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THE ENGLISH LANGUAGESYNTAX- note de curs -

Lector univ. drd. DANIELA POPESCU

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INTRODUCTION

TOPICS IN ENGLISH SYNTAX

Syntax enables human beings to compose complex messages. It is the branch ofgrammar which studies the way in which phrases and sentences are structured out of

words.

Within traditional grammar, the syntax of a language is described in terms of therange of different types of syntactic structures found in the language.

The central assumption underpinning syntactic analysis in traditional grammar is

that phrases and sentences are built up of a series of constituents (syntactic units), each

of which belongs to a specific grammaticalcategory and serves a specific grammatical

function.

Given this assumption, the task of the linguist analysing the syntactic structure ofany given type of sentence is to identify each of the constituents in the sentence, and (for

each constituent) to say what category it belongs to and what function it serves. For

example, in relation to the syntax of a simple sentence like Students spoke loudlyit would

traditionally be said that each of the three words in the sentence belongs to a specific

grammatical category (students being a plural noun,spoke a past tense verb, and loudlyan adverb) and that each serves a specific grammatical function (spoke being a

predicate,studentsbeing its sole argument and functioning as the subject ofspoke, and

loudlybeing an adjunct an expression which provides additional information about the

time, place or manner of an event).

The overall sentence Students spoke loudly has the categorial status of a clause

which is finite in nature (by virtue of denoting an event taking place in a specificmanner), and has the semantic function of expressing a proposition which is declarativein force (in that it is used to make a statement rather than e.g. ask a question).

The divisible parts of a sentence are called constituents. A sentence has different

kinds or categoriesof constituents, which are arranged in a specifiable manner and which

have certain specifiable functions of communication:

declarative (give information about something to someone):John is reading a book.

interrogative (ask someone for information):Is John readung a book?

imperative (make someone do something):Read the book, John!

exclamatory (express ones feeling or attitude):[John is reading a book!] What a shock!

In a declarative sentence speakers give information on:

one or more participants (subject / object: we, the audience) the event, state, process, or activity (predicator: were laughing, will leave) attributes of participants (attribute: happy, anxious) the setting of the event or situation (adverbial:yesterday, everywhere).

It has already been stated that syntax is concerned with the way words combine to

form sentences. A wordis the smallest unit of syntax. A sentenceis the largest unit of

syntax, a syntactically related group of words that expresses an assertion, a question, a

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command, a wish or an exclamation. It usually begins with a capital letter and ends with a

period, question or exclamation mark.

A clauseis a basic syntactic construction consisting of a subject and a predicate,

and occurs as main, coordinated or subordinated.Sentences may be simple, compound and complex. A simple sentence consists

of one main clause: Ostriches cannot fly.A compound sentence consists of two or more

(independent) main clauses, connected by a coordinate conjunction (and, but, or, nor,

for, so, yet), a correlative conjunction (both ... and, not only ... but also, either ... or,

neither ... nor), a conjunctive adverb (moreover, so, therefore)and/or a semicolon:

Ostriches are birds but they cannot fly.

Both ostriches and penguins are mammals that cannot fly.Ostriches are very heavy so they cannot fly.

Penguins live at the Poles; they can swim very well.

A complex sentence contains at least one full dependent clause which functions as

a constituent and is introduced by a subordinating conjunction: after, although, as, as if,as/even though, because, before, how, however much, if, in order that, now that, once,rather than, since, so that, that, though, unless, until, what(ever), when(e), where(ever),

whereas, whether, which(ever), while, who(m)(ever), whose.

A dependent clause may function

as an adverbial:Ostriches cannot fly because their wings cannot support their body

weight.

as a modifier of a noun (relative clause):Penguins, which live at the Poles, can swim very well.

as a subject, object, or subject complement clause:That ostriches use to hide their head under the sand is common

knowledge.What is surprising is that ostriches use to hide their head under the sand.Everybody knows that ostriches use to hide their head under the sand.

A fact is that ostriches use to hide their head under the sand.

Sentences are analysed as consisting of smaller units (constituents) which are

called phrases. Each phrase has a core element which, if deleted, will produce an ill-

formed phrase. This core element is called the head element and it names the whole

phrase (verb phrase, noun phrase, prepositional phrase, etc.) and determines its categoryor type.

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CHAPTER ONE

THE PHRASE

The phrase is a group of words that does not include both a subject and a verb and

that function as a single part of speech, namely as a noun, adjective, or adverb.Sometimes a statement is too complex or detailed to be expressed in a single

clause. Statements of this kind are made by putting two or more clauses together in one

sentence.There are two ways of doing this:

use one clause as a main clause and add other clauses which express subordinatemeanings:

He took off his coat because he was very hot.

link clauses together:We are his parents and (are) very proud of him. Questions and orders can also consist of more than one clause:

Why do you insist if he doesnt want to be part of it?

If this is what you want I wont try to make you change your mind.

