Teaching and Learning Strategy in ChemistryErlina

LEARNING THEORIES

BEHAVIORISM, COGNITIVISM, CONSTRUCTIVISM

Goals1. THEORIES2. MODELS3. METHODS4. SCENARIO5. LEARNING GOALS AND ACTIVITIES

1. Theories: Behavioural Primary FocusObservable behaviour Stimulus-response connections AssumptionsLearning is a result of environmental forcesSubcategoriesContiguityRespondent (Classical) Operant (Instrumental)

Major TheoristsThorndike Pavlov Watson Skinner PrinciplesTime/place pairingsBiological basis of behaviourConsequences Modelling

1.1. Behavioural: SubcategoriesContiguityStimulus and response connected and associated in time and spaceExample: The Lucky Bathrobe.

Respondent or Classical ConditioningWe make associations with stimuliExample: The Pavlov Dog.

Operant or Instrumental ConditioningLearning is the result of the application of consequences; that is, learners begin to connect certain responses with certain stimuli. Examples: Positive Reinforcement, Negative Reinforcement

From W. Huitt and J. Hummel http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/edpsyint.htmlModels: Pavlovs Dog

2. Theories: Cognitive Primary FocusMental behaviourKnowledgeIntelligence Critical ThinkingAssumptionsLearning is a result of mental operations/ processing SubcategoriesInformation ProcessingHierarchicalDevelopmentalCritical Thinking Major TheoristsBloom Piaget Gagne

PrinciplesMemory is limitedChanges in complexity Changes over timeGood thinking requires standards

2.1 Cognitive SubcategoriesInformation Processingstudy of the structure and function of mental processing within specific contexts, environments, or ecologies . Example: Stage Model of Information Processing

HierarchicalThe classification of educational goals and objectivesExample: Blooms Taxonomy

Critical ThinkingHow we apply our cognitive processes to evaluating arguments (propositions) and making decisionsExamples: Thinking to a standard. Critical Thinking Model

Developmentalstages in cognitive developmentExample: Piaget

From Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968). http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/edpsyint.html2.2.1 Models: Information Processing

2.2.2 Models: Blooms Taxonomy

2.2.3 Models: Thinking to a StandardFrom Linda Elder and Richard Paul http://www.criticalthinking.org/University/unistan.html

2.2.4 Models: Critical Thinking ModelFrom W. Huitt and J. Hummel http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/edpsyint.html

2.2.5 Piagets Model of Cognitive DevelopmentSensorimotor stage (Infancy). Pre-operational stage (Toddler and Early Childhood) Use of symbols, language use matures, memory and imagination are developed, thinking is nonlogical, nonreversable. Concrete operational stage (Elementary and early adolescence). Intelligence demonstrated through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects. Formal operational stage (Adolescence and adulthood). Intelligence demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts. From W. Huitt and J. Hummel http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/edpsyint.html

1.3 Theories: Humanistic Primary FocusAffect/Values Self-Concept/Self-EsteemNeeds AssumptionsLearning is a result of affect/emotion and goal-orientation SubcategoriesAffect Motivation/Needs Self-concept Self-esteem Major TheoristsRogers MaslowN. V. Peale

PrinciplesIndividual uniqueness Self-determination Dreams and goals are vital for success

3.Humanistic SubcategoriesAffectThe affective/emotional system colours, embellishes, diminishes or otherwise modifies information processed by people. Example: The Affective Domain

Motivation/NeedsWhat needs motivate us to act?Example: Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

Self-EsteemBasic faith in oneself as being growth-directed and positively oriented. Individuals cannot progress because they do not have faith in their ability to solve problems or to accurately experience the here-and-now. Self-Concept

2.3.1 Models: The Affective DomainAdapted from: Krathwohl, D., Bloom, B., & Masia, B. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives. Handbook II: Affective domain. New York: David McKay.

2.3.2 Models: Maslows HierarchySource: William G. Huitt, 2000 http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/regsys/maslow.html

4. Theories: Social CognitionPrimary FocusModelling Vicarious LearningAttitudes Goals AssumptionsLearning is a result of influences of social environment on thinking.SubcategoriesObservational (Social) Self-efficacy Goal-setting Self-regulation Major TheoristsBandura VygotskySears

PrinciplesReciprocal determinism Individual responsibility

1.4.1 Social Cognition SubcategoriesObservational (Social)Observational learning - vicarious learningImitating/modelling behaviour of those they admire

Self-efficacyBelief in one's capabilities to organise and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations

