Sustainable Consumer Behavior The effects of green advertising on green purchase intention and the mediating role

of green brand image

Nienke Cnossen 11851449

Bachelor’s Thesis Management in the Digital Age

Business Administration

Supervisor: L.A. Napitupulu

Amsterdam, July 10th, 2020

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Statement of Originality This document is written by Student Nienke Cnossen who declares to take full responsibility

for the contents of this document.

I declare that the text and the work presented in this document are original and that no sources

other than those mentioned in the text and its references have been used in creating it.

The Faculty of Economics and Business is responsible solely for the supervision of completion

of the work, not for the contents.

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Abstract Although their increasing environmental concern, there still exists an inconsistency between

consumers’ attitude towards sustainability and their actual purchasing behavior of green

products. The aim of this research is to investigate how green purchase intention can be

encouraged. An important factor in the decision-making process for purchasing green products,

is green advertising. This study proposes that exposure to green advertising helps consumers in

making a more informed decision about which brands to consume and what the impact is on

the environment, which influences purchase intention. Furthermore, green brand image

explains the relationship between exposure to green advertising and green purchase intention

in such a way that the more the brand is perceived as being green in the advertisement, the

higher the purchase intention. However, the green claims in the advertisement must be credible.

More specifically, the hypotheses in this research state that exposure to a green advertisement

as compared to a non-green advertisement will positively affect purchase intention through

green brand image, but that ad skepticism will decrease this effect. The hypotheses are tested

using an online survey, consisting of an experiment and a questionnaire. With a sample of 197

consumers, multiple regression analyses are carried out to measure the difference between

exposure to green advertising and exposure to non-green advertising. The results show that

exposure to green advertising does not directly influence purchase intention, while exposure to

green advertising indirectly through green brand image does increase purchase intention. The

level of ad skepticism, however, did not moderate the indirect effect of exposure to green

advertising on purchase intention, through green brand image.

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Table of Content 1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………...5

2. Theoretical Framework……………………………………………………………....7

2.1 Exposure to green advertising……………………………………………………...7

2.2 Green purchase intention…………………………………………………………...8

2.3 Mediating role of Green brand image……………………………………………...9

2.4 Moderating role of Ad skepticism………………………………………………...11

2.5 Conceptual Framework…………………………………………………………...13

3. Methodology…………………………………………………………………………14

3.1 Design, Sample & Procedure…………………………………………………......14

3.2 Measurement of Variables ……………………………………………………….16

3.3 Analytical Plan……………………………………………………………………17

4. Results…………………………………………………………………………......…18

4.1 Descriptive Statistics, Reliability and Correlations……………………………….18

4.2 Regression Analysis………………………………………………………………19

4.2.1 Mediation Analysis……………………………………………………...19

4.2.2. Moderated Mediation Analysis……………………………………...….21

5. Discussion and Conclusion…………………………………………………………..23

5.1 Summary………………………………………………………………………….23

5.2 Key Findings……………………………………………………………………...23

5.3 Limitations & Future Research……………………………………………………25

5.4 Practical Implications……………………………………………………………..25

5.5 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………...26

6. References……………………………………………………………………………27

7. Appendix……………………………………………………………………………..33

7.1 Survey……………………………………………………………………………..33

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1. Introduction In the past several years, global warming, climate change and pollution has gained increasing

consideration. Consumers are being more concerned about the environment than ever

(Kostadinova, 2017). This environmental consciousness has increased the demand for green

products in the market worldwide. The expectation for 2021 is that 25% of total product sales,

are green products (CPG, FMCG & Retail, 2018). A green product is defined as “a product that

was manufactured using toxic-free ingredients and environmentally-friendly procedures, and

which is certified as such by a recognized organization” (Gurau & Ranchod, 2005, pp 547-

548). With the growing attention for sustainability, many consumers consider themselves to be

‘green’ and are willing to buy green products. However, it turns out there is an inconsistency

between consumers’ attitude towards sustainability and their actual purchasing behavior of

green products (Terlau & Hirsch, 2015).

There is a great deal of academic literature, which focuses on this attitude-behavior gap

in sustainability. The majority of the existing literature concentrates on the drivers behind the

gap. An important factor that influences the decision-making processes of purchasing a

sustainable product is the awareness and information a consumer has about the environment

and the sustainable product. The less information available about sustainable products, the more

uncertain consumers may be regarding what product to choose (Vermeir & Verbeke, 2005).

Advertising is the most effective tool that marketers often use to get consumers’

attention and helps consumers to get more information about a product (Zhu, 2013). Green

advertising helps with communicating the brand’s green products or green image and

stimulating consumers’ consciousness behind fostering their environmental knowledge and

sustainable behavior. With green advertising companies try to persuade consumers and to

increase sales (Mkik, Khouilid, & Aomari, 2017). Digitalization and the rise of Internet makes

it possible for marketers to reach a much larger group of potential consumers. Through the use

of Internet and the increased transparency of it, consumers get exposed more often to online

advertisement. Marketers invest largely in posting ads on different online media channels,

websites and other platforms (Leeflang, Verhoef, Dahlström, & Freundt, 2014), since the global

digital population consist of 4.57 billion active internet users, which is almost 60% of the world

population (Statista , 2020).

However, there still exists some ambiguity in how effective green advertising is.

Because of the increasing use of internet, consumers are overwhelmed with advertisements,

which can influence their decision-making process and perception of brands. Consumers could

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perceive green claims as unbelievable which gives them a more negative image of the brand

(Finisterra do Paço & Reis, 2012).

There is a lot of research done about green advertising and what factors can influence

green purchase intention (Chen, 2009). Companies emphasis on sustainability has found its

roots in the 1970s, but with the increasing amount of internet usage, it has become even more

important for companies to focus on manufacturing green products and build a green brand

image (Leeflang, Verhoef, Dahlström, & Freundt, 2014). Despite the numerous amounts of

research and concerns on sustainability, recent research about the effects of green advertising

on green purchase intention is lacking. There is no clear evidence that exposing consumers to

green advertising will increase their green purchase intention and how it affects consumers’

green brand image.

