MHI FTHEARMY

Copy 3 A N U A L Ei jT OF THE ME n rt

AIR FORCE MANUAL h %?Du

SURVIVALAT SEA

DEPARTMENTS OF THE ARMY AND THE AIR FORCEJUNE 1950

FM 21-22-1FM 64-26

This manual supersedes7FM 21-22, 25 April 1944

SURVIVALAT SEA

THE ARMY LIBRARYWASHINGTON, D.C.

United States Government Printing OfficeIWashington: 1950

DEPARTMENTS OF THE ARMY AND THEAIR FORCE

Washington 25, D. C., 1 JUNE 1950

FM 21-22--AFM 64-26 is published for the in-formation and guidance of all concerned.

[AG 300.7 (16 Jul 48)]

BY ORDER OF THE SECRETARIES OF THE ARMY

AND THE AIR FORCE:

OFFICIAL: J. LAWTON COLLINSEDWARD F. WITSELL Chief of StaffMajor General, USA United States ArmyThe Adjutant General

OFFICIAL: HOYT S. VANDENBERG

L. L. JUDGE Chief of StaffColonel, USAF United States Air ForceAir Adjutant General

DISTRIBUTION:

Army:Tech.Sv (2) except 55 (20); AFF (5); OS

Maj Comd (5); MDW (5); A (20); CHQ(5); D (5) except Tng Div (200) ; R (5);Bn (3); C 5, 8 (1); 55 (2); FC (2); Sch(15) except 55 (200) ; USMA (2); PMS&T(1); SH (1); PE (100), OSD (2).

For explanation of distribution formula, seeSR 310-90-1.

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Air Force:Zone of interior:

Hq USAF (10); Maj Air Comds (10)each; Sub Air Comds (5) each; Serv-ices (MATS) (5) each; Air Divisions(5) each; Wings (5) each; Air ForceBases (2) each; Groups (4) each;Squadrons (3) each; Air Force ROTCUnits (2) each; Air Div, NGB (infopurposes only) (5) each.

Overseas:Miaj Air Comds (10) each; Sub Air

Comds (5) each; Wings (5) each;Air Force Bases (2) each; Groups (4)each; Squadrons (3) each.

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CONTENTS

Paragraphs Page

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ................ 1-3 1

2. SAFETY ABOARD SHIP

Section 1. Safety equipment ........... 4-11 3

II. Safety measures ............. 12-13 23

CHAPTER 3. ABANDONING SHIP

Section I. Abandon-ship conduct ........ 14-15 31II. Going over the side ........... 16-22 34

III. In the water ................ 23-26 47

CHAPTER 4. OPERATING LIFESAVING CRAFT

Section 1. Command aboard lifesavingcraft ..................... 27-28 63

1. Rowing and sailing lifesavingcraft ..................... 29-32 64

CHAPTER 5. NAVIGATION FROM LIFESAVINGCRAFT

Section I. Determining direction ........ 33-35 69II. Physical indications of land... 36-39 77

CHAPTER 6. ADRIFT AT SEA

Section 1. Sustenance aboard lifesavingcraft ..................... 40-46 81

II. First aid at sea.............. 47-49 93III. Protection against water

animals .................. 50-51 108

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Paragraphs Page

CHAPTER 7. RESCUE

SectionI. Attracting attention ......... 52-56 120II. Rescue at sea ................ 57-59 125

III. Reaching land ............... 60-61 128

CHAPTER 8. SUGGESTIONS FOR INSTRUCTORS... 62-64 139

APPENDIX I. REFERENCES ........................... 142

II. GLOSSARY ............................. 143

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This manual supersedes FM 21-22, 25 April 1944

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1. PURPOSE. The purpose of this manual is to pro-vide basic and fundamental information on how totake care of yourself and what to do during emer-gencies at sea.

2. SCOPE. This manual covers shipboard safetymeasures and equipment, abandon-ship procedure,operation and navigation of lifesaving craft, meas-ures for sustaining life while adrift, rescue proce-dure, and brief suggestions for instructors. Since alandfall may prove only temporary refuge, somehints on survival ashore are also given. Swimmingand lifesaving techniques, treated in detail in FM21-20, are described only briefly in this manual.

3. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. a. Survival at sea means

the ability of a person to take care of himself andothers during an emergency afloat. This manualcontains the important facts a man should know aboutthe sea and about survival methods. The greatesthazard that will be encountered while adrift at seais anxiety over the unknown. Such anxiety is largelycaused by lack of information on means of survivalat sea which this manual presents. A knowledge ofwhat to do during an emergency and how to do itmay save many lives. The time to acquire thatknowledge is now, before an emergency arises.

b. Common sense is also necessary, however, anda considerable degree of ingenuity may be required,for not all the equipment and facilities mentionedherein may be available. Even though the equipmentis at hand, precautions cannot be ignored. If anyarticle of equipment is not available in an emergency,make the best of the situation. The principles in thismanual, and applied common sense and ingenuity,will go far toward insuring survival at sea. In addi-tion, rescue crews will be looking for survivors.

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CHAPTER 2

SAFETY ABOARD SHIP

Section I. SAFETY EQUIPMENT

4. GENERAL. a. Ship's safety equipment. The safe-ty equipment aboard a troop transport, exclusive offire-fighting apparatus, usually includes lifeboats, liferafts and floats, exposure suits, life preservers, line-throwing guns and breeches buoys, life nets, embarka-tion and emergency escape ladders, ropes, lights (life-preserver, portable emergency and flash types),whistles, jackknives, and life buoys. A number ofthese items, as well as additional equipment, arefound in lifesaving craft. (See pars. 5-8.)

.b. Individual safety equipment.. A life preserverwill be provided for every man boarding a transport.It may be issued to each individual or stored in aneasily accessible place. A life-preserver light, whistle,pamphlet of safety rules, and a single-blade jack-knife may also be issued.

5. LIFEBOATS. a. Description. The modern lifeboatis a double-ender or whale-boat type, the bow andstern being of the same or. nearly the same shape.It may be made of wood or metal and may, be self-righting and/or self-bailing, containing watertightcompartments and hand-pumps. It may be motor-driven or propelled by oars, sails, a hand-operatedpropeller, or combinations thereof.

b. Nomenclature.. Nomenclature of a hand-pro-pelled metal lifeboat is indicated in figure 1.

TILLER

LIFTING -LEVERS FOR HAND LEVERS FOR HANDHOOK PROPELLER GEAR PROPELLER GEAR

REVERSI$NO GUNWALE LOWE

SEEA

PROPELLER . ....KEEL LIFE LINE FLOATS

RUDDER AIR TANKS GRAE RAIL lAIR TANKS

-MAST FITTING

GLOWER \ MANHOLESSEATS LAIR TANKS

Figure 1. Nomenclature of hand-propelled metal lifeboat.

c. Equipment. The equipment listed below is re-quired on lifeboats. Motor lifeboats are additionallyequipped with motor and accessories, searchlight,radio installations, and two fire extinguishers, andthey need not carry a mast, sails, or more than fourrowing oars and one steering oar.

(1) Bailer.(2) Two boathooks.(3) One 2-gallon galvanized iron bucket.(4) One 2-inch liquid compass.(5) Twelve self-igniting red flares, 2-minute, in

watertight case.(6) One ditty bag with palm, needles, twine

marlin, and marlinspike.(7) Two enamel drinking cups.(8) Two single-edge hatchets.

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(9) One gallon illuminating oil.(10) One lantern and oil for nine hours.(11) One lifeline in 3-foot bights and a sieve

float in each.(12) Two life preservers.(13) One locker for small gear.(14) One mast, sails, and gear.(15) Matches in waterproof case.(16) Complement of oars and two spares.(17) One 23/4-inch painter, length three times

boat deck to water at light draft.(18) Two plugs attached by chain to each drain

hole.(19) Steering oar and rowlock.(20) Rudder and tiller or yoke.(21) Sea anchor and oil cone.(22) One gallon storm oil.(23) Breakers, pump or spigot, containing one

quart of water for each person.(24) Provisions consisting of two pounds of

bread and one can of condensed milk perperson.

d. Wartime equipment. In time of war additionalequipment may be provided as shown in the followinglist:

(1) Blankets.(2) Charts.(3) Curtain and hood.(4) First aid kit.(5) Fishing kit.(6) Bullet hole plugs.(7) Line.(8) Signal flags.(9) Signalling mirrors.

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(10) Flashlight.(11) Repair kit.(12) Bible.(13) Massage oil.(14) Whistle, jackknife, and life preserver light

for each person.

6. LIFE RAFTS. a. General. A life raft consists ofair tanks or drums enclosed in a wooden frame. (fig. 2).The raft is reversible, with compartments for equip-ment that can be opened from either side. Life raftsare usually stowed so as to provide quick releasedirectly into the water, and are arranged so theywill have the best chance of floating free of the shipif there is no time to launch them. Life floats andrafts and designed primarily to provide flotation forsurvivors until rescue comes. Sails may be providedwith some types of life rafts. When they are notprovided, it is usually too exhausting even undernormal conditions of wind and sea to attempt anyheadway in such craft. Strength should usually beconserved to keep afloat and not to make distance.

b. Equipment. Equipment required for life raftsis listed below:

(1) Lifeline (as in lifeboats).(2) Painter (as in lifeboats).(3) Four oars.(4) Five rowlocks.(5) Matches in waterproof case.(6) Water (as in lifeboat).(7) Bread (as in lifeboat).(8) Twelve flares (as in lifeboat).(9) Sea anchor and oil cone.

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-U!Figure 2. One type of life raft.

(10) One gallon storm oil.(11) Two enamel cups.(12) Self-igniting water light.

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7. LIFE FLOAT. A life float is usually made of corkor balsa wood covered with canvas, with netting andslats for a deck (fig. 3). It may be launched directlyoverboard or can float free of a sinking ship. Awhite electric water light usually will be attached tothe float by a lanyard, and at least two paddles willbe lashed to the sides or the slats. Other equipmentvaries with the type of craft.

Figure 3. One type of life float.

8. CARBON DIOXIDE RUBBER BOAT. The carbondioxide rubber boat is a collapsible rubber boat, usedchiefly by airmen, inflated by carbon dioxide con-tained in a cartridge attached to the boat (fig. 4).The capacity of the boat varies, but equipment car-ried in bags along the inside-of the boat usually in-

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cludes a compass, first-aid kit, fishing kit, two col-lapsible oars, provisions, sail fabric, signaling mirror,smoke grenades, and a supply of water.

Figure 4. Carbon dioxide rubber boat.

9. LIFE PRESERVERS AND ATTACHMENTS. a. Lifejackets. In addition to having a life preserver foreach person allowed to be carried, all vessels areprovided with an extra 25 percent of this numberstowed so as to float free of a sinking vessel. Lifejackets are made of buoyant material such as cork,balsa, and kapok, or are inflated by mouth or by car-bon dioxide cartridges. Some types are so made thatthe cotton tape straps may be tied even though thejacket is worn inside out (fig. 5). In wartime, inemergencies, and when either fire or boat drills arebeing held, the life jacket is worn like a vest. It isnot wvorn when jumping into flame- or oil-covered

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waters, when swimming under-water to avoid flamesor oil, or when jumping from a great height.

(1) Cork or balsa jacket. This type consistsof blocks of cork or balsa wood sewn into asleeveless canvas jacket. It is tied about thewaist with cotton straps (fig. 5). A cork orbalsa jacket should not be worn when jump-ing from a vessel, even from moderateheights, because it may cause serious injuryto the neck or head upon impact with thewater.

(2) Kapok. Life jackets made from kapok aremore comfortable, warmer, and safer to usethan cork or balsa jackets. The Army-typekapok jacket is similar to the Navy-type,except that the Navy jacket has an addi-tional kapok collar to support the head.(See fig. 6.)

(3) Inflation ("Mae West"). The inflation-type("Alae West") life jacket is made of rub-berized fabric and inflated by carbon dioxidecartridges or by mouth. When inflated, car-bon dioxide or air fills tubes in the front ofthe jacket and around the back of the neck.It is worn by flying personnel as it is lightin weight and not bulky. (See fig. 7.)

b. Life belts,(1) General. Life belts are made of rubberized

fabric in the form of tubes which are inflatedby carbon dioxide cartridges or by mouth.They are put on and worn like cartridgebelts. Life belts' are generally issued toamphibious assault troops, although otherpreservers may be issued.

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Figure 5. Cork (or balsa) life jacket,inside strap tied.

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Figure 6. Kapok life jacket.

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Figure 7. Inflation-type life jacket being inflated bycartridge.

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(2) Preparation for wearing.(a) Close valve at end of each mouth-inflation

tube.(b) Secure pleats in belt by snapping two

fasteners on opposite sides of belt aboutmidway between ends of mouth-inflationtubes.

(c) Shorten belt by forming loop and snappingthree fasteners (fig. 8).

(d) Unscrew caps of inflation mechanism andinsert a filled carbon dioxide cartridge intoeach compartment with slender portion ofcartridge pointing toward removable caps(fig. 9). Never reverse the position ofcartridges.

(e) Replace caps and, using finger pressureonly, screw down tightly to prevent lossof gas when belt is inflated.

(3) Putting on belt. Grasp inflating mechanismwith right hand and put on like a cartridgebelt. Hook ends together with slotted tongueon inflating mechanism (fig. 10). Do notturn belt in against body. Accidental infla-tion in such a position makes it impossibleto remove withoilt. injuring belt. It shouldfit comfortablyz about waist. Hook may beadjusted by rotating it to unclamp it, movingit to desired position .and reclamping it.Small metal rings :are set into belt for at-taching improvise rope suspenders, if de-sired. Suspenders are not furnished withbelt.

(4) Inflating belt. Grasp belt to right of inflat-ing mechanism, as. illustrated in figure 11.

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MOUTH-INFLATION

PLEAT

TUBES , *

SNAPS

FASTENER

Figure 8. Shbrtening the life belt.

Close hand quickly and firmly, und then re-lease it. This movement forces a pair oflevers to press the carbon dioxide cartridgesagainst firing pins in the removable caps.The cartridge diaphragms are punctured and

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ADJUSTABLE HOOK

Figure 10. Putting on life belt.

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the carbon dioxide is released, inflating thebelt. If additional buoyancy is required ineither of the buoyancy tubes, reach aroundwith the left hand, pull on the desiredmouth-inflation tube (fig. 8), unscrew thevalve, and inflate by mouth. The valve mustthen'-be screwed tight by hand. To deflate,unscrew caps of inflation mechanisms. Ininflating the belt solely by mouth, all snapfasteners must first be disengaged by hand.

(5) Rules for wearing. The following generalrules apply to the wearing of the carbondioxide life belt:

(a) The life belt should be partially inflatedby mouth at all times.

(b) It should be worn under personal equip-ment. The wearer may discard his equip-ment without removing the belt'if, for ex-ample, he finds his equipment is too heavyfor the belt to support in the water.

(c) The life belt should be inflated beforegoing overboard, unless the water is cov-ered with flanies or oil. However, inflatinglife belts before jumping overboard mayresult -in injury to the wearer or damageto the belt.

(d) Life belts should normally be worn highon the waist to keep the head above waterif the wearer is stunned or injured inleaving the ship.

c. Life rings. Life rings or life buoys are placedaboard a vessel so as to be easily accessible. They arenever permanently secured in any way and will floatfree of a sinking ship.

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Figure 11. Inflating life belt by cartridges.

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d. Attachments to life preservers.(1) Light. The waterproof life-preserver light,

battery-operated, attracts attention to a manin the water. The red light, used to dis-tinguish individual men from rafts and floats(which show white lights), is turned on byscrewing on the red cap as far as it willturn. The light has a cord and large safetypin by which it is pinned to the jacket. Italso has a clip on its side by which it issecured high on the jacket to gain maximumvisibility and keep it out of the water.

(2) Whistle. The whistle is worn around theneck. It is valuable in attracting attentionat night or in fog. Immersion in salt waterfor a long time may affect the voice, but itwill still be possible to blow a whistle.

10.-EXPOSURE SUITS. a. Description. Many ves-sels under military control, as well as military air-craft operating in cold latitudes, carry an exposureor lifesaving suit for every member aboard. Wornwith life jackets, the suits can be donned quickly andprovide floatability, water-proof comfort, and reten-tion of body heat. Several layers of loose woolenclothing may be worn inside the suit, and the wearercan rest after being set adrift by raising his legs andfloating horizontally.

b. Precautions. Exposure suits usually do notprevent water from entering about the neck, but ifa towel is wrapped around the neck when the suit isworn, less water will enter. Should the suit be punc-tured and fill with water, the life preserver, worn onthe outside, will continue to keep the wearer afloat.

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Most exposure suits are made from rubber and shouldbe kept away from heat, acids, grease, oil, and abra-sive surfaces. Repair kits are furnished, along withtalcum powder which helps preserve the rubber.

11. LINE-THROWING GUN AND BREECHES BUOY.a. Beach patrol. Personnel at Coast Guard stationspatrol the nearby beaches between sunset and sunrisefor about 4 miles on each side of the station. Inwartime or when the weather is foggy, the patrol ismaintained day and night and a continuous watchis kept at the station itself. When a vessel is im-mobilized, regulation distress signals are used to at-tract the attention of those ashore or on nearbyvessels. (See par. 59.)

b. Line-throwing guns.(1) General. The line-throwing gun is standard

equipment on all oceangoing vessels and isoperated and manned by the ship's person-nel. These guns and breeches buoys arestandard equipment at all Coast Guard life-saving stations and aboard all Coast Guardvessels. Line-throwing guns are used to carrya small line to shore or to another vesselfrom a ship in distress, by projecting a shankto which the line is attached. The gun maybe lashed to the deck and fired at a highelevation to shoot over and across the target.Shoulder guns (fig. 12) are also used.

