11

Survey of Church Survey of Church HistoryHistory

BI 3325-2BI 3325-2

22

Formation of the CanonFormation of the Canon

The Need for a CanonThe Need for a Canon 6 main developments forced the 6 main developments forced the

church to formulate a canon of the NT.church to formulate a canon of the NT. 1. Need for a Scripture to spell out the 1. Need for a Scripture to spell out the

message of the Apostles.message of the Apostles.– By the end of the 1By the end of the 1stst c. most of the c. most of the

contemporary witnesses to the message contemporary witnesses to the message of Jesus and the apostles were gone.of Jesus and the apostles were gone.

– Believers wanted a body of Scripture that Believers wanted a body of Scripture that would spell out the authoritative message would spell out the authoritative message of the apostles.of the apostles.

33

Formation of the CanonFormation of the Canon

The Need for a CanonThe Need for a Canon 2. Need to decide on what should be 2. Need to decide on what should be

read in the churches.read in the churches.– From the beginning Scripture was read in From the beginning Scripture was read in

the worship services for edification.the worship services for edification.– Leaders became increasingly concerned Leaders became increasingly concerned

that the readings be truly God’s message.that the readings be truly God’s message. 3. Need for a true canon to answer 3. Need for a true canon to answer

heretical ones.heretical ones.– Heretics like Marcion were forming Heretics like Marcion were forming

canons to promote their own special canons to promote their own special viewpoints.viewpoints.

44

Formation of the CanonFormation of the Canon The Need for a CanonThe Need for a Canon

– Ca. 140 M. composed a canon of a Ca. 140 M. composed a canon of a mutilated Luke & 10 of Paul’s epistles.mutilated Luke & 10 of Paul’s epistles.

– He rejected the OT; in self-defense the He rejected the OT; in self-defense the church had to decide what books church had to decide what books belonged in the canon.belonged in the canon.

4. Need to establish authoritative 4. Need to establish authoritative truth to answer error.truth to answer error.– At almost the same time the Gnostics & At almost the same time the Gnostics &

Marcion were making inroads, the Marcion were making inroads, the Montanists began to claim a continuing Montanists began to claim a continuing revelation.revelation.

– The church in response declared that The church in response declared that revelation had ceased.revelation had ceased.

55

Formation of the CanonFormation of the Canon The Need for a CanonThe Need for a Canon 5. Need to decide which of many books 5. Need to decide which of many books

claiming to be canonical were false.claiming to be canonical were false.– Apocryphal books began to appear in Apocryphal books began to appear in

increasing numbers.increasing numbers.– These gospels, acts, and epistles attempted These gospels, acts, and epistles attempted

to fill in gaps in the narrative of the life of to fill in gaps in the narrative of the life of Christ and the apostles and to round out the Christ and the apostles and to round out the theological message of the Christianity.theological message of the Christianity.

– Some of these books were obviously not on Some of these books were obviously not on a par with NT books, others were closer.a par with NT books, others were closer.

– An effort was made to distinguish.An effort was made to distinguish.

66

Formation of the CanonFormation of the Canon The Need for a CanonThe Need for a Canon 6. Need to decide which books to die 6. Need to decide which books to die

for when possession resulted in for when possession resulted in martyrdom.martyrdom.– The Diocletian persecution in 303 called The Diocletian persecution in 303 called

fro the burning of all sacred books and the fro the burning of all sacred books and the punishment of those who possessed them.punishment of those who possessed them.

– Preservation of Scripture in the face of Preservation of Scripture in the face of such determined imperial opposition such determined imperial opposition required great effort and endangered the required great effort and endangered the lives of those who hid or copied it. lives of those who hid or copied it.

– Therefore, one wanted to be sure he was Therefore, one wanted to be sure he was risking his life to protect a genuine work.risking his life to protect a genuine work.

77

Formation of the CanonFormation of the Canon The Greek word The Greek word kanonkanon (rule or (rule or

standard) designated the laws that standard) designated the laws that governed the behavior society expected governed the behavior society expected or the state demanded of its citizens.or the state demanded of its citizens.

Word is used in that sense in Gal. 6:16.Word is used in that sense in Gal. 6:16. By middle of 2By middle of 2ndnd c., the terms c., the terms canon of canon of

truthtruth or or canon of faithcanon of faith were applied to were applied to the creed of the church.the creed of the church.

The connection of the word with the The connection of the word with the books of the NT seems to have books of the NT seems to have originated with Athanasius ca. the originated with Athanasius ca. the middle of the 4middle of the 4thth c. c.

88

Formation of the CanonFormation of the Canon Later, in his Later, in his Festal EpistleFestal Epistle, written in 367, , written in 367,

he spoke of the Scripture as “canonized” he spoke of the Scripture as “canonized” in contrast to the apocrypha.in contrast to the apocrypha.

Thus the word came into church Thus the word came into church vocabulary, although the idea behind it vocabulary, although the idea behind it had arisen in the earliest days of the had arisen in the earliest days of the church.church.

Canonical Scripture, then, on the one Canonical Scripture, then, on the one hand provides a standard of doctrine and hand provides a standard of doctrine and holy living and, on the other hand, meets holy living and, on the other hand, meets the standard or tests of inspiration.the standard or tests of inspiration.

99

Development of the CanonDevelopment of the Canon Tests of canonicity had to be Tests of canonicity had to be

employed.employed. Secondary tests were required; one Secondary tests were required; one

of the most important was of the most important was apostolicity—was it written by an apostolicity—was it written by an apostle or one close to the apostles?apostle or one close to the apostles?

Thus, Luke’s gospel was accepted Thus, Luke’s gospel was accepted because of his close relationship with because of his close relationship with Paul; Mark’s because of his close Paul; Mark’s because of his close association with Peter and Paul.association with Peter and Paul.

Matthew and John were apostles.Matthew and John were apostles.

1010

Development of the CanonDevelopment of the Canon Then there was the test of internal Then there was the test of internal

appeal.appeal. Did a book contain moral or doctrinal Did a book contain moral or doctrinal

elements that measured up to the elements that measured up to the standards set by the apostles in their standards set by the apostles in their acknowledged writings?acknowledged writings?

As these and other tests were applied As these and other tests were applied in various ways over the centuries, the in various ways over the centuries, the canon gradually developed.canon gradually developed.

Archaeological evidence quite Archaeological evidence quite effectively confirms the conservative effectively confirms the conservative claim that all the NT books were claim that all the NT books were written by about the end of the 1written by about the end of the 1stst c. c.

1111

Development of the CanonDevelopment of the Canon Almost from the time of their writing, Almost from the time of their writing,

the 4 Gospels and Acts were accepted the 4 Gospels and Acts were accepted as divinely inspired accounts of the life as divinely inspired accounts of the life of Christ and the development of the of Christ and the development of the early church.early church.

Various churches to which Paul Various churches to which Paul addressed his epistles accepted his addressed his epistles accepted his word to them as coming from the word to them as coming from the mouth of God.mouth of God.

Gradually nearby churches came to feel Gradually nearby churches came to feel that letters sent to sister churches were that letters sent to sister churches were of value for them also and made copies.of value for them also and made copies.

1212

Development of the CanonDevelopment of the Canon In this way the Pauline epistles began to In this way the Pauline epistles began to

circulate individually and by the end of the circulate individually and by the end of the 22ndnd c. as a collection. c. as a collection.

Testimony to the existence and value of Testimony to the existence and value of various NT books is extensive, beginning various NT books is extensive, beginning with Clement of Rome in the 90s.with Clement of Rome in the 90s.

Then there are other pieces of evidence; Then there are other pieces of evidence; ca. the middle of the 2ca. the middle of the 2ndnd c. Tatian c. Tatian composed the first harmony of the composed the first harmony of the gospels.gospels.

This wove together elements of the 4 This wove together elements of the 4 Gospels in such a way as to present a Gospels in such a way as to present a continuous narrative.continuous narrative.

1313

Development of the CanonDevelopment of the Canon Composed about the same time, the Composed about the same time, the

Gospel of TruthGospel of Truth, one of the Gnostic , one of the Gnostic works from Nag Hammadi, refers to works from Nag Hammadi, refers to an authoritative group of NT writings, an authoritative group of NT writings, including Matthew, Luke (possibly including Matthew, Luke (possibly with Acts), John, the Pauline epistles with Acts), John, the Pauline epistles (except the Pastorals), Hebrews, I (except the Pastorals), Hebrews, I John and Revelation.John and Revelation.

A decade or two later a list was drawn A decade or two later a list was drawn up, now bearing the name Muratori, up, now bearing the name Muratori, after the Italian scholar who published after the Italian scholar who published it (1740).it (1740).

1414

Development of the CanonDevelopment of the Canon The document was slightly damaged, but The document was slightly damaged, but

it apparently recognizes the 4 Gospels, it apparently recognizes the 4 Gospels, Acts, the Pauline epistles, Revelation, two Acts, the Pauline epistles, Revelation, two (or 3) epistles of John, and Jude.(or 3) epistles of John, and Jude.

But it adds the Apocalypse of Peter and But it adds the Apocalypse of Peter and omits I & II Peter and Hebrews and omits I & II Peter and Hebrews and possibly one of John’s epistles.possibly one of John’s epistles.