This research aims to fill the scientific gap of the effects of green advertisements on

customers by examining to what extent exposure to green ads as compared to non-green ads

may influence the purchase intention and if this is mediated by green brand image. It also

studies whether ad skepticism moderates the indirect effect of exposure to green advertising on

green purchase intention through green brand image.

Hence, this paper will build upon the existing insights in how effective green advertising

is on sustainable behavior of consumers. This leads us to the following research question: To

what extent mediates green brand image the relationship between exposure to green

advertisements and the intention to purchase green products, and to what extent is this indirect

effect moderated by the level of ad skepticism?

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2. Theoretical Framework 2.1 Exposure to Green Advertising

Green advertising has significantly evolved since it was first described by Banerjee, Gulas, &

Iyer (1995) as the following: “any advertisement that meet one or more of the following criteria:

(1) explicitly or implicitly addresses the relationship between a product/service and the

biophysical environment, or (2) promotes a green lifestyle with or without highlighting a

product/service, or (3) present a corporate image of environmental responsibility” (p. 22).

Zinkhan & Carlson (1995) conclude that green advertising is more focusing on the promotional

message. In their study, green advertising is described as “promotional messages that may

appeal to the needs and desires of environmentally concerned” (p. 1). Hartmann & Apaolaza-

Ibáñez (2008) describe that green ads advertise or promotore environmentally friendly

attributes of products. In this study, a combination of definitions is used to describe green

advertising, since this research is focusing on the promotional messages the advertisement

provides about the environmentally friendly attributes of a particular product or brand.

Therefore, green advertising can be described as the following: any advertisement that promote

the environmentally friendly product or brand attributes to attract consumers’ needs and desires

related to the environment.

To examine the effects of exposure to green advertising, a comparison is made between

the exposure to a green ad versus a non-green ad. In the context of this study, non-green ads

can be described as ads that do not advertise or promote environmentally attributes of products,

but promote other non-green product or brand attributes, such as cost saving or functionality

attributes (Schuhwerk & Lefkoff-Hagius, 1995).

Advertising has several functions: providing information, persuading customers,

reminding them, and reinforcing positive beliefs that they may have about certain brands

(Shimp, 2003). The primary goal of exposing consumers to green ads is to inform them about

the environmental benefits of the product or brand and try to influence their purchase behavior

by encouraging them to buy green products (Rahbbar & Wahid, 2011).

Over the past two decades, green advertising has become the most common tool of green

marketing. The growing concern for environmental harming practices is the driving force

behind green marketing. Companies anticipate on this concern by informing and educating

consumers about their eco-friendly practices and products. They are using green advertising to

target consumers by designing new products, repositioning existing product and creating a new

brand image. It is also important for companies to use green marketing as a strategic tool for

competitive advantage (Mo, Liu, & Liu, 2018).

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2.2 Green purchase intention

Purchase intention is “the sum total of cognitive, affective and behavioral towards adoption,

purchase, and use of the product, service, ideas or certain behaviors” (Dadwal, Jamal, Harris,

Brown, & Raudhah, 2020, p. 70). Consumers’ purchase intention can guide future purchasing

behavior, that is, it can predict the realization of a purchase (Wu & Chen, 2014). It is a critical

factor to predict consumer behavior (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). Consumer behavior can be

defined as “the decision-making process and physical activity involved in acquiring, evaluating,

using and disposing of goods and services” (Tehria, 2016, p. 116). The decision-making

progress is influenced by three factors: consumers as individuals, environmental influences and

marketing strategies conducted by the company. Advertising is part of the marketing strategy

of companies (Kusnandar & Rinandiyana, 2017).

Although many consumers have a positive attitude toward sustainable products, it is not

reflected in their green purchase behavior (Park & Lin, 2018). Research about green purchase

behavior has been conducted since the early 70s. Green purchase behavior can be defined as

“the consumption of products that are benevolent or beneficial to the environment, recyclable

or conservable, sensitive/responsive to ecological concerns” (Wahid, Rahbar, & Shyan, 2011,

p.40). Green purchase intention can be used to predict actual green purchases. Chen & Chang

(2012) define green purchase intention as “the likelihood that a consumer would buy a

particular product resulting from his or her environmental needs” (p. 507). Another definition

of green purchase intention is “the probability and willingness of a person to give preference to

products or brands having eco-friendly features over other traditional products or brands in their

purchase considerations” (Rashid, 2009, p. 134). In this study, the comparison is made between

an advertising of a brand with green claims and an advertising of a brand which does not have

green claims, thus a traditional brand. Therefore, the most suitable definition for green purchase

intention in this study is from Rashid (2009).

Previous studies into purchase intention after exposure to green advertising has shown

inconsistent results. A study conducted by Chase & Smith (1992) found that environmental

messages in advertisement ‘sometimes’ influence purchase decisions. Research performed by

Ahmad, Shah, & Ahmad (2009) shows that many factors in environmental advertising, such as

credibility of the green claim, relevance, attitude towards the ad and information provided in

the ad, influence the purchase intention of green products. However, Rizwan et al. (2014)

emerged a research model by which he could explain the relationship between green advertising

and purchase intention. He found that consumers believe that environmental advertising

increases their knowledge about green products. This helps consumers to make a more well-

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considered decision, so he concludes that exposing consumers to green advertisement will have

a positive effect on green purchase intention. Ansar (2013) has examined the impact of green

marketing on consumer purchase intention. He suggest that environmental advertisements

postively contribute to a higher purchase intention of green products by consumers, because

advertising is a powerful tool to influence consumer preference for a or brand. The purchase of

a green product can be reviewed from the information a consumer has about the product. Since

informing consumers about the eco-friendly attributes of products is the main goal of green

advertising, green advertising can help obtain information (Vermeir & Verbeke, 2005).

According to Ansar (2013), green advertising is an effective way to enhance consumers’

knowledge about the environment and green products. Exposing consumers to green

advertisements can help them to make a more informed decision about which products or

brands to consume and what the impact is on the environment.