(2) Equipment aboard ship. Equipment for theline-throwing gun, except powder andprimer, is stowed on the boat deck in a boxmarked "Line-Throwing Gun." Such equip-ment consists of six projectiles (each projec-

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Figure 12. Line-throwing shoulder gun.

tile is a shank with an eye) ; four shot lines,each 1,700 feet long; and an auxiliary line,3 inches in circumference and 1,500 feetlong. Powder (in 2- and 5-oz charges) andprimers are usually stored in the ammuni-tion locker or in the master's room.

(3) Firing. Experienced ship's personnel willsupervise the firing of the line-throwing gun.Instructions are usually provided. with theequipment.

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c. Rigging and operating the breeches buoy. Thebreeches buoy consists of a ring buoy with a canvas,trouserlike bottom in which a person being rescuedis conveyed to safety by ropes secured in clotheslinefashion (A in fig. 13). After the line shot from theline-throwing gun is received, additional lines andtail-blocks are hauled along this line until a pulleyline can be secured between the rescue party andthose in distress. The breeches buoy is attached tothis line and put into operation to carry persons tosafety. B in figure 13 illustrates details of the riggingof a breeches buoy.

Section II. SAFETY MEASURES

12. GENERAL. a. Assignments. Abandon-ship sta-tions are assigned by the master to all personnelaboard. Routes to stations are explained and such di-rectional signs as arrows are pointed out. Lifeboatsor rafts are also assigned. Boats are numbered fromforward towards the stern, with odd-numbered boatson the right (starboard) side and even-numberedboats on the left (port) side. If boats are nested,No. 1-A is carried under No. 1, No. 2-A under No. 2,and so on. The number and location of the boat as-signed must be known thoroughly, so that it may befound even in the dark.

b. Inspection. `An inspection of the troop com-partments is made daily for cleanliness and a countof personnel.

c. Security. Security measures during peacetimewill vary from those prescribed in time of war. How-ever, these security measures will be prescribed bythe commander concerned.

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r-

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d. Abandon-ship drills. These drills are usuallyheld without warning and simulate real emergenciesas much as possible. In peacetime, Coast Guard in-spectors usually conduct a presailing drill. At sea,drills are first conducted by day to enable passengersto become familiar with locations of ladders, cables,equipment, and projecting parts so they can findtheir way quickly to stations in the dark. Alternateroutes to stations are prescribed. At different times,one or more routes are blocked off so that passengersmust use others and thus become familiar with them.Instruction in leaving the ship during an emergencyincludes use of safety equipment, special precau-tions, and conduct in the water and on lifeboats andlife rafts.

13. INDIVIDUAL SAFETY PROCEDURE DURING PAS-SAGE. a. General precautions. Although over-allprecautions will vary with different ships and situa-tions during times of emergency, the following rulesshould serve as a guide to all personnel on Armyships in both peacetime and wartime. Every passengershould-

(1) Smoke only at times and places designated.(2) Keep out of the way of the ship's crew

while they are at work. Traffic on deck movescounterclockwise: on starboard-toward the'bow; on port-toward the stern.

(3) Learn thoroughly the procedure for meetingsuch emergencies as abandoning ship, fire,and attack.

(4) Know the emergency signals for all ship'sdrills, and know the location and duties of

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his emergency station. Prompt obedience toall emergency signals is absolutely essential.

SignalsFIRE AND

EMERGENCY .. Rapid ringing of the ship's bell andcontinuous ringing of general alarmbells for a period of at least 10seconds.

ABANDON SHIP..More than six short blasts and onelong blast on the whistle and thesame signal on the general alarmbells.

MAN OVER-BOARD ........ Shout "Man overboard" to the bridge.

DISMISSAL ...... From fire and emergency stations,three short blasts on the whistle andthree short rings on the generalalarm' bells.

Whistle Signals Used for Handling Boats

LOWER BOATS... One short blast on the whistle.STOP LOWER-

ING BOATS .... Two short blasts on the whistle.

DISMISSALFROM BOATSTATIONS ..... Three short blasts on the whistle.

SWING OUTBOATS ......... Four short blasts on the whistle.

MAN EMER-GENCY BOAT .. One long and one short blast on the

whistle.

(5) Keep fit, get all the exercise he can, andapply himself vigorously in any plannedexercise or athletics.

b. Additional wartime precautions. In wartime,the following rules should be observed in addition tothe general precautions discussed in a above:

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(1) Always have a life jacket or life belt,whistle, rope, life-preserver light, cartridgebelt, and a full canteen of water present.Wear the jacket or life belt during the day;when not worn (e.g. when retiring) it iskept within reach.

(2) Practice finding essential personal equipmentin the dark. Sleep as nearly fully clothedas conditions permit.

(3) Always dress warmly. -Uniform to be wornwill be specified by regulations. Adequateclothing offers protection from flash burnsand other hazards during an emergency atsea.

(4) If on an exposed deck when bombs hit theship, lie flat on the deck to avoid blast andflying fragments. If it is impossible to liedown, hold on to something solid to avoidbeing thrown.

c. Precautions for cold climates. When sailingthrough Arctic waters, wearing of the prescribedclothes, including gloves and face mask (on lookoutduty), is especially important. The following factorsshould also be noted:

(1) Several layers of light clothing are muchwarmer than a single heavy layer. Innergarments should be fluffy and porous, outergarments rainproof and windproof.

(2) Clothes should be loose enough to permit aircirculation so that evaporation of perspira-tion can take place. Otherwise frost willform inside clothing with harmful results.Shoes should be big enough to allow thewearing of two or more pairs of socks.

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(3) Try to keep clothes dry, especially socks.If the weather is very cold, keep clothing on,wet or not. Dry it out as soon as possible.

(4) Wear heavy woolen inner gloves protectedwith windproof and rainproof outer mitts.

(5) Don't, become overheated. Wear clotheswhich can be removed in layers.

(6) Brush frost off clothes before going in warmplaces. Melted frost causes clothes to be-come damp.

(7) Clothes should be kept clean, as oils fromthe 'skin fill the air cells in the cloth, thusreducing their insulating qualities.

(8) Don't grease boots as grease is a poor in-sulator and may freeze.

(9) Wear watch on'string around neck and nextto body. If it becomes too cold, it may stop.

(10) Don't touch cold metal with the bare skin;it mav freeze fast to the metal. If this shouldhappen, don't try to pull loose. Thaw themetal.

(11) Wear dark glasses, if possible, to protect theeyes from sun and snow glare.

(12) Beware of slippery decks and ladders cov-ered with frozen spray.

(13) When an Arctic shore is reached afterabandoning a ship, knowing what to do maysave a person's life and bring rescue. (seepar. 61.) To survive in a cold country, re-main calm and avoid overexertion; eatplenty of fat, if possible; avoid tight clothesand shoes; and keep as warm and as dry aspossible. A knowledge of appropriate signals

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will be helpful in attracting the attentionof rescue parties (pars. 52-56).

d. Precautions in tropical waters.(1) Rapid cooling of the body after excessive

sweating should be avoided because it re-duces body resistance which may result inpneumonia, bronchitis, cramps, or skin con-ditions (prickly heat and fungus).

(2) Change Wet clothing as soon as possible.(3) Don't wear tight clothes that restrict air

circulation.(4) Drink plenty of 'water.(5) Take daily doses of salt tablets to replace

body salt lost through sweating.(6) Physical cleanliness is essential. Try to keep

bowel movements regular.(7) Wear sun glasses for protection from water

glare.(8) Be careful to avoid sunburn. The tropical

sun can burn a person seriously before herealizes it.

(9) Know how to recognize and deal with heatstroke, heat exhaustion, and heat cramps.

(10) Learn methods of survival in the jungle.(Refer to par: 61.) A person can surviveif he keeps calm and reasonable. Good foodand pure water are available if looked for.Most wild animals, including poisonoussnakes, will not attack human beings unlessthey are first bothered or annoyed. Themajority of the jungle natives are friendlyif friendly gestures are made toward them,but don't be overbearing. The worst enemyis malaria, but it can be avoided by taking

29

quinine, atabrine, or other antimalarial drugs.In addition, know how to make the correctsignals to attract attention for rescue (pars.52-56).

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CHAPTER 3

ABANDONING SHIP

Section I. ABANDON-SHIP CONDUCT

14. REASONS FOR ABANDONING SHIP. a. General.Most casualties at sea are actually the result of panic,which is usually the product of fear based on mis-information and a lack of self-confidence, training,and knowledge of proper actions in an emergency.Routine drills in abandoning ship, instructions in seasurvival procedures, explanations of reasons forabandoning ship, and emphasis by good leadershipon the chance of survival for those set adrift willkeep passengers and crew alert and prepared for anyemergency.

b. Natural hazards. Natural hazards at sea in-clude:

(1) Ice. Icebergs usually have a mass only one-eighth to one-twelfth visible on the surfaceof the sea. These masses of ice are foundnorth of latitude 40 ° N and south of lati-tude 35° S. In addition to the danger oframming icebergs in these areas, ships maybe stranded and smashed by forceful iceflows.

(2) Fire. Fire is a hazard always present andis one of the most terrifying experiencesaboard ship. Personal care with cigarettesand matches reduces.the danger.

(3) Other causes. In crowded harbors, there isdanger of collision or running aground, espe-

31

cially in fog. Mechanical failures, such as adamaged rudder, may put the vessel at themercy of the sea.

c. Hazards from enemy action. Natural hazardsare intensified by such wartime restrictions placed onnavigation as radio silence and blackout. Additionaldangers from enemy action include torpedoing, bomb-ing, explosion of depth charges, mines, shell fire, andsabotage.

(1) Torpedoing. Torpedoing is the principalmenace at sea during wartime and may becaused by underwater, surface, or air at-tack. In spite of the hazard, a large per-centage of men involved in torpedoings havesurvived without permanent ill effects. Thereis no time at sea when vigilance can berelaxed. Twilight, dawn, and changes ofwatch have been the times when attacks havebeen most frequent.

(2) Bombing and depth charges.. Moving shipsare small targets for bombing planes, butbombing is a major wartime menace. Divebombing is often effective, and considerabledamage can be caused by strafing. A personwithin a 30-foot radius of a bursting bombwill generally not survive the concussion, butthe chief danger lies in the thousands of steelfragments thrown from the casing of abursting bomb. These fragments travel as faras a mile, but beyond 200 to 400 feet, de-pending on the size of the bomb, fragmentsare not likely to be effective. A depth chargeexploding within 30 feet from a ship's sidecan push in the hull plates.

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(3) Mines. Mines may be sowed by underwatercraft, surface craft, or planes, and may befound singly, in regularly patterned fields,or in irregular patches. Free-drifting minescan be considered the worst hazards. Indi-vidual mines may be camouflaged by beinghidden under boxes, wreckage, or floatingdebris.

(4) Shelling. Danger of shelling may exist whena ship is within range of enemy shore bat-teries, planes, surface vessels, or surfacedsubmarines.

(5) Sabotage. Sabotage by enemy agents aboardship may be considered an additional danger.

d. Chances for survival. Half the battle is wonwhen an individual reaches his abandon-ship station.Chances of survival are excellent for those with fore-sight, knowledge, training, good physical condition,and initiative.

15. PROCEDURE WHEN ABANDON SHIP SIGNAL ISGIVEN. a. Proceed to abandon-ship station. Don'tbecome excited when the signal for abandon ship(par. 13a(4)) is sounded. When the alarm is heard,proceed rapidly and calmly to the assigned abandon-ship station. Do not iun. Casualties caused by pan-icked persons outnumber those caused by any othermeans. The most important factor in survival at seais being prepared when the order to abandon shipcomes. Even if all mechanical communications havebroken down, word-of-mouth communication alwaysmay be used. If individual equipment is lost ormisplaced, go to the station without it. Many menhave lost their lives and endangered the lives of others

33

by returning to their quarters to get something theyforgot. Keep silent so that orders can be heard. Beforethe signal to abandon ship is sounded, all personsshould be given the following information: The ship'sapproximate location, 'the direction and distance tothe nearest land, and the result of SOS signals. If arescue ship has answered the SOS, lifeboats remainnear the spot where the ship was abandoned. Other-wise, the location of the ship and distance and direc-tion to land can be used to steer a course.

b. Wait for orders. Do not get into the lifeboator attempt to lower it. Wait for orders. Normally,certain crew members are in charge of each lifeboat.If one of the crew assigned is a casualty, be preparedto assist in lowering the boat. Otherwise, keep out ofthe crew's way. If the lifeboat or raft is damaged,do not get into another without permission of theman in charge of the lifeboat to which originally as-signed. Do not risk injuring occupants by throwinganything down into a lifeboat.

Section II. GOING OVER THE SIDE

16. GENERAL. a. Precautions. In abandoning ship,leave by the method assigned (line, cargo net, ladder,lifeboat, etc.). All persons act according to orders,even in extreme emergency. If the order "''Every manfor himself" is given, get into the water and at least50 yards away from the ship as soon as possible. Be-fore getting into the water, look carefully about toavoid flaming oil or floating debris. Jump only whenit is impossible to go down a hose, line, net, or ladder,and before using a hose or rope, make sure it is securedto the railing or a stanchion. Act quickly, but not

34

rashly. After entering the water, try to reach a boat,raft, or any other object that will furnish support.

b. Jumping from ship. If there are no othermeans of going overboard, then jump, leaving the shipby the bow or stern, whichever is lower in the water.Always remember that the higher the point fromwhich the jump is made, the more chance there is ofbeing injured. If possible, always jump into thewind and swim away from the ship in that direction;this will put the greatest distance between survivorsand the ship in the shortest possible time.

17. LIFEBOATS. a. General. Alifeboatcommanderand crew made up from the vessel's crew are assignedeach lifeboat. This group takes charge of the pas-sengers and lowers the lifeboat into the water. In theabsence of such a crew or when only one crew memberhas been assigned to the lifeboat, anyone may be calledupon to assist in lowering and launching the lifeboat.

b. Suspension of boats. Lifeboats are suspendedon two metal members called davits. The lifeboat isfastened to the davits by two pairs of blocks, one pairat the bow and one pair at the stern of each lifeboat.The line running from each upper block is called theboat's fall. Paying out the fall lowers the boat. Davitsmay be one of three types: gravity (fig. 140), radial(fig. 140), or quadrantal (fig. 140).

c. Boarding the lifeboat. Passengers usuallyboard a lifeboat from the main (passenger) deck wherethe boat is held before it is lowered into the water.Under certain conditions, the coat may be completelywaterborne before it is loaded. A man should makesure that his life jacket is properly adjusted when heboards the lifeboat.

35

BOAT CRADLED

-N~ ~ORIPES

ROLLERESR~ ]/ R., '.

TRACK~vo / , TRICINA ,,,

iRAKE BAN ,'/ s LINES ,-P FALLS

BRAKE LEVER kRAPPIG , BOAT AT.'-a '' E ' EMBARKATION

D Gravity type.Figure 14. Types of davits.

18. NETS. a. General. Life nets or cargo nets arenormally hung over the side of a ship and are usedas broad ladders for disembarking into landing craftor abandoning ship.

b. Descending nets. On troopships or similarlarge vessels with sufficient freeboard (the part of thehull above the waterline), the men start over the ship'sside in groups of four to six at a time. When the firstline has descended halfway, another line starts overthe side. Thus there is always a line starting over-side, a line halfway down, and a line at the lowerend of the net. In the case of Liberty ships and othervessels of lesser freeboard some modification of this

36

: ARM

\ TURNING OUTG i EAR

SHEAVE

( Radial type.Figure 14-Continued.

method should be employed. There are two methodsof climbing down life nets.

(1) Grasp a single vertical strand, and place thefeet on the horizontal strands on either sideof the vertical strand (A in fig. 15).

(2) Grasp the outside strands of a group of threevertical strands, and place the feet on eitherside of the center strand (B in fig. 15).

(3) In either method, grasp vertical, not hori-zontal, strands of the net so that the handswill not be stepped on by a man descendingabove. Keep the hands well above the head,and move the feet down one square at a time,

37

ARM

' '\ JITRAVELIN 'NUT

ii -1\<. _ OPERATING HANDLE

~\ ;i /FRAME_

'- J' - - A IN POSITION

BSWUNG OUT

( Ouadrantal type.Figqure 14-Continued.

as longer steps slow the descent. Do not lookup or down, but keep the head level, asfalling objects from above may result inserious facial injuries if the descent is madewith upraised face.

c. Dropping from the net. On vessels not heavilvloaded, nets may not reach the water and it may benecessary to drop from the end of the net into thewater. To drop into the water, place both feet onthe same horizontal strand near the bottom of thenet. Bring the hands down until the body is in acrouched position with arms bent. Kick your legs backand push with your arms to bring your body into avertical position as you drop into the water.

d. Lowering survivors. To lower a disabled sur-vivor over the side, place the man on a pallet,

38

t51

I ?

