Synthesizing Information Learning Objectives · Synthesizing Information Learning Objectives 19.1 Se cot research that supports your own deas 19.2 Synthesize yoru research and your

Evaluating andSynthesizing

InformationLearning Objectives19.1 Se cot research that supportsyour own deas

19.2 Synthesize yoru researchand your ideas to rodoce new annmeaningful work that reads srToothy

19.3 AvoJ plan arism in yourvu tinj when synthesizing reseaichthat soft ortn your ide w

Before you read this chapter‘\nat does mear to svnttmsz Jn

v hat onnIOxts d yo synthesize 2

‘Ahat nrafeqe do zou usn o

mn esce n too contexts? In yourJo i 00 m b g, wrte abojt the kirds

aruao Pngrgc 0

u’ ii St iT’]’ {o

S S

441

CHAPTER 19 Evabating and Synthesizing Information

To synthesize is to form a new whole from carefully evaluated, selected, and

relevant parts. Unlike analysis, in which you dissect a whole into parts to better sense

how the parts work together, the process of synthesis brings together various parts to

make a fluid, new whole. Effective research writing brings research together in smooth,

polished ways to support a writer’s purposes. Less-effective research writing patches

sources together in a quilt-like fashion without fully integrating all the pieces as a whole.

The process of synthesis parallels cooking: blending together various ingredients

to make a new, independent dish. Each ingredient on its own may produce a distinct

taste, but when carefully combined with other ingredients, will produce a new, more

complex dish, Gloria Bley Miller, author the most

comprehensive and widely read Chinese cookbook

for Western readers, explains that Chinese cooking

always starts with ingredients that are combined

and rarely cooked alone. Only in being brought

together through particular methods can these in

gredients bring out the best in one another.1

In writing, synthesizing research works much

the same way. Rather than simply throwing to

gether pieces of information, research writers

carefully select the pieces of research that best con

tribute to their purpose and plan. They then blend

the research into their own writing. Synthesizing

research within your writing can produce more readable writing, provide readers

with a clear understanding as to why you have used the research, and ultimately cre

ate a more pleasurable reading experience.

Not everything blends together well, however. As in cooking, including some

thing that is incompatible might undermine, even ruin, the entire creation. Likewise,

using too much or too little of something can either overpower a composition or

leave it lacking. Effective synthesis involves deciding not only what to leave out but

also what to include. Individual audience needs and expectations as well as the situ

ational constraints also affect how writers synthesize.

Although the primary purpose of synthesis is to integrate research into your writ

ing, synthesis also serves a more encompassing agenda to build relationships be

tween your writing and other texts. Cut-and-paste approaches to integrating research

into writing—methods that present the different parts as parts rather than unifying

them—are often used by beginning writers and are usually less effective. Synthesis

invites a conversation between your research and your ideas; cut-and-paste compo

sition promotes fragmentation and confusion.

1 Miller, Gloria Bley. The Thousand Recipe Chinese Cookbook. New York: Fireside Books, 1966.

Print. p. 12.

Supporting Your Own Ideas

Supporting Your Own IdeasMany kinds of college-level research writing require that writers report informationgathered through research. This kind of reporting can be valuable in many kinds ofacademic and public situations, but it doesn’t always provide smooth, flowing writingthat provides new perspectives. Patchwork reporting of information emphasizes thevarious parts of research over the writer’s own work and thought. Writing that effectively synthesizes research supports the writer’s purpose, ideas, and approaches. Themost difficult part of synthesizing research is to make sure you support your voiceand position with research rather than simply agree or disagree with the research orreport the research.

As you conduct your research, think about why particular information standsout to you. How does that information connect to your thinking about the situation and subject? How does it support or conflict with your ideas? Does it offer adifferent perspective from yours? Of course, as you read and learn more about thesubject and situation, you may alter your ideas, but your ideas should drive notonly your purpose for writing but also how you use the research to support yourposition.Because writing is always an act of taking a position within a situation, youcan think of your writing as entering into a conversation within the situation. Yourresearch helps you locate and stake your position in the larger conversation of thesituation. Thorough research provides a glimpse of the larger conversation; yourideas express your place in that conversation. Bringing your position togetherwith your research establishes ‘our place in the conversation. Consider the distinction between the following original and revised paragraphs. The first versionuses a patchwork research approach that obscures the writer’s voice; the revisedversion presents a more effective synthesis and emphasizes the writer’s ideas and

19.1 Selectresearch thatsupports yourown deas

Looking Beyond: MashupsMashups can be viewed as a kind of synthess. In music, mashups create new songsby blending parts of other songs. Video mashups edit together video clips from multiple sources to create the appearance of a single video. Media mashups blend sound,video, graphics, writing, and animation in various proportions, often modifying the originalsources to render unique, independent products. In essence, mash-ups combine parts to make a new whole. How a writer combines theparts in a mashup contributes to whether readers or viewers acceptthe mashup as an innovative new text or as a patchwod< of sources. Agreat example of a mashup of the Beatles with Fatboy Slim, along withmany others, can be found on YouTube.

position.