When two clauses are put together into one sentence, a conjunction is used to linkthem and to indicate the relationship between them:

He opened the book and his mother left the room.

When I arrived there, everybody had already left.

There are two kinds of conjunction and they always indicate different kinds of

relationship between clauses in a sentence:

1. subordinating conjunctions, used when adding a clause in order to develop

some aspect of what it is said. A clause which begins with a subordinatingconjunction is called a subordinate clause:

If you had known the truth, you wouldnt have gone there.

Subordinate clauses can also be added to questions and imperative clauses:

How long is it since you have had this car?Sentences containing a main clause and one or more subordinate clauses are oftencalled complex sentences. There are three main kinds of subordinate clause:

adverbial, relative, and reported clauses;

2. coordinating conjunctions, used in order to link clauses:

He is an old man and lives all alone in a huge house.

Coordinating conjunctions can also be put between questions and between

imperative clauses:Do your children spend their summer holidays in the mountains or do they

go to the seaside?

Have a glass of lemonade or a cup of ice tea.

Clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions are called coordinate clauses:

She turned left at the corner and was out of my sight.Sentences which contain coordinate clauses are sometimes called compound

sentences.

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1.1. The noun phrase

The noun phrase is a group of words consisting of a noun (the head noun) and any

determiners and/or modifiers.Determiners include:

a) articles (definite or indefinite);b) adjectives (demonstratives, possessives, interrogatives, indefinite and others):

half, double, whole, several, certain, various, next, last, only, own;

c) numerals (cardinals, ordinals and fractions);d) phrases such as: a lot of, lots of, plenty of, a good deal of, a great deal of, a large

number of, a great number of, a large amount of, a small quantity of;

e) partitives: a bar of chocolate, a bowl of soup, a glass of water, a loaf of bread, apiece of paper, a slice of cake, etc.;

f) numeratives: a couple of days, a pair of shoes.Determiners are classified as:

1. central determiners, which exclude each other in a noun phrase (articles,demonstratives and possessives adjectives, indefinite adjectives): each, every,

some, any, no, neither, either;

2. predeterminers and postdeterminers, which can either qualify a noun bythemselves, or combine with central determiners, sometimes even which eachother.

Predeterminers are:a) words that expand the indefinite article: only, just, nearly, even, quite, such, many;

b) adjectives;

c) indefinite adjectives sometimes followed by of;

d) interrogative adjectives: which;e) cardinals;f) fractions.

Postdeterminers are:

a) indefinite pronouns;b) adjectives;c) cardinals;d) ordinals;e) partitives;f) numeratives.

Here are various types of possible combinations:

1. Predeterminer + central determiner + noun: both my parents;2. Predeterminer + of + central determiner + noun: one of my schoolmates;

3. Predeterminer + of + central determiner + noun: one or two of my friends;4. Central determiner + postdeterminer + noun: the other books;

5. Predeterminer + central determiner + postdeterminer + noun: all the other people;

6. Predeterminer + central determiner + postdeterminer + noun: only the first kids;

7. Predeterminer + of + central determiner + postdeterminer + noun: all of those five

poems;8. Predeterminer + of + central determiner + postdeterminer + noun: many more of those

five stories;

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9. Predeterminer + of + central determiner + postdeterminer + noun: all of those other ten

children;

10. Predeterminer + of + central determiner + postdeterminer + noun: some more of the

last ten people.Modifiers are classified as premodifiers and postmodifiers. Premodifiers are

words, phrases or clauses modifying a noun placed after the determiner and before the

head-noun. They are:

- nouns: a gold ring, a coffee break;- adjectives: brown bread, the young woman;- adverbs: the after life, the above statement;- groups of words: an up-to-date technology, the half-past-ten bus;- clauses: a wear-at-night-and-throw-away-in-the-morning outfit.

Post modifiers are words, phrases, or clauses modifying a noun which

immediately follow the head-noun. They are:

a. nouns:Mother Theresa, Professor Smith, the river Thames;b. adjectives:

- apposition:Alexander the Great;

- predicative: two ideas alike, the building ablaze;

- following expressions of measurement: a hotel eleven-storeys high, a girl ten-years old;

- others: the members absent, the audience present;c. adverbs: the floor below, the people outside;d. prepositional phrases: words of French origin, an angel of a child, a

matter of fact, the tail of the lion, the woman on the bus, a sonnet of

Shakespeares;

e. clauses:- nominal clauses: clauses functioning as a noun having the synthetic function ofnoun complement, introduced by the conjunction that:

The thought that he might have been killed terrified his wife;

- relative clauses, functioning as adjectives and introduced by relative pronouns(which, who, whom, whose, that) or relative adverbs (why, where, when);

- defining relative clauses. They bring essential information to the sentence they arepart of:

This is the film that I have been telling you about.- non-defining relative clauses. They are separated by comma(s) from the rest of thesentence, cannot be introduced by that, and do not bring essential information to thesentence they are part of:

My boyfriend, who lives in the country, is an artist.