A

B

Figure 15. Descending a life net.

39

stretcher, or other firm horizontal surface. Place thepallet or stretcher in the middle of an unattachedcargo net, gather the lengthwise net corners together,and attach a lowering line. By this means, the dis-abled survivor can be lowered into a lifeboat or raftwith the least possible risk of further injury.

19. LADDERS. a. Precautions. Ladders must bedescended slowly. Be careful that the hands are notmashed against the side of the ship when the ladderswings in and out.

b. Jacob's ladder. This is a rope ladder with flatsteps. Grasp the vertical ropes and move your feetdown one step at a time. The hand and leg on thesame side of your body should move at the same time.

20. ROPES. a. General. Ropes can be secured toparts of a ship, thrown over the side, and used todescend into the water. It is always better to go overthe side on a rope than to jump. Use gloves if avail-able. Don't slide, as sliding may burn the handsseriously.

b. Hand grip. Climb over the side and grasp therope with the feet before grasping with the hands.Descend slowly, hand-under-hand, bending the armsslightly. There should be a sensation of holding andgripping, rather than hanging.

c. Leg grips. Use of a leg grip depends on thetautness or slackness of the rope, its size and weight,the length of descent, and the condition of the hands.

(1) Taut rope. On a taut rope, cross the legswith one knee drawn up and the toes lifted.The rope runs along the inside of this leg,over the front of the ankle, and down the

40

outside edge of the foot. Cross the otherfoot over to hold the rope between the out-side edges of the feet near the heels. Pres-sure with knees and feet slows the descent(fig. 16).

(2) Loose rope. When the rope is sufficientlyloose, either of two leg grips may be used.

(a) Stirrup grip. Hold the legs straight andtogether so that the rope lies along theoutside of one leg, under the foot, andover the foot of the other leg (0 in fig.17). Pressure of one foot against the otherregulates the speed of descent. The hand-under-hand method may be used, or thehands may slide together, taking a firmhold when foot pressure stops the descent.If the hands are injured, hug the ropewith the arms.

(b) Secure-foot grip. This grip is best forlong descents when the arms may needto be rested. Allow the rope to drop be-tween the legs and across the instep ofone foot. Step on the rope with the otherfoot where the rope crosses the instep,and b; applying pressure, grasp or re-lease it (0 in fig. 1.7).

d. Knotted ropes. Ropes used for abandoning shipusually have knots at frequent intervals, approximate-ly 18 inches apart. These knots can be used to allowmuscular relaxation and to prevent slips and ropeburns. Grasp the rope with the hands just above aknot. Keep the feet together, press the rope betweenthe insteps, and bend arms and legs slightly. Releasethe feet and lower them to the next knot. Hold on

41

Figure 16. Descending taut rope, hand-under-hand.

42

(D Stirrup grip.Figure 17. Leg grips for descending loose ropes.

O Secure-foot grip.Figure 17-Continued.

with the feet and bring the hands down to the nextknot.

e. Deliberate descents. Rope descents should be

43

deliberate and unhurried, legs and feet applying pres-sure to prevent arm strain and consequent slipping.Long or fast drops or slipping will cause severe ropeburns.

f. Discipline. When a single rope is being usedby several men, they should keep well separated. Lookout for men coming down, because it is possible toslip and fall on others below.

g. Climbing a rope. Grasp the rope with thehands as far up as possible and, holding with thehands, bring up the legs as far as possible. Grip therope with the legs, using -the taut rope leg grip asillustrated in figure 16. Relax the hands and reachfor a new grip while holding on with the legs. Movethe legs up for a new grip while holding on with thehands.

21. JUMPING. It is safer to jump than to risk ahead injury by diving into water of unknown depthor into swimmers, lifesaving craft, or debris. Fur-ther, while jumping, it is also easier to observe thesurface of the water up to the moment of impact.

a. Procedure. Remove helmet before jumping.With the left hand, pinch the nostrils together andwith the right hand clutch the left shoulder, or viceversa. The arm across the chest protects the facefrom impact with the water. Hold the head erect,body relaxed and straight, and legs together.

b. Precautions.(1) When there is no oil on the water.

(a) Take a deep breath before jumping.(b) With the downward roll of the ship, step

forward as though taking the next stride,and, springing from the other foot, bring

44

the legs together in the air. Drop verti-cally into the water. Swim quickly out ofthe danger area.

(c) Do not look down. Keep the head erect;chin in.

(d) Jump feet first as far from the ship aspossible.

(e) Do not try to break the fall with handsor arms.

(f) Keep legs together. After entering thewater, open them to check the depth ofthe plunge.

(g) Do not wear a life jacket if jumping froma great height. The life jacket should beheld in one hand, and the other handshould be used to hold the nose and pro-tect the face. Hold the life jacket by thetape, and if it is jerked from the hand bythe impact with the water, recover it assoon as possible. The life jacket may alsobe held with a short piece of rope andboth arms and hands used to protect thenose, face, and chest.

(2) Jumping into oil or'flamzes. Ships usuallycarry their fuel oil in tanks on either side ofthe ship. The explosion of bombs or torpe-does may burst the tanks, releasing the oiland allowing it to spread on the surface ofthe water. Oils are classified as thin oils andthick oils. Fuel oil for ships is a heavy oilof thick consistency and difficult to movethrough. It may form layers on the surfaceof the water several inches thick. When-ever possible, avoid jumping into water cov-

45

ered with fuel oil, and do not try to swimthrough it. Although fuel oil is only slightlyinflamnmable, the following precautions shouldbe observed when it is necessary to jumpfrom a ship and there is flame or oil on thewater.

(a) Remove life preserver and anything elsethat might carry you to the surface intothe oil or flame. Remove shoes, but wearshirt, trousers, and socks.

(b) To prevent trapping air under the clothing,fasten all buttons on shirt and trousers,and tuck trousers into the socks.

(c) Close eyes and mouth before entering thewater, and hold the nose.

(d) If necessary to jump into oil or flame,jump to windward and swim to windwardunder water, as long as possible. The windwill tend to blow the oil or flame awayfrom you, instead of driving them withyou. If it is necessary to come up for airbefore swimming clear of the oil- or flame-covered area, come to the surface witharms milling violently to cause a disturb-ance on the surface of the water. This willpush flames or oil away from your faceand allow you to inhale and continue un-der water.

22. OTHER MEASURES. a.'Shallow diving. Theshallow drive is useful in shallow water or water ofunknown depth or when it is necessary to cross a bodyof water quickly, as when escaping from an enemyshore. From the shallow dive it is easy to go into any

46

strong swimming stroke. The dive consists of divingforward when slightly above the surface of the waterand arching the body by raising the head and chestand flinging the arms upward. When the body hitsthe water it skims along the surface instead of goingunder.

b. Rubber boats. The parachute raft or rubberboat used by airmen is attached to the D-ring of thelife jacket by a light webbing. To prepare the rubberboat for use, unsnap the cover, and, by following theretaining line to the inflation valve, disengage thelocking device on the carbon dioxide cylinder, andactuate the inflation handle. The raft will force itselfout of the case. Be careful to find a clear place inthe water before throwing the boat overboard. Rubberboats are sometimes part of a ship's safety equip-ment; as such, they are discussed in paragraph 8 andillustrated in figure 4.

c. Fire hose and boat falls. Fire hoses are usu-ally about 50 feet long. They can be made fast tothe deck, let over the side, and used in the same man-ner as ropes for leaving the ship. Lifeboat fallsmay be similarly used after the lifeboats have beenlowered.

Section III. IN THE WATER

23. PRECAUTIONS. a. Getting away from the ship.(1) In lifesaving craft. Lifesaving craft should

be moved rapidly at least 50 yards from theship to escape the suction usually causedwhen the ship sinks. A slowly sinking ves-sel, especially one going down by the head

47

or by the stern, may submerge without cre-ating a suction.

(2) Swimming. Once in the water, immediate-ly move away from the ship. The danger ofinjury from underwater explosion is lessenedby swimming or floating on the back. Swimor paddle to a lifesaving craft or any otherfloating object that will furnish support. Ifthis is not possible, move at least 50 yardsfrom the ship. When beyond this dangerzone, remember that buoyance is the mainconsideration. Unless land is in sight thedistance you s-wim is relatively unimportant.Retain clothing and shoes as protection fromthe weather, salt, and oil.

b. Picking up survivors. Up to the point that aboatload is endangered, as many survivors as possibleshould be picked up. Men in the water may hang onto the life-line around a lifesaving craft. If there isroom, men in rafts should shift over to lifeboats. Boatsand rafts should stay together to increase the chanceof rescue and bolster morale.

c. Rigging mast and sails. Mast and sails shouldbe rigged only when the men have quieted down be-cause, in their excitement, they may fall overboard.

d. Righting capsized boat. If a lifeboat capsizes,five or six men can right it by using the method illus-trated in figure .18.

e. Enemy strafing. Enemy aircraft may strafethe boat, but because of its speed, an airplane's at-tack is brief. Bullets from low-flying planes usuallyricochet off the water, and if they penetrate, they willgo no deeper than 24 inches. Men in a lifeboat whoare physically able to swim should go over the side

48

Figure 18. Righting capsized boat.

when an enemy plane approaches, and swim or bob24 inches under water, or at right angles to theplane's line of flight. If sails on the boat are set, theyshould be lowered to prevent the boat from sailingaway while the men are in the water. All men whocannot get in the water should drop to the bottom ofthe boat. If all go overboard, the strongest swimmersshould grasp ropes from the boat to keep it fromdrifting away. Immediately after the attack, anybullets holes should be plugged with wooden plugs,cloth, or other material.

24. EMERGENCY FLOTATION. The following meth-ods of gaining additional flotation enable a person toremain afloat longer and should be employed by strongand weak swimmers alike.

a. Shirt as support.(1) To use a shirt as support in the water, button

it completely while still aboard ship. Drawthe front out of the trousers, hold it down

49

and forward with arms fully extended 6 to10 inches from the body, and jump. Theshirt will be filJed with air whein you hit thewater and will aid in bringing you back tothe surface. By assuming the breast-strokeposition on the water, an air pocket is formedin the back of the shirt. This provides somesupport for a short time.

(2) If you are already in the water and wishto use your shirt for flotation, an air pocketmay be formed without removing the shirt.Fasten all buttons, including those of collarand cuffs. Take a deep breath and assume ajellyfish float (par. 26a(2)). With the fin-gers, form an opening in the shirt front be-tween the second and third button, and ex-hale air into the shirt. The action may berepeated to increase flotation if not enoughair is trapped the first time. If there is asufficient quantity of air in the shirt and aprone position is assumed, an air pocket willform at the back of the shirt and will sup-port the body.

b. Trousers as support.(1) Remove and wet or dampen your trousers.

Tie a knot at or near the end of each leg.Button the fly. Grasp the trousers by thewaist, legs down, and hold in front of yourbody (A in fig. 19). Flip the trousers overand behind the head, arms extended, wristsflexed so that the backs of the hands aredown (B in fig. 19). Jump, and as your feethit the water, snap the hands forward fromthe wrists to get the waist of the trousers

50

Figure 19. Use of trousers to provide support in thewater.

under water (C in fig. 19). The air whichis trapped in the legs helps return youquickly to the surface. For surface support,take a prone position and place a leg of thetrousers on either side of your body belowthe armpits (D in fig. 19).

'(2) A similar procedure may be used after reach-ing water. Remove the trousers, tie a knotat or near the end of each leg, and buttonthe fly. While treading water, hold the

51

Figure 19-Continued.

trousers above the water by inserting onearm in each leg, as illustrated in (a) in figure20. This allows air to fill each leg. Drop thearms quickly, pulling the waist band underthe surface. (See (b) in fig. 20.) This traps

52

air in each leg. The support can then beused in the prone position by placing onetrouser leg on each side of the body underthe armpits. (See (c) in fig. 20.) If thereis not enough air in the trousers, take a deepbreath, submerge and hold the waist bandbelow the surface, and expel air into thetrousers.

c. Barracks bag 7or pillow case. Wet or dampenthe bag and proceed as with trousers. After enteringthe water, hold the bag with both arms to prevent itsoverturning. If sufficient air has not been trapped,take a deep breath, submerge, exhale into the mouthof the bag, and rise to the surface.

d. Sheet, poncho, or squares of canvas. Gatheror knot the four corners to form a bag. Proceed aspreviously outlined.

e. Debris. Any floating debris and wreckage maybe used, shared with the greatest number of men. Itis better to cling to planks, boxes, and other floatingarticles than to climb upon them. Clinging to float-ing debris adds the buoyance of the object to thebuoyancy of your body. Lash yourself to the debrisif possible. Trying to climb up on an object in thewater is difficult and often leads to frustration andrapid exhaustion. Only objects large enough for fullsupport should be boarded. Resting the hands or el-bows on an object or throwing the arms around itmay provide sufficient support. A plank can be usedas a surfboard by lying on it, spreading the legs forbalance, and using the arms and legs for propulsion.

