SURVEYING FOR ENGINEERS

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Surveying for Engineers

J. UREN, B.Sc., Ph.D., M.I.H.E.

W. F. PRICE, B.Sc., M.Sc., A.R.I.C.S., M.I.H.E.

Senior Lecturers, Department of Qvil Engineering, Portsmouth Polytechnic

M

©J. Uren and W. F. Price 1978 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1978 978-0-333-22363-5

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted, in any form or

by any means, without permission.

First published 1978 by THE MACMILLAN PRESS LTD

London and Basingstoke Associated companies in Delhi Dublin

Hong Kong Johannesburg Lagos Melbourne New York Singapore and Tokyo

Typeset in 10/11 IBM Press Roman by Reproduction Drawings Ltd.

Sutton, Su"ey

British library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Uren, J Surveying for engineers. 1. Surveying I. Title II. Price, W F 526.9'02'462 TA545

This book is sold subject to the standard conditions of the Net Book Agreement.

The paperback edition of this book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior consent in any form of binding or

cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition including this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser.

ISBN 978-0-333-22364-2 ISBN 978-1-349-15900-0 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-15900-0

Contents

Preface

Acknowledgements

1. Direct Distance Measurement

1.1 Steel tapes 1.2 Steel taping: fieldwork and corrections 1.3 Steel taping: errors and accuracy 1.4 Steel taping: applications 1.5 Chaining 1.6 Worked example I. 7 Further reading

2. Optical Levels

2.1 The surveying telescope 2.2 The spirit level 2.3 Principle of the level 2.4 The dumpy level 2.5 The tilting level 2.6 The automatic level 2.7 Permanent adjustments of the level 2.8 Further reading

3. Levelling

3.1 Levelling terminology 3.2 Equipment 3.3 Principles of levelling 3.4 Field procedure 3.5 Booking and reduced level calculations 3.6 Accuracy in levelling 3. 7 Errors in levelling 3.8 Summary of the levelling fieldwork 3.9 Additional levelling methods 3.1 0 Applications of levelling

X

xii

I I 9

10 II 12 13

14

14 16 18 18 18 20 22 26

27

27 29 30 31 32 35 35 38 39 42

1.

vi CONTENTS

4. Theodolites and their Use 4 7

4.1 Principles of angle measurement 4 7 4.2 The vernier theodolite 48 4.3 Modern theodolites 53 4.4 Field procedures 61 4.5 Adjustments of a theodolite 68 4.6 Further reading 71

5. Traversing 72

5.1 Types of traverse 72 5.2 Traverse specifications ar.d accuracy 73 5.3 Bearings and coordinates 73 5.4 Traversing fieldwork: reconnaissance 76 5.5 Traversing fieldwork: angular measurement 78 5.6 Traversing fieldwork: distance measurement 81 5.7 The three-tripod system 82 5.8 Traversing calculations 83 5.9 Plotting traverse stations 95 5.10 Whole-circle bearing and distance calculation from coordinates 98 5.11 The National Grid 99 5.12 Worked examples 101

6. Optical Distance Measurement 108

6.1 Stadia tacheometry 109 6.2 Diagram tacheometers 113 6.3 Optical wedge attachments 115 6.4 Double-image tacheometers 117 6.5 Subtense tacheometry 118 6.6 Further reading 123

7. Electromagnetic Distance Measurement 124

7.1 Electromagnetic waves 124 7. 2 Principle of measurement 126 7.3 Modulation 129 7.4 Instrument characteristics 130 7.5 Atmospheric effects 135 7.6 Further EDM corrections 137 7. 7 Applications of EDM to civil engineering and surveying 139 7.8 Further reading 140

8. Detail surveying 141

8.1 Detail 141 8.2 Methods 141 8.3 Accuracy of detail surveys 143 8.4 Chain surveying 144

CONTENTS vii

8.5 Stadia tacheometry I47 8.6 Further tacheometric methods I5I 8. 7 Detail surveying using a theodolite and tape I5I 8.8 Detail surveying using electromagnetic distance measuring equipment I5I