We do not get any sense

of the writehs position until

the end, and even then,

the wnter only acknowh

edges the three cited

claims, nothing more.

Likewise, the three quoted

sources are patched

together with no direct

connection identified

between their purposes

and claims Gronbeck

quote, is only tangentially

related to the first two

pieces of information.

The revised paragraph

focuses on the writer’s

ideas; the research is

secondary and serves as

support for the writer’s

ideas, The writer’s voice

guides the paragraph and

connects the two cited

sources. Notice, that the

writer has opted not to

include the Gronbeck

citation; often. a writehs

point can be clarified with

less research.

19.2 Syntheoze

yorY researchand your ideasto produce new

and meaningLiwo’k that reads

s.000thI

ORIGINAL VERSION: Acccrdrng to Gunther Kress, a British education expert, literacy

needs to be thought of in terms of ‘the broad move from the now centuries-

long dominance of writing to the new dominance of the image and, on the other

hand, the move from the dominance of the medium of the book to the domi

nance of the medium of the screen” (1). In their book The World of the Image,

Trudy Smoke and Alan Robbins say that “Everywhere you look in the modern

world, images are becoming more common, more present, and more pervasive.

We are immersed in a world of images” (ix). Bruce E. Gronbeck explains that

“Because of the explosion of mediated spectacle and the public’s seemingly in

satiable hunger for it, the 1 9 and 20th centuries have been called ocularcentric,

or eye centered” (xxi). Therefore, images are important in understanding how we

learn about the world.

REVISED FOR SYNTHESIS: Ours is a world of images. Everywhere we look, we see im

ages. Images that convey information, like traffic signs; images that make argu

ments, like advertisements; images that portray identity, like clothes or tattoos;

images that attract attention, like art or posters; and images that inform, like news

photographs. How we see our world has a lot to do with the images we see ev

ery day. Image experts Trudy Smoke and Alan Robbins say it plainly in their book

The World of the Image: “Everywhere you look in the modern world, images are

becoming more common, more present, and more pervasive. We are immersed

in a world of images” (ix). Because we are immersed in a world of images, it is

important to be careful and critical in how we understand images because images

are central to how we now learn, Education experts like Gunther Kress identify

just how important images are in learning, showing how literacy now needs to be

thought of in terms of “the broad move from the now centuries-long dominance of

writing to the new dominance of the image and, on the other hand, the move from

the dominance of the medium of the book to the dominance of the medium of the

screen” (1).

When synthesizing research into your work, always begin by writing your

ideas, claims, and thoughts. Once you express your ideas and objectives, then

add your relevant research to support your position. But don’t add too much. You

don’t need to include every relevant quote or resource; provide enough research

to confirm and support your position. Maintain your voice as the guiding force in

the writing. Although the research a writer conducts beforehand informs how she

will approach writing her ideas, the writer’s ideas should remain paramount. Thus,

writers who synthesize research into their writing often draft their documents first

with no research included, which allows them to flesh out their ideas and objec

tives first. Once they are satisfied with their position, then they incorporate relevant

research.

Synthesizing Research

CHAPTER 19 Evaluating and Synthesizing Information

Learning how to bring your research into relationship with your writing is crucial if

you want to make the best use of your research. The following guidelines about taking

notes; responding to research; connecting, quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing


research; and avoiding common synthesizing mistakes can help you develop practices for smoothly integrating your research and your writing.

Taking NotesThorough note taking is the starting point for strong synthesis. Notes can help yourecall why you found a piece of research interesting, valuable, or in need of critique.Writing down not just the information and citations you find in your research butalso your thoughts about the research can help you connect the research to your ownthinking. A common research dilemma among college writers is to return to a pieceof noted research and not be able to recall why the research was relevant in the firstplace because their notes were not clear or specific.

Responding to ResearchWhen including research information in your writing, be sure to respond to that information, showing readers how it is relevant—an important part of synthesis. Goodnotes can remind you of your early response to the research and make respondingeasier to do. Novice writers will often include research in their writing, but withoutexplanation, so readers are left to develop their own connections and responses to it.This “writing in faith” approach is risky because the audience may not interpret theresearch the same way you do. Consider the effect of the following two examples, theoriginal version with no response to the included research and the revision withthe author’s response.

ORIGINAL VERSION: College-level research in America requires copious attention to appropriate citation forms more so than to the ethics of citation and authorship. RebeccaMoore HowarO, in ner article Plagiarism, AuThorship, and the Academic Death Penalty,” explains that “American academic culture demands that writers who use theexact words of a source supply quotation marks at the beginning and end of thequotation, so that the reader can know where the voice of the source begins andends” (799),1 Over attention to citation forms in college classrooms can lead to college-level wrIters understanding little more than how to cite information, rather thanwhy citation is important.