25. BOARDING LIFESAVING CRAFT. a. Lifeboat orlife raft.

53

iN ~~~~~~~~~~~~~1

~~~j~~~)b

i

Figure 20. Using trousers for flotation.

54

(1) Because of their high 'sides and generalshape, lifeboats should be boarded from thecenter of one side. Face the boat squarely,hook your arms over the side, wait for thenext swell to raise your body, and, with akick,' roll into the boat.

(2) A man in a lifeboat or raft should aid aman in the water by lifting him above theedge of the craft until his body can bend atthe waist. This brings his head and shouldersinto the craft. The rescuer then grasps aleg and pivots the rest of the body into theboat.

b. Rubber boats. A lone survivor should boarda rubber boat over the bow or stern. If there aretwo or more men, entrance over the side is recom-mended. (See fig. 21.) One man clings to the side ofthe boat. The other, on the opposite side, places onearm in the boat and locks it against the side. He thengrasps the top of the side with his other hand, liftshis leg on the same side as the arm in the boat, andhooks his foot inside the boat. As the next swell liftsthe boat, he pulls with the arm and leg in the boat,kicks down with the foot in the Water, and rolls intothe boat. The other survivor then boards the sameway, and the man in the boat provides leverage bystaying on the opposite side.

26. SWIMMING. Military swimming means swim-ming in full clothing and equipment to reach anobjective in fit condition for action. If shipwreckedfar from shore, the soldier does not try to swim toshore but tries to keep afloat until he is rescued. Basicwater skills which conserve energy and which best in-

5s

ini the following paragraphs.a. Submerging and floating.

(1) Submerging. Initially, a man must betaught to submerge in shallow water andkeep his eyes open. He must learn by ex-perience that it is difficult to stay under

56

water because the buoyance of air trappedin his chest forces him to the surface. Byexpelling part of the air he can submergewithout effort. He learns how to expel airthrough his nose under water, and to gulpair through his mouth above water. In deeperwater he is taught how to bob up and down.Bobbing is performed by raising the armsabruptly, sideward and upward, to submerge;and lowering the arms abruptly, sidewardand downward, to rise.

(2) Floating. Floating is the best way to con-serve energy. Anyone can float, either mo-tionless or with a slight movement of thearms or legs. To increase body buoyance thechest is expanded as much as possible. Aftertaking a deep breath, further expansion canbe accomplished merely by contracting (tight-ening) the abdominal muscles. Floating,combined with particular arm and leg move-ments to give propulsion, is swimming.

(a) Back float. This, the best relaxing float,can be accomplished with legs together orapart and arms extended to the side oroverhead: The chin and chest should beraised as high as possible. With legs to-gether and arms by the side there is atendency for the legs to sink and drag thebody under.

(b) Jellyfish float. The body is doubled upby bending the legs, pulling the knees tothe chest, and dropping the head on thechest. Arms clasp knees. In this positionthe body will roll forward until only the

57

back is visible above water. The jelly-fish float is used mainly when removingclothing.

(c) Prone float. This is the basic position forall prone swimming strokes. It is per-formed by lying face down on the water,arms and legs extended. It is used withthe face submerged, eyes open to see un-der the water or with the head high, toobserve above.

b. Prone strokes.(1) Dog paddle. This is done from the prone-

float position by using the arms and legs inexactly the same manner as when climbinga ladder. The hands, slightly cupped, fin-gers joined, thumb along the forefinger, reachforward and pull on the water. Then reachas far forward as possible without exertionand pull back on the water. The legs pushback on the water by being doubled up andextended to the rear. Left leg and left arm,right leg and right arm, work together. Sincelegs and arms do not break surface, this isa useful stroke for silent swimming.

(2) Breast stroke. The breast stroke, like thedog paddle, is an extremely easy and relaxedstroke. It can be used in all types of water,calm or choppy, and should be done with thehead held high for better observation. It isalso used for underwater swimming. Startwith the prone float and pull arms to sideshorizontally; when arms reach shoulder level,start to draw in legs. Arms lunge forward;legs lash out to side straddle hop and then

58

return to starting position. By splashingwith hands and arms on the forward move-ment, the breast stroke may be used to pushaway debris and thin surface oil and flame.It is a good stroke to use when carryingequipment on the back.

c. Treading water. Treading water consists ofstanding upright in the water with the feet goingthrough the motions of climbing a ladder. It shouldbe sufficient to keep the head high out of the water.If desired, the hands may be employed to push downon the water. Treading water is extremely usefulwhen stopping to observe.

d. Side stroke. The side stroke may be performedon either side and hence is especially useful if eitherarm is disabled. Lie on side, one hand lower thanother; execute deep knee bend with legs and kneestogether. Thrust legs backward and apart; then closethem fully extended. At the same time thrust lowerarm forward and upward and upper hand downwardsand backward across body. Pull lower arm back inunder chest and carry upper arm forward. Legs re-turn to deep knee bend. 'The side stroke may be usedto carry equipment above water or to tow an objector another man. If an item of equipment is too heavyfor one man to carry, two men, using the side stroke,can carry the object with their free arms.

e. Elementary back stroke. The elementary backstroke is a relaxed stroke derived from the back float.The legs do the inverted frog kick or scissors kick.Arms are raised shoulder high, elbows straight, andthen carried to the side, pushing the water towardsthe feet.

f. Jumping and shallow diving. Refer to para-

59

graphs 16b and 21 for information on jumping andparagraph 22a for information on shallow diving.

g. Underwater swimming. In underwater swim-ming, either the dog paddle or breast stroke isused, the latter being preferable. The head is heldhigh to see ahead or to see the surface of the water.Underwater swimming is used to escape oil, surfaceflame, or debris (par. 21b(2)).

h. Swimming to shore.(1) When it is necessary to swim ashore from a

shipwrecked vessel, every soldier should knowhow to protect himself. As he approachesshore, he should take up the breast stroke ordog paddle and survey the conditions of thebeach (rock, sand), power of the surf, un-dertow, tide rip, and existing currents. Surfis the breaking of the waves on a beach.Undertow is the strong current beneath thesurface that sets seaward after the wave haspassed over; it is only within the first lineof breakers. Tide rip is a condition set upwhen an outgoing tide opposes and slips un-der an incoming tide. The line of oppositionis usually identified by a line of frothingwater.

(2) After surveying the beach, the swimmershould swim opposite the point selected forlanding or, if a current exists, he should swimto such a point that by going diagonallyacross the current the landing spot will bereached. He should remove the life preserverand all other means of support and discardthem, if possible. A weak swimmer may hangon to them but he should always be ready

60

to let go, as retention of the life' jacket andgear will prevent ducking the waves on theapproach to the beach and will also make theswimmer more liable to be thrown on therocks or violently onto the beach because ofbuoyancy created by the life preservers. Theswimmer should use the breast stroke, sidestroke, or dog paddle, looking behind to seethe waves and looking ahead to check thedirection. He should bob under the break-ing waves, then come up and swim towardshore, continuously looking behind for thenext approaching wave. He should not fightthe undertow and should remember that itexists only for a short distance out belowthe surface. A strong push on the bottomwith the feet will push the swimmer to thesurface immediately after being rolled bythe undertow, putting him in position tocollect himself again and try for anotherlanding. He must avoid panic and conserveenergy. The wave will advance the swim-mer more than the undertow will carry himback. He should swim easily until the nextbreaker comes along and then come in onthe forward swell following the breaker. Ifhe can stand on the bottom easily, he shouldwatch the waves more carefully. They varyin size. He should go under the large onesand walk toward shore with the small ones,bracing his feet against returning undertow.He must always be patient even though mak-ing only a few feet at a time.

(3) In landing on a rocky shore, the swimmer

61

mdst be careful to avoid being thrown uponthe rocks by a breaking wave. The best pos-sible way to avoid wave action is to swimunder water as deeply as possible where thewater is calmer.

(4) The weak swimmer must remain outside abreaking surf with his life preserver untilhelp arrives. If no aid is available, he mustswim along the shore outside the surf andwith the current, looking for an inlet to ariver or bay, a long jetty, or a point wherethe surf breaks only when close to shore.

62

CHAPTER 4

OPERATING LIFESAVING CRAFT

Section I. COMMAND ABOARD LIFESAVING CRAFT

27. DETERMINING COMMAND. Command aboard alifeboat is assigned by the master of the vessel to amember of the ship's crew and takes precedence overrank. If the boat commander becomes a casualty orif assigned commander is not present, the next seniorofficer or senior noncommissioned officer of the vessel'screw aboard the lifeboat assumes command. In theabsence of these, the person most experienced in sea-manship and the handling of people should takecharge.

28. RESPONSIBILITIES OF COMMAND. The respon-sibilities of a boat commander are great. -le shouldappoint at least two others as his assistants. Almosteverything depends on the bearing and conduct ofthose in charge. They must be able to assume re-sponsibility, enforce strict discipline, assign jobs, dealwith emergencies, and take charge of rations, navi-gation, and boat work. Other specific command dutiesare to-

a. Set a definite course and maintain it.b. Take charge of first-aid equipment and super-

vise administration of first aid.c. Ration water and food; schedule the number

of meals and time for each.d. Assign tasks to all men except those severely

exhausted or seriously wounded.

63

e. Place a man in charge of all water and provi-sions as a precaution against contamination, spoiling,and pilferage.

f. Place a man in charge of all arms and ammu-nition as a precaution against mutiny or conduct ofa person become insane.

g. Arrange living and sleeping accommodations.h. Examine all equipment aboard for serviceabil-

ity; and supervise repairs. Divide all equipment,whether general or personal, to obtain an equal shareof comfort.

i. Arrange suitable diet for each person per day-depending on the provisions aboard.

j. Maintain morale and faith. Schedule and con-duct or supervise regular periods of worship if cir-cumstances permit.

Section II.ROWING AND SAILING LIFESAVING CRAFT

29. ROWING TECHNIQUE. Rowing a lifeboat maybe necessary to get away from a sinking ship, to pickup survivors, or to make headway. It is difficult torow in a heavy sea. Men can row for about 15 minutesand, by making every stroke count, can move perhapshalf a mile. Discipline and coordination are essential.

a. Hints.(1) Be sure you do not pull on the oar before it

is in the water.(2) Keep your eye on the stroke oar on each side

of the boat.(3) Put the weight of your body on the oar. In

a boat properly rowed, a thrumming noise

64

issues from the oars and gives a sense oftiming.

(4) Oars should be stored after use to preventwarping. Twisted oars are practically worth-less for rowing.

b. Learning to row. Steps taken in rowing a boatare as follows:

(1) Sit facing aft, body square with the thwart.(2) Make sure your feet are comfortable and in

proper position on the stretcher. Adjust thestringer if necessary.

(3) Grasp the oar easily, with the palms down.(4) With the blade vertical, wrists straight, body

leaning forward considerably, begin thestroke.

(5) As the stroke begins, raise the handle anddip the blade. Let the body do the pullingon the first two-thirds of the stroke. The lastthird of the stroke should be completed bythe arms. When the stroke is finished, thebody should be in a nearly upright position.

(6) When completing the stroke, turn the bladeto a horizontal position on the recovery. Thisis called feathering the oar. Drop the wristas the blade leaves the water to present theupper edge forward and reduce wind re-sistance.

30. GENERAL SAILING PRECAUTIONS. Sailing a life-boat should be left to experienced hands aboard. Intheir absence, every caution must be observed, sincea lifeboat may turn sideways and capsize in a matterof seconds if it is not handled properly. Even whensailing under the direction of an expert, keep your

65

eyes-open for an accidental jibe-the sudden swing-ing -of the boom from one side of the boat to theother. Jibes have injured men seriously and havethrown others overboard. In heavy seas, high winds,or whenever there is any doubt about the weather,no attempt should be made to rig sails.

31. USE OF THE SEA ANCHOR. In heavy seas orstrong headwinds, the safest course may lie directlyinto the wind or seas. To keep the bow of the lifeboatheaded into the wind or sea, the sea anchor may beused. The sea anchor consists of a conical canvas bagand an inner perforated container of oil (fig. 22).When this equipment is put out over the bow withthe large opening foremost, it fills with water, createsa drag, and assists in holding the bow into the weather.The sea anchor should have a tripping line attachedto the pointed end, so that it may be pulled aboardeasily when it is no longer needed. Even though thisequipment is used, a careful watch must be main-tained for combers that may break at the wrongmoment and swamp the lifeboat. If these heavy seasare anticipated in time, the lifeboat should be maneu-vered to meet them.

32. HANDLING RAFTS, FLOATS, AND RUBBER BOATS.a. General. Rafts, floats, and rubber boats are

designed primarily to provide flotation for men inthe water before they are rescued. It is too exhaust-ing, even under normal conditions of wind and sea,to attempt any headway in a raft or float. Save yourstrength to keep afloat; do not attempt to make dis-tance. Some progress can be made in rubber boats,but it is not advisable to attempt headway in these

66

STORM OILCONTAINER

TRIPPING LINE

FILLER PLUG

BRIDLE(MULTIPLE)

I p

TOWING LINE

METAL RING

CANVAS SEA ANCHOR

Figure 22. Sea anchor.

craft if land or an air or sea lane is distant. Keepingon the move rather than just drifting may help froma morale standpoint.

b. Effect of winds and current on rubber boats.With a little care, anyone can sail a rubber boat withthe wind. A raft for carrying several men can besailed successfully 10 ° off from the direction of thewind.

(1) Preparation. When the wind is blowing di-rectly toward your destination, inflate theraft fully, sit high, rig a sail, and use anoar as a rudder. In a multiplace raft, riga square sail in the bow, using an oar (withextension) as a mast and another as a crossbar. If the regular sail is not available, thewaterproof tarpaulin or two thicknesses ofparachute cloth will work. If the boat hasno regular mast socket and step, put up themast by lashing it securely to the front cross

67

seat and prop it with stays. The heel partof a shoe with toe wedged under the seatmakes a good improvised mast socket.

(2) Sail. Never tie down both corners of thelower edge of the sail at the same time. Tiea line to the free corner and hold this inyour hand. When a sudden storm or gustof wind comes, let out on the line or letit go. If some means of releasing the sailquickly is not provided, there is danger thatthe wind will break the mast or turn theraft over. When the wind is favorable, oc-cupants should sit up in the boat to offerresistance to the wind.

(3) Sea anchor. When ocean currents are mov-ing toward your destination but the wind isunfavorable, put out a sea anchor. Deflatethe raft slightly so that it rides low in thewater. Huddle low in the raft to offer aslittle resistance to the wind as possible. Inthe open ocean, a current can move the raft6 or 8 miles a day.

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CHAPTER 5

NAVIGATION FROM LIFESAVING CRAFT

Section I. DETERMINING DIRECTION

33. USE OF THE COMPASS. Most lifeboats andsome other lifesaving craft will be equipped with astandard compass. If this compass is not in a fixedmount, it should be secured in a position where itcan be read easily by the person who is steering thelifeboat. (See fig. 23.) In securing the compass, careshould be taken that the fore and aft lubber line onthe compass (fig. 24) is parallel or in line with thecenterline of the boat. The compass in the lifeboatprovides a means for steering a certain course, ifpossible, or for indicating the direction of your drift.

34. DIRECTION FROM THE SUN. a. By rising andsetting of sun. Observe the times of rising and set-ting of the sun on the same day, or the time it setsone day and the time it rises the following morning.Divide by two the time elapsed between rising andsetting. In the Northern Hemisphere, the answer,added to the time of the sun's rise, will give thehour. when the sun is true south.

Example:Sunrise .. .0600Sunset.... 1900

1900--0600 1300- 6Y2 hours2 2

Time whensun is true

southl .... 0600 + 0630 = 1230

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Figlure 23. Position of mariner's compass in lifeboat.

The same procedure applies for the Southern Hemi-

sphere, except that the direction to the sun is truenorth.

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Figure 24. Standard compass.

b. By watch and sun. When the sun is visible,a watch can be used to determine true south or northwith an error of less than 8° . This method is difficultwhen the sun is high; it is of little or no use in theTropics. Furthermore, the watch must be on stand-ard time. If it is subject to corrections for wartime,daylight saving time, or zone time, it must be setback accordingly.

(1) Northernl Heqmisph, ere. In the NorthernH-Iemisphere, turn the watch face up, and

71

point the hour hand at the sun. To aid incorrect pointing, hold vertically a pencil orother straight, slender stick so that it castsa shadow across the face of the watch. Rotatethe watch to bring the hour hand into thisshadow. Draw a line from the center of thewatch dial through the midpoint of thesmaller are between the hour hand and 12o'clock on the watch face (® in fig. 25). Thisline points toward true south.

(2) Southern Hemisphere. In the Southern-lemisphere, point the 12 o'clock mark on

the watch toward the sun. North lies half-way between this mark and the hour hand(® in fig. 25).

35. DIRECTION BY THE STARS. a. Northern Hemi-sphere. In the Northern Hemisphere, the North Star(Polaris) is the best star for finding direction. Thisstar is almost vertically above the North Pole and anysight on it is within 1° of true north. The North Starmay be identified in the following ways:

(1) By means of the Big Dipper. The BigDipper is a star group easily recognized byits shape (fig. 26). The two .stars formingthe side opposite the handle are called point-ers, because a line through them alwayspoints to the North Star. From the lip ofthe Big Dipper to the North Star is aboutfive times the distance between the pointers.Anyone having difficulty in locating theNorth Star can do so by using the fingers(fig. 27). HI-old one finger in front of the eyeand adjust its distance from the eye until

72

o,

(I)VX~~~ -L

73

a.cn

/ ~/ ~ ~ ~

/ s

/// wd~z

73

one pointer is at each side of the finger. Addfive more fingers. The North Star then isjust outside the last added finger and on aline with the pointers. Once identified it iseasily recognized by its brightness in conm-parison with other stars nearby.

(2) By means of W (Cassiopeia). When theBig Dipper is not visible, another star groupmay be used to identify the North Star. Onthe opposite side of the North Star, andabout the same distance from it as the BigDipper, is. a group of five stars, called Cas-siopeia, forming the letter W (or M if thegroup is above the North Star). The rela-tion between the North Star and W (Cas-siopeia), shown in figure 28, should be mem-orized.