Altogether, environmental or green advertisements are useful by enhancing consumers’

motivation towards buying green products. The promotional tactics used to get consumers’

attention will attract consumers, because they feel like they are better informed of the advertised

brand or product, which will likely increase their intention to purchase the green product instead

of the traditional product. Based on the existing literature, the following hypothesis can be

made:

H1: Exposure to green ads as compared to non-green ads leads to a higher purchase

intention.

2.3 Mediating role of Green Brand Image

Brand image is a widely recognized concept in marketing. Brand image is the perception

consumers have about the symbolic meanings of a brand that associate with the specific

attributes of a brand (Nagar, 2015). Brand image can be defined as “a consumer’s mental picture

of a brand in the consumer’s mind that is linked to an offering” (Chen, 2009, p. 308).

Additionally, brand image reflects upon the perception about a brand the consumer has by brand

associations (Cretu & Brodie, 2007). With brand image, brands can distinguish themselves from

its competitors when it is difficult for consumers to compare brands that are selling similar

products or services (Lin, Lobo, & Leckie, 2017). Because brand image is mostly about the

perception of a particular brand in a customers’ mind, brand image does not exist in the features

or attributes of the product itself, but more about how the brand presents itself. It is brought by

advertisements, promotions or users (Wang & Tsai, 2014).

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Chen (2009) has made a novel construct of brand image in the context of sustainability:

Green brand image. This refers to “the set of perceptions of a brand in a consumer’s mind that

is linked to environmental commitments and environmental concerns” (p. 309). It is a subset of

the overall brand image and part of marketing strategies. The most important advantage of

creating a green brand image is the increase of environmental awareness for customers (Zabadi,

2016). Companies engaging in green marketing strategies have incorporated consumer’s green

brand impressions into their advertising and communication strategies. A brand is successful in

building a green brand image in consumers’ minds, when a brand is capable to ignite emotions,

perceptions, attitudes, intentions or behaviors about sustainability and environmental concerns

(Hsieh, Pan, & Setiono, 2004).

The pressure for brands to be environmentally friendly is impossible to ignore, so

companies must develop new business models in order to keep up with consumers’ needs for

environmentally friendly products (Chen, 2009). Companies try to put themselves on the

market as sustainable, eco-friendly, environmentally conscious or green in order to build a

green brand image. The goal of building a green brand image is that consumers prefer to buy

from them (Bukhari, Rana, & Bhatti, 2017). Companies try to communicate their green brand

image through green advertising, because campaigns with the right green claims are the edge

of a company’s brand image (Alamsyah et al., 2018).

Literature suggests that more interest is placed on green advertisement building a green

brand image rather than just focus on advertising the green product (Nagar, 2015). First, it is

important for companies to build green awareness, letting the customer know the company is

participating in environmentally friendly practices. Green brand awareness is created through

exposure. If a consumers holds a positive and strong association with the advertisement to

which he or she is exposed, they are more likely to have a positive brand image. Thus, according

to Huang, Yang, and Wang (2014) an active green advertising strategy gives consumers more

positive perceptions of the green brand, which enhances green brand image. Consumers

exposed to green advertisements as opposed to conventional advertisements can have different

perceptions (Alamsyah et al., 2018). Additionally, in his study, Nagar (2015) states that

consumers perceive brands that use green advertising as more positive. Based on the mentioned

theories, the following hypothesis can be made:

H2: Exposure to green ads will lead to a more positive green brand image as compared

to non-green ads

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There are many evidences that green brand image significantly influences the purchase decision

of consumers (Chen, 2009). From previous research, it is sighted that green brand image is an

important factor for green purchase intentions (Bukhari, Rana, & Bhatti, 2017). Consumers are

not only focusing on price and quality of products when making purchase decisions, but also

the brand image can have a significant influence. Consumers are usually not having enough

time and product knowledge to make a well-considered choice between similar products (Jeong,

Jang, Day, & Ha, 2014). Therefore, brand image is often used as an extrinsic cue to help them

decide which product to choose (Richardson, Dick, & Jain, 1994). Gadenne, Sharma, Kerr, and

Smith (2011) have found that consumers having environmental concerns associate themselves

with green brands. They prefer to buy from brands to which they feel more connected, which

increases their purchase intention. In the research of Kusnandar & Rinandiyana (2017) about

the effects of green marketing on purchase intentions, green brand image was considered as a

mediating variable. They concluded that green brand image was positively related to green

purchase intentions. Rahmi et al. (2017) found evidence for a positive relationship between

green brand image and green purchase intention. Also, Rizwan et al. (2014) did an empircal

study about which factors influence green purchase intentions. He found the same relationship

between green brand image and green purchase intention. Additionally, Wang (2014) did

research about green brand knowledge and concluded that green brand image is posetively

related to green purchase intention. Based on this existing literature, the following hypotheses

can be made:

H3: The more the brand is perceived as being green, the higher the purchase intention.

H4: The relationship between exposure to green advertising and green purchase

intention is mediated by the level green brand image.

2.4 Moderating role of Ad skepticism

The Internet provides the opportunity for companies to expose their advertisements to a much

larger public than before (Leeflang, Verhoef, Dahlström, & Freundt, 2014). Consumers are

overwhelmed with advertisements, which influences their information processing process.

Overwhelming can cause consumers to be unmotivated to evaluate all the information they are

perceiving (MacInnis, Moorman, & Jaworski, 1991).

Previous research found evidence that consumers often are experiencing disbelief and

skepticism towards advertising claims (Obermiller et al., 2005). Ad skepticism is defined by

Obermiller & Spangenberg (1998) as “the tendency to disbelieve the informational claims in

advertising” (p. 160). Ad skepticism determines the consumers’ responses to advertisement.

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In addition to skepticism towards general ads, many prior studies have found that

consumers are even more skeptical towards green advertisements (Matthes & Wonneberger,

2014). Finisterra do Paço and Reis (2012) conclude that the credibility of green advertising is

relatively low. Consumers do think that green ads include more misleading and false claims

than normal ads. They ask themselves if the ecological value and greenness of products and

services is not exaggerated by companies. This concept can be descibred as ‘greenwashing’.

