Teaching Every Student

Cluster 13

Modules 35 – 37

Dr. D. L. Sturgill

Focus Questions

What are the characteristics of effective teachers? When and how should teachers use instructional

objectives and themes for planning? In what situations would each of the following

formats be most appropriate: lecture, seatwork and homework, questioning, and group discussion?

How does the teacher’s role vary in direct and constructivist teaching approaches?

What is your position on the “curriculum wars” in reading and mathematics?

How can teachers’ expectations affect student learning?

Overview of Cluster 13I. Research on Teaching

II. The First Step: Planning

III. Teaching Approaches

IV. Differentiated Instruction

V. Diversity and Convergences in Teaching

What Would You Do? Review “What would you do?” on p. 553

How would you differentiate instruction for these very dissimilar students?

Do different philosophies of teaching provide different answers to this question?

How will you grade work if you have successfully differentiated instruction?

I. Research on Teaching

Who was the most effective teacher you ever had? What was it about this teacher that made her/him effective?

What do teachers need to know to be effective?

Characteristics of Effective Teachers

Clarity & Organization The clearer the presentations/explanations,

the more students learn

Warmth & Enthusiasm Teacher enthusiasm correlated with student

achievement Teacher warmth and understanding

associated with students liking the class (and the teacher)

Characteristics of Effective Teachers cont’d

Teachers’ knowledge Complicated relationship between teachers’

content knowledge and student learning Content knowledge aids in clearer

presentations and organization

Knowledge for Teaching Expert teachers have elaborate systems

of knowledge 7 areas of professional knowledge:

Content knowledge General teaching strategies Curriculum—content and age appropriate Subjects-specific knowledge Learner characteristics including cultural

background The learning setting Goals and purposes of teaching

II. The First Step: PlanningWhich of the following maxims about

teacher planning resonates with you, and why? Time is of the essence Plans are made to be broken Don’t look back A little planning goes a long way You can do it yourself One size fits all

Planning Planning influences what students will learn Several layers of planning—year, term, unit,

week, day Plans reduce uncertainty in teaching

Over-planning is associated with less learning (Why do you think that is?)

Experienced teachers collaborate and learn from one another

Reflection is an important part of planning (Why?)

Planning: A creative problem-solving process (How so?)

Objectives for Learning Instructional objectives: Intended learning

outcomes Three parts of behavioral objectives:

Describe the intended student behavior List the conditions under which the behavior is to

occur Define the criteria for acceptable performance

Cognitive objectives—starting with the general: Begin by stating the objective in general terms and then structure the plan accordingly

What are the pros/cons of each approach?

Flexible and Creative Plans—Using Taxonomies

Bloom’s taxonomy: Classification system of educational objectives The Cognitive Domain The Affective Domain The Psychomotor Domain

The Cognitive Domain Remembering (Knowledge) Understanding (Comprehension) Applying Analyzing Creating (Synthesis) Evaluating

The Affective Domain Receiving Responding Valuing Organization Characterization by value

The Psychomotor Domain

Voluntary muscle capabilities The ability to perform a specific

skill Of relevance to a wide range of

educators: Fine arts, vocational-technical education, special education, etc.

Planning from a Constructivist Perspective

Teacher and students make decisions together about content, activities, approaches

Teacher has overarching goals that guide planning

III. Teaching Approaches Two teacher-centered approaches:

Expository Teaching Direct Instruction

Expository teaching Emphasis on meaningful verbal learning Use of deductive reasoning Begins with a general advanced organizer

Comparative Expository

Teaching Approaches cont’d Steps in expository teaching

Advance organizer Present content in terms of similarities and

differences using examples Elaborate the advance organizer

Direct Instruction Best for the teaching of basic skills Relatively unambiguous tasks

Teaching Approaches cont’d

Rosenshine’s Six Teaching Functions Review and check previous day’s work Present new material Provide guided practice Give feedback and correctives Provide independent practice Review weekly and monthly

Seatwork and HomeworkSeatwork Seatwork often overused Should follow the lesson and give students

supervised practice Homework Remember that students need to understand the

assignment!

Hold students accountable (i.e. check it!)

Questioning and Discussion Types of questions:

Convergent—one right answer Divergent—many possible answers

Fitting the questions to students Different questioning patterns work better for

students of differing ages or ability levels Respond to student answers in a way that

promotes learning

How should students be selected to answer questions?

Questioning and Discussion cont’d

Advantages of group discussion Directly involves students

Disadvantages Unpredictable May digress into “exchanges of ignorance” Making sure students have adequate background

info may require a good deal of preparation Overly dominant or disengaged students

What are some steps to prevent a few students from dominating a discussion?

Teaching Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic

Whole-language approach “Authentic” Guess meaning of unfamiliar words from

context Skilled-based approach (phonics)

Alphabetic coding and awareness of letter sounds are essential skills

Knowing meaning helps determine context The best approach is probably in the

middle

Conceptual Change Teaching Science Six stages of conceptual change in

students:1) initial discomfort with own ideas2) attempts to explain inconsistencies

between their theories and the evidence3) attempts to adjust measurements or

observations to fit personal theories4) doubt5) vacillation6) conceptual change

Conceptual Change Teaching Science cont’d

Two central features of conceptual change teaching: Commitment to understanding (rather than

“covering the curriculum”) Encouraging students to make sense of

science using their current understanding

IV. Differentiated InstructionBasic idea of differentiated instruction: teachers

must take into account not only the subjects they are teaching but also the students

What are the pros and cons of ability grouping? What are the challenges of having students with

disabilities in your classroom? In what ways is it beneficial to have students with disabilities in your classroom?

How can technology improve access for students with disabilities? How could it create barriers?

Within-Class and Flexible Grouping

Within-class ability grouping Grouping students by ability within the same

classroom Concern: Ability grouping could lead to ability tracking

Concern: Students in lower-ability groups are less likely to be asked critical questions or to have choice

Flexible grouping Grouping and regrouping based on learning needs Continuous assessment to assure that students are always working within the Zone of Proximal Development

Differentiated Instruction in Inclusive Classrooms

Students with disabilities need: To learn the academic material To be full participants in the day-to-day life of

the classroom

Students with disabilities benefit from: Advanced organizers with emphasis on what

they know and/or clear objectives INCLUDE strategy

INCLUDE Strategy (Friend & Bursuck, 2002)

Identify environmental, curricular, and instructional demands of the classroom

Note students learning strengths/needs

Check for potential areas of student success

Look for potential problem areas

Use info gathered to brainstorm instructional adaptations

Decide which adaptation to try

Evaluate student progress

Teacher Expectations Expectations effects

Self-fulfilling prophesy—groundless expectation that leads to behavior that confirms the expectations

Sustaining expectations—initial assessment remains constant (fails to recognize new information)

Have you ever felt you were the subject of self-fulfilling or sustaining expectations as a student? How did it feel?

Teacher Expectations cont’d

Sources of expectations Intelligence test scores Gender Notes from previous teachers Med/psych reports Knowledge about siblings Appearance Previous achievement SES Race & ethnicity Actual behavior

Teacher-Student Interactions Teachers with high expectations of

students tend to: Ask more questions, and more difficult questions Allow more time and chances to respond Provide more cues and prompts Smile more and show greater warmth

Teachers with low expectations tend to: Ask easier questions, and allow less time for answers More likely to respond with sympathetic acceptance Praise inadequate answers Offer less genuine praise