b. Behavior of stars. At the North Pole, theNorth Star appears directly overhead, and both theBig Dipper and W are visible and seem to rotatearound the North Star. As one goes south from theNorth Pole toward the Equator, these stars appearto lose elevation; they are seen nearer the horizon.The 40th parallel of north latitude, which passesthrough Pennsylvania, Spain, Greece, and Japan, isthe most southerly point from which both the BigDipper and W are always visible. South of thisparallel, there are times when only one of these stargroups is visible; therefore, it is necessary to be ableto locate the North Star by reference to the BigDipper or to W. (See fig. 26.)

c. Southern Hemisphere. In the Southern lIemi-sphere, the Southern Cross, or True Cross, is the mostdistinctive constellation. It has four stars. Those on

74

Figure 26. Relation of the Big Dipper and W (Cassiopeia)to North Star.

75

Figure 27. Using the Big Dipper and fingers to locatethe North Star.

Figure 28. View of North Star and W front Equator.

the southern and eastern arms are the brightest inthe heavens; those on the northern and western armsare bright but smaller. The True Cross should not

be confused with the False Cross which lies to the

76

west and has five stars which are more widely spacedand less bright. There is a region immediately abovethe South Pole which is so devoid of stars that it iscalled the Coal Sack. To the east of the True Crossare two bright stars which can be used along withthose of the True Cross as guides to the location ofthe South Pole. Join the two stars with an imaginaryline; then bisect this line with one at right angles.Draw an imaginary line through the axis of the TrueCross. The intersection of this line and the one from

'the two stars is approximately the point above theSouth Pole. (See fig. 29.) From the vicinity of theEquator, both the Southern Cross and the Big Dippermay be visible, sometimes only one of them. Whenboth are visible, they are about equally high abovethe horizon, but in opposite parts of the sky. As onemoves south from the Equator, the Southern Crossbecomes visible for a greater part of the night. Southof the 33d parallel of south latitude, which runsthrough Uruguay, Cape of Good Hope, and southernAustralia, the Cross is visible all night. For nightobservation south of the Equator, where the SouthernCross is not continuously visible, the following proce-dure may be used: Determine direction just beforethe Southern Cross disappears, by methods alreadydescribed; select a star in the vicinity of the SouthPole, preferably one just rising, and memorize theappearance and position of this star; use it to main-tain direction for the remainder of the night.

Section II. PHYSICAL INDICATIONS OF LAND

36. GENERAL. Certain signs may aid the helmsmanin steering toward land. Of themselves, these signs

77

* F* TRUE CROSS

*inFALSE

CROSS

% EAST i WEST -

POINT DIRECTLY "COAL SACKOVER SOUTH

POLEFigure 29. Relation of Southern Cross and False Cross.

are not positive evidence of the proximity of land;correlated with other observations, they strengthen theprobability of finding land nearby.

37. INDICATIONS OF CLOUDS. Clouds and certaindistinctive reflections in the sky are the most reliableindications of land.

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a. Atolls. Small clouds hang over atolls a littleto the lee side. Color of a lagoon is sometimes reflectedfrom the clouds and indicates an atoll beyond thehorizon.

b. Shoals. Small clouds may also hover over coralpatches and hidden reefs, thus providing a warningof shoals.

c. Fixed clouds. Fixed clouds or cloud crestsoften appear around the summits of hilly islands orcoastal land. They are easily recognized, as movingclouds pass by them.

d. City lights. Lights from cities are usually re-flected in the sky, especially by high clouds.

e. Lightning. In tropical regions, lightning fromone particular direction in the early hours of morn-ing usually indicates mountainous territory.

f. Arctic regions. In polar regions, a sharply de-fined patch of brightness in otherwise gray sky is asign of areas of floe or shore ice in the midst of openwater.

38. INDICATIONS BY SOUND. Sound from land isaffected by the strength and direction of the wind.To be useful to the navigator, this fact must be ap-plied to any sound from land. By shutting the eyesand turning'the head to get equal volume of sound ineach ear, it is possible to obtain close approximationof the bearing of the sound.

a. Birds. Continued cries of sea birds from oneparticular direction signify roosting place on land.

b. Fog. In fog, if a ship's whistle or siren isheard, the vessel is moving; but if a bell is heard atregular intervals, the sound is coming from a ship atanchor or from a bell buoy.

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39. OTHER INDICATIONS OF LAND.a. Birds and insects. An increase in the number

of birds and insects indicates land nearby.b. Odors. Land odors are carried seaward by the

wind. Detection of such odors in fog, mist, rain, orat night is very important, as it is possible to driftpast a nearby shore without seeing it.

c. Seaweed. Seaweed is usually found in shallowwater and its presence denotes nearby land. How-ever, make allowance for strong currents that mayhave carried it from the original source. An excep-tion is the Sargasso Sea, a region of the North AtlanticOcean (lat. 16°-38° N., long. 30°-50° W.) where someof the surface is covered with floating gulfweed.

d. Ice. Bay ice, usually smooth, flat with jaggededges, and whiter in appearance than pack ice, in-dicates a frozen inlet nearby, especially if the piecesare close together. If the ice is scattered widely withits edges crushed, land may be quite distant. However,the current or wind will indicate the direction of land.

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CHAPTER* 6 '

ADRIFT AT SEA

Section I.SUSTENANCE ABOARD LIFESAVING CRAFT

40. CARE OF EQUIPMENT. a. Boat equipment.Lash down everything aboard. Do not discard any-thing unless you are sure it will be of no further use.Keep all equipment as dry as conditions permit. Everyeffort should be made to dry the boat and keep it dry.

b. Clothing. As soon as possible, squeeze out allwet 'clothing. Do not disrobe entirely unless theweather is warm and dry, with a moderate wind.Dry your clothes layer by layer.

41. WATER. a. General. Water is the most impor-tant item for survival. Mlan can exist only about 7days without it. Loss of body moisture is hastened byheat and exercise. Do not drink salt water, as thiswill cause diarrhea, weakness, and unbearable thirst.Delirious men may have to be restrained from drink-ing salt water. Never drink urine. If water is notavailable, do not eat. Elimination of food wastesabsorbs water from the kidneys and decreases waterin the body.

b. Sources.(1) Boat supply. This is the primary source of

drinking water. To keep water from freezingin cold climates, remove the plug. Insert astick in the container. The lower end of thestick should be weighted and upper end

81

should protrude a foot or more. Movementof the boat will keep the stick in motion sothat ice will not form.

(2) Canteens. All canteens willbe commanderedby the commander of the boat and the waterin them made a part of the boat's supply.

(3) Rain water. Use buckets, cups, tin cans,sea anchor, boat cover, sails, strips of cleanclothing, and all canvas gear in the boat tocollect rain water. Wash salt off equipmentwith the first fall of rain, as it is necessaryfor drinking water to be free of salt.

(4) Ice. In the cold regions icebergs are asource of fresh water. Sea ice loses its saltafter a year and becomes a good source offresh water. This "old" ice has roundedcorners because of rains and thaws, is bluishin color, has a glare, and is splintered easilywith a knife. In freezing weather, freshwater can be obtained from sea water. Col-lect some sea water in a container. The freshwater will freeze first, and the salt will col-lect in high concentration as slush in thecore of the frozen piece. Remove the iceand throw away the slush. The melting icewill produce water sufficiently free of saltto sustain life..

(5) Chemical kits. Chemical kits to remove thesalt and alkaline from salt water may beprovided in lifeboats or rafts. Directionsaccompany the kits.

(6) Other measures.(a) Dew. In certain areas, dew may form. It

can be collected by rigging a tarpaulin

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with the edges turned up, allowing thewater to accumulate in the middle.

(b) Fish. The chewing of small pieces of fishwill provide some moisture and help to ar-rest thirst.

(c) Condensation. If all other means of ob-taining drinking water have been ex-hausted, any metal container and lightedlantern may be used to obtain water bycondensation. Remove one end of the con-tainer and submerge the closed end in afoot or more of salt water. Place thelighted lantern inside the container, on thebottom. Cover the open top, allowing onlyenough air to enter to keep the lanternburning. The heat will cause moisture toform on the inside of the container. Thiscan be soaked up with a rag and squeezedinto a cup.

c. Storage. Water should be stored in every con-tainer that can be used for this purpose. It may bestored in carbon dioxide life jackets and in the airtanks of the lifeboat.

d. Issue. An inventory will be taken of all wateraboard. Plan the issue of water with regard to allcircumstances present: total supply of water, numberand condition of the survivors, time likely to be adrift,chances of replenishing supply by rain, and outputof chemical kit. The average daily ration is 18 ounces-three cups. Control of issue starts immediately andcontinues until survivors are rescued.

e. Hints.(1) After a rain, drink your fill slowly over an

hour or more. Kidneys will not then waste

83

water. Always drink water slowly and insmall amounts.

(2) Do not drink the liquid in the compass. Itis poisonous.

(3) Chewing gum or sucking on a button helpsreduce thirst.

(4) When water is scarce, just moisten lips andthroat. Hold water in your mouth and garglebefore swallowing.

(5) Before abandoning ship, try to get a drinkof water. If you drink a lot before abandon-ing ship, you should be able to go 24 hourswithout requiring another drink.

(6) Diabetics and those suffering with feverrequire an extra ration of water.

(7) Distinguish between true and artificial thirst.True thirst is attended by a burning irrita-tion and complete dryness in the mouth andthroat. Artificial thirst is created by thethought of water or its need, or by eatingfood or drinking water containing salt orsugar.

(8) Avoid drinking alcoholic beverages.

42. FOOD. a. General. A responsible personmust be put in charge of all food supplies. He mustdivide all food fairly and schedule meals. Before anyfood is distributed, a complete inventory of provi-sions should be taken. Food should be checked peri-odically, especially on dry days, to see if anythinghas spoiled.

b. Sources.(1) Lifesaving craft supply. This is the prin-

cipal source of food supply.

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(2) Emergency kits. Your personal emergencykit is an excellent place to store nourishing,concentrated food for use during an emer-gency. Such food may be jam, which con-tains 1,300 calories per pound; walnuts,3,300 calories; dried coconut, 2,600; andchocolate candy, 2,500.

(3) Birds. All birds are good to eat, cooked orraw, and their blood and livers are alsoedible. Entrails, head, and feet make goodbait. The feathers may be used to makefishing jigs, or they may be stuffed underyour clothing for warmth. Sea birds areusually difficult to catch. Normally, theyfollow schools of fish, and you can attractthem to your craft by tossing a piece of fishin the air. You can catch a bird by grabbingat it, but slingshots, dip nets, or harpoonsare more effective. Birds may also beensnared on a baited hook dragged throughthe water or thrown into the air.

(4) Fish.(a) Edibility. Practically all freshly caught

sea fish are palatable and wholesome,cooked or raw. In warm regions fishshould be bled and gutted immediatelyafter catching. Fish not eaten immediatelyshould be cut in thin, narrow strips andhung to dry. A well-dried fish will staygood for several days. Fish not cleanedand dried may spoil in half a day. Nevereat a fish that has pale, slimy gills, sunkeneyes, flabby skin and flesh, and unpleasantodor, or whose flesh remains indented when

85

pressed by the thumb. Good fish shouldhave pink or red gills, bright clear eyes,firm flesh, and be free from stringy slime.Sea fish should also have a salt water tangor clean, fishy odor. Eels are fish andgood to eat, but do not confuse them withsea snakes. Unlike eels, sea snakes, foundin the Pacific and Indian Oceans, havescales and swim on the surface of thewater.

(b) Poisonous fish. Poisonous fish are found inthe Tropics. The bodies of these fish arecovered with rough or spiny scales, thorn-like spines, or bony plates. In one poison-ous variety the skin is naked or is strewnwith soft spines or bristles which look likehair. None has the ordinary scales foundon bass, trout, snappers, groupers, andgoldfish. Fo; -w this rule: If it does notlook like an ordinary fish, if it has un-usual appendages, or an unusual lookingmouth, lacks teeth, is not covered withordinary fish scales, let it alone. Rememberthat fresh, nonpoisonous, salt water fishcan be eaten raw; fresh water fish cannot.

(c) Turtles. The whole meat, blood, and juiceof a turtle are edible, but the shell, stom-ach, and kidneys are not. Hot sun bringsout of turtle fat a clear oil into which foodmay be dipped. Turtles may be snaggedwith a hook or grapple in the leg, neck, oredge of the shell. They can be harpoonedthrough the shell or shot in the head. Evenafter a turtle's head has been cut off, the

86

mouth may bite and the claws may scratch.The turtle should be consumed immedi-ately, as turtle meat spoils rapidly.

(d) Crabs and shrimp. Crabs, shrimp, andsmall fish are often found in seaweed. Toget these aquatic animals, pick up a bunchof seaweed and shake it out over the craft.Discard all jellyfish, as they are poisonous,and if your water supply is low, discardthe crabs, as they cause thirst.

(e) Fishing. Improvised fishing rigs andsupplies can be assembled.

1. Hooks may be made from items withpoints or pins, such as nail files, collarinsignia and campaign ribbons, or frombird bones, pieces of wood, and fishspines.

2. Fishlines can be made from pieces oftarpaulin or canvas by raveling thethreads and tying groups of three ormore together in very short lengths. Thiswill make a general fishline that willstand about a 20-pound pull. Parachuteshroud lines, shoelaces, or thread fromclothing may also be fashioned into lines.

3. Save the entrails, except the liver offish, for bait. A pearl button is a goodsubstitute for bait.

4. Besides the conventional methods offishing, fish may be caught with the barehands, after they have been enticed tothe craft by dangling something in thewater. You may attract fish at nightby using lights or, in the sunlight or

87

moonlight, by using a mirror or othershiny object. Flying fish can often becaught by hoisting sail or by hanging upa tarpaulin or piece of clothing. A lighton the surface of the tarpaulin at nightwill help. The flying fish will hit theobstruction and fall into the craft. Othermethods of catching fish include stun-ning them with an oar or stick whilethey are feeding, using a slingshot orimprovised net, and, as a last resort,shooting them.

5. Wear gloves if you have them. Do notwind your line around your body ormake it fast to the craft. Have anotherman hold the end of the line while youare fishing.

(5) Seaweed. All seaweed is edible. However,it is usually very salty and should not beeaten unless an abundance of water isavailable.

c. Issue. Control of issue starts immediately andcontinues until rescue.

(1) Ration calculations. To calculate rations,first estimate the number of days beforerescue is expected. By dividing this numberinto the amount of each item of food, thedaily ration of each is found. In a lifeboatloaded to capacity, there are 56 ounces offood, or about 8,000 calories, for each per-son. Provisions include the following:

56 biscuits-- biscut weighs 12 ounce.226 malted milk tablets-19 tablets weigh 1

ounce.

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(Suck tablets slowly-do not chew them.)4 cans of pemmican-1/4 can weighs 1

ounce.(Pemmican is concentrated meat; eatpemmican and biscuits together.)

Example: If rescue is expected within 10 days, theration for 1 day will be:

5 biscuits.22 malted milk tablets.

2/5 of a can of pemmican.This equals about 5.6 ounces per day, giving a diet ofabout 800 calories, sufficient to sustain life.

(2) Eating rations. Eat slowly and chew thor-oughly. Birds or fish should be fairly dis-tributed to supplement the regular diet.Special food should be kept for use whenmorale is particularly low.

43. CONSERVING STRENGTH. a. Wasting energy.Energy used aboard a lifesaving craft is not likelyto be replaced by the rations provided in the craft.Do not waste strength by useless exertion or by thedevelopment of a bad frame of mind. Follow thesesuggestions:

(1) Do not exhaust yourself by getting excited.(2) Do not sing or shout.(3) Take mild exercise such as a short turn at

the oars to prevent body from linking up.(4) In hot weather, work on the boat should

be dode before the sun is up.(5) It is never'justifiable to attempt to make

progress by continuous pulling at the oars.Periods of 15 minutes at the oars with 1

89

hour's rest will permit steady progress forlong periods with minimum exhaustion.

(6) In a warm climate, keep your clothes con-stantly wet with sea water during the day.As the sea water evaporates, it will cool yourbody, thereby reducing perspiration and theevaporation of water in the body tissues.

b. Sleep. Sleep regularly. If you feel cold in alifeboat, crowd together under a canvas cover forwardor in a sailcloth or blanket. In calm weather, makemore room in the boat by lashing oars and spare gearoutboard along the gunwale. In a float, it may bedangerous to drop off to sleep because of the risk ofdrowning. In extremely cold weather, stay awake aslong as possible.

44. PROTECTION AGAINST WEATHER. a. Coldwinds, rain, and spray. If canvas hood and sidespray curtains are available, put them up as soon aspossible. In freezing weather a blanket dipped inwater and allowed to freeze will provide shelter againstspray and wind. Sometimes these measures will notgive sufficient protection and you will have to shareblankets and huddle together to keep warm. In wetweather, keep clothing on even if it is wet. At afavorable moment, dry it out as much as possible.Exercise your toes from time to time to increase cir-culation.

b. Sun cnd heat. Rig up an awning, if possible,and try to provide some cover for the man at thetiller. Do not take off too many clothes'; they will pro-tect your skin against sunburn. This also applies tolegs and feet. Even in cloudy weather you can getbadly sunburned. Protect eyes from glare of sun by

90

improvising an eyeshade. Tie a cloth or bandage overnose; this will cut off glare from the water when youare looking straight ahead.

45. WATCH AND LOG. a. Keeping watch. Main-tain a continuous watch. This is similar to sentryduty. The sentry looks for sudden changes ofweather, rescue parties, signs of land, and leaks; steersthe craft to prevent its capsizing; maintains the des-ignated course or changes it as necessary; and informsthe commander of the craft of all that has occurredduring the watch. This duty is rotated and shouldbe shortened as'necessary when the craft's companybecomes exhausted.

b. Maintaining a log book. Detailed informationon events occurring during abandonment and whileadrift, with accompanying comments and suggestionsfor improving methods and equipment, is entered inthe log. A running daily account of the course, speed,weather, etc., aids in navigating and calculating theposition of the craft. An inventory of provisions andwater is entered, followed by a daily record of whatis consumed. All information may be entered on thebacks of available charts, on paper or in books, oreven on the side of the boat itself.

46. MENTAL HEALTH. a. General. High moralewill increase your chances of survival by keeping youin the best possible physical, as well as mental, condi-tion. To maintain high morale, the mind and bodymust be occupied, if only with trivialities. Here area few suggestions:

(1) Discussions. Lengthy discussions or debateswill help pass the time. Swapping informa-

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tion on each other's jobs or teaching subjectsto the group is useful.

(2) Recreation. Do not overlook books, maga-zines, games, musical instruments, or a port-able radio when abandoning ship. Tell allkinds of stories. Invent new things. Busyyour mind with puzzles and riddles.