REVISED vERSION: College-level research in America requires copious attention toappropriate citation forms more so than to the ethics of citation and authorship. Rebecca Moore Howard, in he” article “Plagiarism, Authorship, and theAcademic Death Penalty,” explains that “American academc culture demandsthat writers who use the exact words of a source supply quotation marks atthe beginning and end of the quotation, so that the reader can know wherethe voice of the source begins and ends” (7991.2 What Howard identifies in the

‘The full citation that would appear in the Works Cited list would look like this:Howard, Rebecca M. “Plagiarism, Authorship, and the Academic Death Penaltv’ collegeEnglish. 57.7 (1995): 788-806. Web. 14 Feb. 2014.

The direct quote fromHoward seems tointerrupt the writertwo sentences aboutcitation, If we removedHowaro’s quote fromthe paragraph, thetwo sentences fowmore fluidly. However.Howard’s position bringssomethng valuable tothe discussion.


In the revised version,

the writer responds

to Howard’s claim,

guiding readers

to see a nuanced

interpretation of

Howard’s claim that

strengthens the wnter’s

position. The writer’s

response, steers the

audience smoothly

toward the synthesis

of the research

information within the

writer’s overall agenda,

example of quotation marks is an institutional coding system that emphasizes

the importance of students complying with cultural standards for the sake of

compliance rather than understanding why such standards are in place. How

ard’s subtle recognition of this distinction reveals much about how college stu

dents understand citation.

Connecting Research

Responding to research is one way to connect the research to writing. Strong synthe

sis works to integrate research and writing smoothly, connecting both in more than

superficial ways. This integration includes connection not only between your writing

and your research but also between different parts of your research. Simply string

ing together different bits of information, whether from the same or different sources,

does not usually result in smooth synthesis. Any research you use in your writing must

connect with your writing and with any other research. A writer’s responsibility is to

interconnect research and writing in logical and beneficial ecosystems. Fundamen

tally, you can connect research in six ways. Each of these ways may be approached

differently—stylistically and methodologically—and each may be used in conjunc

tion with the others.

1. Use individual pieces of research to support your position.

Supportedby

2. Use multiple pieces of research to support your position.

2The full citation that would appear in the Works Cited list would look like this:

Howard, Rebecca M. “Plagiarism, Authorship, and the Academic Death Penalty.” College

English. 57.7 (1995). 788—806. Web. 14 Feb. 2014.

Supportedby

Fh


3. Use research to confirm the specific research that supports your position.

Supported Confirmedby by

4. Use multiple pieces of research to form a synthetic support for your position.

Supportedby

5. Use your position to refute research.

cb xRefutes

6. Use your position and supporting research to refute other research.

Refutes

I


Quoting Research

Deciding how you will bring your research into your writing is one of the most impor

tant decisions you will make as you synthesize. One approach is to directly quote the

research. Quoting brings others’ voices into your writing. Direct quotations best serve

your synthesis when the language of the research conveys the pertinent information

in a way that you would not be able tocapture, when the language of the research is

itself part of what makes the information relevant, or when you need the audience to

be aware of the research language or the source of particular language.

Using Effective Connection Words

When making connections in their writing, college writers often repeat the same connec

tion words too frequently, which makes for tedious reading and indefinite or vague con

nections. Most commonly writers default to the verb says to connect research within their

writing: the author says,” “Smith says,” “the article says,” and so on. One way to create

more sophisticated connections in your writing, and more dynamic writing overall, is to use

a variety of attribution verbs—verbs that attribute information to a source. Each of the at

tribution verbs listed here has a distinct meaning, and one cannot simply be substituted for

another. You should learn what each verb means, and then use a good variety of them to

make connections in your writing.

acceptsaccounts foracknowledges

addressesaddsadmitsadvisesaffirmsagreesallegesallowsanalyzesanswersarguesasksassertsassumesbelievescategorizeschallenges

chargescites

claimscommentscomparescomplainsconcedesconcludesconcursconfessesconfirmsconsiderscontendscriticizesdeals withdecidesdeclaresdefinesdeniesdescribesdisagreesdiscussesdisputesemphasizes

endorsesexplainsexpressesfindsgrantshypothesizes

illustratesimpllasindicatesinsinuatesinsistsinterpretsintroduceslistsmaintainsmentionsnotesobjectsobservesoffersopposespoints out

proposesquestionsrealizesreasonsrefutesrejectsremarksrepliesreportsrespondsrevealsseesshowsspeculatesstatessuggestssupportssupposesthinksusesverifieswrites


Working Quotes into WritingQuoting research requires that you carefully represent the research through its exactwording. Fitting quoted material smoothly into your writing is difficult to do. The attribution verbs listed above can be helpful, but sometimes you may have to adjust thequote so it flows within your writing. These adjustments include removing languageand adding or clarifying information. The following chart shows three strategies forseamlessly including quotes.