Greenwashing refers to the “the act of misleading consumers regarding the environmental

practices of a company or the environmental benefits of a product or service” (Parquel, Benoit-

Moreau, & Larceneux, 2011, p. 127). Because of the increasing concern of the environment,

consumers want companies to be sustainably responsible in terms of production processes and

products. The incentive for companies to be sustainably responsible is strong, because this

affects the brand image and the intention to buy from that brand (Rahman, Park, & Geng-qinq

Chi, 2015). The drivers for companies to participate in ‘greenwashing’ can be devided into

three levels: external, organizational, and individual drivers. External drivers are the main

reasons for firms to ‘greenwash’. External drives can be explained by pressures from

consumers, investors, competitors and regulators. It includes the demand for green products,

services and firms because of environmental concerns. Greenwashing is most common in

advertising claims of a brands’ products or services (Delmas & Burbano, 2011). Skepticism

towards the advertisement can arise when consumers perceive an inconsistency between the

claims provided in the ad and the actual performance of businesses (Rahman et al., 2015).

In prior research, it is found that processing of ad information, establishment of brand

beliefs, attitudes toward the ad and responsiveness to advertising techniques are all moderated

by consumers’ skepticism towards advertising, which in turn influence someone’s purchase

intention (Obermiller et al., 2005). Additionally, Kim and Lee (2009) state in their research

about consumer ad skepticism that when consumers are more skeptical toward ads, the less they

like advertising and the less they rely on the advertised brand or product. Consumers can

perceive the brand as less reliable and less sustainable, when they have high level of ad

skepticism. Based on the existing literature about ad skepticism, the following hypothesis can

be made:

H5: The indirect effect of exposure to green advertising on green purchase intention

through green brand image is moderated by the level of ad skepticism.

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2.5 Conceptual Framework

Figure 1 illustrates the expected relationships, which will be tested in this study using data. It

clarifies the relationships between the independent variable exposure to green advertising,

dependent variable green purchase intention, the mediator green brand image and the moderator

ad skepticism.

+

-

Exposure to green advertising

Green purchase intention

Green Brand Image

Ad Skepticism

+

+

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework

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3. Methodology 3.1 Design, Sample and Procedure

To measure the relationship between the independent variable exposure to green advertising

and the dependent variable green purchase intention, mediated by green brand image, a

quantitative research was carried out, with a deductive approach. This quantitative research has

an experimental design. Stimulated experiments are used to describe causal relationships

between the variables, rather than only the correlation. The independent variable contained two

different conditions (green advertising vs. non-green advertising). Each participant of the

survey was randomly assigned to only one of the two conditions. The treatment or experimental

group, which consisted of half of the respondents, was exposed to a green advertisement. The

other half of the respondents was exposed to a non-green advertisement, which makes them the

control group. Each participant had equal chances of being assigned to each condition. This

experimental approach implies an independent measure design or between-subjects design.

Between-subject experiments give insights in differences of outcomes between two groups, in

this case green advertising or non-green advertising, whereas within-subject experiments

provide insights in different reactions for each individual (Budiu, 2018; McLeod, 2017). In a

within-subject experiment, participants are influenced after the first condition, which makes

them biased before the second condition (Shuttleworth, 2020). In this research, a between-

subject design is used, because the differences between two conditions, green or non-green

advertising, are examined, instead of the differences for each individual. Based on the

manipulated between-subject experiment, the dependent variable, mediator and moderator were

measured.

For this study, it was important to know whether participants perceived the

advertisements as green or non-green, so before conducting the main study, a manipulation

check was done. A manipulation check is a separate test used to determine the effectiveness

and reliability of the manipulation in an experimental design. A manipulation check is used to

check whether participants understand and react as expected to the manipulated experiment

(Hoewe, 2017). To test the reliability of the manipulated advertisement, 15 people in known

circles of the researcher were asked to judge six advertisements of different products, both green

and non-green advertisements for brands. Two beverage advertisement (Cola and WholeEarth

Cola), two hand soap advertisements (Dettol and Seepje) and two laundry detergent

advertisement (Ajax and Ecowash). They were asked to assess the greenness of each

advertisement and in what product category the difference between the green and non-green

brand was the most obvious. The participants rated the difference in greenness of the hand soap

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brands advertisements (Dettol and Seepje) as the most, so these advertisements were used in

the study.

A questionnaire was used to measure the effects of the main experiment. Data was

collected by means of an online survey, created at Qualtrics.com. The survey was introduced

by an introduction about the research and the guarantees of anonymity for participants. In the

first question, participants were asked if they agree to participate in this study. In case of a

negative response, the relevant participant was excluded from this survey. Participants were

then asked a number of questions about their personal characteristics, such as gender, age and

highest education level. After that, the participants were randomly exposed to either a green

advertisement or a non-green advertisement. Thereafter, the variables green brand image, green

purchase intentions and ad skepticism were tested using a questionnaire. The questionnaire

consisted of statements, which participants had to assess in terms of agreement with a 5-point

Likert scale.

Prior to conducting the survey, the required sample size was determined. An a priori

power analysis is with the program G*Power 3 (Faul, Lang, & Bunchner, 2007) is done to

calculate the sample size needed to achieve a certain power. The test family was set at F-tests

with the statistical test Linear multiple regression: Fixed model, R2 deviation from zero. This

analysis assumes an effect size of 0.15, a-error probability of 0.05 and a power (1-ß error

probability) of 0.95. The number of predictors is 2. The analysis gives a total required sample

size of N=107.

The questionnaire was completed by a selection of participants who were not chosen at

random, because of convenience sampling. Within a period of two weeks, responses were

collected by offering the survey in known circles of the researcher. The people who participated

in this research, were approached through means of different media channels, like Facebook,

WhatsApp and LinkedIn, in order to target different age groups. LinkedIn mainly attracts

participants in the age of 30-60, while Facebook and WhatsApp attract participants aged

younger, 18-30 (Aronsson, 2014).