Self-Regulation and Goal-settingsetting goals for upgrading knowledge; deliberating about strategies to select those that balance progress toward goals against unwanted costs; monitoring the accumulating effects of such engagement.Example: Self-regulating model

2.4.1 Models: Self-RegulationLEARNERGOALPlan to achieve goalTasksProblem+ confidence- confidenceQuitWhat must Ido to achievegoalGoal is changedPlan is modifiedFrom Carver and Scheier (1990)

3. Methods: Putting theories and models togetherAdapted from Romiszowski, 1984

3.1 Methods: How do you think? The Block Problem: Visualisation Draw a pictureMathematically How did you do it? Were you successful on the first or second attempt? Did you use more than one strategy? (ie. Visualise and deduce that blocks have eight corners)

3.1 Methods: How do you think? The Sticks Problem: Visualising Drawing Manipulating Objects

If you manipulate objects: Be aware of how it feels to do solve the problem this way. Are you carrying on a verbal dialogue (verbalizing)? .

3.1 Methods: How do you think? The Who Did It problem: In this problem only one statement is true. Determine from the information given who did it? A said, "B did it." B said, "D did it." C said, "I did not do it." D said, "B lied when he said I did it." Verbal/Logical solution

Easy to confuse the information statement with the problem statement: Many learners try to figure out which statement is a true, rather than which person is guilty.

3.1 Methods: How do you think? The Who Did It problem continued:

Begin by assuming A is guilty, determine if it is the case that only one statement is true, then assume B is guilty, and so on until you find that only one statement is true. (This method is most common for those who do solve the problem, and will result in a correct answer) If you noticed that since only one statement is true and C says that he didn't do it, one need only discover that one of A, B, or D is telling the truth to establish that C is guilty (if A, B, or D is true, C is false; thus C did it). Since B and D contradict each other, only one of them can be true. Since we've found one true statement (it doesn't matter whether it's B or D), we can deduce that C did it. (A more efficient, but often overlooked strategy).

Background Information

Learning theories allow teachers to better understand the process of learning.

Together with the use of technology, learn theories have made a significant impact in the classroom.

There are many learning paradigms, however, behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism will be the focus for this lesson.

BehaviorismThe theory originates from the works of Ivan Pavlovs, classical conditioning, and B. F. Skinners, operant conditioning.

Classical Conditioning is when an unconditioned stimulus and response is manipulated with a conditioned stimulus to create a conditioned response.

Operant Conditioning is a controlled response with a reward/ punishment system according to the behavior.

The learner needs reinforcements to keep interest.

Stimuli are effective in controlling behavior.

As a result, the behaviors can be measured to record learning success.

CognitivismInformation Processing looks at how information is retrieved and stored.This theory focuses on how to store and retrieve information. Learning is attained through rehearsal and consistent use of the information. Retention strategies such as breaking down information and comparing the information to long term storage are great techniques.

ConstructivismConstructivism views learning as a process in which the learner constructs knowledge based on their past experiences.

The teacher only acts as a facilitator who encourages students to explore within a given framework.

Learners may collaborate with others to organize their ideas and learn from each other to construct their own knowledge.

Putting It All Together

Learning TheoryLearning ProcessTechnology SupportBehaviorismThrough positive/ negative reinforcement and punishmentEducational software can be used to measure the students assessmentCognitivismRehearsing information and then storing it for long term useFlashcards and memory games can help retain information taught in a lessonConstructivismConstructing ones own knowledge through past experiences and group collaborationGroup PowerPoint projects allow students to work together and combine their knowledge to learn

EFFECTIVE TEACHER

IntroductionHow to become an effective teacher?There are 4 factors that effective teacher must do, which are:1. engage in quality planning and preparation2. Prepare a positive classroom environment3. Use proven instructional technique4. Exhibit professional behaviour

ObjectivesAfter completing this chapter you should be able to :1. Define teaching and explain the concept of teaching as an art and as a science2. Describe the characteristic and skills associated with effective teaching and reflective teaching as well as the constructivist approach to learning

3. Differentiate among the five categories of time found in schools4. Describe the expectation and standards associated with teaching and learning5. Explain why teachers need an understanding of students6. Discuss the importance of and technique for teaching students how to learn

DefinitionMoore (2001), teaching as the actions of someone who is trying to assist others to reach their fullest potential in all aspects of development.

Is teaching an art or science?Some expert says that: teachers are born not made and the ability to be an effective teacher cannot be taught and good teaching is primarily creative art.Others argue that teaching is a science with specific laws and principles that can be taught.What do you think? Is teaching an art or science? Give an argumentation to this statement.