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1.2. The prepositional phrase

The prepositional phrase is a phrase consisting of a preposition and its complement

(a noun or a noun equivalent). The noun equivalent may be a pronoun, a noun phrase, ora nominal clause:

The children were looking at me with interest.

What you are doing is against the law.

This organization is for whoever believes in justice.

1.3. The adjective phrase

The adjective phrase is a group of words consisting of an adjective plus any

complements and/or modifiers and functioning as a determiner or a modifier when part ofa noun phrase, or as a complement (subject complement or object complement):

Last month more of those children were sent back to their country origin.

where more of those= adjective phrase, predeterminer + of + central determiners;

This is an answer very difficult to ignore.

where very difficult to ignore= adjective phrase, postmodifier;Pete is very smart. He is, indeed, as smart as his father, which means that he is

smarter than average teenagers.where very smart, as smart as his father, smarter than the average teenager = adjective

phrases, subject complements;

The amazingly beautiful woman proved to be a well-informed journalist.

where amazingly beautiful, well-informed = adjective phrases, pre modifiers;The man painted the fence as white as snow.

where as white as snow = adjective phrase, object complement.

1.4. The adverb phrase

The adverb phrase is a group of words consisting of an adverb plus any modifiersand functioning as an adverbial modifier:

Pamela plays the piano extremely beautifully. (adverb phrase, adverbial modifierof manner modifying the verb phraseplays the piano)

I love her very much. (adverb phrase, adverbial modifier of manner - modifyingthe verb phrase love her)

Quite unhappily, he soon lost most of his money. (adverb phrase, sentenceadverbial modifying the rest of the sentence in which it appears)

He almost always looks in on Granny on his way home. (adverb phrase, adverbial

modifier of time)

1.5. The verbal phrase

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Definition: a group of words consisting of a verbal (a non-finite verb form that does not

function as the verb of the sentence) and all its objects, complements and modifiers,

depending on the type of verbal they contain. Verbal phrases are classified as: gerund,

participial and infinitive.Verbals can be:

a) Gerunds (functioning as nouns);

b) Participles (functioning as adjectives):

- present participle: loving(active), being loved(passive);

- past participle (only passive): loved;

- perfect participle: having loved (active), having been loved(passive);c) Infinitives functioning as adjectives, nouns or adverbs:

- present infinitive: - active: to love, to be loving;

- passive: to be loved, to be being loved;

- perfect infinitive: - active: to have loved;

- passive: to have been loved.

1.6. The Gerund Phrase

Definition: a group of words that contains a gerund plus its objects, complements and/ormodifiers, and functions as a noun:

Allowing her to leave was a mistake.(gerund phrase, subject)I cannot help falling in love with you.(gerund phrase, direct object)

They left without saying goodbye. (gerund phrase, complement of

preposition)

1.7. The Participial Phrase

Definition: a word group that contains a participle plus its objects, complements and/or

modifiers and functions as an adjective pre-modifying a noun or noun equivalent.

Participial phrases that operate like relative clauses (postmodifying nouns or noun

equivalents) or like adverbial clauses of time, condition, reason and result are analysed asnon-finite participle clauses, namely reduced relative clauses or reduced adverbial

clauses:The quietly sleeping baby was carefully guarded by two nurses.

(participial phrase modifying the head noun baby)The well-known scientist was to be present at our meeting. (participial

phrase pre-modifying the head nounscientist)Looking out of the window, Tom noticed a black car in front of his house.

(participial clause, adverbial of time)

If washed in hot water, this dress will shrink. (past participle clause,

adverbial of condition)

Being a perfectionist I always double-check everything. (-ing participleclause, adverbial of reason)

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Marie didnt hear the alarm clock yesterday morning, being late for work.

(-ing participle clause, adverbial of result)

Depending on the elements they contain, finite clauses can be reduced to

participial clauses in one the following ways:a) Relative clauses are reduced by:

- omitting the relative pronoun and the auxiliary be:

The wall is facing the balcony. It will be put down.=

The wall facing the balcony will be put down.

- omitting the relative pronoun and changing the main verb into a present

participle form:

I dont understand the pupils who behave badly.=

I dont understand the pupils behaving badly.

Note!Relative clauses can only be reduced if the relative pronoun is directly followed by

the verb. A non-definite relative clause can be moved, after being reduced, to the front of

the sentence.b) Adverbial clauses are reduced by:

- omitting the subject and the auxiliary to be:

If it is washed in hot water this dress will shrink.=

If washed in hot water this dress will shrink.

- omitting the clause marker and the subject and changing the main verb into apresent participle form:

As she had been told to leave, Gina turned around and walked away.=Having being told to leave, Gina turned around and walked away.