Strategy for ExampleIncorporating a Quote

Original Quote: “One of the most important innovations in contemporary American education as distinguished from European and Asian education practices sincethe late 1 800s as reported in various journals and indexes has been the democratization of information distribution.”Revised Quote: “One of the most important innovations in contemporary American education ... has been the democratization of information distribution.Note that removing some of the words does not alter the core meaning of thesentence but, instead, emphasizes what is relevant to the situation, It is imperativewhen removing information from a direct quote that you not alter the original meaning. Doing so would misrepresent the source of your research.

In some situations, you max’ want to include longer direct quotations than inother situations. Short and long quotes are indicated differently in academic writing,and how each is identified depends on which formal writing style you use.In MLA style, if the quoted material is fewer than four complete, typed lines, thematerial should be indicated by using quotation marks at the beginning and end ofthe quoted material, which should be incorporated directly into the body of yourwriting. If the quoted material is longer than four complete, typed lines, the materialshould be offset from the body of the text by indenting the quoted material by oneinch from the left margin, or two standard tab indents of one-half inch each. Do notuse quotation marks for longer, indented quotes.

To remove language from aquote, use ellipses to indicatethat something has beenremoved.

Use brackets to add or clan’fy Original Quote: “If the administrator had been present as required. the engineersinformation within a direct would have been alerted to the change of plans.”quote. Revised Quote: “If the administrator [Mrs. Usa Louw] had been present as required, the engineers would have been alerted to the change of plans.”Also use brackets to indicate Original Quote: According to Muswell, “Michael Graves, Philip Johnson, Robertan alteration in verb tense. Venturi, and Charles Moore have been regularly identified as the leading figures inpostmodern architecture” (138).

Revised Quote: According to Muswell. “Michael Graves, Philip Johnson, RobertVenturi, and Charles Moore [are) regularly identified as the leading figures in post-modern architecture” (138).


Short and Long Quotations in MLA Format

SHORT QUOTATION

Otaku culture refers to people, generally in younger populations, who participate in a

Japanese subculture that is characterized by its attachment to video games, anime,

science fiction, computers, special-effects movies, anime figurines, and other simi

lar cultural artifacts. As Hiroki Azuma defines it in Otaku: Japan’s Database Animals,

“Otaku culture, as exemplified through comics and anime, still often maintains an image

of youth culture” (3). But Otaku culture is also populated by a large number of men in

Japan over the age of 40.

THE SOURCE FOR THIS QUOTE IS CITED IN MLA THiS WAY

\zuma, Hiroki. Otaku: Japans Database Aoimals. qf Mirwota P, 2PQ9.

LONG QUOTATION

Because different people have different concepts of what might and might not

be considered obscene, obscenity standards fluctuate depending on historical

moments and varying contexts. For example, at various times, books like

D. H. Lawrence’s Lady Chatterleys Lover, J. D. Salinger’s Catcher in the Rye, and Walt

Whitman’s Leaves of Grass each have been considered obscene and, at other times,

have been considered great works of literature. Because perceptions of obscenity can

be so problematic from a legal perspective, in 1957, the United States Supreme Court

issued clarifications regarding freedoms of expression:

Sex and obscenity are not synonymous. Obscene material is material which

deals with sex in a manner appealing to prurient interest. The portrayal of

sex in art, literature and scientific works, is not itself sufficient reason to deny

material the constitutional protection of freedom of speech and press. Sex,

a great and mysterious motive force in human life, has indisputably been a

subject of absorbing interest to mankind through the ages; it is one of the

vital problems of human interest and public concern. (476)

The court was also adamant that in order to determine whether a piece of media was to be

understood as obscene, the entire media had to be considered, not just part of it,

THE SOURCE FOR THIS QUOTE IS CITED IN MLA THIS WAY

Roth v. United States. 354 U.S. 476. Justia US Supreme Court Center.

ode. 8taMth ariii Reuiatma JasisuprQawt

ian.OI.


Short and Long Quotations in APA Format

SHORT QUOTATION

The Italian cheese Pecorino is identified by a two-letter abbreviation of the town inwhich it is made. For example, Pecorino SR is made only in Grosetto, and PecorinoPE is from Pesaro. Unfortunately, most of the Pecorinos are not available in theUnred States. As cheese expert and author Steven Jenkins puts it, “These name-controlled Pecorino Toscanos are sold n a number of variations-—all grand. Currentlyonly Pecorino Toscano is sold in the U.S., while Pecorino dellUmbria and PecorinaMarchigiano are rarely found outside of central Italy’ (243). Controlling the naming ofcheese may contribute to maintaining regional specialties, but it also limits ranges ofdistribution.