Natural teaching instinctLearned teaching principlesThe most important thing is teaching needs skills, so what do you think about it? ArtScience

Exactly what is effective teaching?Effectiveness depends on the subject, students, and environmental conditions.According to National Commission on Teaching & Americas Future, 1996: teacher knowledge and what teacher do are the most important influences on what students learn.Based on research, the important elements of effective teaching are: teacher knowledge of subject matter, student learning, and teaching methods.

Others opinion about effective teaching that teacher must be prepared to be self-monitoring individuals. (dia dapat memonitor dirinya)Self monitoring requires that teacher have skills that enable self-analysis of teaching episodes, they reflect and focus on events rather than on personalities and on systematic observation for patterns and trends in teaching and learning behavior.The contradiction

This contrasting ideas suggest that to be effective teacher must inquire into students experiences and build an understanding of learners and capacity to analyze what occurs in classroom and in the lives of their students.The effect is: teacher must change their orientation from a view of teaching as static with simple formulas, to teaching as dynamic and ever changing. A reflective teacher

Reflective teacherLearn everything about teaching from both theory and practice.They teach and reflect on the teaching Think deeply about the theory and practiceSo, they become sensitive to diversity of students needs and family background.They always ask how to make learning process succeed, how to improve students achievement? What can I do to make my students motivated?

SummaryEffective teachers know that good teaching is more than simply explaining, lecturing and discussing. To be effective teachers must be well organized.

Organized TeachersOrganized means that teacher prepare everything that they need in teaching. They must have plan what to do, knowledge about the subject matter and skills how to teach.

Danielson (1996), found that effective teachers need: A knowledge of content and pedagogy (know their subject and how to teach it)A knowledge of students (know how students learn and develop)The ability to select instructional goals (set appropriate expectations)A knowledge of resources (can locate the material and people that will enhance instruction)The ability to design instruction (can plan effective lesson plans), andThe ability to design students evaluation (can design fair and meaningful evaluation)

Karakteristik Ilmu KimiaMenurut Middlecamp & Kean (1985):Sebagian besar memuat materi yang abstrakObjek yang dipelejari merupakan penyederhanaan dari yang sebenarnyaMateri berurutan dan berkembang serta berjenjangTidak hanya berisi soal-soal hitungan

Menurut Mary B.Nakhleh (Asal dari Purdue Uni,USA) (1991), Robert Bob Bucat (UWA ,Autralia) (1992), kimia memiliki dua aspek pemahaman, yaitu:Konseptual, konsep-konsep, seperti: partikel, hukum dasar kimiaAlgoritmik, hitungan, memuat rumus-rumus matematika, seperti stoikiometri

Menurut Johnston (1991) dalam Gabel (1999), kimia dapat direpresentasikan melalui 3 level multipel representasi, yaitu:Makroskopik, sesuatu yang dapat dilihat oleh mata telanjangSimbolik, simbol-simbolMikroskopik, level partikulat, tidak dapat dilihat dengan mata telanjang.

Aplikasi Pembelajaran Kimia dlm Domain Kognitif1. Pengetahuan konkret ttg karakteristik kimiaPeristilahancth: arti rumus kimia, bilangan kuantum, biloks dllFakta khusus cth: Lambang dari senyawa tertentu, nama unsur yang menyusun senyawa dll

2. Pengetahuan metodisPengetahuan ttg konvensi (aturan)Cth: konversi nama bahan dgn rumus kimia atau sebaliknya, cara menulis kulit atom dalam konfigurasi elektron dll.Peng. ttg berlangsungnya waktuCth: penguraian seny. dari unsur2nya, perkembngan teori atom, dll.Peng. ttg klasifikasicth: klasifikasi dlm zat murni, campuran, senyawa, bagan tingkat energi, dll.Peng. ttg kriteriaCth: kriteria/ciri utk membedakan atom, senyawa, campuran atau kriteria elektron dlm dan elektron luar/valensi, atau perbedaan unsur2 berdasarkan golongan dan periode, dll.Peng. ttg caraCth: cara pemisahan, langkah2 percobaan yang dilakukan Rutherford, dll.