From the time of Irenaeus (c. 175), the From the time of Irenaeus (c. 175), the principal spokesman of the church’s principal spokesman of the church’s response to Gnosticism, the canon was response to Gnosticism, the canon was thought to contain essentially the same thought to contain essentially the same books that appear in it today, though there books that appear in it today, though there were some disagreements.were some disagreements.

1515

Development of the CanonDevelopment of the Canon Clement of Alexandria (c. 200) Clement of Alexandria (c. 200)

seemed to recognize all the NT books.seemed to recognize all the NT books. Origen (c. 250) divided the books into Origen (c. 250) divided the books into

categories of universally accepted categories of universally accepted works and disputed works.works and disputed works.

In the former he put the four Gospels, In the former he put the four Gospels, the 13 epistles of Paul, I Peter, I John, the 13 epistles of Paul, I Peter, I John, Acts and Revelation.Acts and Revelation.

In the latter he put Hebrews, 2 Peter, In the latter he put Hebrews, 2 Peter, 2 & 3 John, James, Jude, and four 2 & 3 John, James, Jude, and four works not now part of the NT.works not now part of the NT.

1616

Development of the CanonDevelopment of the Canon He himself seems to have accepted He himself seems to have accepted

nearly all the books now included in nearly all the books now included in the NT.the NT.

Hebrews was disputed because its Hebrews was disputed because its authorship was uncertain; 2 Peter authorship was uncertain; 2 Peter because it differed in style and because it differed in style and vocabulary from 1 Peter; James and vocabulary from 1 Peter; James and Jude, because they represented Jude, because they represented themselves as servants rather than themselves as servants rather than apostles; 2 & 3 John because the apostles; 2 & 3 John because the author called himself an elder rather author called himself an elder rather than an apostle.than an apostle.

1717

Development of the CanonDevelopment of the Canon Eusebius, the 4Eusebius, the 4thth c. historian, also divided c. historian, also divided

the NT books into accepted and disputed the NT books into accepted and disputed categories.categories.

In the former he listed the same ones as In the former he listed the same ones as had Origen.had Origen.

He himself seemed to accept all those He himself seemed to accept all those now included, and apparently he put now included, and apparently he put them in 50 copies of the NT that them in 50 copies of the NT that Constantine ordered him to have made in Constantine ordered him to have made in 330.330.

Later in the century Jerome also accepted Later in the century Jerome also accepted the present 27 books in his Vulgate.the present 27 books in his Vulgate.

1818

Development of the CanonDevelopment of the Canon At a local council in 393 at Hippo, where At a local council in 393 at Hippo, where

Augustine was bishop, the contents of the Augustine was bishop, the contents of the canon were spelled out as our current 27 canon were spelled out as our current 27 books for the first time.books for the first time.

A record of the decision has not been A record of the decision has not been preserved, but it was repeated at the Third preserved, but it was repeated at the Third Council of Carthage in 397 with the Council of Carthage in 397 with the proviso that no other books be used as proviso that no other books be used as authoritative Scripture.authoritative Scripture.

When the Sixth Council of Carthage (419) When the Sixth Council of Carthage (419) reaffirmed the decision, it directed that the reaffirmed the decision, it directed that the statement be sent to the bishop of Rome statement be sent to the bishop of Rome and other bishops.and other bishops.

1919

Development of the CanonDevelopment of the Canon From that time on there was little From that time on there was little

debate in the West; the e.g. of the debate in the West; the e.g. of the West and the influence of several West and the influence of several great theologians in the East finally great theologians in the East finally settled the matter there also.settled the matter there also.

Since the 5Since the 5thth c. there has been no c. there has been no serious controversy over the contents serious controversy over the contents of the NT canon.of the NT canon.

The formation of the canon was a long The formation of the canon was a long one, not involving any hasty decision one, not involving any hasty decision on the part of any ecclesiastical body.on the part of any ecclesiastical body.

2020

Development of the CanonDevelopment of the Canon Basically, there were 3 steps in the Basically, there were 3 steps in the

process:process:– 1) Divine inspiration1) Divine inspiration– 2) Gradual human recognition and 2) Gradual human recognition and

acceptance of the separate worksacceptance of the separate works– 3) Official ratification or adoption of 3) Official ratification or adoption of

those books already universally those books already universally accepted in the churchaccepted in the church

2121

The Early CreedsThe Early Creeds Creeds, like the NT canon, developed Creeds, like the NT canon, developed

in response to a need.in response to a need. In the early days when there were few In the early days when there were few

copies of the NT books in circulation, copies of the NT books in circulation, believers needed some standard to believers needed some standard to keep them in the path of truth.keep them in the path of truth.

They also needed a standard by They also needed a standard by which to test heretical opinions.which to test heretical opinions.

So, possibly near the end of the 1st c. So, possibly near the end of the 1st c. or beginning of the 2or beginning of the 2ndnd, a rule of faith , a rule of faith came into existence.came into existence.

2222

The Early CreedsThe Early Creeds It generally taught that Christ, the Son It generally taught that Christ, the Son

of God, suffered under Pontius Pilate, of God, suffered under Pontius Pilate, was crucified and died, was buried, was crucified and died, was buried, rose again, and ascended in Heaven—rose again, and ascended in Heaven—for the remission of sins.for the remission of sins.

This rule, which has come to be called This rule, which has come to be called the Apostles’ Creed, reached its the Apostles’ Creed, reached its present form about 750.present form about 750.

Other creeds were formulated too, in Other creeds were formulated too, in an effort to settle controversies that an effort to settle controversies that tore the church into opposing factions.tore the church into opposing factions.

2323

The Early CreedsThe Early Creeds Some had to do with the nature of Some had to do with the nature of

Christ, some with the Holy Spirit, and Christ, some with the Holy Spirit, and one with the nature of man.one with the nature of man.

These doctrinal quarrels of the 4These doctrinal quarrels of the 4thth and and later centuries were handled very later centuries were handled very differently from those of the 2differently from those of the 2ndnd & 3 & 3rdrd c.c.

When Christianity became a legal When Christianity became a legal religion early in the 4religion early in the 4thth c., Constantine c., Constantine regarded himself as head of the regarded himself as head of the Christian religion along with the other Christian religion along with the other religions of the state.religions of the state.

2424

The Early CreedsThe Early Creeds Thus when difficulties arose he called Thus when difficulties arose he called

a church-wide or ecumenical council a church-wide or ecumenical council to deal with the matter and to to deal with the matter and to formulate a statement (creed) of formulate a statement (creed) of settlement.settlement.

Other emperors followed the Other emperors followed the practice.practice.

Although the differences over Christ, Although the differences over Christ, the Holy Spirit, and man sometimes the Holy Spirit, and man sometimes were going on concurrently, it is were going on concurrently, it is easier to deal with them separately.easier to deal with them separately.

2525

Controversy: Nature of Controversy: Nature of ChristChrist The Arian Controversy: NiceaThe Arian Controversy: Nicea C. 318 Arius, a presbyter (elder) in C. 318 Arius, a presbyter (elder) in

Alexandria, had difficulty in accepting Alexandria, had difficulty in accepting the trinitarian nature of the Godhead.the trinitarian nature of the Godhead.

He was torn between monotheism He was torn between monotheism (one God) and the wish to preserve (one God) and the wish to preserve the Logos-Christ as in independent the Logos-Christ as in independent being on the other.being on the other.

He began to teach that Christ was He began to teach that Christ was different in essence from the Fatherdifferent in essence from the Father—that he was created by the Father —that he was created by the Father and before that did not exist.and before that did not exist.

2626

Controversy: Nature of Controversy: Nature of ChristChrist Athanasius, archdeacon of Alexandria, Athanasius, archdeacon of Alexandria,

challenged him asserting that Christ challenged him asserting that Christ and the Father were the same in and the Father were the same in essence and that the Son was eternal.essence and that the Son was eternal.

His primary concern was that if Christ His primary concern was that if Christ were a mere creature, faith in him were a mere creature, faith in him could not bring salvation to humanity.could not bring salvation to humanity.

A synod in Alexandria deposed Arius A synod in Alexandria deposed Arius in 321 but did not end the struggle; in 321 but did not end the struggle; Arius was able to win over some Arius was able to win over some leaders in the East to his view.leaders in the East to his view.

2727

Controversy: Nature of Controversy: Nature of ChristChrist Constantine felt obliged to step in and Constantine felt obliged to step in and

restore harmony; he called an restore harmony; he called an ecumenical council at Nicea ecumenical council at Nicea (northwest Asia Minor) in 325.(northwest Asia Minor) in 325.

Over 300 bishops and a number of Over 300 bishops and a number of lesser leaders assembled.lesser leaders assembled.

The Athanasian party won and the The Athanasian party won and the emperor supported that decision.emperor supported that decision.

The creed drawn up declared that the The creed drawn up declared that the Son was the same in essence with the Son was the same in essence with the Father, the only begotten of the Father, the only begotten of the Father, and very God of very God.Father, and very God of very God.

2828

Controversy: Nature of Controversy: Nature of ChristChrist But, in the seesawing fortunes of But, in the seesawing fortunes of

subsequent years, as emperors and subsequent years, as emperors and church personnel changed, church personnel changed, Athanasius was banished no less Athanasius was banished no less than 5 times, with the resulting than 5 times, with the resulting periodic restoration of the Arian periodic restoration of the Arian party.party.

Gradually, however, the orthodox Gradually, however, the orthodox party came to enjoy a majority in the party came to enjoy a majority in the empire.empire.