The total number of respondents was 212. Only respondents who competed the full

questionnaire were included in the analysis, resulting in a final sample of 199 (N=199), which

was above the required sample size. The bigger the sample size is, the higher the reliability is

(Faul, Lang, & Bunchner, 2007). The sample consisted of 72 male (36,2%) and 127 female

(63,8%) participants. 52,3% was aged between 18 and 24 years. This is because the survey was

mostly spread among students. The age groups 25-40 and 41-64 were almost equal, respectively

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20,6% and 23,1% and only 4% was above 65 years old. The majority completed a bachelor’s

degree (42,2%), followed by a master’s degree (29,1%) and a high school graduate (26,6%).

3.2 Measurement of variables

All variables tested in this research, are operationalized and based on sustainability. The

operationalization looked at how the variables must be measured. The independent variable was

measured by means of an experiment. Based on this, the dependent variable, the mediator and

the moderator are tested using statements. Below the measurement of each variable is described.

Independent variable: Exposure to Green Advertising vs. Exposure to Non-green Advertising

In this study, the independent variable consisted on two conditions. The independent variable

was tested by exposing participants to either an advertisement with green claims (first

condition) or an advertisement with non-green claims (second condition). Half of the

participants was exposed to the green advertisement (treatment group) and half of the

respondents was exposed to the conventional advertisement (control group) in order to measure

the difference between those groups. Both ads showed similar hand soap products from

different brands; Seepje and Dettol. The advertisement differed in terms of sustainability. The

brand Seepje is considered as a green brand and the brand Dettol as a conventional brand. The

Seepje advertisement showed green claims such as ‘Environmentally friendly ingredients’, and

‘Bottles made from 97% recycled plastic’. The Dettol advertisement showed claims such as

‘Kills 99,9% of bacteria and removes viruses.’

As part of the manipulation check, a single-item scale was added after exposure to one

of the two advertisements: “To what extent do you think this advertisement can be considered

as a green advertisement?’ with 5 answer option ranging from not green at all to very green.

After exposure to the green advertisement, a high score (4 or 5) on greenness was expected and

after exposure to the non-green advertisement, a low score (1 or 2) on greenness was expected.

Failing to answer this question correctly could suggest that participants did not understand what

green advertising was or filled out the survey randomly. All participants answered this question

correctly, so no respondent had to be removed.

Dependent variable Green Purchase Intention

Based on prior research, a questionnaire was composed to measure the dependent variable

purchase intention. Purchase intention was measured using existing scales, which was used in

the study by Grewal, Krishnan, Baker, and Borin (1998). The items were “The probability that

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I would consider purchasing this product/brand is…” and “I am willing to purchase this

product/brand in the future.” Participants had to answer the question using a Likert scale raging

from one to five (with 1 very unlikely and 5 very likely). A high score implies a high degree of

purchase intention. The reliability of the variable purchase intention is a= 0,934 (2 items).

Mediator Green Brand Image

On the basis of previously described literature, the questionnaire for measuring green brand

image as a mediator was composed of the constructs commitment, reputation, performance,

protection and trustworthiness. These constructs were measured using an existing scale from

the study of Chen (2009). Examples of items were: “This brand is considered as the benchmark

of environmental commitment” and “The brand’s environmental commitment is trustworthy”.

Again, participants had to answer those questions using a Likert scale raging from one to five

(with 1 strongly disagree and 5 strongly agree). A high score implies that the consumers’

perception of the brand is very environmental friendly, thus a more positive green brand image.

The realiability of the variable green brand image is a= 0,953 (5 items).

Moderator Ad Skepticism

In this study, ad skepticism was regarded as the moderator between green advertising and green

brand image. To measure ad skepticism, the well-known SKEP scale devised by Obermiller

and Spangenberg (2005) was used. Examples of items were: “Advertising is a reliable source

of information about the quality and performance of products” and “I can depend on getting

the truth in ads”. Again, participants rated the statements by using a five-point scale, ranging

from one to five (with 1 strongly disagree and 5 strongly agree). A high score implies that

consumers are less skeptic towards advertisements. The variable showed a reliability score of

a= 0,878 (7 items).

3.3 Analytical plan

The statistical calculations were performed using SPSS. Below is described what analysis has

been done and what steps have been taken during the analysis. In order to analyze the

hypotheses, this study used the PROCESS macro by Hayes (2017). To test hypothesis 1 to 4,

model 4 of the PROCESS tool was used, which measures mediation effects. Moreover, to

analyze hypothesis 5, model 7 of the PROCESS tool was used. This moderated mediation

model provides insights in the conditional indirect effect at different values of the moderator.

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The control variables gender, age and education were left out, because results showed that they

have no significant effect on the main variables.

4. Results This chapter gives an overview of the results. First, descriptive statistics, the reliability of the

variables and the correlation between the variables are described. Thereafter, the assumption

for the regression are described, followed by the results of the hypothesis tests.

4.1 Descriptive statistics, reliability and correlations

Bivariate correlation analyses were conducted to see what correlations between the variables

exist. Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics and Pearson’s r correlation coefficients between

the control variables gender, age and education and all the other variables exposure to green

advertising, green purchase intention, green brand image and ad skepticism. There are no

existing significant correlations between the control variables gender, age and education and

the other variables.

Furthermore, results show that the independent variable exposure to green advertising

is significantly positively correlated with the dependent variable green purchase intention (r=

0.29, p<0.001), with the mediator green brand image (r= 0.64, p<0.001) and with the moderator

ad skepticism (r= 0.25, p<0.001). As expected before, all the main variables indicate a moderate

to strong positive correlation.

The reliability of the variables in this study was tested using Cronbach’s alpha to

investigate the internal consistency of the scales for the dependent variable, the mediator and

the moderator. The Cronbach’s alpha for the dependent variable green purchase intention is a=

0.934, for the mediator green brand image a= 0.935 and for the moderator ad skepticism a=

0.878. The reliability for the scales is considered good at >0.80, so the reliability of the variables

is high (StatisticsSolution, 2020).