1.7. The Infinitive Phrase

Definition: a word group that contains an infinitive plus its subject, objects, complements

and\or modifiers, and functions as a noun, adjective or adverb. Infinitive phrases that

operate as relative clauses, as noun complement clauses or as adverbial clauses of

purpose and result are analysed as to-infinite clauses, namely reduced relative clauses or

reduced adverbial clauses:

To love is to suffer. (infinitive phrase functioning as a noun, subject;infinitive phrase functioning as a noun, subject complement)

He wants to leave.(infinitive phrase functioning as a noun, direct object)Her husbands promise to take care of the child finally released her into

non-existence.(non-finite to-infinitive clause, noun complement)Jason was the only one to give us a helping hand. (non-finite to-infinitive

clause, defining relative)She opened the window to let in the fresh air of the morning. (non-finite

to-infinitive clause, adverbial of purpose)

The Mohicans travelled for two days only to find the village completely

destroyed. (non-finite to-infinitive clause, adverbial of result)

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CHAPTER TWO

SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS AND SENTENCE STRUCTURE

Subjects may be simple or compound and show who or what the sentence is

about. They may be nouns or noun equivalents (gerunds, gerund phrases, pronouns, nounphrases, or nominal clauses:

Love makes the world go around.(noun, subject)

Lying is not the best policy.(gerund, subject)

The best policy is lying.(noun phrase, subject)

Living well requires a lot of money.(gerund phrase, subject)

They will never give up.(personal pronoun, subject)

What goes around comes around.(nominal clause, subject)

Objects may be direct, indirect and prepositional. A direct or indirect object is

always a noun or noun equivalent. A prepositional object is always a prepositionalphrase.

Direct objects are always nouns or noun equivalents and show the receiver of the

action, that is who or what was affected or brought about by the action:

John told the truth.(the truth - noun phrase, direct object)

Indirect objects are nouns, noun equivalents, or prepositional phrases and showthe recipient of the action, that is to whom, to what, for whom or of whom the action isdone:

John told me the truth. (me personal pronoun, indirect object; the truth

noun phrase, direct object)

Prepositional objects are always prepositional phrases. The noun or noun

equivalent following the preposition is the complement of that preposition:John agreed with my proposal. (with my proposal prepositional phrase,

prepositional object; my proposal noun phrase, complement of preposition)

Complements are structures built around a noun or an adjective, or a preposition.

They are parts of the sentence that function as completing elements for nouns, adjectives,

prepositions or verbs.

Noun complements or appositions are groups of words that function as nouns andconsist of an appositive (a noun or noun equivalent that identifies supplements or

explains a nearby noun having the same reference as the noun it accompanies, but a

different form) and all its modifiers, be they one-word modifiers, phrases or clauses:

Ms Johns, the director, is expecting us at 3 p.m. (noun phrase, nouncomplement)

The idea that we should run away came from the leader of our group ofMaths.(nominal clause, noun complement)

Adjective complements are groups of words that complete the meaning of

adjectives:

The general was extremely proud of his men. (prepositional phrase,

adjective complement)Patrick was certain that his wife was cheating on him. (nominal clause,

adjective complement)

The high-way was wide enough to accommodate six lanes. (infinitive

phrase, adjective complement)

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Complements of preposition are always nouns or noun equivalents and appear

immediately following a preposition:

She worried about the beggar. (about the beggar prepositional phrase,

prepositional object; the beggar noun phrase, complement of preposition)Subject complements are words used to complete the meaning of a verb and

rename, identify or describe the subject. They may be nouns or noun equivalents when

renaming the subject, or adjectives when describing the subject:

John is a student. (noun phrase, subject complement)

Love is blind. (adjective, subject complement)

Objects complements are words used to complete the meaning of a verb andrename, identify or describe the direct object. They may be nouns or noun equivalents

when renaming the direct object, or adjectives when describing the direct object:

They elected him President of Romania.(noun phrase, direct object)

The pot calls the kettle black. (adjective, object complement)

Modifiers are words, phrases or clauses that describe, qualify, intensify or limitthe intensity of other words. Beside modifiers of nouns there are adverbial modifiers,which modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, phrases or clauses, or even the rest of the

sentence in which they appear:

A beautiful girl in a red dress approached me. (a- determiner + beautiful

pre-modifier;in a red dress post-modifier)An extremely beautiful girl in a red dress approached me. (extremely -

adverb modifying the adjective beautiful)She played the piano beautifully. (beautifully adverb modifying the verb

played, adverbial modifier of manner)

She played the piano extremely beautifully.(adverb modifying the adverb

beautifully)Honestly, I believe in love at first sight.(honestly - adverb modifying the

whole clause that follows it).

Phrases syntactic functions

Phrases that function as nouns (noun phrases, gerund phrases, infinitive phrases)

can perform the syntactic function of: subject, direct object, indirect object, nouncomplement, complement of preposition, subject complement, object complement.