9. Circular Curves I5 3

9.I Types of circular curve I 53 9.2 Terminology of circular curves I 54 9.3 Radius and degree curves I 56 9.4 Length of circular curves I 56 9.5 Throughchainage I56 9.6 Design of circular curves I 57 9.7 Location of the intersection point and tangent points in the field I 58 9.8 Location of the tangent points when the intersection point•is

inaccessible I59 9.9 Setting out circular curves I60 9.IO Obstructions to setting out I66 9.II Compound circular curves I66 9.I2 Reverse circular curves I67 9.I3 Summary of circular curves I68 9.14 Further reading I68 9.I5 Worked examples I68

10. Transition Curves I73

10.1 Radial force and design speed I73 10.2 Superelevation I74 l 0.3 Department of the Environment design tables I76 I0.4 Use of transition curves I79 I 0.5 Length of transition curve to be used I80 I 0.6 Type of transition curve to be used I81 I0.7 The clothoid I82 I0.8 The cubic parabola I84 10.9 Choice of transition curve I87 IO.IO The shift of a cubic parabola I87 I O.II Setting out the composite curve I89 I 0.12 Setting out by coordinates I90 IO.l3 A design method for a composite curve I93 lO.I4 Wholly transitional curves I95 I 0.15 Summary of horizontal curve design 196 I O.I6 Further reading I97 I O.I7 Worked examples I98

11. Vertical Curves 202

II.l Gradients 202 1I.2 Purposes of vertical curves 204 11.3 Type of curve used 204

viii CONTENTS

11.4 Assumptions made in vertical curve calculations 11.5 Equation of the vertical curve 11.6 Sight distances 11.7 K-values 11.8 Use of K-values 11.9 Length of vertical curve to be used 11.10 Setting out the vertical curve 11.11 Highest point of a crest, lowest point of a sag 11.12 Summary of vertical curve design 11.13 Vertical curves with unequal tangent lengths 11.14 Computer solution 11.15 Further reading 11.16 Worked example

12. Calculation of Areas and Volumes

12.1 Calculation of plan areas 12.2 Calculation of cross-sectional areas 12.3 Calculation of volumes 12.4 Worked example

13. Mass Haul Diagrams

13.1 Formation level and the mass haul diagram 13.2 Drawing the diagram 13.3 Terminology 13.4 Properties of the mass haul curve 13.5 Economics of mass haul diagrams 13.6 Choice of balancing line 13.7 Uses of mass haul diagrams

14. Setting out

14.1 Personnel involved in setting out and construction 14.2 Aims of setting out 14.3 Important considerations 14.4 Stages in setting out 14.5 Preliminaries to setting out 14.6 Methods of horizontal control 14.7 Methods of vertical control 14.8 Positioning techniques 14.9 Setting out a pipeline 14.10 Setting out a building to ground-floor level 14. I I Transfer of control to ground-floor slab I 4.12 Setting out form work 14.13 Setting out column positions 14.14 Controlling verticality in multi-storey structures 14.15 Transferring height from floor to floor

205 205 207 208 208 209 210 211 212 212 214 214 214

217

217 224 232 240

243

244 244 246 246 247 249 251

252

252 2'i3 254 255 256 257 261 267 269 273 274 274 274 276 280

CONTENTS

14.16 Applications of setting out from coordinates 14.17 Accuracy of setting out 14.18 Summary of setting out 14.19 Further reading 14.20 Worked examples

Index

ix

280 284 286 286 286

291

Preface

Surveying, to the majority of engineers, is the process of measuring lengths, height differences and angles on site either for the preparation of large-scale plans or in order that engineering works can be located in their correct positions on the ground. The correct term for this is engineering surveying and it falls under the general title of land surveying.

Since land surveying also includes such topics as photogrammetry (the produc­tion of maps and plans from aerial photographs}, hydrographic surveying (the pre­paration of charts of the sea bed), cadastral surveying (the location of land boun­daries for the purposes of ownership and registration), topographic surveying (the production of small-scale maps of large areas showing the major features such as mountains, coastlines and rivers) and geodesy (the study of the shape of the Earth}, the conventional surveying textbooks normally recommended for engineers and engineering students tend to deal with surveying on such a broad front that the really important engineering surveying topics are often not covered adequately.