19

Table 1. Descriptive statistics and correlations

Variable M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1. Gendera 0.64 0.48

2. Ageb 1.79 0.94 -0.47**

3. Educationc 3.80 1.19 -0.19** 0.33**

4. Exposure to green

advertisingd

0.49 0.50 0.02 -0.02 0.02

5. Green purchase intention 3.24 1.12 0.11 -0.08 0.16 0.29** (0.934)

6. Green brand image 2.93 1.14 0.08 -0.06 0.11 0.64** 0.63** (0.953)

7. Ad skepticism 2.72 0.72 -0.03 0.01 0.14 0.25** 0.40** 0.37** (0.878)

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)

N= 199

Note: Cronbach’s a are in parentheses on the diagonal a 0= male, 1= female, b 1= 18-24, 2= 25-40, 3= 40-64, 4= 65+, c 1= high school graduate, 2= bachelor’s degree, 3= master’s

degree, 4= professional degree or higher, d 0= exposure to non-green advertisement, 1= exposure to green advertisement

4.2 Regression analyses

A multiple regression is carried out with the Process tool in SPSS, for which some assumptions

must be met. Firstly, the normality assumption is checked by determining if the residuals of the

variables were normally distributed via a P-P plot and by making a histogram. Results showed

that the residuals are approximately normally distributed and that there are no outliers. Also,

the homoscedasticity assumption is met, since the residuals are equally variable (constant).

Furthermore, multicollinearity is not present, because all the variance inflation factors are

below 5. Based on these results, it can be assumed that all assumptions for regression are met.

4.2.1 Mediation analysis

In order to test hypothesis 1 to 4, Model 4 of the PROCESS macro of Hayes (2017) was used.

Multiple regression analysis was conducted to assess each relationship in the mediation model.

The results of the analysis will show the effect of exposure to green advertising on green

purchase intention (direct effect c’), the effect of exposure to green advertising on green brand

image (a-path), the effect of green brand image on green purchase intention (b-path) and the

effects of exposure to green advertising on green purchase intention, mediated by green brand

image (indirect effect).

The results, summarized in figure 2, show that exposure to green advertising is

negatively associated with green purchase intention (b= -0.437, t(199)= 2.778, p< 0.01). This

means that hypothesis 1, exposure to green ads as compared to non-green ads leads to a higher

green purchase intention, cannot be confirmed, since there is a negative significant relationship

20

between the independent variable and the dependent variable. It was also found that exposure

to green advertising leads to a higher green brand image (b= 1.447, t(199)= 11.616, p< 0.01).

Therefore, hypothesis 2, that exposure to green ads will lead to a more positive green brand

image as compared to non-green ads, is accepted. It means that consumers exposed to green

advertising have on average 1.447-point higher level of green brand image compared to

consumers exposed to a non-green advertisement. Also, green brand image is positively

associated with green purchase intention (b= 0.745, t(199)= 10.743, p< 0.01). It can be

confirmed that a higher level of green brand image leads to a higher green purchase intention,

which corresponds with hypothesis 3.

Because the a-path and b-path are both positive and significant, the indirect effect of

exposure to green advertising on green purchase intention, explained by green brand image,

must be significant too. The 95% confidence interval for the indirect effect does not include

zero, thus there is a significant positive indirect effect of exposure to green advertising on green

purchase intention, through green brand image (b= 1.078, 95% CI [0.831; 1.347]). Mediation

has occurred at a 95% confidence level.

Altogether, the results of the mediation analysis did support the mediating role of green

brand image in the relation between exposure to green advertising and green purchase intention.

It can be concluded that hypothesis 4 must be accepted. There is partial mediation in this case,

because the direct effect is still significant when introducing the mediator green brand image.

Exposure to green advertising

Green purchase intention

Green brand image

a = 1.447, p < .001 b = 0.745, p < .001

Direct effect c’ = -0.437, p < .006

Indirect effect a*b = 1.078, CI [0.831; 1.347]

Figure 2: Direct and indirect effects of exposure to green advertising on green purchase intention through green brand image

21

4.2.2 Moderated mediation analysis

In order to test hypothesis 5, it was first analyzed whether ad skepticism has an interaction

effect on the relationship between exposure to green advertising and green brand image. This

analysis is the first part of the moderated mediation analysis. A multiple regression was used to

test the relationship between exposure to green advertising, ad skepticism and green brand

image (Model 7, Hayes). The interaction between exposure to green advertising and ad

skepticism was found to be insignificant (b= 0.113, t (199) = 0.651, p= 0.516). This model

significantly explained 45% of the variance in green brand image. Table 2 summarizes the

effects of the moderation analysis.

Table 2. Moderated regression analysis

B se t p

Outcome variable: Green brand image

Constant

2.921**

0.062

47.049

0.000

Exposure to green advertising (GAEXP) 1.324** 0.124 10.661 0.000

Ad skepticism (ADS) 0.337** 0.087 3.873 0.000

Interaction GAEXP x ADS

F(3, 195)= 53.868, R2= 0.453

0.113 0.173 0.651 0.516

Note: ** p<0.01

Hypothesis 5 predicted that the indirect effect of exposure to green advertising on green

purchase intention through green brand image was moderated by the level of ad skepticism. In

order to test this hypothesis, PROCESS Model 7 (Hayes, 2017) was used, with, exposure to

green advertising as the independent variable, green purchase intention as the dependent

variable, green brand image as the mediator and ad skepticism as the moderator. The model

generated 95% bootstrap confidence intervals for the indirect effect using 5000 bootstrap

samples. The 95% confidence interval of the moderated mediation index does include zero,

which indicates that there is no significant difference between the indirect effect at low levels

of ad skepticism (b= 0.925, 95% CI [0.666,1.216]), moderate levels of ad skepticism (b= 0.985,

95% CI [0.751, 1.235] and high levels of ad skepticism (b= 1.057, 95% CI [0.773, 1.417].