THE SOURCE FOR THIS QUOTE IS CITED IN APA THIS WAYJenkins, S. c1996). Cheese primer.

LONG QUOTATION (40 OR MORE WORDS)

Research on web design needs to take into account how and when users are engagingwith a particular site, Hall (2013>, for example, describes a type of causal research:Once you have implemented the solutions you proposed, and have a websiteor application up and running out in the world, you might start noticing thatpeople are using it in a certain way, possibly a way that isn’t exactly whatyou’d hoped. Or perhaps, something really terrific is happening and you wantto replicate the success in other parts of your operation. For example, you’venoticed that ever since the Fantastic Science Center redesign launched,tickets for the Friday evening science-loving singles event are selling better,but ticket sales have completely dropped off for the Sunday afternoon filmprogram. You need to do some causal research. (p. 15).

THE SOURCE FOR THIS QUOTE IS CITED IN APA THIS WAY:Hall, E. Oi). Just enough research. eiicABookpatt.

If you are using APA style, then short quotes of no more than forty words are included directly in the body of the writing and are indicated using quotation marksat the beginning and end of the quoted material. Longer quotes of more than fortywords should be indented one-half inch from the left margin. Do not use quotationmarks for longer, indented quotes.


Punctuating Quotes

When using quotations in your writing, follow these four basic rules:

1. In short quotes, periods and commas always go inside quotation marks unless

you use parenthetical citation, in which case the period or comma follows the

closing parenthesis.

“If we want to know where good ideas come from,” Steven Johnson writes, “we have

to put them in context” (1 7).

2. Because indented long quotes do not use any quotation marks, the parenthetical

citation follows the final period, as is shown in the examples for long quotations.

3. Question marks and exclamation points go inside quotation marks when they are

part of the quoted material; they are placed outside of the quotation marks if they

are not part of the quoted material. If the question mark or exclamation point is

part of the quoted material (and thus appears inside the quotation mark), then

the parenthetical citation is placed outside of the quotation mark, followed by a

period. If the question mark or exclamation point is not part of the quoted mate

rial, then it is placed after the citation.

There are many urban myths about unusual questions asked at job interviews, One of

the most interesting is ascribed to be a common question IBM asks its job applicants:

“How do you weigh an elephant without using a weight scale?”

Who first said “We have nothing to fear but fear itself”?

The inquiry, then, must ask questions like “What effect do these things and artifacts

have on us?” (Verbeek 1).

Why, then, does Gershenfeld claim that “there’s a very real sense in which the things

around us are infringing on a new kind of right that has not needed protection unti1

now’ (102)?

4. Colons and semicolons should always be placed outside of quotation marks.

Peggy Teeter, who began her career writing about her experiences in World War Il and

the Korean War, used to say that “the only way to learn to write is to write”; this kind of

pragmatic advice can be useful for a number of reasons.

Paraphrasing Research

Paraphrasing involves explaining all or part of the research information in your own words

rather than quoting it. Paraphrasing can contribute to the synthesis of your research be

cause it presents the information in your language, blending it with the rest ofyour writing.

Paraphrasing can help you avoid relying too heavily on direct quotes, which can distract

the audience from your voice. However, just because paraphrased information is stated in

your language does not mean that the ideas you convey have become yours. Paraphrased

information must be attributed to the sources from which it is derived. Paraphrased text is

generally shorter than the original material because you have condensed the ideas, but in

doing so, you should neither alter nor misrepresent the original information.

-


Follow these rules when paraphrasing:• Make certain you understand the work you are paraphrasing. You can’t clearlyconvey information you don’t understand.Avoid looking at the original text as you write the paraphrase so you are nottempted to rely on the original language.• Indicate with quotation marks any words or unique language you borrow from theoriginal.• Provide citations for any research you paraphrase.Consider this example of original text that is then paraphrased.

ORtGNAL TEXT

High-speed rail has hit another milestone, this time in China, with the opening of theworld’s longest bullet train line.The 1,425-mile high-speed rail system runs from Beijing to Guangzhou,reducing the time travelers would spend commuting between the capital and themanufacturing city from 22 hours to a scant 8 hours.Traveling at an average speed of 186 mph, the line stops in Shijiazhuang,Zhengzhou, Wuhan and Changsha before arnvirig at its final destination in Guangzhou.The opening of this newest high-speed rail line is just the latest in a string of bullettrains that have begun to infiltrate the country after the network began operation in2007. There are currently 5,779 miles of high-speed track in the country, and thestate-run China Daily newspaper says that’s set to expand to over 31,000 miles oftrack by 2020.