2929

Controversy: Christ’s Controversy: Christ’s HumanityHumanity In the process of asserting the full deity of In the process of asserting the full deity of

Christ, some theologians had done so at Christ, some theologians had done so at the expense of His humanity.the expense of His humanity.

They taught that a complete humanity They taught that a complete humanity could not be sinless and that the divine could not be sinless and that the divine nature, while assuming a human body, nature, while assuming a human body, took the place of the higher rational took the place of the higher rational principle in man.principle in man.

Several synodical meetings condemned Several synodical meetings condemned the idea of the defective humanity of the idea of the defective humanity of Christ, and in 381 the council of Christ, and in 381 the council of Constantinople finally asserted His true Constantinople finally asserted His true and full humanity.and full humanity.

3030

The Nestorian ControversyThe Nestorian Controversy Another issue arose: if Christ was both Another issue arose: if Christ was both

fully divine and fully human, how were fully divine and fully human, how were the two natures related in one person?the two natures related in one person?

Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople, was Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople, was one of those who saw the two natures in one of those who saw the two natures in loose mechanical conjunction.loose mechanical conjunction.

Neither nature shared in the properties of Neither nature shared in the properties of the other; so the divine did not have a the other; so the divine did not have a part in the sufferings of the human part in the sufferings of the human nature of Christ.nature of Christ.

This was not just an academic question.This was not just an academic question.

3131

The Nestorian ControversyThe Nestorian Controversy As Cyril of Alexandria pointed out, if N. As Cyril of Alexandria pointed out, if N.

were right, a sinner would be redeemed were right, a sinner would be redeemed by the sufferings of a mere man.by the sufferings of a mere man.

And, though a man might pay a penalty And, though a man might pay a penalty for himself or a limited number of for himself or a limited number of others, it took the linkage of the divine others, it took the linkage of the divine with the human in the God-man to make with the human in the God-man to make the payment of the penalty effective for the payment of the penalty effective for an infinite number of human beings.an infinite number of human beings.

The Nestorian controversy led to the The Nestorian controversy led to the calling of the 3calling of the 3rdrd council at Ephesus in council at Ephesus in 431.431.

3232

The Nestorian ControversyThe Nestorian Controversy The council met and anathematized the The council met and anathematized the

teachings of Nestorius before the teachings of Nestorius before the Nestorian party arrived.Nestorian party arrived.

When they arrived, they set up a rival When they arrived, they set up a rival council.council.

The emperor finally decided against the The emperor finally decided against the Nestorians and Nestorius went into a Nestorians and Nestorius went into a monastery.monastery.

The council was a demonstration that the The council was a demonstration that the majority of bishops favored the doctrines majority of bishops favored the doctrines of Cyril (who argued for a true union of the of Cyril (who argued for a true union of the two natures), but the clarification was left two natures), but the clarification was left for a later council.for a later council.

3333

The Nestorian ControversyThe Nestorian Controversy Nestorius argued that he himself did Nestorius argued that he himself did

not hold such views; was he the not hold such views; was he the object of a smear campaign?object of a smear campaign?

The Council of Ephesus was not a The Council of Ephesus was not a true resolution of the issues.true resolution of the issues.

Further, Eutyches, abbot of a Further, Eutyches, abbot of a monastery near Constantinople, in an monastery near Constantinople, in an effort to demonstrate the true unity effort to demonstrate the true unity of the person of Christ, began to of the person of Christ, began to teach that after the incarnation of teach that after the incarnation of Christ the two natures fused into one Christ the two natures fused into one so that the one nature partook of the so that the one nature partook of the properties of the other.properties of the other.

3434

The Nestorian ControversyThe Nestorian Controversy Distinctions between the two natures Distinctions between the two natures

were obliterated; thus his arguments were obliterated; thus his arguments heightened the controversy heightened the controversy considerably.considerably.

Vos’s illustration of the problem: Vos’s illustration of the problem: omniscience and omnipresence are omniscience and omnipresence are attributes of deity only.attributes of deity only.

3535

One Person, Two NaturesOne Person, Two Natures A new council was called at Chalcedon A new council was called at Chalcedon

in 451; its decision was that Christ in 451; its decision was that Christ was both truly God and truly man, and was both truly God and truly man, and that the two natures were united in that the two natures were united in one Person without confusion, one Person without confusion, change, division, or separation.change, division, or separation.

It did not bring final settlement; in It did not bring final settlement; in Palestine, Egypt and Syria, groups Palestine, Egypt and Syria, groups arose to perpetuate the teachings of arose to perpetuate the teachings of Cyril and Eutyches.Cyril and Eutyches.

They held out strongly for one nature They held out strongly for one nature in Christ.in Christ.

3636

One Person, Two NaturesOne Person, Two Natures Finally they were able to force a 5Finally they were able to force a 5thth

ecumenical council, the 2ecumenical council, the 2ndnd at at Constantinople, in 553, which ratified Constantinople, in 553, which ratified the Chalcedonian creed but make the Chalcedonian creed but make changes that tended to favor the changes that tended to favor the Eutychians.Eutychians.

After that council, another conflict arose After that council, another conflict arose over the person of Christ and concerned over the person of Christ and concerned whether Christ had only one will.whether Christ had only one will.

The supporters of this view held that if The supporters of this view held that if Christ had two wills, He would have Christ had two wills, He would have sinned, because certainly the human sinned, because certainly the human will would have succumbed to will would have succumbed to temptation.temptation.

3737

One Person, Two NaturesOne Person, Two Natures Ultimately the 3Ultimately the 3rdrd council at council at

Constantinople met in 681 to deal with Constantinople met in 681 to deal with this issue.this issue.

The decision was to ratify the The decision was to ratify the Chalcedonian Creed with the addition Chalcedonian Creed with the addition that Christ had two wills, the human that Christ had two wills, the human and divine, the human will being subject and divine, the human will being subject to the divine.to the divine.

While the great councils did not settle While the great councils did not settle for all time discussion concerning the for all time discussion concerning the nature of the person of Christ, they did nature of the person of Christ, they did set for the chief elements that have set for the chief elements that have characterized an orthodox Christology characterized an orthodox Christology down through the ages.down through the ages.

3838

One Person, Two NaturesOne Person, Two Natures The elements were: His true and full The elements were: His true and full

deity, His true and full humanity, and deity, His true and full humanity, and the true union of the two natures in the true union of the two natures in one person, without fusion or one person, without fusion or confusion.confusion.

3939

Controversies Concerning Controversies Concerning the HSthe HS Not only did Arius teach that Christ Not only did Arius teach that Christ

was different in essence from the was different in essence from the Father, the HS was as well.Father, the HS was as well.

He seems to have believed that the He seems to have believed that the HS was the creature of a creature, HS was the creature of a creature, that is, of Christ.that is, of Christ.

Given its primary concern, the Given its primary concern, the Council of Nicea merely affirmed, Council of Nicea merely affirmed, “we believe also in one Holy Spirit.”“we believe also in one Holy Spirit.”

Later Arian attacks on the deity of Later Arian attacks on the deity of the HS brought forth an array of the HS brought forth an array of orthodox writings.orthodox writings.

4040

Controversies Concerning Controversies Concerning the HSthe HS At the 1At the 1stst C. of Constantinople (381) a C. of Constantinople (381) a

creed was formulated asserting that creed was formulated asserting that the HS was to be worshiped and the HS was to be worshiped and glorified as the Father, that He glorified as the Father, that He proceeded from the Father, and that proceeded from the Father, and that He was responsible for revelation.He was responsible for revelation.

In later decades the doctrine of His In later decades the doctrine of His deity was further defined; and in 451 deity was further defined; and in 451 the C. of Chalcedon made the the C. of Chalcedon made the declarations of the 1declarations of the 1stst C. of C. of Constantinople more explicit.Constantinople more explicit.

4141

Controversies Concerning Controversies Concerning HumanityHumanity This is the only controversy which took This is the only controversy which took

place in the West.place in the West. The chief protagonists were Augustine The chief protagonists were Augustine

and Pelagius, a British or Irish monk who and Pelagius, a British or Irish monk who ultimately found his way to North Africa.ultimately found his way to North Africa.

They formed their views independently.They formed their views independently. After coming to Carthage, P. clashed After coming to Carthage, P. clashed

with the prevailing viewpoint and the with the prevailing viewpoint and the controversy spread to other provinces.controversy spread to other provinces.

P. taught that Adam’s sin affected only P. taught that Adam’s sin affected only Adam; mankind was still born on the Adam; mankind was still born on the same plane as Adam.same plane as Adam.

4242

Controversies Concerning Controversies Concerning HumanityHumanity There was no such thing as original sin.There was no such thing as original sin. Sins of individuals in history involved Sins of individuals in history involved

acts of the will and were due to the bad acts of the will and were due to the bad e.g. of Adam and society since his time.e.g. of Adam and society since his time.

God’s grace was especially an God’s grace was especially an enlightenment of mankind’s reason, enlightenment of mankind’s reason, enabling persons to see and do the will enabling persons to see and do the will of God. of God.

Humans could do right without such Humans could do right without such aid; in fact, it was possible for them to aid; in fact, it was possible for them to lead a sinless life.lead a sinless life.

4343

Controversies Concerning Controversies Concerning HumanityHumanity Divine grace sought only to assist Divine grace sought only to assist

man, who chooses and acts in man, who chooses and acts in complete independence.complete independence.