Phrases that function as adjectives (participial or infinitive phrases, prepositionalphrases) can perform the function of pre- or post- modifier, and adjective complement,

subject or object complement.A prepositional phrase can function as post-modifier or perform the syntactic

functions of: prepositional object, indirect object, adjective complement, adverbialmodifier.

An infinitive phrase can perform the syntactic functions of subject, subject

complement, noun complement, adjective complement and adverbial modifier.

Verb phrases, together with their objects, complements and modifiers perform the

function of predicate.

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SENTENCE STRUCTURE

An oral or written communication is made up of one or more units, each of which

contains a complete utterance formed according to a definite pattern. Such units arecalled sentences.

In writing, the beginning and end of a sentence are indicated respectively by a

capital letter and by a full stop, or a note of exclamation or interrogation. In speaking, the

beginning and end of a sentence are marked off from any preceding or following sentence

by a pause, the intonation, especially at the end of a sentence, often contributing to the

effect.A sentence may consist of one or more words. Examples of one-word sentences

are such exclamations as Thanks! Bother! Good! What! Fire! Rain!, imperatives such as

Stop! Look!, and vocatives such asMother! Jack!

Other, non-exclamatory examples are:Yes. No. True(as a formula of concession).

Perhaps. Certainly. Impossible.Most sentences of more than one word consist of two nuclei, one indicating the

person or thing about whom or which a statement is made (or a question asked), the other

containing the statement or the question asked.

The word or words indicating the person or thing referred to is/are called the

subject of the sentence; that/those containing the statement (or the question) is/are calledthe predicate.

Sentences expressing weather conditions or time are formed on the same pattern,with meaningless it serving as a formal subject:Is it raining? It was about midnight.

In some sentences such as:

The dogs barked furiously.

My sister married young.They saw a light.

it seems as if we have not two nuclei, but three. In the first example however, furiously

merely adds something to the idea expressed by barked. It may, therefore, be considered

as part of the second nucleus. But this is not the case with the other two: young is just as

essential as married, a light is equally important as saw.

Sentences may be divided into statements (or declarative sentences), questions (or

interrogative sentences), commands (or imperative sentences), and exclamations (orexclamatory sentences).

Declarative sentences may be either affirmative or negative.Negative sentences are characterized by a negative adverb or another negative

word, the commonest being not. English differs from other languages in having aspecial form for the predicate of negative sentences: do not dont, does not

doesnt, did not didnt followed by a plain infinitive.Interrogative sentences are of two kinds, which may be illustrated by the

following examples:

Did you see him? (a)

What did he say? (b)

Interrogative sentences of type aopen with a finite verb (usually an auxiliary orthe copula to be) and usually end with a rising intonation. The answer expected is either

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yes or no, or other words expressing various nuances of affirmation or denial

(certainly, perhaps, hardly, not at all, etc.). They may be called verbal questions.

Those of type bopen with an interrogative pronoun or pronominal adverb (why,

when, how, where, what) and usually end with a falling intonation. They may be calledpronominal questions.

Alternative questions (Is it right or wrong? Do you want your coffee black or

white?) resemble type a in that they open with an auxiliary or copula. They are,

however, pronounced with a falling intonation.

A question may take the form of a statement, except for a rising intonation at the

end. This is the case when an affirmative answer is expected: You live here? You asked to

see his identity card?or when surprise or incredulity is to be expressed: You are not going yet? His father

dead?

That is also the case with so-called rhetorical questions, which are asked not for

information but to produce effect:Is this your gratitude? Who cares?

Imperative sentences

Imperative sentences usually contain the imperative of a verb. The imperative is

used in requests which according to circumstances range from brusque commands tohumble entreaties, the tone generally serving as a key to the exact meaning:

Shut the door!Have a good time!

When a request rather than a command is intended, please is often added:Hurry

up, please!

A pressing request may be expressed by do followed by a plain infinitive: Dotake some more!

For the sake of emphasis or specification an imperative may be preceded by you

or followed (occasionally preceded) by somebody, someone, everybody, everyone:

You be quiet!

You mind your own business!

You get out of this room!

Come on everybody!Somebody ran back!

Prohibition, that is negative imperative sentences, usually open with dontfollowed by an infinitive without to:Dont shoot!

This also applies when the infinitive is be, a verb that does not otherwise taketo do in negative sentences:Dont be silly!

For the sake of emphasis or precision dont may be followed by you in thefunction of a subject:Dont you forget it!

A prohibition does not necessarily contain the imperative of a verb:No smoking!

The compound sentence

As regards the structure of the members of a compound sentence it is to be

observed that a main clause may take any of the structural forms of a simple sentence.

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A sub-clause always contains a subject and a finite verb. Sub-clauses are mostly,

though not always introduced by a conjunction or another connecting word, such as a

relative pronoun.

We may classify sub-clauses into attributive, predicative and adverbial clauses.Some grammarians add to the list object clauses, subject clauses, and predicate clauses.