(3) Tobacco. Cigarettes are valuable at sea insteadying nerves and keeping minds bal-anced, especially during watch at night. Theperson in charge should confiscate all tobaccoand then ration it. Equality is important,but the judicious use of special foods or anextra ration of water will raise morale.

(4) Keep moving. As long as the winds permityou to go in the general direction of yourtrack, keep the craft moving. All will feelbetter if they know headway is being made.

(5) Services. Worship services should be en-couraged. Proper burial of the dead, usinga small flag and a brief prayer and service,is also important.

b. Activity. Use your wits and good sense toovercome anxiety, which may arise from worry, mis-conception, and lack of activity. By keeping accountof the time and your appropriate whereabouts, youwill lessen your anxiety considerably. If you have awatch, keep it wound and cared for. Devise a methodof keeping track of the days. Keep busy.

c. Tricks of the mind. Isolation, fatigue, expo-sure, and extreme hunger and thirst can cause yourmind to have hallucinations or hear imaginary noises.Clouds may sometimes look like ships or icebergs,though such mirages are usually temporary. The delu-

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sions may lead you to harm yourself; unless you areon the alert to recognize them for what they are.

d. Keeping faith. Whatever your belief, try tostrengthen it while adrift. Fight for faith and holdon no matter what the circumstances may be. You musthave faith in someone or something. Have faith inyourself and your ability to meet every situation nomatter how difficult.

e. Will to live. The desire to live is an outstand-ing factor in this battle of survival which is a chal-lenge to anyone. Keep your head and your mind oc-cupied. When you find yourself in the water or adriftin a boat or on a raft, meet the challenge with anormal curiosity for what the next day holds in store.There will always be people trying to locate you.

Section II. FIRST AID AT SEA

47. GENERAL. This section covers only first aid gen-erally necessary after disasters at sea. The discus-sion of cases and their treatment is intended for sur-vivors of a shipwreck who must attempt to givemedical care to fellow survivors in the cramped, ex-posed, cquarters of a lifeboat, with the emergencyfirst-aid equipment usually available. To use thefollowing information to the best advantage, youmust know the general principles of first aid and theirapplication covered in FM 21-11. With all cases re-member to use common sense. No two cases arealike and people react differently under hardships.

48. FIRST-AID KIT. a. Each lifeboat contains a first-aid kit. Usually, the following items are packed in awatertight, metal box:

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7 4-in. compress bandages.2 2-in. x 6 yd gauze bandages.

32 waterproof adhesive compresses.1 40-in. triangular bandage.

100 aspirin, phenacetin, and caffeine tablets.10 ammonia inhalants.

1 tourniquet.1 forceps.1 scissors.

12 safety pins.3 vials tincture of iodine.3 eye-dressing treatments.4 tubes foille for burns.

135 benzedrine sulfate tablets.100 phenobarbital tablets.

b. On each package of medicine or bandages, andon the inside cover of the first-aid kit, are instructionsfor the use of the contents. Read these instructions,follow directions, and conserve the contents of the kit.

49. APPLYING FIRST AID. a. General.(1) Help the survivor from the water and place

him in a reclining position with head lowand feet raised. Examine him for injuries,swelling, immersion foot, burns, frostbite,numbness, paralysis, shock and any internalpain or tenderness. Handle him gently. Keephim warm but do not apply heat directly tohis body. After making him as comfortableas possible, and if his condition permits, askhim questions as to the period of exposure,underwater explosions, general conditionsduring exposure, the amount of sea water

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drunk, if any, and the amount of food andfresh water he has had.

(2) Lash weak or badly injured men to the boatto prevent their rolling about. If a flat sur-face is needed, several oars can be laid sideby side in the boat or across the gunwales.Life preservers make a satisfactory bed.Post a man to prevent the sick from at-tempting to go over the side; they some-times imagine they are back home or in theship. Humor them at all times. In case ofdeath, the clothing and equipment of thedeceased should be removed before disposingof the body.

b. Treatment of specific cases.(1) Shock.

(a) Cause. In every severe injury the bodysuffers from a certain amount of shock.This often is more serious than the wounditself and may cause death.

(b) Symptoms. Pallor, rapid and weak pulse,and nausea are the symptoms. Breathingis irregular and similar to sighing. Thebody may be cold and clammy and chillsmay be present. The eyes may be glassyand have a fixed stare.

(c) Treatment. Keep the patient in a hori-zontal position with feet elevated and headlow except when there is an injury to thehead. With a head injury the head must

be elevated. Keep warm with sailcloth,blankets, or other means. Administerstimulants. Use ammonia inhalant fromfirst-aid kit. Relieve pain. Give morphine,

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if available. Dosage: one syrette immedi-ately; may be repeated after 3 hours, ifneeded. Do not use morphine within 2hours of a previous injection, when a per-son is unconscious, when he has a headinjury, or when he breathes less than 12times a minute.

(2) Blast concussion injury.(a) Cause. Blast concussion injury is often

incurred by swimmers in an area wheredepth charges, torpedoes, or aerial bombsare exploding. The blast, transmittedthrough the water, is likely to causeinjuries to the lungs, stomach, or in-testines.

(b) Prevention. If expecting blasts describedabove, float on the back, cross the legs, tensethe body, tighten the anus, and keep asnear the surface of the water as possible.Get out of the danger area and out of thewater as soon as possible.

(c) Symptoms. If lungs are injured, breath-ing will be difficult. The patient may spitor cough up frothy blood and may feelabdominal pain. The stomach may be swol-len or rigid. Shock may be present.

(d) Treatment. Lay the victim down withhis head low. Keep him warm. If avail-able, give morphine to ease the pain.

(3) Eye inflammation.(a) Cause. Shipwreck victims are often cov-

ered with a heavy coating of dirty oil.The chief danger is eye inflammation.

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Wind and sun glare will also cause eyeinflammation.

(b) Prevention. Keep eyes covered with acool, damp cloth during the day or im-provise an eyeshade. Keep eyes closed orabove water when swimming in oil-coveredwater.

(c) Symptoms. Eyes look oil-stained anddirty. They are red, bloodshot, overflowingwith tears, and sometimes painful. Oftenthere is a sticky crust on the lids. Lookingat a light causes pain.

(d) Treatment. Cleanse and apply eye dress-ing from first-aid kit. To relieve pain,cold compresses can be placed over theeyes 10 minutes out of every hour if thereare no ulcers in the eyes.

(4) Bleeding. Bleeding must be controlled atonce. Application of a pressure bandage willbe all that is necessary in the majority ofcases. If bleeding persists or the bleedingis from a large artery in the arm or leg, atourniquet must be applied. The tourniquetcan be made from strips of cloth torn fromshirts or trousers, handkerchiefs, belts, orother similar material.

(5) Wounds.

(a) General. Stop bleeding by a compressbandage applied to the wound or by ap-plying tourniquet when necessary. Coverthe wound with a sterile dressing. Treatfor shock.

(b) Chest wounds. Any wound which pene-

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trates the chest and allows air to enter itmay cause collapse of a lung, possiblydeath. To prevent this, immediately applya dressing to the wound and make airtightby applying folded pieces of relatively im-pervious material such as sailcloth or rain-coat, and adhesive.

(6) Fractures of arm or leg. In case of frac-ture only, the broken limb can be fixed inposition by splints. If the broken bone haspenetrated the skin, do not try to push thebone into place. Cut the clothing away fromthe fracture site, apply bandage, then splintthe limb. Handle the limb gently. Maintaina slow steady pull on the limb as the splintsare being applied. Care must be taken thatbandages do not become too tight either fromskrinkage of wet material or from swellingof the limb. Elevate the limb to the mostcomfortable position.

(7) Frostbite and freezing.(a) Cause. Insufficient shelter from wind or

water or prolonged exposure to cold maycause frostbite and freezing. Frostbite isthe freezing of single parts of the body,most often the nose, ears, cheeks, fingers,and toes. If tight clothing reduces circula-tion, the extremities may freeze.

(b) Prevention. Adequate, loose, and dryclothes are important. Rig up all avail-able shelter from the wind and water. Intemperatures below freezing, wet blanketscan be frozen and used as windbreaks.Stimulate circulation by movement. Rest.

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Overexertion causes perspiration and lossof energy. Stay out of the water. Keeplow in the boat and out of the wind. Keephuddled together. Do not expose the ex-tremities to the wind. Keep facial hair cutshort. If tourniquet is applied to stopbleeding, release pressure frequently andwarm those parts of the body where cir-culation has been stopped. Never drinkalcohol, as it seriously disturbs the controlof body temperature and increases thepossibility of frostbite.

(c) Symptoms. Frostbitten skin becomeswhite in color; flesh becomes stiff andnumb. Symptoms of advanced freezingare muscular weakness, stiffness of limbs,and drowsiness.

(d) Treatment. Treatment of frozen parts ofthe body should be started immediately.Change into warm, dry clothing, if pos-sible. Frozen arms, legs, hands, face, etc.,should be warmed gradually by placingagainst some other part of the body whichis warm. Do not exercise or rub frozenparts as skin tissue and frozen bones breakreadily. Never apply snow, ice, kerosene,or oil to the affected parts as this increasesfreezing. A frostbitten person should notget too near a stove or apply hot water toaffected parts, as too rapid thawing causespain and damages skin tissue. Blisters thatappear should be kept clean. If they break,the skin should be trimmed and the sorestreated to prevent infection. Do not use

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strong antiseptics such as iodine. If breath-ing has stopped, give artificial respirationand warm body gradually.

(8) Immersion foot.(a) Cause. Immersion of the feet in uncom-

fortably cold water for several hours ormore causes immersion foot. It may bemade worse by keeping knees bent to con-form with the cramped quarters in theboat.

(b) Prevention. Keep feet dry and warm.Remove tight shoes. Straighten out legsand elevate feet. Grease the feet and wrapthem loosely in cloth to protect against thecold and moisture. Storm oil may be usedto oil the feet.

(c) Symptoms. The first thing noticed ispain in the feet, followed by swelling ofthe feet and legs. The skin becomes dis-colored and blood or water blisters orulcers may develop. The feet feel numband may become paralyzed.

(d) Treatment. Do not apply heat, avoidrubbing, and never allow any weight torest on feet or legs. Raise the legs andfeet above the level of the body, beingcareful not to damage the skin. Keep therest of the body warm. Apply cold packsto the feet and legs but do not let the skinget wet. Either a cold compress separatedfrom the skin by a layer of waterproofmaterial or cold, dry air blown over theskin is effective. Continue treatment andrest until swelling and pain disappear.

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(9) Burns and sunburn.

(a) Cause. Burns may be caused by swim-ming in burning oil, by an explosion, orby exposure to the sun.

(b) Prevention. Keep the body completelycovered even in cloudy weather.

(c) Symptoms. The skin is highly red incolor, irritated, and usually blistered. Aburning sensation is felt. The skin is sensi-tive to the touch. Fever and shock maybe present.

(d) Treatment. Cover burned area with foillefor burns from first-aid kit. Dab, do notrub. Treat for shock. For fever, makepatient rest and give him cold fluids todrink, preferably water.

(10) Heatstroke (sunstroke).

(a) Cause. Heatstroke results from exposureto heat and sun.

(b) Prevention. Retain all clothing and head-gear. Rig up awnings from sail, canvascover, or other material. Take an occa-sional short swim.

(c) Symptoms. Symptoms are dizziness, nau-sea, vomiting, diarrhea, fever, headache,mental confusion and unconsciousness. Theskin is red, hot, and dry.

(d) Treatment. Loosen all clothing. Bathehead, face, wrists, and body in cool seawater. Give small sips of fresh water.Place the patient in a reclining positionprotected from the sun. Fan and keep cool.Apply cold water to head and extremities.

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(11) Dehydration and thirst.(a) Cause. The body-loses water by breath-

ing, by evaporation from the skin, and in-ternally through the kidneys.

(b) Prevention. See paragraph 41.(c) Symptoms. Symptoms are loss of weight,

rapid pulse, fever, convulsions, shock, andinability to urinate. Dryness causes cracksand sores on lips.

(d) Treatment. Give small amounts of sweet-ened water if the individual is conscious.Treat for shock.

(12) Starvation.(a) Symptoms. Symptoms are loss of weight,

fever, and shock. Breathing may be shal-low and fast. Prolonged malnutrition maycause swelling of the feet-not to be con-fused with immersion foot.

(b) Treatment. Give small amounts of softand liquid foods. Keep warm. Treat forshock.

(13) Constipation. With little food and wateryou will have few or no bowel movements.Do not worry about it. Constipation in itselfis not harmful in this case. No first-aid treat-ment is necessary. Do not take laxatives.Laxatives only absorb water from the bodyand increase the process of dehydration ofthe body.

(14) Fainting or unconsciousness.(a) Lay the patient flat on stomach, head

turned to one side.(b) Loosen clothing.

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(c) If patient is breathing, use ammonia in-halant.

(d) If patient is not breathing, use artificialrespiration. Use inhalant as soon as breath-ing starts.

(15) Mental disturbances.(a) Cause. Usually mental disturbances are

caused by severe hardships, prolonged ex-posure, thirst, starvation, or drinking seawater. Sometimes they develop when rescueseems probabre and the victim becomesoverexcited and happy.

(b) Symptonms. Symptoms are irrationalthinking, melancholia, a fixed stare, de-lirium, and convulsions.

(c) Treatment. Give victim rest, warmth, andquiet. Prevent the man from injuring him-self or leaving the boat. Lash him to theboat if necessary.

(16) Resuscitation. Aid to breathing may be nec-essary with patients who have been underwater, received concussion shock, or havebeen overcome by smoke or oil fumes.

(a) Prone pressure method (fig. 30).1. Lay the victim on his stomach, one arm

overhead, the other folded under thehead with fingertips coming to edge ofmouth. Turn the face toward the ex-tended arm. Wipe water, mucous, andloose objects out of mouth and pull thetongue forward.- Raise hips to drainwater from lungs.

2. Extend and spread legs. Kneel astridethe thigh on the side to which the head

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is facing to be able to observe the face.Your knees must be far enough awayfrom the victim's hips so that pressurecan be applied to his lower ribs. Withyour arms straight, place the palms ofyour hands on the patient's lower ribsso that the little fingers just touch hislowest rib. The thumbs and fingers arein their natural position, and the tipsof the fingers are out of sight just aroundthe sides of hisa chest. The heels of thehands should be placed as far as possiblefrom his backbone without slipping off(fig. 300).

3. With arms held straight, swing forwardslowly so that the weight of the bodyis gradually brought to bear upon thedrowned person (fig. 300). This proce-dure should take about 2 seconds or longenough for the count of "one thousandand one, one thousand and two." Do notbend the elbows while giving artificialrespiration.

4. Now swing backwards so as to removeall pressure completely and suddenly tothe count of "one thousand and three,one thousand and four."

5. Continue without interruption untilbreathing is restored. If breathing stopsagain, resume artificial respiration. Inchanging operators, maintain the ca-dence.

(b) Seesaw method (Eve's method). Adrowned man unconscious for as many as

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0 Starting position.Figure 30. Prone pressure method of artificial respiration.

O Forward position.Figure 30-Continued.

8 hours may be revived by a treatmentknown as Eve's method, which is basedon this principle: If a man's body istilted with his head downward, the con-

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tents of his abdomen slide down towardhis head and press on his diaphragm,forcing air out of his lungs; if he is thentilted feet down, the contents of theabdomen slide down toward the feet,pulling the diaphragm down and suckingair into the lungs. Consequently if he istilted to and fro, his breathing will bedone automatically for him. Two or threemen are required.

1. Begin prone pressure method at onceand continue until a litter and blanketare obtained.

2. Place patient face down on the litter andcontinue prone pressure method whilethe victim is secured to the litter. Thisis done by bandaging wrists and anklesto the handles of the stretcher overheavy padding. An alternate method isto place ropes around his body and thelitter just above and below the but-tocks. Another expedient consists of aspecially prepared board provided withpegs to hold the patient in place andsupported by a frame (fig. 31).

3. Meanwhile, if a litter is used, a lightrope is secured to a hook, the litterlifted to waist height, and the ropepassed below and made fast to a hookopposite. You now have the litter restingwith its middle on a loop of rope.

4. Begin tilting the litter or board to andfro and cover patient with warm blan-kets immediately.

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Wie B S ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~~~~i v

Figure 31. Patient being resuscitated by Eve's method onspecially prepared board.

10C7

5. Continue the seesaw rocking at the rateof 12 times a minute until normalbreathing returns. Rocking must go onfor 8 hours if necessary, unless rigormortis is present or a medical officerdeclares the victim dead. To prevent thelitter from slipping on the rope, nailsshould be hammered into the under sideof the litter bars on each side before thevictim is placed on the litter.

(c) Advantages of Eve's method. There aremany practical advantages to Eve's meth-od. Any untrained man can assist afterwatching for only a few moments and pickup the rhythm. Thus, it can be kept upfor many hours with unskilled help. Withseveral casualties, prone pressure methodmay be impossible to administer but anynovice can rock a litter. The head-downposition allows water in the lungs to runout. Wet clothes can be removed and warmblankets put on. When necessary, first aidcan be given to wounds and burns. Eve'smethod cannot do harm such as that some-times caused by unskilled use of pronepressure.

Section III. PROTECTION AGAINST WATER ANIMALS

50. GENERAL. Some water animals attack man onlyin self-defense. Others may attack if attracted byblood, shiny objects, and light colors such as that ofa man's skin. Don't drag your hands or feet over-board. The best defense against water animals is tolook for them and detour around them. Observe under

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water, on the bottom of shoals, among rocks, and atthe surface. Swim slowly and quietly. Keep yourclothing on if dangerous fish are known to infest thewater. Move away from any blood in the water. Itis important to remain calm, especially when stungby water animals. Their stings will wear away. Donot worry about whales. The chances of their harmingyou are rare. Metal struck against metal under waterwill frighten them away.