Physical death had nothing to do with Physical death had nothing to do with sin but was a natural feature of the sin but was a natural feature of the human organism.human organism.

Augustine held to the unity of the Augustine held to the unity of the race—that all had sinned in Adam.race—that all had sinned in Adam.

Men sinned because they were Men sinned because they were sinners and were so totally corrupt in sinners and were so totally corrupt in their natures that they were unable their natures that they were unable to do good works that could achieve to do good works that could achieve salvation.salvation.

4444

Controversies Concerning Controversies Concerning HumanityHumanity Faith to believe was a gift from God.Faith to believe was a gift from God. God elected some to salvation; He God elected some to salvation; He

simply passed by the nonelect.simply passed by the nonelect. But on occasion A. did refer to some But on occasion A. did refer to some

as predestined to everlasting as predestined to everlasting damnation.damnation.

He also spoke of the divine gift of He also spoke of the divine gift of perseverance in faith; so salvation perseverance in faith; so salvation was for him a work of God from start was for him a work of God from start to finish.to finish.

But, justification was a process rather But, justification was a process rather than a single act.than a single act.

4545

Controversies Concerning Controversies Concerning HumanityHumanity P. was condemned by a synod at P. was condemned by a synod at

Carthage in 412, by Innocent I in Carthage in 412, by Innocent I in 416, by a general council of African 416, by a general council of African churches in 418 and finally at the C. churches in 418 and finally at the C. of Ephesus in 431.of Ephesus in 431.

On the other hand A. was out of step On the other hand A. was out of step with the church of his time.with the church of his time.

He stressed the inner life much more He stressed the inner life much more than the external ceremonies.than the external ceremonies.

He denied that the Eucharist had any He denied that the Eucharist had any sin-atoning power apart from the sin-atoning power apart from the faith of the partaker.faith of the partaker.

4646

Controversies Concerning Controversies Concerning HumanityHumanity Although he advocated asceticism, Although he advocated asceticism,

he denied that it had any value apart he denied that it had any value apart from the transformation of life into from the transformation of life into Christlikeness.Christlikeness.

He opposed the predominant He opposed the predominant sacramental method of achieving sacramental method of achieving salvation.salvation.

4747

Early Middle AgesEarly Middle Ages IgnatiusIgnatius His heavy emphasis on obedience to His heavy emphasis on obedience to

bishops seems to be an indication that bishops seems to be an indication that such subordination did not then exist.such subordination did not then exist.

Also, there is no hint that he intended Also, there is no hint that he intended more than an overseer of a single more than an overseer of a single congregation.congregation.

He urged obedience to bishops to He urged obedience to bishops to prevent churches from being prevent churches from being doctrinally torn apart, not to facilitate doctrinally torn apart, not to facilitate their normal functions.their normal functions.

4848

Early Middle AgesEarly Middle Ages IrenaeusIrenaeus I. asserted the unity of the church I. asserted the unity of the church

(spiritual unity, not organic) by virtue (spiritual unity, not organic) by virtue of the headship of Christ and of the headship of Christ and community of belief handed down community of belief handed down through a succession of bishops.through a succession of bishops.

He taught that the Roman church He taught that the Roman church had been established by Peter and had been established by Peter and Paul and that they appointed Paul and that they appointed successors.successors.

4949

Early Middle AgesEarly Middle Ages IrenaeusIrenaeus Speaking of Rome: “For with this Speaking of Rome: “For with this

church, because of its position of church, because of its position of leadership and authority, must needs leadership and authority, must needs agree every church, that is, the agree every church, that is, the faithful everywhere; for in her the faithful everywhere; for in her the apostolic tradition has always been apostolic tradition has always been preserved by the faithful from all preserved by the faithful from all parts” parts” Against HeresiesAgainst Heresies, III, 1., III, 1.

During decades following the During decades following the distinction between presbyters and distinction between presbyters and bishops became firmly established.bishops became firmly established.

5050

Early Middle AgesEarly Middle Ages IrenaeusIrenaeus And, bishops with authority over the And, bishops with authority over the

several individual churches of a large several individual churches of a large city became commonly accepted.city became commonly accepted.

A community of belief was also A community of belief was also developing.developing.

Polemicists frequently appealed to a Polemicists frequently appealed to a body of true doctrine handed down by body of true doctrine handed down by apostolic succession in an effort to apostolic succession in an effort to defeat heretics.defeat heretics.

Tertullian took this approach in Tertullian took this approach in On the On the Prescription Against HereticsPrescription Against Heretics (XX,XXI). (XX,XXI).

5151

Early Middle AgesEarly Middle Ages CyprianCyprian By 250 C., bishop of Carthage, taught By 250 C., bishop of Carthage, taught

that the universal church (outside of that the universal church (outside of which there was no salvation) was which there was no salvation) was ruled by bishops who were the ruled by bishops who were the successors of the apostles.successors of the apostles.

Apostolic authority, was first given to Apostolic authority, was first given to Peter; so the Roman church became Peter; so the Roman church became predominant because Peter was predominant because Peter was believed to have founded it.believed to have founded it.

5252

Early Middle AgesEarly Middle Ages CyprianCyprian C. also asserted the priestly function C. also asserted the priestly function

of the clergy.of the clergy. His His On the Unity of the Catholic On the Unity of the Catholic

ChurchChurch incorporates much of his incorporates much of his thinking on the nature and thinking on the nature and government of the church.government of the church.

5353

The Rise of RomeThe Rise of Rome By the time of Constantine (c. 325) By the time of Constantine (c. 325)

the concepts of the priestly function the concepts of the priestly function of the clergy, apostolic succession, of the clergy, apostolic succession, the ruling bishop, and the recognition the ruling bishop, and the recognition of the Roman bishop as first among of the Roman bishop as first among equals were established. equals were established.

In 325 at the C. of Nicea, the bishops In 325 at the C. of Nicea, the bishops of Alexandria, Antioch and Rome of Alexandria, Antioch and Rome were given authority over divisions of were given authority over divisions of the empire in which they were the empire in which they were located.located.

5454

The Rise of RomeThe Rise of Rome Constantinople became the new Constantinople became the new

capital of the empire on May 11, 330.capital of the empire on May 11, 330. To give a place of importance to the To give a place of importance to the

bishop of C., the C. of Constantinople bishop of C., the C. of Constantinople (381) declared: “The Bishop of (381) declared: “The Bishop of Constantinople shall have the primacy Constantinople shall have the primacy of honor after the Bishop of Rome, of honor after the Bishop of Rome, because Constantinople is new because Constantinople is new Rome.”Rome.”

The C. of Chalcedon in 451 decreed The C. of Chalcedon in 451 decreed that New Rome was to have equal that New Rome was to have equal privileges with the older Rome.privileges with the older Rome.

5555

The Rise of RomeThe Rise of Rome But Leo I of Rome declared that the But Leo I of Rome declared that the

decrees of Nicea (325) should take decrees of Nicea (325) should take precedence. precedence.

Were several reasons why Rome had Were several reasons why Rome had an advantage:an advantage:– 1. The claim that Peter was its founder 1. The claim that Peter was its founder

(and Peter was chief among the apostles).(and Peter was chief among the apostles).– 2. The bishop of R. was superior in the 2. The bishop of R. was superior in the

West, while bishops of Constantinople, West, while bishops of Constantinople, Antioch and Alexandria competed for Antioch and Alexandria competed for supremacy in the East. (After the Muslim supremacy in the East. (After the Muslim conquest of Antioch and Alexandria, only conquest of Antioch and Alexandria, only Constantinople was left in the East.Constantinople was left in the East.

5656

The Rise of RomeThe Rise of Rome– 3. After the move of the capital from 3. After the move of the capital from

Rome to Constantinople in 330, political Rome to Constantinople in 330, political power in the West gradually declined; power in the West gradually declined; the bishop of Rome thus became the the bishop of Rome thus became the most powerful figure there.most powerful figure there.

– In the East, by contrast, the bishop In the East, by contrast, the bishop (patriarch) of Constantinople found (patriarch) of Constantinople found himself subservient to the emperor.himself subservient to the emperor.

– 4. The church in the West was not 4. The church in the West was not constantly torn apart by doctrinal constantly torn apart by doctrinal controversy as was the church in the controversy as was the church in the East.East.

– And in the midst of controversies that And in the midst of controversies that did arise, the church of Rome always did arise, the church of Rome always proved to be orthodox.proved to be orthodox.

5757

The Rise of RomeThe Rise of Rome Prior to Gregory the Great (590-604), Prior to Gregory the Great (590-604),

the first pope, several people and the first pope, several people and developments deserve notice.developments deserve notice.

Leo I, 440-461Leo I, 440-461 L. is credited with saving Rome by L. is credited with saving Rome by

his statesmanship from being sacked his statesmanship from being sacked by Attila the Hun in 452 and from by Attila the Hun in 452 and from mass murder of the populace by mass murder of the populace by Genseric (or Gaiseric) the Vandal in Genseric (or Gaiseric) the Vandal in 455; in the process he gained 455; in the process he gained prestige.prestige.

5858

The Rise of RomeThe Rise of Rome L. energetically enforced uniformity L. energetically enforced uniformity

in church government and doctrine in church government and doctrine by means of the assertion that as by means of the assertion that as successors to Peter, the bishops of successors to Peter, the bishops of Rome possessed authority over all Rome possessed authority over all other bishops.other bishops.

