012 there were 111,487 registered students of the public TVET students

institutions and the highest number of the students (25,840) were registered

in the training centers of the VTA. The second highest number (20,227) was

registered at the NAITA centers

(statistics.gov.lk/education/schools_iniversity.pdf). However, only 86,847

students successfully completed the courses and 24,640 (22.1%) students

dropped out from the courses. Table 2: 12 shows that the male student

registration has been higher than the female numbers and the total

registration of students has been increasing slowly. Except the year 2011, the

drop-out rates of total students also has been decreasing

(http://www.tvec.gov.lk/lmi/labor_market-vocational-training.htm). Thehighest number of students dropped out was 8,553 (2012) from NAITA

training centers (statistics.gov.lk/education/schools_university.pdf). The

major training institutes that supply the more conventional skills of the

labor market, namely the DTET, VTA and NAITA account for nearly 85% of

the training provided by the state sector (The Presidential Task Force on

Technical Education Vocational Training Reforms, 1997). In 2012, intake of

Colleges of Technology for National Diploma (NVQ level 5 & 6) was 145,

National Certificates - 3,307, National Craft Certificate 1,140 and for short
http://www.tvec.gov.lk/lmi/labor_market-vocational-training.htmhttp://www.tvec.gov.lk/lmi/labor_market-vocational-training.htmhttp://www.tvec.gov.lk/lmi/labor_market-vocational-training.htmhttp://www.tvec.gov.lk/lmi/labor_market-vocational-training.htm


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courses, mainly intended for self-employment 1,992. In Technical Colleges

the total intake for the National Diploma was 86, National Certificate - 5,741,

National Craft Certificate 1,975 and for short courses 4,511 in 2012 (CentralBank of Sri Lanka, 2013).

Table 2:13Students Registration, completion of Courses &drop-out rates - Public

TVET Sector -2007& 2012Year Total

registeredMale Female Total

completedMale Female Drop out

Total & rates2007 60,198 37,118 23,080 30,495 19,170 11,325 29,703(49.3%)2008 93,322 54,843 38,479 66,487 37,734 28,753 26835 (28.8%)2009 87,774 50,919 36,914 64,373 370,46 27,327 23,401(26.7%)2010 83,156 490,42 34,104 64,221 37,163 27,058 18,935(22.8%)2011 97,924 56,177 41,747 58,460 33,544 24,916 39,464(40.3%)2012 111,487 64,282 47,205 86,847 48,315 38,532 24,640(22.1%)

Source: http://www.tvec.gov.lk/lmi/labor_market-vocational-training.htmThe academic staff of the public TVET institutions consists of 3 categories

namely permanent -1191, contract -721, and visiting -1339 amountingto a

total of 3251 persons. The Univotec offers short term teacher training

programs and a degree in Bachelor of Education in Technology for resource

persons of the TVET sector. As of January 2012, there were 382 training

centers that are governed by the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Skills

Development (UNESCO-UNIVOC web page).

2.7 FinancingA large number of courses offered by the public TEVT institutions are free of

charge. Some students who are from poor families get a daily travel

allowance (Rs.50.00). However for courses such as computer, beautician and

hair dressing and cookery etc. related to income generating, a fee is charged

and it is between Rs. 200050,000 for the full course.

The 2012 recurrent expenditure for TVET sector was approximately Rs.


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(million) 3230, and capital expenditure was around (million) Rs. 1118. This is

around 3% of the total budget allocation for education. For the same year

fees and other income was around Rs. 935 million.(statstics.gov.lk/education/schools_universities.pdf). Since recurrent cost for

staff salaries and other administrative functions are very high the Sri

Lankan TEVT sector has limited resources to improve the quality of the

programs and upgrading the laboratories and other facilities.

The above description illustrates that the Sri Lankan TVET policies have

been revised mainly after the 1990s, and the multi layered structure has

beenreorganized recently to a certain extent. Establishing a University of

Technical and Vocational Education and Training can be considered as a

major r

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