Engineers use land surveying simply as one of the means by which they can undertake their work and there is a defmite limit to the surveying knowledge required by them, beyond which the surveying becomes of interest rather than importance. Specialist land surveyors are usually called in to deal with any unusual problems.

The aim of this book, therefore, is to provide a thorough grounding in the basic land surveying techniques required in engineering. Its originality is not so much in the topics which it contains, but more in the emphasis placed on each topic and the depth to which each is covered.

Specialised subjects such as photogrammetry and hydrographic surveying are not included for the reasons given above and space is instead given to discussion of the equipment and techniques used in general site work and plan production. The much neglected topic of setting out engineering works (that is, methods other than those used in the setting out of road and railway curves) forms the longest chapter in the book.

The full list of topics is given in the contents section but the text splits roughly into two equal p~rts. The initial chapters deal with the equipment commonly used in practice, their methods of use and sources of error, and include details of optical levels, theodolites and distance measuring equipment. The final chapters deal with

PREFACE xi

methods of producing large-scale plans and the engineering applications of survey­ing equipment in horizontal and vertical curve construction, earthworks and setting­out techniques.

Modem equipment is discussed at all times except where the more traditional equipment is ideal for illustrating a particular technique and the use of electronic calculators and computers is discussed wherever applicable. Many worked examples are given, usually at the end of each relevant chapter, to emphasise some of the methods discussed in the text. Systeme International (SI) units are used throughout.

A note of caution must be introduced at this point. Although the methods involved in engineering surveying can be studied in textbooks, such is the practical nature of the subject that no amount of reading will turn a student into a competent engineering surveyor. Only by undertaking some practical surveying, under site con­ditions, and learning how to combine the techniques and equipment as discussed in this text will the student eventually become proficient and produce satisfactory results.

Although the book has been written with civil engineering students in mind, it is hoped that it will also be found useful by practising engineers as well as by any other students who undertake engineering surveying as a subsidiary subject.

The text covers engineering surveying up to the end of virtually all first-year and most second-year civil engineering degree and diploma courses at universities and polytechnics. Other courses for which it is thought useful are A-level, the ordinary and higher engineering certificates and diplomas and the professional examinations of the various civil engineering related institutions.

J. UREN W. F. PRICE

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank all those who contributed in any way to the preparation of this book and, in particular, the following persons and organisations.

Mr J. R. Smith and Mr P. F. Gardner, two of our colleagues at Portsmouth Polytechnic, for their considerable help and advice when reading and criticising the original draft and for helping to remove some of the errors.

Mrs S. H. Harvey for very kindly typing all the tabular material. The National Swedish Institute for Building Research and, in particular, Dr John

van den Berg, for permission to reproduce figures 14.5, 14.14, 14.16, 14.18, 14.30, 14.31, 14.32, 14.33, 14.34, 14.36, 14.37, 14.38, 14.39, 14.40, 14.41 and 14.42.

Wild Heerbrugg (UK) Ltd for permission to reproduce figures 2. 7, 4.8, 4.11, 4.12, 4.13, 4.16, 4.18, 4.19, 6.5, 6.7, 6.8, 6.9, 6.11 and 7.8.

The Construction Industry Research and Information Association for permission to reproduce figures 14.7, 14.11,14.17 and 14.43, which are taken from 'The CIRIA Manual of Setting Out Procedures'.

Rank Pullin Controls 'Watts' Surveying Equipment for permission to reproduce figures 2.12, 4.2, 4.4 and 4.6.

Figures 1.4 and 1.5 are Crown copyright and are reproduced from BRE Digest 114 by kind permission of the Director, Building Research Establishment.

Table 14.1 is reproduced from BRE Digest 202 by courtesy of the Director, Building Research Establishment. Crown copyright, Controller, HMSO.

The Department of the Environment for permission to publish tables 10.1 and 10.2.

Tell urometer (UK) Ltd for permission to reproduce figure 7 .6. Dr D. H. Wade, Mr G. Coleman, Mr R. Ritson, Mr J. W. Finch and

Mr C. Chambers of Portsmouth Polytechnic, for their help with various sections of the text.