The The Tome of Leo Tome of Leo was a statement to was a statement to the bishop of Constantinople (449) the bishop of Constantinople (449) on the two natures of Christ that on the two natures of Christ that greatly influenced the phraseology of greatly influenced the phraseology of the Council of Chalcedon in 451—a the Council of Chalcedon in 451—a statement that constitutes the statement that constitutes the orthodox statement on Christology.orthodox statement on Christology.

5959

The Rise of RomeThe Rise of Rome Bishop Gelasius, 492-496Bishop Gelasius, 492-496 G. instituted the claim of moral G. instituted the claim of moral

superintendence over political rules superintendence over political rules on the part of the bishop of Rome.on the part of the bishop of Rome.

He recognized two spheres of rule, He recognized two spheres of rule, the spiritual and the temporal, but the spiritual and the temporal, but claimed that the church must give claimed that the church must give account to God for the deeds of account to God for the deeds of kings, and so the king must submit to kings, and so the king must submit to the church in spiritual matters.the church in spiritual matters.

6060

The Rise of RomeThe Rise of Rome Bishop Gelasius, 492-496Bishop Gelasius, 492-496 This claim influenced much of This claim influenced much of

medieval political doctrine.medieval political doctrine. He was the first bishop of Rome to He was the first bishop of Rome to

receive the title “Vicar of Christ,” receive the title “Vicar of Christ,” given by the Roman synod of 495.given by the Roman synod of 495.

6161

The Rise of RomeThe Rise of Rome The Conversion of Clovis, 496The Conversion of Clovis, 496 Soon after the conversion of Clovis, a Soon after the conversion of Clovis, a

Frankish chieftan, 3,000 of his Frankish chieftan, 3,000 of his followers (basically his army) were followers (basically his army) were baptized into the Roman church.baptized into the Roman church.

The event was momentous politically The event was momentous politically because it won for Clovis the support because it won for Clovis the support of the Roman Catholics in the West, of the Roman Catholics in the West, where he was the only orthodox where he was the only orthodox Roman Catholic prince; all the rest Roman Catholic prince; all the rest were Arian.were Arian.

6262

The Rise of RomeThe Rise of Rome The Conversion of Clovis, 496The Conversion of Clovis, 496 And it gave to him an excuse to attack And it gave to him an excuse to attack

and defeat adjacent Arian Goths.and defeat adjacent Arian Goths. Ultimately he was able to conquer Ultimately he was able to conquer

over half of modern France; out of this over half of modern France; out of this beginning the empire of Charlemagne beginning the empire of Charlemagne later emerged.later emerged.

C’s conversion was important C’s conversion was important religiously because it meant that religiously because it meant that orthodox Christianity would win out in orthodox Christianity would win out in the West.the West.

6363

The Rise of RomeThe Rise of Rome The Conversion of Clovis, 496The Conversion of Clovis, 496 Also, Frankish kings would protect or Also, Frankish kings would protect or

aid popes on various occasions in the aid popes on various occasions in the future and contribute to the future and contribute to the establishment of the institutional establishment of the institutional church as it would be known in the church as it would be known in the medieval and modern worlds.medieval and modern worlds.

It was important culturally because It was important culturally because the medieval church was to a great the medieval church was to a great degree the carrier of culture.degree the carrier of culture.

The services of the church were The services of the church were conducted in Latin.conducted in Latin.

6464

The Rise of RomeThe Rise of Rome The Conversion of Clovis, 496The Conversion of Clovis, 496 The educators and writers of the The educators and writers of the

Middle Ages were Latin churchmen.Middle Ages were Latin churchmen. The texts in the schools were in Latin The texts in the schools were in Latin

and were Greco-Roman in content.and were Greco-Roman in content. The conversion of Clovis was The conversion of Clovis was

supplemented by the decision of the supplemented by the decision of the Visigothic king of Spain, Recared, to Visigothic king of Spain, Recared, to abandon Arianism and become abandon Arianism and become Roman Catholic in 586.Roman Catholic in 586.

6565

The Rise of RomeThe Rise of Rome The Conversion of Clovis, 496The Conversion of Clovis, 496 That meant that orthodox That meant that orthodox

Christianity maintained a foothold on Christianity maintained a foothold on the Iberian peninsula even after the the Iberian peninsula even after the Muslim conquest in 711-718.Muslim conquest in 711-718.

As a direct or indirect result of the As a direct or indirect result of the conversion of Clovis and Recared, conversion of Clovis and Recared, Roman Catholicism ultimately was to Roman Catholicism ultimately was to become the virtually uncontested become the virtually uncontested faith in most of the West.faith in most of the West.

6666

The Rise of RomeThe Rise of Rome The Conversion of Clovis, 496The Conversion of Clovis, 496 All of Western Europe was to be All of Western Europe was to be

organized into dioceses and parishes organized into dioceses and parishes ruled over by the pope and the ruled over by the pope and the princes of the church.princes of the church.

The populace was born into the RCC, The populace was born into the RCC, was baptized into the church, etc.was baptized into the church, etc.

Throughout the Middle Ages Europe Throughout the Middle Ages Europe never knew anything else.never knew anything else.

6767

Gregory the GreatGregory the Great Gregory I, the Great (540-604) was one Gregory I, the Great (540-604) was one

of the greatest of Roman Catholic of the greatest of Roman Catholic leaders.leaders.

Coming on the scene at a time of Coming on the scene at a time of widespread confusion, he became a widespread confusion, he became a stablizing political influence and was stablizing political influence and was largely responsible for the creation of largely responsible for the creation of the medieval papacy.the medieval papacy.

G. was for a while the highest civil G. was for a while the highest civil administrator in the city of Rome.administrator in the city of Rome.

G. early turned to the monastic life as a G. early turned to the monastic life as a way to glorify God, and spent his way to glorify God, and spent his inherited fortune to found seven inherited fortune to found seven monasteries.monasteries.

6868

Gregory the GreatGregory the Great Pelagius II called him back to public Pelagius II called him back to public

life and he represented the bishop at life and he represented the bishop at Constantinople from 579 to 586.Constantinople from 579 to 586.

Elected bishop of Rome in 590, he Elected bishop of Rome in 590, he first resisted; he much preferred the first resisted; he much preferred the monastic life.monastic life.

With the decline of imperial power in With the decline of imperial power in Italy, G. found himself raising an army Italy, G. found himself raising an army to fight the Lombards, caring for to fight the Lombards, caring for thousands of refugees, and making a thousands of refugees, and making a peace agreement with the Lombards peace agreement with the Lombards in 592-3.in 592-3.

6969

Gregory the GreatGregory the Great He did much to meet the needs of He did much to meet the needs of

the poor both in Rome and the poor both in Rome and elsewhere.elsewhere.

He thus became the real ruler of He thus became the real ruler of Rome and the virtual civil ruler of Rome and the virtual civil ruler of Italy in the last years of the 6Italy in the last years of the 6thth c. c.

His administrative work was His administrative work was important in the establishment of the important in the establishment of the Papal States.Papal States.

For many reasons he was one of the For many reasons he was one of the most important popes in RC history.most important popes in RC history.

7070

Gregory the GreatGregory the Great 1. He transformed the bishopric of 1. He transformed the bishopric of

Rome into a papal system that Rome into a papal system that endured through the Middle Ages.endured through the Middle Ages.

2. He introduced changes in the liturgy 2. He introduced changes in the liturgy and sought the standardization of it.and sought the standardization of it.– He was not personally responsible for the He was not personally responsible for the

chant that bears his name, but he chant that bears his name, but he promulgated its use in worship.promulgated its use in worship.

– He also established schools to train He also established schools to train singers.singers.

3. He defined dogma and incorporated 3. He defined dogma and incorporated elements of popular piety into official elements of popular piety into official teaching.teaching.

7171

Gregory the GreatGregory the Great– He put tradition on an equal basis with He put tradition on an equal basis with

Scripture in determining dogma.Scripture in determining dogma.– While he accepted the Augustinian view While he accepted the Augustinian view

of original sin, he held that through of original sin, he held that through baptism sin was forgiven and faith baptism sin was forgiven and faith implanted so that an individual might implanted so that an individual might work the works of God; penance was work the works of God; penance was required for later sins.required for later sins.

– He expanded the doctrine of purgatory He expanded the doctrine of purgatory and changed the Eucharist to a sacrifice and changed the Eucharist to a sacrifice for redemption, having value for the for redemption, having value for the living and the dead.living and the dead.

– He officially approved the invocation of He officially approved the invocation of saints and the use of relics and amulets saints and the use of relics and amulets to reduce temporal punishments.to reduce temporal punishments.

7272

Gregory the GreatGregory the Great 4. He promoted asceticism, especially 4. He promoted asceticism, especially

as he enforced the celibacy of the as he enforced the celibacy of the clergy and restored monastic discipline.clergy and restored monastic discipline.– (He was the first pope to be a monk, and he (He was the first pope to be a monk, and he

was a great propagator of monasticism.)was a great propagator of monasticism.) 5. He possessed great missionary zeal.5. He possessed great missionary zeal.

– He sent 40 monks to England in 596 under He sent 40 monks to England in 596 under the leadership of Augustine (not the bishop the leadership of Augustine (not the bishop from Hippo).from Hippo).

– Their success was notable, especially in the Their success was notable, especially in the area of Canterbury, which became the area of Canterbury, which became the religious capital of England and the seat of religious capital of England and the seat of the archbishop.the archbishop.