Moreover, the results show no evidence of conditional indirect effects which is different from

zero with 95% confidence interval. The relationship between exposure to green advertising and

green purchase intention through green brand image, does not significantly decrease when an

individual is more skeptic towards advertisements. Therefore, hypothesis 5 is not supported.

The results of the moderated mediation analysis are presented in table 3.

22

Table 3. Moderated mediation analysis for conditional indirect effects of exposure to green advertising on green

purchase intention via green brand image, moderated by the level of ad skepticism

Green purchase intention

B

LLCI

ULCI

Ad skepticism

Low ad skepticism1 (-0.723)

0.925

0.666

1.216

Moderate ad skepticism2 (-0.008) 0.985 0.751 1.235

High ad skepticism3 (0.849)

1.057 0.773 1.417

Note: 5000 bootstrap samples 116th percentile, 250 percentile, 384th percentile

23

5. Discussion and Conclusion 5.1 Summary

This study aimed to examine the influence of green advertising on green purchase intention of

consumers. Furthermore, it was studied whether there was an indirect effect of green brand

image, on the relationship between exposure to green advertising and green purchase intention

and whether this indirect effect was moderated by the level of ad skepticism. The research

question that had to be answered is: To what extent mediates green brand image the relationship

between exposure to green advertisements and the intention to purchase green products, and

to what extent is this indirect effect moderated by the level of ad skepticism?

5.2 Key findings

The first hypothesis states that exposure to green advertising as compared to non-green

advertising leads to a higher purchase intention. The results lend no support for hypothesis 1,

which indicates that exposure to green advertising does not increase purchase intention in

comparison with exposure to non-green advertising. Moreover, results show that exposure to

the non-green advertisement leads to a higher purchase intention. This is contradictory to prior

studies, which found evidence that exposure to green advertisements help consumers in making

green purchase decisions by creating awareness and informing them about the sustainable

features of products or brands (Ansar, 2013; Rizwan et al., 2014; Vermeir & Verbeke, 2005;

Ahmad, Shah, & Ahmad, 2009). This opposite result can be explained by an external factor. A

number of respondents indicated after the survey that they would buy hand soap anyway,

sustainable or not, because of the covid-19 pandemic. Hand soap has become a highly sought-

after product during corona times (Business Insider, 2020). Since the non-green advertisement

of Dettol emphasized more on the functional attributes of the product, namely killing bacterias,

could this be the reason that the non-green advertisement resulted in a higher purchase intention.

Secondly, hypothesis 2 states that exposure to green ads will lead to a more positive

green brand image as compared to non-green ads. Based on the results of this study, there was

a significant positive relationship found between exposure to green advertising and green brand

image of customers, so hypothesis 2 is supported. This means that consumer who were exposed

to a green advertisement have a more positive green brand image in comparison to consumers

who were exposed to a conventional advertisement. The results were in line with expectations

based on previous work, which also claim that green advertising strategy gives consumers more

positive perception of the brand, which enhances green brand image (Huang, Yang, & Wang,

2014; Nagar, 2015; Alamsyah et al.,, 2018).

24

Furthermore, the third hypothesis states that green brand image is positively related to

purchase intention. Based on previous work, there were strong expectations that green brand

image does increase consumers purchase intentions (Chen, 2009; Bukhari, Rana, & Bhatti,

2017; Kusnandar & Rinandiyana, 2017; Rahmi et al., 2017; Rizwan et al.,, 2014; Wang & Tsai,

2014). This study found a significant positive relationship between green brand image and

purchase intention which indicates that the more consumers perceive the brand image as green,

the higher their purchase intention is. Therefore, hypothesis 3 can also be supported.

The fourth hypothesis states that the relationship between exposure to green advertising

and purchase intention is mediated by the level of green brand image. The results suggest that

this is true, so hypothesis 4 can be accepted. This indicates that the relationship between

exposure to green advertising and purchase intention can be explained by how green consumers

perceive the brand. Previous work about the mediating role of green brand image show similar

results (Kusnandar & Rinandiyana, 2017). It is remarkable that there no direct effect of

exposure to green advertising on purchase intention has been observed, but the total effect of

exposure to green advertising on purchase intention through green brand image is significant.

An explanation for this could be that consumers are not attracted to the advertisement itself,

which decreases their purchase intention, but are familiar with the brand, which helps in

forming a more positive brand image, which in turn could increase their purchase intention

(Malik et al., 2013).

Lastly, hypothesis 5, which states that the indirect effect of exposure to green advertising

on green purchase intention through green brand image is moderated by the level of ad

skepticism. This research did not find statically support for the moderating effect of ad

skepticism, so hypothesis 5 must be rejected. This means that when a consumer has a high level

of skepticism towards an advertisement after exposure to that ad, it does not mean that the green

brand image and the relationship between exposure to green advertising and purchase intention

through green brand image decrease. This result is not consistent with prior research, as

Obermiller et al. (2015) and Kim & Lee (2009) found that brand beliefs and attitudes towards

the advertising are moderated by consumers’ ad skepticism, which in turn could influence

consumer purchase intention. It could be possible that respondents were not skeptic about the

exposed ads in this research.

25

5.3 Limitations and future research

There are some limitations to this study that must be acknowledged. First, the data is collected

within known circles of the researcher, which implies convenience sampling. The sample is not

representative for the population, because about half of the respondents were female students,

causing reduced reliability and external validity. Distortion of data can in the future be

prevented by conducting the survey over a longer period and on a larger scale than just in the

researcher’s circles in order to make the results more generalizable.

Furthermore, the independent variable consisted of two conditions, exposure green

advertising and non-green advertising, measured by an experimental design. The advertised

brands were existing brands, but the advertisements were constructed by the researcher. This

could mean that the variables were controlled in such a way that it guides respondents towards

a desirable answer. For an experimental design to be effective and reliable, it must be objective.

Manipulation by the researcher reduces objectivity. Subjectivity of the researcher can in the

future be prevented by more extensive manipulation check before conducting the main study

(Gaille, 2017).