51. RECOGNITION OF WATER ANIMALS AND DE-FENSES AGAINST THEM. a. Sharks (fig. 32). Sharksare distributed widely but are most common in warmseas. They have long, round, slender bodies with theupper lobe of the tail-fin longest, and with five distinctopenings to the gills along the side of the head. Themost dangerous sharks have unsymmetrical tails. Thebody normally measures not more than 11 feet. Themouth is large and armed with cutting teeth; thenose usually is conical, bluntly pointed, and protrudeswell in front of the mouth. Sharks usually attack onthe surface and are revealed by their fins, whichbreak the water like a periscope. Defense against ashark attack consists in splashing, moving the armsand legs rapidly, and making a great deal of commo-tion under water. Metallic noises such as striking acanteen under water are best. Avoid display of skin,underclothing, or shiny objects. By striking a blowon the snout, the most sensitive part of the shark'sbody, you may drive him away. Treat in the ordinarymanner any wounds received.

b. Barracuda (fig. 33). The barracuda is foundonly in warm seas. It is a grayish, pikelike fish about6 feet long, with long, pointed jaws lined with sharp

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Figure 32. White shark-"maneater."

teeth. The barracuda usually is attracted by anythingthat moves but especially by light-colored or shinyobjects. It attacks quickly from below the surface.Creating noise under water may frighten it away.Treat any wounds received in the ordinary manner.

c. Sting ray (fig. 34). Sting rays, found in allwarm seas and in some fresh water rivers, are disk-

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Figure 33. Barracuda.

shaped, flattened fishes with one or two long, barbedspines. The disk is made up of both body and fins.Sizes range from that of an ordinary dinner plateup to 10 feet across. The tail may be as long as orlonger than the disk. Since they conceal themselvesin muddy or sandy flats, sting rays are frequentlystepped upon and lash out with their tails, drivingthe spine into the flesh and injecting a highly ven-omous substance. Treat wounds like snake bites.When walking in turbid or muddy water, poke astick ahead of you and slide your feet along. If stickor feet touch a hidden sting ray it will swim away.

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Figure 34. Sting ray.

d. Sawfish. The sawfish has a body similar tothe shark's. In addition, a swordlike snout is armedwith spines on the sides giving the impression of alarge double-edged sazv. The sawfish may reach alength of from 10 to 20 feet but it is not vicious. Itlives over sandy and muddy bottoms. The sawfishcan swing its saw back and forth with power enoughto break a man's leg. The most tender parts of the'sawfish are the areas around the eyes and at the baseof the saw. Defense consists of striking area of eyesand avoiding the saw.

e. Moray eel (fig. 35). Moray eels are found inall warm seas, especially in crevices about coral reefs.Most morays are brownish or blackish colored withpeculiar patterns of varied spots. Some morays reacha length of 6 feet. A knife or spear may be used indefense against the moray. Keep your hands and

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bare feet out of rock crevices. Treat in the ordinarymanner any wounds received.

Figure 35. Moray eel.

f. Sea porcupine (fig. 36). Found in warm seas,the sea porcupine is recognized easily by its coveringof erectile spines. This fish swells itself by swallow-ing water or air. It is not ferocious. Its jaws arelike the beak of a parrot and powerful enough tobite off a finger if it is molested. Defense consistsof keeping out of its way.

g. Sea urchin (fig. 37). The sea urchin occursabundantly on rocks, reefs, and among coral andlooks like a pincushion full of long needles. Sea

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Figure 36. Sea porcupine.

urchins with short, stout spines are not poisonous.Some sea urchins are covered with numerous movablespines of two diffeirent sizes. The shorter and finerspine is highly venomous; if it touches the skiln gently,the poison is injected into the flesh causing sharp,severe pain. Remove the spine and apply iodine. Besuspicious of anything that resembles a sea urchin;do not handle it.

h. Giant clam. Found on the coral reefs in thePacific and Indian Oceans, giant clams are similarto the ordinary clam but of tremendous size, sometimesweighing more than 500 pounds. The clam is edible,but care must be taken that no part of the body istrapped within the shell, which clamps on to any-thing that enters it.

i. Octopus (fig. 38). Commonly found in theMediterranean and the Southwest Pacific, the octopus

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A I

Figure 37. Sea urchin.

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has a round body and eight arms or legs on each ofwhich are numerous suction cups. The octopus maygrow to over 10 feet from tip to tip of the tentacles.It has large keen eyes which shine in the dark. Whenattacked, it emits an inky fluid into the water toscreen its actions while escaping. The octopus isnot a vicious animal and when attacked will try toescape. It occurs most frequently along rocky shoresand on reefs. Some kinds live at considerable depthsin the sea.

Figure 38. Octopus.

j. Electric ray. In shape, the electric ray is sim-ilar to the sting ray except that its tail lacks thesting. On being touched, the animal imparts a severe

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electric shock from batteries located along its back.If shocked, remain calm and quiet and wait for theshock to wear off.

k. Bluefish. Bluefish are unusually active gamefish abundant in the Atlantic Ocean and EnglishChannel. They are generally 2 to 3 feet long andblue in color. They have razor-sharp teeth and willattack any moving object. Schools of bluefish aredangerous to a swimmer. Treat inflicted wounds inthe usual manner.

i. Jellyfish. Found in all seas but more numerousin the Tropics, the jellyfish is an umbrella-shapedanimal of jellylike substance, with numerous tentacleshanging down from the under side. Jellyfish varyfrom a few inches to 2 or 3 feet-across. Contact witha tentacle causes a severe stinging sensation. Applica-tion of slightly diluted ammonia water gives immedi-ate relief. If stung while swimming, remain calmand swim slowly until the effects wear off. The jelly-fish cannot follow you. Clothes give protection.

m. Portuguese man-of-war (fig. 39). Commonlyfound in most seas, the brightly colored Portugueseman-of-war has a large bladderlike body with longtentacles hanging down from the under side. It usual-ly floats on the surface. It imparts a more severesting than a jellyfish, but the sting is treated in thesame manner. Watch for the floating bladder andkeep away from it.

n. Sea snake (fig. 40). Sea snakes can be dis-tinguished from eels because they are covered withbony plates or rectangular-shaped scales. They arefound in the warm waters of the Indian and PacificOceans and, a fresh water variety, in the PhilippineIslands. The sea snake is usually banded with bright

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, , .

Figure 39. Portuguese man-of-war.

colors. The tail is flattened.to form a paddle. Seasnakes rarely bite without provocation, but stay awayfrom them. Their venom is poisonous; treat woundimmediately. First apply a tourniquet between thebite aid the heart. Next with a knife make a criss-cross out of each fang prick; suck out the blood and

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poison by mouth and spit. Finally apply iodine. Ifyour mouth contains any open wounds, have some-one else suck the poison.

Figure 40. Sea snake.

a. Crocodile and alligator. Crocodiles and alli-gators are found in fresh water in Africa, Asia,Australia, and America. H-owever, the largest andmost dangerous crocodiles take to the open sea inthe Indo-Australian region. Crocodiles and alliga-tors are long, thick-skined reptiles with a vicious,lashing tail and a long snout with big teeth. Stayaway from them.

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CHAPTER 7

RESCUE

Section I. ATTRACTING ATTENTION

52. GENERAL. Do not waste signaling equipment onthe chance someone may see your signal. A realchance of being rescued may be lost a few hourslater. If an airplane is heard in your vicinity, waituntil it is heading in your direction and fairly closeto you before firing a signal. Remember, you canhear an airplane long before you can see it or theairplane's crew can spot you. Be prepared to fire asecond signal to confirm the first. Be sure you aresignaling a friend, not an enemy. In the absence ofsignaling equipment, make yourself conspicuous bychurning up the sea with oars or paddles.

53. RADIO. Lifeboats may be equipped with port-able emergency radio transmitters. Instructions forsending signals are printed on the set and are alsocontained in the tube holding the antenna kite andballoons. Motor lifeboats usually have permanentlyinstalled radios. Figure 41 illustrates one method oferecting an antenna.

a. Precautions. If you have been torpedoed, donot use the radio until you are reasonably certain theenemy craft has left the scene of action. The "GibsonGirl," one of the most common types of portableemergency radio, has a sending radius of 250 miles,and signals have been picked up as far as 400 milesaway. Do not send signals, therefore, when you are

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/ INSULATOR

BOAT HOOKOR OAR

ANTENNA

LASHING INSULATOR

BACKSTAY

INSULATO STAY

Figure 41. Method of rigging radio antenna.

within 250 miles of enemy territory. Otherwise, get

on the air as soon as possible after being set adrift.

Do not let the antenna sag in the water, but be

certain the ground wire is in the water. Take down

the antenna during storms or when there is lightning.

Use the hydrogen balloon instead of the kite when thewind is less than 7 miles per hour. When using thehydrogen generator, do not smoke and be careful notto spill any of the contents, as the chemicals may burnthe skin and injure the craft if you are in a rubberboat.

b. Sending signals. Many. emergency radios areequipped with an automatic device for sending outan SOS, as well as with the usual manually operated

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key. Send signals during the 3-minute internationalsilent periods, which start at 15 minutes and 45 minutesafter the hour, Greenwich civil time. Send signalswhen a friendly airplane or vessel is heard or sighted.Crank steadily so rescuers can take accurate bearings.

54. SIGNALING MIRROR. a. Description. A double-faced mirror with about 20 square inches of reflectingsurface on each side and a sighting hole in the centeris provided in most lifesaving craft. The mirror iscoated with grease and wrapped in a marked con-tainer. In clear weather, flashes may be seen up to10 miles. As a substitute for a signaling mirror; anordinary pocket mirror or any other reflecting sur-face, such as a flattened tin can or the wet blade ofan oar, may be used.

b. Use (fig. 42). To use a signaling mirror, fol-low this procedure:

(1) Face a point about halfway between sun andobserved object.

(2) HIold mirror in one hand about 3 inches fromthe face and sight the object to be signaledthrough the sighting hole in the mirror.

(3) The light from the sun shining through thehole in the mirror will form a spot of lighton your face which will be reflected on theside of the mirror facing you. Now, whilestill sighting the object, adjust the angle ofthe mirror so that the spot of light reflectedon the mirror disappears in the hole in themirror. When this occurs, you will know thatthe reflected light from the sun is being di-rected toward the object.

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Figure 42. Use of signaling mirror.

55. OTHER SIGNALING DEVICES. a. Lights andflares. Instructions for the use of signal pistols.flares, smoke signals, and distress lights, all of whichare normal lifeboat equipment (par. 5c), are found inthe watertight containers holding this equipment. Thelantern is a valuable night light as a check on the

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watch, should rescuers approach the vicinity un-detected. A flashlight can also be used to signal atnight and can cover wide areas and serve as a lastresort, when all other night signaling equipment hasbeen expended. You can signal an SOS with it bythree short flashes, three long, then three short.

b. Signal flag. The best method of displaying thesignal flag is for two men to stretch it taut by holdingeach end, then move it from side to side (or fromvertical to horizontal if the rescuer is in the air) inorder to present a flash of color to attract attention.Triced high to the mast, the signal flag can best beseen by lookouts on passing vessels far on the horizon.

c. Boat cover. Whether or not you are using thetarpaulin or boat cover as a canopy, display it withthe painted side up. It may be waved when a rescuecraft is sighted.

d. Whistle. At night or in fog, use the whistleto attract surface vessels or people ashore, or to locateanother lifesaving craft if it becomes separated.

56. OTHER PROCEDURES. a. Protection of equip-ment. Protect your signal equipment as much asyour rations. Place a responsible man in charge of it.

b. Attracting attention at night. To aid in at-tracting attention at night, churn or splash the seawith oars, paddles, or the bare hand. This will revealmore clearly luminous particles in the water.

c. Assembly. Unless the sea is very rough, shortenthe line between rafts or boats if you see or heara friendly plane. Two or more lifesaving craft to-gether are easier to spot than the same number widely.separated.

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Section II. RESCUE AT SEA

57. MAINTAINING ORDER. Order must be main-tained and navigation must continue without inter-ruption. Do not change your course until land hasbeen positively sighted. Your boat may drift awayfrom land before it can be beached, or the surf maybe so heavy you cannot get ashore. The rescue craftmay not see you, or it may turn out what you see areactually other survivors or enemy craft. Rememberthe following points:

a. Don't change your course to reach a sightedcraft. If it is a friendly rescue craft, it will approachyou and probably be in better shape to do so.

b. Don't dispose of any food or water even if itappears that rescue is possible.

c. Don't consider yourself rescued until you areactually aboard the other craft and under the ordersof her commander.

58. RESCUE PROCEDURE. Once contact has beenmade with rescuers, follow their directions. Aftersighting you, rescuers may choose to wait for day-light or calmer seas before picking you up, accordingto the weather, condition of the survivors, and theability to maintain contact.

a. Precautions. To expedite your rescue afterbeing sighted, follow these instructions:

(1) Maintain identification. If you use a mir-ror, it will enable rescue craft to keep traceof your position.

(2) Signal if injured badly. You can do thisby crossing the arms across the body, or byimprovising a cross out of material at hand.

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Two colored life-raft sails may also be used.If uninjured, hold arms straight out at side.A surface craft may acknowledge your signalwith a blast of the whistle, or a plane bydipping wings.

(3) Do not use emergency equipment not re-quired. It may not be possible to pick youup at once, so conserve your gear, particular-ly distress lights, which are of little valueby day.

b. Methods of rescue. You will be picked up bya flying boat, a seaplane, submarine, or surface ship.If initial contact is made by a plane of a rescuesquadron, detailed instructions regarding cooperationexpected of you for each type of rescue will bedropped to you. Remember these points:

(1) If you are being rescued by a flying boat,continue to signal by mirror. Stay clear ofpropellers; a swell can easily wash you intothem. A life preserver with a line will bethrown to you, or, if you are incapacitated,a man in a raft will assist you to the plane.If the sea is unfavorable, the plane will re-port your position and arrange for you tobe picked up by a submarine or surfacecraft. This plane will drop provisions asrequired for your rescue.

(2) If being rescued by a seaplane, continue tosignal when the plane is on the water. Do notride a lifeboat close to the plane or hold onto the wingtip float, as there is danger ofcapsizing the plane. Swim or paddle to themain float aft the wing. Follow instructions

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from the plane's crew. A life preserver andline may be thrown you.

(3) If being rescued by a submarine, continueto signal with mirror. If the submarine sur-faces, look for life preserver and line to bethrown. A periscope tow may be desirablein wartime if shore batteries are close. Aline that can be slipped quickly should besecured to the periscope in case the sub-marine dives. Best tow length is 20 feetbehind the periscope. Maintain contactthrough periscope and keep watch for un-friendly craft. If rescue is by night, answerflares from submarine with flares or flash-light. Listen for whistle; answer with whistle,flares, or flashlight.

(4) If being rescued by surface ship, signal byday with mirror; by night, the best signalsare flares, then flashlight.

59. DISTRESS SIGNALS. The following distress sig-nals have been adopted by the U.S. Coast Guard.

a. Red light or red rocket or flare at night: "Youare seen; assistance will be given as soon as possible."

b. Red flag waved ashore by day, or a red light,red rocket, or red roman candle displayed by night:" 'aul away."

c. White flag waved ashore by day, or a whitelight swung slowly back and forth, a white rocket,or white roman candle fired by night: "''Slack away."

d. Two flags, a white and red, waved at the sametime ashore by day, or two lights, a white and a red,swung slowly at the same time, or a blue light burned

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by night: "Do not attempt to land in your own boats;it is impossible."''

e. A man ashore beckoning by day, or two torchesburning close together by night: "This is the bestplace to land."

f. Any of these signals may be answered from thevessel as follows: In the daytime, waving a flag, ahandkerchief, a hat, or even the hand; at night, byfiring a rocket, a blue light, or a gun, or by showinga light over the ship's gunwale for a short time, andthen concealing it.

Section III. REACHING LAND

60. LANDING AND BEACHING. Do not let the sightof land build your hopes up too high. Some landhas less to offer than the open sea. When you aresure you have sighted land, and fog or night startsto set in, take a compass bearing and then steer bythe compass. Do not land in surf, rough sea, or atnight if it can be avoided. Besides the natural hazardsof landing at night, you run the added risk in war-time of not hearing a sentry's challenge and of en-countering land mines and underwater wire entangle-ments. If there are signs of life ashore, it will bewise to remain outside the breakers and try to signalthe shore for help for someone with knowledge oflocal conditions and with a larger craft. If you haveto wait overnight before landing, you should not waittoo close to the shore or the reef lying out from theshore. At the same time, take care not to drift outof sight of land during the night, especially in rainyand windy weather. Try to find a relatively calmplace to land. Often it. is necessary to search for

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some time before finding a suitable beach. Becauseof the formation of bars, shore line, or rock there willbe certain spots along the beach where the surf willbe easier to run. It may be difficult to tell how roughthe surf is when approaching a'beach because thesurf appears smoother from the seaward side than itreally is. The outer line of breakers is ordinarily theheaviest so that a boat taken through them will havea good chance of reaching shore safely. An inlet mayappear difficult because of high surf breaking on anouter bar, but it may be discovered that there is apass between the extremities of the bar and the beachproper. By going to the leeward end of the bar, itmay be possible to pass in smooth waters without en-tering the breakers at any time. Passages in reefsare indicated by calm gaps in the long line ofbreakers. If the pass is deep, the color will be clearblue; if shallow, it will be a blotchy brown. Off-lyingrocks may smooth out the breakers and provide aclear channel. However, such beaches must be ap-proached with care because of the danger of sub-merged rocks. Adjust life preserver and put on shoesbefore making an attempt to land.