7373

Gregory’s SuccessorsGregory’s Successors G’s successors did not maintain his G’s successors did not maintain his

standards.standards. Rome suffered famine, plague, and Rome suffered famine, plague, and

natural disasters during their reigns natural disasters during their reigns and during most of the rest of the and during most of the rest of the century there was a running battle century there was a running battle between the emperors and popes between the emperors and popes over matters of doctrine and over matters of doctrine and administration.administration.

7474

Missions in Britain and Missions in Britain and IrelandIreland For a long time Irish missionary activity For a long time Irish missionary activity

had been extensive in Britain and Ireland.had been extensive in Britain and Ireland. Patrick evangelized Ireland during the 5Patrick evangelized Ireland during the 5thth

c., probably the first part of the century.c., probably the first part of the century. Born in Britain (but not English), he was Born in Britain (but not English), he was

carried off by pirates to be a slave in carried off by pirates to be a slave in Ireland.Ireland.

There he was converted and later There he was converted and later escaped to Britain and his family.escaped to Britain and his family.

In a night vision he received a call to In a night vision he received a call to evangelize Ireland.evangelize Ireland.

7575

Missions in Britain and Missions in Britain and IrelandIreland He became the greatest single force He became the greatest single force

in the Christianization of Ireland.in the Christianization of Ireland. While Patrick seems to have been While Patrick seems to have been

orthodox in his preaching and orthodox in his preaching and ministry, the churches he founded ministry, the churches he founded were independent of Rome.were independent of Rome.

7676

Irish MonasticismIrish Monasticism On Patrick’s foundation, Finnian of On Patrick’s foundation, Finnian of

Clonard built the superstructure of Clonard built the superstructure of Irish monasticism early in the 6Irish monasticism early in the 6thth c.; c.; soon monasteries were founded all soon monasteries were founded all over Ireland.over Ireland.

By the end of the 6By the end of the 6thth c. the Irish c. the Irish church had become a church of church had become a church of monks; the bishop no longer had an monks; the bishop no longer had an administrative function.administrative function.

Irish monks, filled with missionary Irish monks, filled with missionary zeal, ranged across Europe in the 6zeal, ranged across Europe in the 6thth & 7& 7thth c. c.

7777

Irish MonasticismIrish Monasticism Columba (c. 597), who received his Columba (c. 597), who received his

training at Clonard, established the training at Clonard, established the famous monastery on the island of famous monastery on the island of Iona, off the west coast of Scotland Iona, off the west coast of Scotland and became the apostle to Scotland.and became the apostle to Scotland.

The monastery at Iona continued for The monastery at Iona continued for 200 years to send missionaries to all 200 years to send missionaries to all parts of the British Isles and Europe.parts of the British Isles and Europe.

7878

Irish and Roman Irish and Roman ChristianityChristianity A contest between free Irish A contest between free Irish

Christianity and RC was inevitable.Christianity and RC was inevitable. King Oswy of Northumbria called a King Oswy of Northumbria called a

synod at Whitby in 663 to determine synod at Whitby in 663 to determine which group would be official.which group would be official.

RC won, but primitive British RC won, but primitive British Christianity held out in the Christianity held out in the mountains of Wales and the mountains of Wales and the highlands of Scotland and on highlands of Scotland and on offshore islands for a long time.offshore islands for a long time.

7979

The Challenge of IslamThe Challenge of Islam In 622 Mohammed made his famous In 622 Mohammed made his famous

move or flight (move or flight (HegiraHegira) from Mecca to ) from Mecca to Medina and began a successful Medina and began a successful period of preaching.period of preaching.

Constructing a system that utilized Constructing a system that utilized elements of Judaism, Christianity and elements of Judaism, Christianity and Arabian heathenism, and infusing a Arabian heathenism, and infusing a fanatical zeal that brooked no fanatical zeal that brooked no opposition, he produced a movement opposition, he produced a movement that soon conquered the Middle East, that soon conquered the Middle East, North Africa, and part of Europe.North Africa, and part of Europe.

8080

The Challenge of IslamThe Challenge of Islam Islam can now claim one-fifth of the Islam can now claim one-fifth of the

world’s population.world’s population. Islam is so important in world history Islam is so important in world history

and culture that at least the 5 pillars and culture that at least the 5 pillars that characterize the practice of the that characterize the practice of the faithful must be noted (see the chart faithful must be noted (see the chart on the next slide).on the next slide).

In addition, often holy war (In addition, often holy war (jihadjihad) is ) is listed as a sixth pillar.listed as a sixth pillar.

8181

8282

The Challenge of IslamThe Challenge of Islam Several factors contributed to the Several factors contributed to the

rapid spread of Islam.rapid spread of Islam. 1. A positive, fanatical program that 1. A positive, fanatical program that

promised booty, positions of promised booty, positions of leadership, and salvation to those leadership, and salvation to those who would engage in world conquest.who would engage in world conquest.

2. The Roman Empire was rapidly 2. The Roman Empire was rapidly decaying from within while it decaying from within while it exhausted its resources and those of exhausted its resources and those of the Persian Empire. Neither the the Persian Empire. Neither the Persians nor the Byzantines were a Persians nor the Byzantines were a match for the fanatical Arabs.match for the fanatical Arabs.

8383

The Challenge of IslamThe Challenge of Islam 3. The Byzantines alienated many of 3. The Byzantines alienated many of

their provincials by extracting high their provincials by extracting high taxes to finance the Persians wars taxes to finance the Persians wars and excommunicating them for and excommunicating them for heretical religious views. heretical religious views.

4. Many Semitic people of the 4. Many Semitic people of the Byzantine provinces actually had Byzantine provinces actually had more in common with the Semitic more in common with the Semitic Arab invaders than they did with Arab invaders than they did with their Byzantine (Greek) overlords.their Byzantine (Greek) overlords.

8484

The Challenge of IslamThe Challenge of Islam 5. The Muslims were not mere 5. The Muslims were not mere

despoilers like the Huns. despoilers like the Huns. – Often they replaced only leaders and the Often they replaced only leaders and the

population often remained relatively population often remained relatively undisturbed.undisturbed.

– In the early days only non-Muslims paid In the early days only non-Muslims paid taxes.taxes.

6. Often Islam had superior generals.6. Often Islam had superior generals. 7. Image worship in the Catholic church 7. Image worship in the Catholic church

made the Christianity of the day look made the Christianity of the day look polytheistic to many; thus Islam’s strict polytheistic to many; thus Islam’s strict monotheism seemed to be superior.monotheism seemed to be superior.

8585

The Challenge of IslamThe Challenge of Islam Before his death in 632, Mohammed Before his death in 632, Mohammed

had won much of western Arabia.had won much of western Arabia. His successors took Damascus in His successors took Damascus in

635, Jerusalem in 638, Alexandria 635, Jerusalem in 638, Alexandria and most of Egypt in 640 and most of and most of Egypt in 640 and most of the Persian Empire about the same the Persian Empire about the same time.time.

North Africa fell between 685 and North Africa fell between 685 and 705; in 711 Muslims invaded Spain 705; in 711 Muslims invaded Spain and in 7 years reached the borders of and in 7 years reached the borders of France.France.

8686

88thth C. Papal C. Papal Successes/ProblemsSuccesses/Problems Gregory II (715-731) was able to Gregory II (715-731) was able to

contain the expansion of the contain the expansion of the Lombards in Italy.Lombards in Italy.

During his era Willibrord planted the During his era Willibrord planted the Roman church among the pagan Roman church among the pagan peoples of Holland and Denmark.peoples of Holland and Denmark.

At about the same time Boniface “the At about the same time Boniface “the apostle to Germany” became the apostle to Germany” became the great missionary of central Europe; he great missionary of central Europe; he presided at the coronation of Pepin presided at the coronation of Pepin when he became king of the Franks in when he became king of the Franks in 751.751.

8787

88thth C. Papal C. Papal Successes/ProblemsSuccesses/Problems Contemporary with Gregory II was Contemporary with Gregory II was

England’s Venerable Bede (c. 673-England’s Venerable Bede (c. 673-735), a monk from the monasteries in 735), a monk from the monasteries in Northumbria.Northumbria.

His His Ecclesiastical History of the English Ecclesiastical History of the English PeoplePeople gives important detail gives important detail concerning early English church history concerning early English church history and earned him the title “Father of and earned him the title “Father of English history.”English history.”

His historical works did much to His historical works did much to establish the practice of dating events establish the practice of dating events from the Incarnation (B.C. & A.D.).from the Incarnation (B.C. & A.D.).

8888

88thth C. Papal C. Papal Successes/ProblemsSuccesses/Problems At the beginning of the pontificate of At the beginning of the pontificate of

Gregory III (731-741) it appeared Gregory III (731-741) it appeared that the RCC was doomed in Western that the RCC was doomed in Western Europe; the Lombards threatened the Europe; the Lombards threatened the church in Italy and the Muslims were church in Italy and the Muslims were advancing north into France.advancing north into France.

Charles Martel defeated the Muslims Charles Martel defeated the Muslims near Tours in central France in 732; near Tours in central France in 732; the victory threw the Muslims back the victory threw the Muslims back into Spain and made Charles the into Spain and made Charles the defender and leader of Western defender and leader of Western Christendom.Christendom.