Relative clauses

One way to give further information about something or somebody is to use a

relative or attributive clause. You put a relative clause immediately after the noun whichrefers to the person or thing you are talking about:

The man who came into the room was wearing a green jacket.

Relative clauses have a similar function to adjectives. Many relative clauses begin

with a relative pronoun which usually acts as the subject or the object of the verb in the

relative clause:He is the only man who might be able to help you.Most of the mothers have a job, which they take both for the money and

the career.

The most common relative pronouns are that, which, who, whom, whose.

Relative pronouns do not have masculine, feminine or plural forms.That is the same pronoun can be used to refer to a man, a woman, or a group of people.

Some relative clauses do not use a relative pronoun at all:Nearly all the people I used to know have gone.

The relative pronouns used for persons are:

- subject: who, that;

- object: whom, who, that;- possessive: whose.The relative pronouns used for things are:

- subject: which, that;

- object: which, that;

- possessive: whose, of which.

Kinds of relative clauses.

1.Defining relative clauses explain which person or thing you are talking about.1.1. Defining relative clauses - persons:

a) subject: who, that(a possible alternative after: all, everyone, everybody, nobody,no one, those):

Everyone who/that knew him liked him.b) object of a verb: whom, who, that. The form whom is considered very formal. In

spoken English we usually use who or that and that is more usual than who.

Most of the time we omit the object pronoun: the man whom/who/that I sawor the

man I saw;

c) with a preposition: whom, that. In formal English the preposition is placed beforethe relative pronoun which must then be put into the form whom: the man to

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whom I spoke. In informal speech it is more usual to move the preposition to the

end of the clause, whom being often replaced by that:

the man whom I spoke to > the man that I spoke to

> the man I spoke to(it is common to omitthe relative)

d) possessive: whose (it is the only possible form): The film is about a man whose

wife is killed in an accident.

1.2. Defining relative clauses - things:

a) subject: which, that: This is the picture which/that caused such a sensation.b) object of a verb: which, that, not at all: the car which/that I hired = the car I

hired. Which is hardly ever used. After all, everything, little, much,

none, no, compounds of no or after superlatives we use that or omit the

relative:

All the apples that fall off the tree are eaten by the pigs.This is the best hotel (that) I know.

c) object of a preposition: the formal construction is preposition + which, but it ismore usual to move the preposition to the end of the clause using which or

that, or omitting the relative: the ladder on which I was standing, the ladder

which/that I was standing on, the ladder I was standing on;d) possessive: whose + a clause is possible but whose + a phrase is more usual: a

house whose walls were made of glass = a house with glass walls ;e) relative adverbs: when, where, why. When can replace in which or on which

used temporally:

the year in which he was born > the year when he was born

the day on which they arrived > the day when they arrivedWhere can replace in which or at which used of place:the hotel where they were staying > the hotel in which/at which they

were staying.

Why can replace for which: The reason why he refused is unknown to me.

2. Non-defining relative clauses give further information which is not needed to

identify the person, thing or group you are talking about. They are placed after nounswhich are definite already. They are not essential in the sentence and can be omitted

without causing confusion. They are separated from their noun by comas. Theconstruction is freely formal and more common in written than in spoken English. Dashes

are sometimes used instead of comas.The relative pronouns used for persons are:

- subject: who;- object: who, whom;

- possessive: whose.

The relative pronouns used for things are:

- subject: which;

- object: which;- possessive: whose, of which.

2.1. Non-defining relative clauses - persons:

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a) subject: who:

Peter, who had been driving all day, suggested stopping at the next inn.

Clauses like these, which come immediately after the subject of the main verb, are

found mainly in written English. In spoken English, it would be more likely tosay:Peter had been driving all day and he suggested stopping at the next inn.Clauses placed latter in the sentence, that is clauses coming after the object of the

main verb, are quite common in conversation:Ive invited Anne, who lives in the

next flat.

Clauses following a preposition + noun are also common: I passed the letter to

Peter who was sitting behind me.

b) object: whom, who. They cannot be omitted. Whom is the correct form thoughwho is sometimes used in conversation: Peter, whom everyone suspected,

turned out to be innocent. In spoken English it is more likely to say: Everyone

suspected Peter but he turned out to be innocent. But non-defining clauses

coming later in the sentence, that is after the object of the main verb or after apreposition + noun, are common in conversation: She wanted Tom, whom sheliked, as a partner; but she got Jack, whom she didnt like.

c) object of a preposition: whom. It cannot be omitted. The preposition is normallyplaced before whom: Mr. John, for whom I was working, was very generous. It

is possible to move the preposition to the end of the clause, which is commonlydone in conversation, and who then usually takes the place of whom: Mr.

John, who I was working for, was very generous. If the clause contains anexpression of time or place, this will remain at the end:Peter, who I played tennis

with on Sundays, was fitter than me.

d) possessive: whose: This is George, whose class you will be taking. Inconversation we would probably say: This is George. You will be taking his class.