But this latest milestone hasn’t come without its problems. According to the AFFsafety concerns have been a regular issue since 2008, with one high-speed railcollision occurring in 2011 that claimed the lives of 40 people.“We can’t make sure it’s error-proof in the future, and we have been subjectto a lot of pressure from the public,” Zhao Chunlei, deputy chief of the ministry’stransportation department, told the Global Times newspaper.The timing of the high-speed rail line correlates with China’s Lunar New Yearholiday celebration, which takes place this February, and will see hundreds ofmillions of people traveling across the country to visit their ancestral homes in what’sdescribed by the AFP as “the world’s largest annual migration.”PARAPHRASE

The world’s longest bullet train line opened in China, running 1,425 miles fromBeijing to Guangzhou at an average speed of 186 mph, reducing travel time for thetrip from 22 hours to 8 hours. China currently has 5,779 miles of high-speed traintrack and hopes to expand to over 31,000 miles of track by 2020. There have beensome safety concerns with the new trains since 2008, including concerns involving a2011 high-speed rail collision that killed 40 people. The opening of the new train linecoincides with China’s lunar New Year holiday celebration, during which hundreds ofmillions of people travel across the country to visit their ancestral homes.THE SOURCE ARTICLE IS CITED IN MLA THIS WAY

Lavrino, Damon. “World’s Longest Bullet Train Line Opens in China.” Wkep’cim, Wb*012.


THE SOURCE ARTICLE IS CITED IN APA THIS WAY:

Lavrinc, D. pI). Worlds longest bullet train line opens in China. Wkedcam. 1etrie,ed

Summarizing Research

When the research is long and the overall concepts are more relevant to your writing

than are the details, you will want to summarize the information. Summaries sim

piy report or describe information, but they do not convey the degree of details that

paraphrasing might. Think of summarizing as distilling information to a minimal

explanation of the main ideas. The following chart presents effective strategies for

summarizing.

Summarizing Strategy Comments

Even though you write summaries in your own words, they still convey others’

ideas. So you need to acknowledge that the summary includes someone else’s

work and provide attribution to the source,

It is difficult to reduce a text that you don’t understand, and doing so may produce

an inaccurate summary Before writing your summary, be sure you understand each

part of the text, the relationships between each part, and the organization of the text.

Consider the following examples of summaries:

SAMPLE SUMMARY OF “WORLD’S LONGEST BULLET TRAIN LINE OPENS IN CHINA”:

Although there are some safety concerns, China opened the world’s longest bullet train

line as part of a plan to continue extending their bullet train system before 2020.

SAMPLE SUMMARY OF HERMAN MELVILLE’S MOBY DICK:

Herman Melville’s novel Moby Dick, told from the perspective of lshmael. a whaler who

joins Captain Ahab crew aboard the Pequod, focuses on Ahab’s obsession with a white

whale known as Moby Dick and the captain’s willingness to sacrifice everything, including

his ship and crew, to destroy the whale,

MOBY DICK iS CITED IN MLA THIS WAY:

Melville, Herman, Hershel Parker, and Harrison Hayford. Moby-Dick. 3ew %brkNorton.

OQ2 Punt.

Identity what you are summarizing

and include an in-text citation.

Make sure you understand what it

is you are Summarizing.

Provide the main ideas. Summaries do not include details, Focus on the big, overarching ideas.

Use your words and writing styles. Of course, you will need to use some of the key phrases of the research, but

your own language should dominate the summary.

Quote and attribute any exact It you do use exact wording from the source, be sure to cite it properly.

phrases you use from the original.

Write your summary without look- Base your summary on what you recall from the text, but afterward, go back to

ing at the source text. the source text and make sure that you have represented it accurately.


MOBY DICK IS CITED IN APA TH1S WAY:

MeMlie, H. Moby-Dick (H. Parker & H. Hayforcl. Eds.). i)øw ‘ofl t,lctonAvoiding Common Mistakes in Synthesizing ResearchOne way to improve synthesis is to understand what contributes to poor synthesis andavoid it. Student writers often commit these common synthesis mistakes3throughouttheir research and writing.

1. Not including key research such as information fromthe leading expert on a subject

2. Simply including the first research you find or a randoni choice of research without checking whether it 15the most relavant or related information

3. Carelessly or not rigorously evaluating research sources4. Carelessly or not rigorously evaluating research details

5. Using only one source (instead of multiple sources) toconfirm a position

6. Forcing research to fit your needs when it does not7. Being unaware of or overlooking critiques of the research you use

& Intentionally not addressing conflicting research tomore easily fit particular research into your synthesis9. Failing to provide enough research or evidence to support your ideas in a situation

Can result in using irrelevant or contested researchCan lead to misrepresenting whole research sources and!or specific research details

Creates a logical fallacy akin to begging the question

Is unethical and will seem forced and difficult to followCan reflect weak research evaluation and can leave audiences questioning the validity of the connections you make

Is unethical in academic writing

Pressures the audience to accept your position withoutreceMng substantial links to the situation

These errors are adapted from Durkin, Michael J. “Types of Errors in Synthesizing Researchin Education.” Revieu’ ofEducational Research Vol. 66 No. 2(1996): 87-97.