8989

88thth C. Papal C. Papal Successes/ProblemsSuccesses/Problems Pope Zacharias recognized Pepin, son of Pope Zacharias recognized Pepin, son of

Charles Martel, as king of the Franks in Charles Martel, as king of the Franks in 751.751.

When the Lombards threatened Rome and When the Lombards threatened Rome and properties of the church, Pope Stephen II properties of the church, Pope Stephen II appealed to Pepin for aid and safe conduct appealed to Pepin for aid and safe conduct to the court of Pepin.to the court of Pepin.

On July 24, 754 Stephen anointed Pepin On July 24, 754 Stephen anointed Pepin and his wife and sons, confirming the and his wife and sons, confirming the legitimacy of their dynasty, and bestowed legitimacy of their dynasty, and bestowed on them the title “Patricians of the on them the title “Patricians of the Romans” as a token of their role as Romans” as a token of their role as protectors of the Holy See.protectors of the Holy See.

9090

88thth C. Papal C. Papal Successes/ProblemsSuccesses/Problems Pepin forced the Lombard King Aistulf to Pepin forced the Lombard King Aistulf to

give up territory in Italy which P. give up territory in Italy which P. presented to the Roman church in presented to the Roman church in perpetuity.perpetuity.

Thus the Papal States came into Thus the Papal States came into existence; all this foreshadowed the existence; all this foreshadowed the time when the pope would crown time when the pope would crown Charlemagne and create the Holy Charlemagne and create the Holy Roman Empire.Roman Empire.

With the inability of the Byzantine With the inability of the Byzantine government to come to the aid of the government to come to the aid of the pope and with the emperor seeking to pope and with the emperor seeking to interfere in the church, the pope turned interfere in the church, the pope turned West to the Frankish court for support.West to the Frankish court for support.

9191

The Holy Roman EmpireThe Holy Roman Empire 800 is a pivotal date; on Xmas day in 800 is a pivotal date; on Xmas day in

Rome, Pope Leo III crowned Rome, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne “emperor of the Charlemagne “emperor of the Romans.”Romans.”

Though C’s line came into being the Though C’s line came into being the concept of a Holy Roman Empire.concept of a Holy Roman Empire.

It was called Roman because it was It was called Roman because it was to succeed the now defunct power of to succeed the now defunct power of Rome in the West; it was called holy Rome in the West; it was called holy because it was to be supreme over because it was to be supreme over Christendom.Christendom.

9292

The Holy Roman EmpireThe Holy Roman Empire This new arrangement constituted an This new arrangement constituted an

alliance between the pope and alliance between the pope and emperor, according to which each emperor, according to which each was to have dominion within his own was to have dominion within his own sphere and each was to cooperate sphere and each was to cooperate with the other and promote the with the other and promote the interests of the other.interests of the other.

But, in reality, succeeding popes and But, in reality, succeeding popes and kings engaged in periodic struggles kings engaged in periodic struggles to dominate the other.to dominate the other.

For a 1000 years one European ruler For a 1000 years one European ruler or another sought to establish or another sought to establish himself as successor of the Caesars.himself as successor of the Caesars.

9393

The Holy Roman EmpireThe Holy Roman Empire The Holy Roman Empire was virtually The Holy Roman Empire was virtually

synonymous with Western Christendom.synonymous with Western Christendom. In the whole area the RCC was supreme; In the whole area the RCC was supreme;

everyone born within the empire became everyone born within the empire became a baptized member of the church.a baptized member of the church.

Even beyond the borders in England and Even beyond the borders in England and Spain the RCC was the recognized Spain the RCC was the recognized religious authority.religious authority.

Society divided into dioceses ruled by Society divided into dioceses ruled by bishops; the arrangement continued even bishops; the arrangement continued even after the decline and breakup of the HRE.after the decline and breakup of the HRE.

9494

The Holy Roman EmpireThe Holy Roman Empire Charlemagne’s empire stretched from Charlemagne’s empire stretched from

the Atlantic east to the Elbe and the Atlantic east to the Elbe and Danube rivers and from the North Sea Danube rivers and from the North Sea to the Mediterranean and included to the Mediterranean and included much of Italy and a little of Spain.much of Italy and a little of Spain.

He maintained rather effective control He maintained rather effective control of the pope and the Roman church.of the pope and the Roman church.

He directed that bishops and abbots He directed that bishops and abbots should set up schools; this effort along should set up schools; this effort along with his famous Palace School, gave with his famous Palace School, gave rise to what is known as the rise to what is known as the Carolingian Renaissance.Carolingian Renaissance.

9595

9696

The Breakdown of the The Breakdown of the EmpireEmpire C’s son Louis was not so capable and C’s son Louis was not so capable and

his grandsons split the empire 3 his grandsons split the empire 3 ways in the Treaty of Verdun in 843.ways in the Treaty of Verdun in 843.

Carolingian rule came to an end in Carolingian rule came to an end in Germany in 887 and in France in Germany in 887 and in France in 987.987.

Thereafter the HRE was essentially a Thereafter the HRE was essentially a German entity with a king elected by German entity with a king elected by and checkmated by a number of and checkmated by a number of powerful nobles.powerful nobles.

In reality, under feudalism it was In reality, under feudalism it was divided into a host of small divided into a host of small antagonistic principalities.antagonistic principalities.

9797

Consequent Decline of the Consequent Decline of the PapacyPapacy By the time of Pope John VIII (872-By the time of Pope John VIII (872-

882), the Carolingian emperor was 882), the Carolingian emperor was unable to provide help; the pope unable to provide help; the pope himself was forced to raise a fleet himself was forced to raise a fleet and do battle with the Muslims to and do battle with the Muslims to save the Italian coast; to keep them save the Italian coast; to keep them out of Rome, he had to agree to pay out of Rome, he had to agree to pay annual tribute.annual tribute.

During much of the period 880-1000 During much of the period 880-1000 Italy was in anarchy; wealthy families Italy was in anarchy; wealthy families sometimes bought their way into the sometimes bought their way into the papacy.papacy.

9898

Consequent Decline of the Consequent Decline of the PapacyPapacy The chair of St. Peter was occupied The chair of St. Peter was occupied

by some very unworthy individuals by some very unworthy individuals between 880 and 1060.between 880 and 1060.

In 1045-1046 there were 3 popes In 1045-1046 there were 3 popes concurrently.concurrently.

9999

Spread of the Church, 800-Spread of the Church, 800-10731073 Surprisingly, the boundaries of Surprisingly, the boundaries of

Christendom greatly increase Christendom greatly increase between 800 and 1073.between 800 and 1073.

During the period, Christendom During the period, Christendom (including evangelism by the Eastern (including evangelism by the Eastern church) expanded to include church) expanded to include Bohemia, Moravia, Poland, Norway, Bohemia, Moravia, Poland, Norway, Iceland, Greenland, Sweden, Iceland, Greenland, Sweden, Denmark, Hungary, Bulgaria and Denmark, Hungary, Bulgaria and Russia.Russia.

During this period Cyril created an During this period Cyril created an alphabet in which Slavonic languages alphabet in which Slavonic languages could be written.could be written.

100100

Spread of the Church, 800-Spread of the Church, 800-10731073 During the period the Roman church During the period the Roman church

extended her power.extended her power. With the political fragmentation, the With the political fragmentation, the

pope was better able to bring pope was better able to bring princes, especially weaker ones, to princes, especially weaker ones, to terms.terms.

As the idea spread that salvation As the idea spread that salvation came only through the church, the came only through the church, the threat of excommunication was often threat of excommunication was often enough to force rulers to capitulate.enough to force rulers to capitulate.

101101

East-West Split in East-West Split in ChristendomChristendom Several factors were responsible for the Several factors were responsible for the

split between Eastern Orthodox and split between Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches.Roman Catholic churches.

1. The two differed over the use of 1. The two differed over the use of images (the iconoclastic controversy).images (the iconoclastic controversy).– In the East Leo issued the first decree In the East Leo issued the first decree

against their use in 726—partly to meet against their use in 726—partly to meet the Muslim charge that Christianity was the Muslim charge that Christianity was polytheistic.polytheistic.

– In Rome, Gregory II denounced the edict In Rome, Gregory II denounced the edict because it was not a concern in the West because it was not a concern in the West and because Rome resisted the and because Rome resisted the interference of political power.interference of political power.

102102

East-West Split in East-West Split in ChristendomChristendom 1. The two differed over the use of 1. The two differed over the use of

images (the iconoclastic controversy).images (the iconoclastic controversy).– In the East Leo issued the first decree In the East Leo issued the first decree

against their use in 726—partly to meet against their use in 726—partly to meet the Muslim charge that Christianity was the Muslim charge that Christianity was polytheistic.polytheistic.

– In Rome, Gregory II denounced the edict In Rome, Gregory II denounced the edict because it was not a concern in the West because it was not a concern in the West and because Rome resisted the and because Rome resisted the interference of political power.interference of political power.

– Finally in 843 a council in the East Finally in 843 a council in the East approved the use of images (pictures, not approved the use of images (pictures, not statues).statues).

103103

East-West Split in East-West Split in ChristendomChristendom 2. The conflict over the procession of 2. The conflict over the procession of

the Holy Spirit (the Filioque the Holy Spirit (the Filioque Controversy).Controversy).– East taught that the HS proceeded from East taught that the HS proceeded from

the Father alone.the Father alone.– West, believing such a view did not give West, believing such a view did not give

proper recognition to the Son, said that proper recognition to the Son, said that the HS proceeded from the Father and the HS proceeded from the Father and the Son (the Son (FilioqueFilioque means means and the son and the son).).

