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Spectroscopy: history (1)1929: Photographic Spectra• Visible spectrum of 0.39 – 0.47 m (Vesta;
Bobrovnikoff 1929)1970: Spectrophotometry• Visible spectrum of 0.3 – 1.1 m (McCord et al. 1970;
Chapman et al. 1971) Strong absorption bands in the UV and near 1 m• First rigorous asteroid taxonomy (Chapman et al.
1975) asteroid mineralogyMid-1980s: Spectrophotometry Surveys• Eight-Color Asteroid Survey (ECAS, Zellner et al.
1985) ~600 asteroids Tholen taxonomy (Tholen 1984)
Spectroscopy: history (2)Spectrograph: Spectroscopic survey• Low-albedo asteroid survey (115 asteroids; Sawyer
1991)• First Phase of Small Main-belt Asteroid Spectroscopic
Survey (SMASSI: 316 asteroids; Xu et al. 1995)• Second Phase of Small Main-belt Asteroid
Spectroscopic Survey (SMASSII: 1447 asteroids; Bus & Binzel 2002)
• Small Solar System Objects Spectroscopic Survey (S3OS2: ongoing >800 asteroids; Lazzaro et al. 2001)
Spectroscopy visible-wavelength spectroscopy
SpectroscopyBus et al. 2002
Preprocessing of the CCD imagesExtraction of one-dimensional spectra
Calibration of the extracted spectra
Normalization to a solar-analog star
Object’s Surface Material
Different surface material on Vesta 0.506-m Fe2+ pyroxene
presence of Ca-rich
Effects of Surface Properties
• Phase reddening: reddening of reflectance spectra with increased phase angle
NIR Spectrometer to Eros: slope 8-12% over phase angles 0-100
• Space Weathering: darkening & reddening of asteroids’ surface
e.g. Chapman 1996: Explaining the spectral mismatches between asteroids and meteorites
• Particle size Particulate regolith on the surface• Temperature 120 K (Trojans) to >300 K (NEAs) Shapes of spectral bands (olivines & pyroxenes) are sensitive
to temperature
Taxonomy: methods• Asteroid classification Bowell et al. 1978 Tholen & Barucci 1989• Data sets: - ECAS (Zellner etl al. 1985) - IRAS albedo (Veeder et al. 1989, Tedesco et al. 1992)
Statistically significant boundaries exist between clusters of objects
1. Tholen taxonomy (1984): spanning tree clustering algorithm
2. Barucci et al. taxonomy (1987): G-mode analysis3. Tedesco et al. taxonomy (1989): visual identification of
groupings in a parameter space (two asteroid colors & IRAS albedo)
4. Howell et al taxonomy (1994): artificial neural network
• Tholen taxonomy was utilized in an attempt to preserve the historic structure and spirit of past asteroid taxonomies
• Classes were defined solely on the presence (or absence) of absorption features contained in the visible-wavelength spectra
• The classes were arranged in a way that reflects the spectral continuum revealed by the SMASSII data
• Different analytical and multivariate analysis technique were used to properly parameterize the various spectral features. Labels of some class were based on human judgment.
• When possible, the sizes (scale-lengths) and boundaries of the taxonomic classes were defined based on the spectral variance observed in natural groupings among the asteroids.
SMASSII Taxonomy: basicsBus et al. 2002
SMASSII Taxonomy: method• Parameterization• Principle Component Analysis (PCA) Multivariate Analysis Techniques Maps Multivariate data into a new space whose axes
are oriented in a way that best represents the data’s total variance
• In principal component space: - The first component (PC1): largest possible fraction
of the variance in the data set. - PC2: the next largest fractions of the variance
Cluster together in groups that are well separated in some parameter space
SMASSII Taxonomy: spectral slope
A. Extracted & calibrated spectrumB. Smoothing spline fitC. Linear least squares fit slope
parameter D. Residual spectrum after division by
the slope function
)55.0(0.1 iir
ri : The relative reflectance at each channel
I : The wavelength of the channel in microns
: The slope of the fitted line (unity at 0.55 m)
Bus & Binzel 2002
SMASSII Taxonomy: PC
1. Spectra are essentially linear or featureless
2. Spectra contain a 1-m absorption feature
The two different loci corresponds to spectra with and without a 1-m silicate absorption feature
PC1 Slope removePC2 PC2’PC3 PC3’
Bus & Binzel 2002
SMASSII Taxonomy: drawbacks
Can be cumbersome for newly observed asteroids
Allow for the classification of individual objects The classification assigned to an asteroid is
only as good as the observational data
Variations in spectrum may change the taxonomic label
Near-Infrared Spectroscopy
NIR: ~1 – 4 m contains absorption bands that are fundamental to studies of mineralogy (Gaffey et al. 1989)
Hodapp (2000): high-quality asteroid spectra out to 2.5 m and beyond
Rayner et al. (1998): low- to medium-resolution NIR spectrograph & imager (SpeX) in IRTF
o Data calibration is complicatedo Scaling telluric features a model of atmospheric
transmission (ATRAN, Lord 1992)
Visible & NIR Spectroscopy
0.7 – 2.5 m: silicate minerals (pyroxenes, olivines and plagioclase)
Absorption bands near 1 & 2 m2.5 – 3.5 m: hydrated minerals (bound water
and structural OH)
Absorption bands centered near 3 m