3. Pengetahuan abstrakPengetahuan mengenai prinsip dan generalisasiCth: hukum kekekalan massa, prinsip- oktet dan duplet, dllPengetahuan teori dan strukturCth: memahami struktur suatu molekul dan bisa memodelkan, mengaitkan antara teori dengan aplikasi

PemahamanPenerjemahan/translasicth: mengungkapkan reaksi kimia dengan perantaraan persamaan atau sebaliknya, penerjemahan susunan atom suatu unsur kepada cara penulisan orbital, dllInterpretasiCth: kelarutan berbagaqi bahan, menentukan tempat unsur dlm sistem periodik berdasarkan susunan elektronnyaEkstrapolasicth: memperkirakan pengaruh suhu, jumlah bahan pelarut dalam larutan atau sebaliknya, dll.

PenerapanCth: menguraikan campuran reaksi suatu rx ttt dlm komponen2nya dan membuat pernyataan kualitatif maupun kuantitatif ttg kelangsungan rx tsb, dpt mengenali sifat persenyawaan dlm senyawa kimiadg perantaraan perbedaan keelektronegatifan

AnalisisAnalisis unsurCth: Air dpt digunakan sbg pelarut, tp tdk utk semua zat.Analisis hubunganCth: mengetahui hub. antara pelarut dengan zat terlarut melalui prinsip polar dan nonpolar atau like dissolve like, hub. Antara energi pembentukan dengan kestabilan senyawa.Analisis prinsip penataanCth: dengan pembagian unsur dlm sistem periodik berdasarkan golongan dan periode, unsur-unsur tersebut ditata menurut elektron valensi dan jumlah proton

SintesisKomunikasi individualCth: urutan langkah2 dlm percobaanPembuatan rencanaCth: merencanakan percobaan atau eksperimen utk memecahkan suatu masalah (pemisahan, kadar/komposisi, dll)Penjabaran sistem hub. AbstrakCth: skema pembagian bahan, memadukan semua persenyawaan dlm suatu bagan dg mengkombinasikan jenis-jenis orbital

Penilaian(Evaluasi)Penilaian menurut bukti internCth: kegunaan model partikel utk menjelaskan reaksi kimiaPenilaian menurut bukti eksternCth: arti pemisahan bahan, guna melindungi lingkungan, menarik kesimpulan dari pengetahuan yang dimiliki mengenai susunan atom dan senyawa kimia thd kemungkinan terjadinya dan terdapatnya unsur di alam

KesimpulanBerdasarkan uraian di atas, untuk mengajarkan Ilmu kimia membutuhkan strategi, pendekatan, metode, dan teknik tertentu, yang disesuaikan dengan materi dan karakteristik siswa.

DefinitionPendekatan pembelajarandapat diartikan sebagai titik tolak atau sudut pandang kita terhadap proses pembelajaran, yang merujuk pada pandangan tentang terjadinya suatu proses yang sifatnya masih sangat umum, di dalamnya mewadahi, menginsiprasi, menguatkan, dan melatari metode pembelajaran dengan cakupan teoretis tertentu

Dilihat dari pendekatannya, pembelajaran terdapat dua jenis pendekatan, yaitu: (1) pendekatan pembelajaran yang berorientasi atau berpusat pada siswa (student centered approach) dan (2) pendekatan pembelajaran yang berorientasi atau berpusat pada guru (teacher centered approach).

Strategi pembelajaran.Daripendekatan pembelajaranyang telah ditetapkan selanjutnya diturunkan ke dalamStrategi Pembelajaran. Newman dan Logan (Abin Syamsuddin Makmun, 2003) mengemukakan empat unsur strategi dari setiap usaha, yaitu:Mengidentifikasi dan menetapkan spesifikasi dan kualifikasi hasil (out put) dan sasaran (target) yang harus dicapai, dengan mempertimbangkan aspirasi dan selera masyarakat yang memerlukannya.Mempertimbangkan dan memilih jalan pendekatan utama (basic way) yang paling efektif untuk mencapai sasaran.Mempertimbangkan dan menetapkan langkah-langkah (steps) yang akan dtempuh sejak titik awal sampai dengan sasaran.

Mempertimbangkan dan menetapkan tolok ukur (criteria) dan patokan ukuran (standard) untuk mengukur dan menilai taraf keberhasilan (achievement) usaha.Jika kita terapkan dalam konteks pembelajaran, keempat unsur tersebut adalah:Menetapkan spesifikasi dan kualifikasi tujuan pembelajaran yakni perubahan profil perilaku dan pribadi peserta didik.Mempertimbangkan dan memilih sistem pendekatan pembelajaran yang dipandang paling efektif.Mempertimbangkan dan menetapkan langkah-langkah atau prosedur, metode dan teknik pembelajaran.Menetapkan norma-norma dan batas minimum ukuran keberhasilan atau kriteria dan ukuran baku keberhasilan.

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