Synthesis Mistake ConsequenceMistakes while choosing research resources

Might ignore important, expected information

Can make it difficult to bring research together smoothly

Mistakes while analyzing and evaluating research

Mistakes while bringing research together In writing

10. Plagiarizing informationMisrepresents others’ ideas and primary research as yourown

1 1. Making any of the above common mistakes Inevitably leads to other mistakes writers make in theirown positions, their own claims, their own argumentsand information


19.3 A’od Avoiding Plagiarismpianansm in o

________________________________________________________________________________________

O9tlfi VnO One of the most important parts of synthesizing research in your writing is ensuring that

searchyour writing is your writing and that any research you use is clearly identified as some

supports you one else’s. Certainly, all of your research will influence what you write, the positions

aeas that you take, and the ideas you convey; however, direct repetition of someone else’s

ideas, words, or methods is plagiarism. In college, plagiarism is considered a violation

of academic standards; college-level research respects scholarly values and builds ethi

cally on the work of others. Part of this ethic requires that writers and researchers al

ways acknowledge when they rely on others’ ideas, approaches, words, and methods.

Definition of Plagiarism

Plagiarism varies from situation to situation. College students are expected to adhere

to institutional and disciplinary definitions of plagiarism. Many colleges and univer

sities have strict definitions and penalties for plagiarism; others may have limited or

more liberal policies and definitions. Some universities have different policies for

different colleges and disciplines within the institution. Often academic situations

define plagiarism in relation to whether writers “intentionally” represent someone

else’s work or ideas as their own. Other definitions make a distinction between us

ing “common knowledge” and someone else’s intellectual property. But these kinds

of definitions are ambiguous, and it really isn’t always clear what constitutes “com

mon knowledge” or whether a writer “intentionally” uses someone else’s work. These

kinds of ambiguities can leave writers unsure as to whether or not they have plagia

rized and can lead to worry and anxiety—particularly in college settings where penal

ties for plagiarizing can be heft,’.

It may be best to think of plagiarism as a set of standards specific to each situa

tion in which you write. For college writers, those procedures contribute to academic

integrity and academic standards.

Basically, plagiarism is representing someone else’s words and/or ideas as your

own. This definition is simple; the act and consequences, however, are not. In col

lege writing situations, the following six practices are more often than not identified

as plagiarism:

1. Buying a piece of writing and presenting it as your own paper.

2. Copying and pasting exact language from a source without citing the source.

3. Changing words in another person’s sentence or phrase but retaining the same

idea/structure without citing the source.

4. Collaborating with another student or other students to produce a text that was

supposed to be produced individually.

5. Seeking assistance from an expert or authority that would change the fundamen

tal ideas or language of your paper, for example, having a paid tutor contribute to

your essay.

6. Failing to use the proper documentation required by disciplinary standards.

Avoiding Plagiarism

It is xvise to find out what your institution’s definitions of plagiarism are as well aswhat policies and consequences it has established.

Determining Usability and PlagiarismPlagiarism is a matter of ethics. Ethics are the rules of conduct we choose to adhereto in any given situation. Plagiarism, then, is a matter of violating an academic ruleof conduct. Attribution, documentation, and citation are all tied to professionalstandards and professional codes of ethics. Academics have numerous documentation styles and standards, each affiliated with particular disciplines (for example, inEnglish, MLA style is preferred; in engineering, IEEE style is preferred). Outside ofthe academic world, many professional disciplines have their own ethical guidelinesregarding plagiarism and their own style guides. Journalists, for example, might usethe Associated Press Stylebook and Briefing on Media Lau’ which addresses not onlyplagiarism but also copyright infringement and other legal and ethical issues for journalists. Business professionals might use the FranklinCovey Style Guide or the IBMStyleguide, both of which address ethical concerns for business writers.

In many situations, including academic writing, plagiarism can have an effect onviability of publication and possibly on profitability. More important, however, is thatplagiarism affects the usability of the writing product. Failure to accurately and completely document source material jeopardizes the usability and the integrity of theproduct. If professional academics cannot assure that a writer’s research comes fromacceptable places, then they cannot support or endorse the arguments or findings inthe writing.

Usability, then, is simply a matter of confirming that your writing is usable withina given situation. In academic writing situations, your research must comply with theethical codes and professional standards your college or university maintains. It is,then, every college writer’s responsibility to locate, read, and abide by his or her college’s policies about plagiarism and academic integrity.