2.2 Non-defining relative clauses - things:

A. Subject: whichthatis not used here:

That block, which cost 5 million to build, has been empty for years.

The 8.15 train, which is usually very punctual, was late today.

In speech it would be more likely to say:That block cost 5 million to build and has been empty for years.

The 8.15 train is usually punctual; but it was late today.B. Object: which

thatis not used here, and the whichcan never be omitted:She gave me this jumper, which she had knitted herselfor She gave me this

jumper; she had knitted it herself.These books, which you can get at any bookshop, will give you all the

information you needor

These books will give you all the information you need. You can get them

at any bookshop.

C. Object of a prepositionThe preposition comes before which, or (more informally) at the end of the

clause:

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Ashdown Forest, through which we'll be driving, isn't a forest any longer

or

Ashdown Forest, which we'll be driving through, isn't a forest any longer.

His house, for which he paid 10,000, is now worth 50,000 or

His house, which he paid 10,000 for, is now . . .what(relative pronoun) and which(connective relative)

what= the thing that/the things that:

What we saw astonished us=

The things that we saw astonished us.

When she sees what you have done she will be furious =

When she sees the damage that you have done she will be furious.

Be careful not to confuse the relative whatwith the connective relative which.

Remember that whichmust refer to a word or group of words in the preceding

sentence, while whatdoes not refer back to anything. The relative what is also

usually the object of a verb, while the connective whichis usually the subject:He said he had no money, which was not true.Some of the roads were flooded, which made our journey more difficult.

The importance of commas in relative clauses

Remember that a defining relative clause is written without commas. Note how themeaning changes when commas are inserted:

(a) The travellers who knew about the floods took another road.

(b) The travellers, who knew about the floods, took another road. In (a) we

have a defining relative clause, which defines or limits the noun travellers. This sentencetherefore tells us that only the travellers who knew about the floods took the other road,and implies that there were other travellers who did not know and who took the flooded

road. In (b) we have a non-defining clause, which does not define or limit the noun it

follows. This sentence therefore implies that all the travellers knew about the floods and

took the other road.

(c) The boys who wanted to play football were disappointed when it rained.

(d) The boys, who wanted to play football, were disappointed . . .Sentence (c)implies that only some of the boys wanted to play football. There were presumably others

who didn't mind whether it rained or not. Sentence (d) implies that all the boys wanted toplay and all were disappointed.

(e) The wine which was in the cellar was ruined.(f) The wine, which was in the cellar, was ruined.

Sentence (e) implies that only some of the wine was ruined. Presumably some was keptelsewhere and escaped damage. Sentence (f) states that all the wine was in the cellar and

ruined.

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Nominal relative clauses

When it is difficult to refer to something by using a noun group, you can sometimes use a

special kind of relative clause called a nominal relative clause.

What he really needs is a nice cup of tea.

Whatever she does will determine the future of her administration.

Nominal relative clauses beginning with 'what' can be used as subjects, objects, or

complements. What can mean either 'the thing which' or the things which'.

What he said was perfectly true.

They did not like what he wrote.

I believe that is a very good account of what happened.

I'm what's generally called a traitor.

People often use a what'-clause in front of 'is' or 'was' to say what kind of thing they are

about to mention.

What I need is a lawyer.What you have to do is to choose five companies to invest in.

Nominal relative clauses beginning with 'where' are usually used after a preposition or

after the verb 'be'. 'Where' means 'the place where'.

I threw down my book and crossed the room to where she was sitting.The god would return from where the sun rises and lay waste to the Azteccivilisation.

That remote village, I think, is where I want to die.

Nominal relative clauses beginning with whatever', 'whoever', or 'whichever' are used to

refer to something or someone that is unknown or indefinite.

'Whatever' is used only to refer to things. 'Whoever' is used to refer to people.

'Whichever' is used to refer to either things or people.

'Whatever', 'whoever', and 'whichever' can be used as pronouns. Whichever is oftenfollowed by 'of.

Ill do whatever you want.

These wild flowers are so rare I want to do whatever I can to save them. People will

choose whichever of these regimes they find suits them best.

'Whatever' and 'whichever' can also be used as determiners.

She had had to rely on whatever books were lying around there.

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Choose whichever one of the three methods you fancy.

NOUN CLAUSES

Noun clauses are very often introduced by that and therefore often called that-clauses. However, not all noun clauses are that-clauses.

1. Noun clauses as subject of a sentence. They usually begin with it: It is disappointing

that Tom cant come. (that Tom cant comeis the subject).

It can be used even with a plural noun:Its pilots that we need, not air hostesses.When an infinitive is subject of a sentence, we usually begin the sentence with it

and put the infinitive later. So we say It is better to be early instead of To be early is

better.

If it + be is preceded by think/find (that), the be and the that can often be

omitted:He thought (that) it (would be) better to say nothing. He found it impossible toget visas.

It can represent a previously mentioned phrase, clause or verb: He smokes in

bed, though I dont like it. (it = his smoking in bed).