In addition, experimental research measures whether there exist differences between the

groups, not why there is a difference (Gaille, 2017). Future research could focus on why there

is a difference between exposure to green advertising and non-green advertising on purchase

intention. Previous research has demonstrated that a lot of factors influence green purchase

intention (Mei, Ling, & Piew, 2012). Participants indicated that not only advertisements

determine whether to buy the product or not. This study did not provide enough space to

examine multiple factors. Future research could include more variables, such as product

involvement, price sensitivity or environmental concern.

5.4 Practical implications

To enhance green purchase intention, this study suggests that marketers should focus on

developing and implementing green branding strategies rather than focus on only advertising

the green product. Green advertising only is not enough to increase consumers’ purchase

intention. Consumers often have choices between similar products from different brands, so

marketers must ensure that their brand stands out. A better green brand image compared to

competitors can increase sales.

In this study, there was no evidence found that ad skepticism has an effect on green

brand image and green purchase intention. Nevertheless, marketers need to be aware of the

26

effects of greenwashing. When green claims in advertisements does seem untrustworthy, there

is a possibility that green brand image and green purchase intention are reduced.

5.4 Conclusion

The increasing concern for the environment has led that companies cannot ignore sustainability

anymore. There has been done a lot of research about green marketing and sustainable

consumer behavior. However, no research has been done that specifically focuses on the effects

of green advertising and how consumers perceive the advertised brand. Therefore, the aim of

this study was to explore the effects of exposure to green advertising on green purchase

intention with the underlying factors green brand image and ad skepticism.

Hence, the following research question was examined: To what extent mediates green

brand image the relationship between exposure to green advertisements and the intention to

purchase green products, and to what extent is this indirect effect moderated by the level of ad

skepticism?

The results showed, contrary to expectations, that exposure to green advertising does

not directly influence purchase intention, while exposure to green advertising indirectly through

green brand image does increase purchase intention. The level of disbelief of the ad, which

means how skeptic the consumer is towards the ad, does not have an effect on the results, which

means that a consumer with high levels of ad skepticism does not show differences in green

brand image and purchase intention in comparison with a consumer with low level of ad

skepticism.

27

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Zinkhan, G., & Carlson, L. (1995). Green advertising and the relucant consumer. Journal of

Advertising, 24(2), 1-6.

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7. Appendix 7.1 Survey

Q1

I would like to invite you to participate in a study conducted under the responsibility of Faculty Economics and

Business, part of the University of Amsterdam. In this survey, questions will be asked about sustainable

consumer behavior. The purpose of this research is to gain more insight in what encourages the purchase of

sustainable products. The survey takes less than 5 minutes and can be carried out on a laptop / computer or

mobile phone.

The definition of sustainable consumer behavior is the purchase, use, and disposal of goods and service in a way

that decreases the negative impact on the environment and ensures that the needs of future generations can be

met.

A green product is defined as “a product that was manufactured using toxic-free ingredients and

environmentally-friendly procedures, and which is certified as such by a recognized organization.

By agreeing to participate in this study, you confirm that you are 18 years or older. Your decision to participate

in this study is voluntary and there are no risks involved in this study that you would not encounter in daily life.

This study is for academic purposes only. Your data will remain confidential and will be treated anonymously. If

you have any questions, please contact Nienke Cnossen, by mail nienke.cnossen@student.uva.nl

I hope to have informed you sufficiently and thank you in advance for participation in this study.

Nienke Cnossen

Q2 If you are satisfied with the information outlined above and agree to participate in this research study, please

indicate so below.

o Yes (1)

o No (2)

Q3 What is your gender?

o Male (1)

o Female (2)

o Other (3)

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Q4 What is your age?

o 18-24 (1)

o 25-40 (2)

o 41-65 (3)

o 65+ (4)

Q5 What is the highest level of education you have completed?

o Less than high school degree (1)

o High school graduate (2)

o Bachelor's degree (3)

o Master's degree (4)

o Professional degree or higher (5)

Randomization: participants were exposed to one of the two advertisements

Q16 Below you see an advertisement about a new handsoap of the brand Dettol.

Take your time to look at it carefully before answering the questions that follow.

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Q12 Below you see an advertisement about a new handsoap of the brand Seepje.

Take your time to look at it carefully before answering the questions that follow.

Q19

Green advertising is the advertisement of environmentally friendly, sustainable products that do not harm

the environment.

To what extent do you think this advertisement can be considered as a green advertisement?

1 (1) (2) (3) (4) 5 (5)

Not green at

all o o o o o Very green

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Q20

Based on the advertisement you have just seen, what is your first image about this advertised brand (in terms of

sustainability)?

Please check those answer options that correspond the most with your own opinion.

Strongly

disagree (1) Disagree (2)

Neither agree

nor disagree (3) Agree (4)

Strongly agree

(5)

This brand is

considered as

the benchmark

of

environmental

commitment.

o o o o o

This brand's

environmental

reputation is

outstanding.

o o o o o

The brand’s

environmental

performance is

successful.

o o o o o

The brand is

based on its

emphasis on

environmental

protection.

o o o o o

The brand’s

environmental

commitment is

trustworthy.

o o o o o

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Q22

In general, what do you think about advertisements? Please indicate to what extent you agree with the following

statements:

Strongly

disagree (1)

Disagree (2) Neither agree

nor disagree (3)

Agree (4) Strongly agree

(5)

I can depend on

getting the truth

in ads

o o o o o

Advertising's

aim is to inform

the consumer

o o o o o

I believe

advertising is

informative

o o o o o

Advertising is

generally

truthful

o o o o o

Advertising is a

reliable source

of information

about the quality

and performance

of products

o o o o o

Advertising

presents a true

picture of the

product being

advertised

o o o o o

I feel I've been

accurately

informed after

viewing most

advertisements

o o o o o

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Q16

After seeing this advertisement, how likely is it that you would buy this brand?

(not considering price)

Very Unlikely

(1)

Unlikely (2) Undecided (3) Likely (4) Very Likely (5)

The probability

that I would

consider

purchasing this

product/brand

is..

o o o o o

I am willing to

purchase this

product/brand in

the future.

o o o o o