a. Approaching a beach. Wait outside the break-ers and study the seas as they roll in. Usually therewill be a succession of heavy swells, then a period ofrelatively smooth water. An outstanding hazard isthe possibility of turning sideways. This can beavoided if the boat is kept end-on to the breakers byrowing against the sea and using a drag or seaanchor. This will also help reduce the speed of theapproach and give more control over the boat. In allinstances the boat should be steered by an oar overthe stern or on one quarter. Sails and masts should

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be taken down outside the breakers. I-Ieavy weightsshould be kept out of the extreme ends of the boat.It is best to keep the seaward end heavier than theshoreward end to help prevent turning sideways.Storm oil may be 'used to reduce the effects of thebreakers. There are different methods of landing andbeaching and the situation will govern which to use.Two methods are as follows:

(1) Landing stern first. Before entering brokenwater, turn the bow of the boat to the sea.Do this where the surf is lighter, as in therelative lee and quiet of a point or bulgein the shore line. Such a spot will probablybe found where there is a gully or break inthe shore line or a row of cliffs behind thebeach. Back the boat in stern first. When abreaker approaches from seaward, the crewshould pull a few strokes to meet it and thenresume backing in towards shore. Landingstern first is considered the safest procedurewith an inexperienced crew.

(2) Landing bow first. Row to shore, bow first,by backwatering on the approach of a waveand rowing ahead again when it has passed.A sea anchor or a makeshift drag weighteddown by an anchor can be used to preventthe boat from turning sideways. This meth-od is used with an experienced crew and arelatively calm sea.

b. Beaching a lifeboat. Whether a lifeboat isbrought in bow end first or backed in (stern first),she is kept at right angles to the shore when beaching.When the boat reaches shore, the crew will jump out,grab the sides, and pull her in.

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c. Beaching a power lifeboat. A power lifeboatshould enter the surf at a moderate speed with therudder unshipped. A steering oar and an oar out oneach quarter is lashed in place to assist in steering.If the surf is dangerous and breaking close to thebeach, it is safest to stop the engine and land underoars. Approach to shore should be deliberate and alleffort directed toward keeping the stern aimed direct-ly at overtaking seas. To obtain this slow approachand certainty of aim, throw astern a sea anchor ormakeshift drag weighted down by the anchor to givefirmest hold on the water. This use of the sea anchorwill check headway of the boat and hold her sterndirectly into the crest of overtaking seas. It is theforemost protection against a sea breaking into andoverturning the lifeboat. In addition to the use ofa sea anchor, check forward motion by reducing orreversing the engine or backwater with the oars. Ifcircumstanees warrant, have a man ready to cut thetripping line and the sea-anchor rope. Keep a strainon the rope because slack rope may foul the propeller.Because it will change the course of the boat, reversingthe engine in a surf is dangerous and should be doneonly to check the forward motion of the boat. Weightshould be distributed to trim the boat by the stern,causing it to drag.

61. AFTER REACHING SHORE. If you happen toland in an uninhabited area, your main needs willcontinue to be water, food, and shelter. If you canfind water and food, it may be advisable to rest alittle, regain strength, and then start out again inyour craft. In any case, be prepared to make ap-

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propriate signals to attract attention should a rescuerapproach the vicinity.

a. Obtaining water.(1) Ground water. Do not run any risks from

ground water. No matter how thirsty youare, take the trouble to boil it for 1 minuteor purify it with halazone pills or iodinefrom your first-aid kit. The halazone muststand from a half hour to an hour and theiodine an hour or two, but it is worth it.Stagnant water is dangerous anywhere inthe tropics. When purifying water withhalazone, use two halazone tablets to eachcanteen of clear water or four tablets ifwater is cloudy, insert stopper, and shake.After a half hour, shake the container andremove stopper.

(2) Raign ald plant water. Collect rain in thesame nmanner as at sea. A lot of water col-lects in the large, lower leaves of trees. Youcan make containers of large leaves or ofbamboo, or dig a hole and line it with apiece of heavy cloth. Big ropy vines or lianasthat hang down from trees in the Tropicsalso furnish water.

(3) Digging for water. Along ocean beachesand near them you can dig for water. Diga hole at low tide just below the high-watermark. Do not dig deeper than the first wateryou find. Fresh water is lighter than seawater and will stay on top of it. Skim thewater off with a leaf, spoon, or other mate-rials at hand.

(4) Ice and snow. Eating snow will have no

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adverse effects if you eat a little at a timeand melt it in your mouth before swallowing.If fuel is scarce, place snow and ice on adark surface, such as a rock, where the sunwill melt it. Catch the drippings in a con-tainer.

b. Obtaining food.(1) Fish.

(a) Sea fish. Fish of many kinds are usuallyplentiful on reefs, in lagoons, along theshore, and just offshore. You can use theusual methods of hook-and-line fishing,spear them, hit them with sticks, or trapthem in improvised nets or in pools amongrocks and coral blocks. A few shore fishare poisonous (par. 42b(4)).

(b) Fresh water fish. All fresh water fish,including crustaceans such as crabs andcrawfish, must be cooked before eating. Tocook the crustaceans, drop them into boilingwater. Use a dip net to catch fresh watershrimps. They often cling to branches thathang in the water. They can also be caughtby building a dam in a stream. All freshwater or land crabs and lobsters, as wellas the sea variety, are good to eat iffresh. All land crabs must be cooked be-cause they are often infected. Do not eatthe eggs or liver of any fish.

(2) Animals and insects. Turtles and turtleeggs are a good food. Turtles come ashore,often at night, and dig a hole in the sand inwhich to lay their eggs. Look for smallparallel tracks along the shore. Follow the

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tracks to the end and there dig for turtleeggs. Monkeys, rats, flying squirrels, ant-eaters, bats, lizards, frogs and snakes (evenif poisonous, provided they have not bittenthemselves) are all good to eat. Grubs found-in the ground or in rotten wood, as well astermites, locusts, crickets, and grasshopperswhose wings, legs, and other hard partshave been removed, make good food. Do not

'eat caterpillars. All birds are good to eat,raw or cooked. In the colder climates seals,walrus, bears, wolves, foxes, hares, etc. maybe shot, trapped, or harpooned. Skin im-mediately, leaving fat with meat, and removeentrails. Do not eat the liver of a polar bearas it is poisonous.

(3) Plants. Most tropical fruits are good toeat. At the top of many palm trees is alarge tender bud which can be eaten cookedor raw. Rattans long slender vines withcurved thorns, have a similar bud. Coconutscontain delicious milk and white meat. Bread-fruit, oval in shape with a wartlike surface,can be roasted by putting it in the ground,covering with leaves, laying hot stonesaround it, and covering with dirt. The durianis a large fruit with spines and an obnoxiousodor, but it tastes like custard. Eat it raw.There are limitless other edible fruits, in-cluding bananas and plantains, papayas,guavas, mangoes, figs, and berries. Nuts ofall descriptions and underground vegetableslike yams, taro, cassava, and arrowroot aregood to eat. In Arctic regions lichens, ber-

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ries, roots, plant leaves, and fungi are edible.Water hemlock and some species of mush-rooms and toadstools are poisonous. Thewater hemlock belongs to the parsley or car-rot family and has feathery toothed leaves,small flowers arranged in clusters, andparsniplike roots. The leaves are streakedwith purple and have a disagreeable odorwhen crushed.

c. Obtaining shelter.(1) In cold country, selection of a site for even

a temporary camp for the night deservescareful thought. Dryness is the first re-quirement. You can improvise a tent fromcanvas or a boat cover. If you pitch yourtent where snow may drift, the tent openingshould be sidewise to the wind to preventits being blocked by snow. A windbreakmade of snow will help. Sometimes caves,trenches, or tunnels dug in the snow makegood shelters. In wooded areas a lean-toshelter is easy to construct (fig. 43). Avoidcamping under overhanging shelves of snow,actively building snow drifts, and at the baseof slopes where avalanches would be likely.

(2) In the Tropics do not camp near fresh waterbecause of the presence of mosquitoes and ofwild animals which come to drink there.Anopheles mosquitoes range within a mileof their breeding places. Also, in malariousareas do not camp near natives. In warmclimates you can make a temporary shelterquickly by dropping a tarpaulin or boatcover over a pole. Use leaves to cover your

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lean-to, if you decide to make one, and tomake a mat or bed.

d. Obtaining fuel. In some cold regions wood isscarce. Dry plants, moss, peat, and animal dung maybe used. If these fuels are not available, bones orstones can be used to support pieces of fat which willmelt and burn. Build fire on green logs or rocks somelting snow will not put it out. Fuel may be con-served by building a fire in a hole in the ground orby building a fireplace of stones. The stones can thenbe placed in a metal container and used to heat theshelter. After a campfire has dried and scorched theground, the coals may be scattered and trampled:then the ground can be spread with green boughs andbedding.

() Bough shelter.Figure 43. Construction of shelters.

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® Foundation for lean-to.

Figure 43-Continued.

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( Three-m(nlean-to.

ig Three-man lean-to.Figure 48-Continued

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CHAPTER 8

SUGGESTIONS FOR INSTRUCTORS

62. GENERAL. Instruction in survival at sea shouldbe given at the staging area before embarkation. Theinstructor should bear in mind and impress upon the.students that lack of knowledge of the fundamentalsof survival at sea may be the difference between lifeand death. All instruction should be given in thestaging area if time permits; hdwever, if not, givethat instruction which requires extensive trainingaids and practical exercise, .and reserve the lecturesfor instruction aboard ship.

63. TRAINING BEFORE EMBARKATION. Instructionin military swimming, the use of safety equipment,and abandoning ship should be given before embarka-tion, as extensive training aids and practical exercisesare required. Give the men the opportunity to useall safety equipment.

a. Swimming. For men who know how to swim,practice should be conducted with clothing and equip-·ment on. Men who do not know how to swim shouldbe taught basic water skills before being required towear clothing and handle equipment.

b. Safety equipment. This instruction should bebroken down into two parts: individual safety equip-ment and ship's safety equipment.

(1) Individual safety equipment.(a) Explain the use and care of various types

of life preservers and the uses of the life-preserver light, whistle, and jackknife.

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(b) Explain the value of the personal emergen-cy kit, which should be collected and packedunder supervision in the staging area.

(2) Ship's safety equipment. Actual equipmentshould be shown and explained. It is recom-mended that the men be conducted througha vessel provided with safety equipment, ifpossible; if not, all safety equipment shouldbe laid out as it would be found on ship-board.

c. Abandoning ship. Conduct to be followed andreasons for such conduct should be explained.

(1) Going over the side. Explain and demon-strate methods of going over the side. Givethe men practical exercise in the use ofropes and nets, and in actual jumping, usingsafety equipment that they would have un-der actual conditions.

(2) In the water.(a) Explain procedure to be followed when

lifesaving craft are not available.(b) Teach procedure to be followed when in

lifesaving craft. Instruction and practicalexercises should be given, bearing in mindthe following points:

1. Command and why it is important.2. Operation of the lifesaving craft.3. Use of all equipment in the lifesaving

craft.4. Determination of position and direction.5. Procedure when rescue is imminent.

64. SHIPBOARD TRAINING. Instruction in first aid;conduct aboard ship; marine, animal, and vegetable

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life likely to be encountered; and signs indicating landcan be taken up aboard ship, if necessary. Trainingreceived while in the staging area should not be for-gotten and should be reviewed while aboard ship.

a. First aid. First-aid classes can be held in smallgroups and restricted areas. Demonstration is valu-able in these classes.

b. Conduct aboard ship. Individuals should befamiliar with the stations they are to man duringemergencies, location of the ship's various activities,and the shortest routes to these stations and activities.

c. Food. The men should be familiarized with themarine life in the area and the animal and vegetablelife with which they may come in contact. Particularattention should be paid to dangerous animals andto animals and vegetation which are edible.

d. Indications of land. The men should be famil-iarized with the various signs which may indicate theproximity of land.

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APPENDIX I

REFERENCES

FM 21-11 .................. First Aid for Soldiers.FM 21-20 ...................... Physical Training.

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APPENDIX II

GLOSSARY

AFT ........... Toward the stern. Between thestern and the midship section ofa vessel.

ATHWART-SHIP ......... At right angles to the centerline of

a ship or boat; across the craftfrom port to starboard.

BILGE ......... Rounded side of ship where itcurves up from flat bottom platesto vertical shell plating.

BILGE PUMP...A pump for drawing off water inthe bilge.

BLADE ........ Flat, paddlelike part of oar on op-posite end of handle.

BLOCK ........ A metal or wooden frame or shellcontaining one or more. pulleysor sheaves.

BOAT .......... Small vessel for oars or sails.BOAT FALL .... See FALL.BOATHOOK .... A wooden staff with a metal hook

at one end used for fending offor holding on.

BOOM .......... A spar used in handling cargo, oras the lower piece of a fore andaft sail.

BOW ........... Forward part of a ship or boat.BREAKER ..... Small cask for fresh water carried

in lifeboats; surf.

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BUOYANT ..... Having the power or tendency tofloat or keep afloat.

CAPSIZE ...... Overturn.CARBON

DIOXIDERUBBERBOAT ........ Collapsible rubber boat inflated by

carbon dioxide which is con-tained in a large cartridge andreleased with a hand valve.

CARGO NET .... See LIFE NET.CENTERLINE . .An imaginary straight line run-

ning the length of a, vessel be-tween bow and stern.

COMPASS ...... Instrument for determiining coursesteered and bearings.

COURSE ....... Point of compass toward whichvessel is steering.

DAVIT ......... One of a pair of small cranes ona ship's side for hoisting andlowering lifeboats.

Gravity type.Davits which carry the lifeboat intwo cradles on rollers w hich moveon two parallel tracks to ship'sside.

Radial type. . Davits which carry the lifeboat onchocks and are crook-shaped; inlaunching, they are turned sothat their tops describe an are inplacing the lifeboat over waterfrom a position over the deck.

Quadrantaltype ...... Davits which carry the lifeboat on

chocks, the davits themselves

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standing upright with the topscurved in toward each other sothat the ends come directly abovethe hoisting hooks of the lifeboat.

DECK .......... A platform or horizontal floorwhich extends from side to sideof a vessel.

FALL .......... A tackle of two blocks and lengthof rope for hoisting a boat to itsdavits.

FEND .......... To push off when making a landing.FLOAT ......... See LIFE FLOAT.FLOATING ..... Act of being supported or buoyed

by the water.GUNWALE ..... Upper edge of the side of an open

boat.HULL .......... Frame or body of a vessel or boat,

not including Basting, rigging,etc.

KEEL .......... Backbone of a ship or boat runningfrom stem to sternpost at bottomof ship.

LANYARD ..... Rope made fast to an article forsecuring it.

LASH .......... To tie or secure.LASHING ...... A fastening made by passing a rope,

cord, or the like around two ormore objects, to hold one to theother.

LATITUDE ..... Distance on the earth's surfacenorth or south of the Equator.

LAUNCH ....... To place in the water.LEEWARD ..... The direction toward which the

wind blows; sheltered side.

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LEEWAY ...... Drift of a vessel or boat to leewardcaused by the wind or tide.

LIFEBOAT ..... A ship's boat particularly adaptedand secured for use during anemergency.

Rubber type..See CARBON DIOXIDE RUB-BER BOAT.

Self-bailingtype ...... Lifeboat which has a watertight

compartment running its lengthwhere leaks are taken care of byhandpumps.

Self-rightingtype ...... Lifeboat with high buoyancy (heavy

keel, high air tanks, etc.).LIFE BIOY .... See LIFE RING.LIFE FLOAT .. Emergency buoyancy equipment of

at least 15-person capacity thatis launched overboard or floatsfree of a sinking ship.

LIFE-LINE .... Rope running length of sides oflifeboat for those in water tograsp.

LIFE NET ..... Square rope net used for slingingcargo and employed as a broadladder for disembarking intolanding craft or for abandoningship.

LIFE RAFT .... Life float constructed with a metal-lic tube covered with cork andcanvas or made of balsa wood orother suitable material. Life raftsare in four sizes: 67-, 41-, 28-,and 20-person capacity.

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LIFE RING .... A buoyant device, usually in theshape of a ring, for keeping aperson afloat.

LONGITUDE ... Distance east or west on earth'ssurface.

LUBBER LINE..Vertical line marked on inner sur-face of bowl of compass indicat-ing the compass direction of aship's head.

MANHOLE ..... An opening into a tank or com-partment.

MARLINE ...... A small rope of two strands looselytwisted together; used for lash-ing.

MARLINSPIKE .A sharp-pointed iron pin used insplicing ropes.

PAINTER ...... Line in the bow of a boat for tow-ing or making fast.

PORT .......... Left side of ship facing forward;opening in ship's side; a harbor.

RIG ............ To fit out; general description ofvessel's superstructure.

RIGGING ...... Ropes or lines securing masts,booms, or sails.

ROWLOCKS .... Forked pieces of metal, fitted intosockets on rail of boat, in whichthe oar rests.

RUBBER BOAT. See CARBON DIOXIDE RUB-BER BOAT.

RUDDER ....... Flat vertical structure attached tostern of vessel for steering.

SAILMAKER 'SPALM ........ A leather band with a lead shield,

fitting over the hand with shield

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in the palm; used as a thimble topush needle through canvas orrope.

SECURE ....... To make fast; safe.SHIP .......... Vessel of large size carrying boats.SHOAL ........ A shallow place in any body of

water; a sandbank or bar.STANCHION .'..Wooden or metal uprights used for

support.STARBOARD .. . Right side of a ship looking for-

ward.STEP .......... Frame on the keelson into which

heel of mast is fitted.STERN ......... After part of a vessel.STRETCHER ... Foot brace for oarsmen set athwart-

ship.STRINGER ..... Horizontal plank or plate secured

to a vessel's frame and support-ing beam ends.

TAIL-BLOCK ... Block with a tail of rope insteadof a hook..

THOLE-PINS ... Pins in gunwale of boat used forrowlocks.

THWART ...... Crosspiece used as seat in lifeboats.TILLER ........ Short piece of iron or wood fitting

into the head of a rudder, bywhich the rudder is turned.

TRACK ........ Path of a vessel.rWATER-BORNE.Clear of the bottom.

WEATHER ..... To windward; exposed to wind andrain.

WINDWARD ... In the direction from which thewind is blowing.

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YOKE .......... Athwartship piece fitting over rud-derhead by which rudder ismoved by means of ropes whentiller is not shipped.

* U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1950 - 883473

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