It also acts as a subject for impersonal verbs: it seems, it appears, it looks, it

happens, etc.The usual construction is it + be/seem + adjective + noun clause:Its strange that

there are no lights on.Some adjectives require or can take that should: It is essential that everybody

should know what to do.

That ... should can be used after: it is/was advisable, better, desirable, essential,

imperative, important, natural, necessary, fair (= just), just, right (these are oftenpreceded by only) and after reasonable, as an alternative to a for + infinitiveconstruction:

It is advisable that everyone should have a map.

It is only right that she should have a share.

It is essential for him to be prepared for this=It is essential that he should

be prepared for this.

Note: Should is sometimes omitted before be:It is essential that he be prepared.The same construction can be used after it is/was absurd, amazing, annoying, odd,

ridiculous, surprising, and similar adjectives as an alternative to that + present or pasttense:It is ridiculous that we should be(= that we are)short of water in a country were it

is always raining.The perfect infinitive is sometimes used when referring to past events: It is

amazing that she should have said(= that she said) nothing about the murder.An alternative construction is it + be/seem + a + noun + noun clause. Nouns that

can be used here include: mercy, miracle, nuisance, pity, shame, relief, wonderor a good

thing:

Its a great pity (that) they didnt get married.

Its a wonder (that) you werent killed.Its a good thing (that) you were insured.

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2. Noun clauses after certain adjectives or participles. The construction used issubject + be + adjective/past participle + noun clause: I am delighted that you

passed your exam.

This construction can be used with:a) adjectives expressing emotion:glad, pleased, relieved, sorry;b) adjectives or participles expressing anxiety, confidence: afraid, anxious, aware,

certain, confident, conscious, convinced:

I am afraid that I cant come till next week.

Are you certain that this is the right house?

Note: Anxious requires that should.

3. Noun clauses after certain nouns. A noun clause can be placed after a large number of

abstract nouns, the most useful being: announcement, belief, discovery, fact, fear,

guarantee, hope, knowledge, promise, proposal, report, rumour, suggestion, suspicion:

The announcement that a new airport was to be built nearby aroused immediateapposition.

The proposal/ suggestion that shops should open on Sundays led to a heated

discussion.

Note: Proposal and suggestion require that should.

4.Noun clauses as objects as verbs. They are possible after a large number of verbs:

admit, advise, agree, announce, appear, beg, confess, declare, demand, demonstrate,determinate, discover, expect, fear, feel, guarantee, happen, hope, inform, insist, learn,

mean, order, pretend, promise, propose, recognize, recommend, remind, request, seem,

suppose, teach, threaten, turn out, urge, warn, wishand other verbs of communication:

admit, answer, argue, complain, deny, explain, grumble, object, point out, protest, reply :He insists that we agree with him.

Note: Appear, happen, occur, seem and turn out require it as subject: It

occurred to me that he might b lying.

It turned out that nobody remembered the address.

That + subject + should can be used after agree, arrange, be anxious, beg, command,

decide, demand, determine, be determined, order, resolveand urge instead of infinitive

construction and after insistandsuggestinstead of a gerund: Theyagreed/decided that a statue should be put up.

He suggested that a reward should be offered.Some verbs can be followed by noun clauses beginning with wh-words: what,

when, where, who, why, how. The most common such verbs are: arrange, ask, believe,consider, decide, estimate, find, forget, hear, imagine, indicate, know, notice, prove,

realize, remember, reveal, say, see, show, state, suggest, tell, think, understand, wonder:He asked where he was to go.

They will believe whatever you tell them.

I forgot who had told me this.

Have you heard how is he getting on?

I cant think why he left his wife.I wonder when he will pay me back.

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5. So and not representing a noun-clause after believe, expect, suppose, think, and after it

appearsor it seems:

Will you be at the party? - I expect so. I suppose so. I think so. = I think I will.

For the negative we use:1. a negative verb with so: Are they making any progress? - It doesnt seem

so;

2. an affirmative verb with not: The plane didnt land in London, did it? - Ibelieve not.

So and not can be used similarly after hopeand be afraid(= be sorry to say):

Are you coming with us? - I hope so.

Will you have to pay for this? - Im afraid so.

The negative here is made with an affirmative verb + not:Have you got the receipt? - Im

afraid not.

So and not can also be used after say and tell + object: How do you know

there is going to be a meeting? - Jack said so/ Jack told me so .Note: I told you so!can mean I told you that this was the case or I told you that thiswould happen.

For tell the only negative form is negative verb + so:He didnt tell me so. For

say there are two negative forms but the meaning is not the same: Tom didnt say

so = Tom didnt say that there would be a meeting.Tom said not = He said there wouldnt be a meeting.

So and not after if can replace a previously mentioned/understood subject +verb:

Will you be staying another night? If so (= if you are), we can give you a better

room. If not (= if you arent), could you be out of your room by 12.00?