Plagiarism, Remix, and MashupIn November 2012, Turnitin.com, one of the most widely used Internet-based services for plagiarism prevention in colleges, released a report and an infographiccalled The Plagiarism Spectrum: Tagging 10 types of Unoriginal Work.” This report,based on an international survey of nearly 900 instructors in secondary and highereducation, identifies ten forms of plagiarism that result from the prevalent role ofdigital media in student writing. Among these ten, the report identifies mashup asthe fourth most frequent and problematic form of plagiarism and remix as the seventh most frequent.

Although mashup and remix are considered plagiarism in specific situations suchas academic writing, they are seen as innovative, creative methods of expressionin other situations. They are also popular methods of production. Even so, in many


nonacaclemic situations, rernix and mashups risk being identified as copyright vialatians or misappropriation of intallectual property. The key is to be alert to whenand where remix and mashup are accepted forms and in what situations they aredeemed plagiarism. As a baslc rule, assume that remix and mashup qualify as plagiarism according to most academic honesty standards. Submit remix or mashup

projects in your college work only after consulting with your instructor, and alwaysbe alert to the academic standards of your institution.

Accepting ResponsibilityBy entering into an academic community, every student has, in essence, signed an

agreement with the institution to submit to its terms of conduct. Part of that agree

ment relates to complying with academic writing standards, including understanding

and avoiding plagiarism.Unfortunately, some institutional policies tell students to avoid plagiarism but do

little to show them how to avoid it. it is, then, your responsibility to develop strate

gies to ensure you do not plagiarize and that you understand exactly what constitutes

plagiarism in your institution’s writing situations. As you write and think about your

writing, ask yourself these kinds of questions:

• Am I required to use source materials in this class?

• If so, do they include only sources we’ve read in class or outside sources, too?

• Should I use citations on the in-class sources?

• What documentation style am I required to use? Am Ito observe conventions only

for citing sources in the text and works cited at the end of the paper or, in addition,

style conventions such as formatting, footnoting, etc.?

• Where can I find a brief overview of the important in-text and bibliographic con

ventions I should use?• Are there any restrictions on getting assistance with editing and revising?

• Are there any restrictions on collaboration?

• Should I be aware of or incorporate any other discipline-specific citation proce

dures that have not been covered by the university’s plagiarism policy?

SummaryTo synthesize is to form a new whole from carefuty evaluated, selected, and relevant parts.

Synthesis builds ecological relationships among your writing, the situation, and other texts.

The most difficult part of synthesizing research is writing about the research in ways that

support your voice and position. When synthesizing research into your work, always begin

by writing your ideas, claims, and thoughts. Thorough note taking enables strong synthesis,

helping you to respond to the research, show readers how the research is relevant, and con

nect research information and your ideas in logical and beneficial ecosystems. Direct quota

tions best serve your synthesis when you want your readers to encounter the exact language

Thinking and Writing about the Chapterof tne research. Paraphrased information is best when research content is important, but theanguage of the research is not as relevant. Summarizing research is appropriate when theresearch is long and the overall concepts are more relevant to your writing than are the details.One way to improve synthesis is to avoid making the 1 1 key mistakes that undermine it. Although the mistake of plagiarism is defined differently in various situations, it basically involvesrepresenting someone else’s words and/or ideas as your own. In college, plagiarism is considered a violaton of academic stanoards. You must accept the responsibility to avoid plagiarismby asking careful questions about source materials and documentation formats.

Chapter Review1. Where should you begin when synthesizing your research and your writing?2. Identity five ways you can bring your research and your writing together.3. Why should you avoid plagiarizing?

4. How can you avoid plagiarizing?

Thinking and Writing about the ChapterLocal SituationHow does your university or college define plagiarism? Where does the definition appear?Do different departments or programs have their own definitions of plagiarism? Are there anyparts of the definition that are ambiguous or unclear? What are the penalties for plagiarism?First, write a summary of your institution’s plagiarism policies. Next, write a paraphrase of yourinstitution’s plagiarism policies.

t1HHii

hui

[

When you conduct rescue ho do you rt

gtatcwhai ,ou dlscove Into you wntnq5 How

du yu make vow rescarcl a J vur wiling

work together? How do you determIne what to

incude aid what not to nc ude? In your ournal

or bog. exniaiu whai you do to mace wsearch

you conduct useful to your eadew.

Learning Objectives

20.1 Prepare a research plan

20.2 Locate ad eva ate resources

20.3 Integrate sources smoothly into a formal

research paper

204 AvoId plagiarism and document sources

Presenting andDocumentingResearch

Before you read this chapter

460

Documents

Synthesizing Information Learning Objectives · Synthesizing Information Learning Objectives 19.1 Se cot research that supports your own deas 19.2 Synthesize yoru research and your