3. The Patriarch of Constantinople 3. The Patriarch of Constantinople and the pope at Rome were unwilling and the pope at Rome were unwilling to be subservient to each other.to be subservient to each other.

104104

East-West Split in East-West Split in ChristendomChristendom 4. There was no sharp definition of 4. There was no sharp definition of

the boundaries between territories to the boundaries between territories to be ruled by Rome and be ruled by Rome and Constantinople, and frequent Constantinople, and frequent disputes arose over administration of disputes arose over administration of border areas.border areas.

5. Basic differences in cultural 5. Basic differences in cultural background and influence between background and influence between East and West hindered East and West hindered understanding and cooperation.understanding and cooperation.

105105

East-West Split in East-West Split in ChristendomChristendom 6. In the East the church was 6. In the East the church was

subservient to the emperor; the subservient to the emperor; the church in the West insisted on church in the West insisted on independence from the state and independence from the state and demanded the church’s right of moral demanded the church’s right of moral superintendence over rulers of state.superintendence over rulers of state.

7. There were numerous liturgical 7. There were numerous liturgical differences between the two (e.g., differences between the two (e.g., whether leavened or unleavened whether leavened or unleavened bread was to be used in the Eucharist), bread was to be used in the Eucharist), as well as a host of minor variations as well as a host of minor variations (e.g., whether clergy were to be (e.g., whether clergy were to be bearded or clean shave or married or bearded or clean shave or married or single).single).

106106

East-West Split in East-West Split in ChristendomChristendom Debates continued; finally in 1054 a Debates continued; finally in 1054 a

Roman delegation laid the bull of Roman delegation laid the bull of excommunication on the altar of St. excommunication on the altar of St. Sophia in Constantinople.Sophia in Constantinople.

107107

Gregory VII (Hildebrand)Gregory VII (Hildebrand) Hildebrand became pope in 1073 with Hildebrand became pope in 1073 with

the name Gregory VII; his program and the name Gregory VII; his program and philosophy were basic to achievement of philosophy were basic to achievement of the power held by the popes of the 13the power held by the popes of the 13thth c.c.

For 20 years prior H. had been the power For 20 years prior H. had been the power behind the pope and during that time behind the pope and during that time papal election procedure was reformed.papal election procedure was reformed.

Before a pope was elected by the 7 Before a pope was elected by the 7 deacons of Rome, the aristocratic portion deacons of Rome, the aristocratic portion of the populace and German emperors.of the populace and German emperors.

108108

Gregory VII(Hildebrand)

109109

Gregory VII (Hildebrand)Gregory VII (Hildebrand) The reform instituted election by the The reform instituted election by the

college of cardinals—the procedure college of cardinals—the procedure still used.still used.

As pope, H. saw 3 particular abuses As pope, H. saw 3 particular abuses that needed correction in order to that needed correction in order to root out moral abuses and free the root out moral abuses and free the church from lay control.church from lay control.– 1) marriage of the clergy (or clerical 1) marriage of the clergy (or clerical

concubinage)concubinage)– 2) simony2) simony– 3) investiture by secular princes3) investiture by secular princes

110110

Gregory VII (Hildebrand)Gregory VII (Hildebrand) He issued a ban on clerical marriage He issued a ban on clerical marriage

in 1074.in 1074. He fought simony (the buying or He fought simony (the buying or

selling of church offices) and was selling of church offices) and was somewhat successful.somewhat successful.

Lay investiture was another matter.Lay investiture was another matter. For centuries the political leaders of For centuries the political leaders of

Europe had been accustomed to Europe had been accustomed to appointing and/or investing with appointing and/or investing with spiritual and secular authority the spiritual and secular authority the higher clergy of their realms.higher clergy of their realms.

111111

Gregory VII (Hildebrand)Gregory VII (Hildebrand) Such a practice often did not result in Such a practice often did not result in

appointments of clergy who were appointments of clergy who were spiritually sensitive or loyal to the church.spiritually sensitive or loyal to the church.

The great test was over the choice of the The great test was over the choice of the archbishop of Milan; H’s opponent was archbishop of Milan; H’s opponent was Henry IV, HRE; both emperor and pope Henry IV, HRE; both emperor and pope had a candidate.had a candidate.

Henry deposed the pope and the pope Henry deposed the pope and the pope excommunicated Henry.excommunicated Henry.

Henry was forced to give in as a penitent Henry was forced to give in as a penitent standing in the snow barefoot at Canossa.standing in the snow barefoot at Canossa.

112112

HREHenry IV

113113HRE Henry IV (with his wife and young son) spent three days in the snow atCanossa, in northern Italy

114114

115115

Gregory VII (Hildebrand)Gregory VII (Hildebrand) But in the ensuing years Henry won the last But in the ensuing years Henry won the last

round; he marched on Rome and set up a round; he marched on Rome and set up a pope of his choice, and Gregory died in exile.pope of his choice, and Gregory died in exile.

Nevertheless, the views for which Gregory Nevertheless, the views for which Gregory fought were ultimately to prevail; the papacy fought were ultimately to prevail; the papacy ultimately won the investiture struggle.ultimately won the investiture struggle.

At Worms in 1122 a concordat was drawn up At Worms in 1122 a concordat was drawn up according to which the emperor consented to according to which the emperor consented to permit the church to elect bishops and abbots permit the church to elect bishops and abbots and invest them with spiritual power.and invest them with spiritual power.

Officials of the church were to receive the Officials of the church were to receive the symbol of temporal authority from the king symbol of temporal authority from the king and to pledge allegiance to the temporal and to pledge allegiance to the temporal power.power.

116116

The CrusadesThe Crusades Although many went on the Crusades Although many went on the Crusades

for economic reasons, or for for economic reasons, or for adventure, or for other lesser adventure, or for other lesser reasons, the primary and official reasons, the primary and official motive of the Crusades was religious.motive of the Crusades was religious.

Urban promised remission of sins to Urban promised remission of sins to those who marched under the those who marched under the banner of the cross.banner of the cross.

The event that sparked the Crusades The event that sparked the Crusades was the advance of the Seljuk Turks was the advance of the Seljuk Turks in the East and the call for help from in the East and the call for help from the Byzantine emperor Alexis I.the Byzantine emperor Alexis I.

117117

The CrusadesThe Crusades Tales of the sufferings pilgrims Tales of the sufferings pilgrims

endured at the hands of the Turks in endured at the hands of the Turks in the Holy Land provided emotional the Holy Land provided emotional appeal for many to engage in holy appeal for many to engage in holy war; Urban’s professed goal was to war; Urban’s professed goal was to deliver the shrines of the Holy Land deliver the shrines of the Holy Land from Muslim control and return them from Muslim control and return them to Christian supervision.to Christian supervision.

First Crusade, 1095-1099First Crusade, 1095-1099 In the midst of a struggle with Henry In the midst of a struggle with Henry

IV, Urban II proclaimed a Crusade; IV, Urban II proclaimed a Crusade; this was evidently a show of force in this was evidently a show of force in his struggle with the emperor.his struggle with the emperor.

118118

119119

The CrusadesThe Crusades First Crusade, 1095-1099First Crusade, 1095-1099 By this means Rome could direct the By this means Rome could direct the

energies of Europe in a way that would energies of Europe in a way that would bring her great advantages.bring her great advantages.

A great host responded to Urban’s A great host responded to Urban’s call, especially from France, the call, especially from France, the Lowlands, and Italy.Lowlands, and Italy.

They finally took Jerusalem in 1099 They finally took Jerusalem in 1099 and set up the kingdom of Jerusalem and set up the kingdom of Jerusalem and set up a series of Crusader states and set up a series of Crusader states along the coast of Syria and Palestine.along the coast of Syria and Palestine.

120120

Urban II callsfor the FirstCrusade atClermontCathedral, Bibloteque National duParis.

121121

The CrusadesThe Crusades Second Crusade, 1147Second Crusade, 1147 The call for the 2The call for the 2ndnd came from Bernard of came from Bernard of

Clairvaux; Europeans were concerned Clairvaux; Europeans were concerned with meeting the Muslim threat to the with meeting the Muslim threat to the northern borders of Jerusalem.northern borders of Jerusalem.

The king of France and the emperor of The king of France and the emperor of the HRE led the campaign, but it was the HRE led the campaign, but it was completely unsuccessful, leaving completely unsuccessful, leaving Jerusalem in greater danger than before.Jerusalem in greater danger than before.

Movement came to a standstill until Movement came to a standstill until 1187, when Saladin captured Jerusalem 1187, when Saladin captured Jerusalem and all Christendom was aroused again.and all Christendom was aroused again.

122122

Bernard of Clairvauxpreaches the SecondCrusade.

123123

The CrusadesThe Crusades Crusades 3-6, 1189-1229Crusades 3-6, 1189-1229 The 3The 3rdrd is known as the Crusade of the is known as the Crusade of the

Three Kings: Richard I of England, Three Kings: Richard I of England, Philip II of France and Frederick I of Philip II of France and Frederick I of Germany.Germany.

Richard was left to carry on the Richard was left to carry on the struggle alone; although he was struggle alone; although he was unsuccessful in taking Jerusalem, he unsuccessful in taking Jerusalem, he recovered territory along the coast of recovered territory along the coast of Palestine and won permission for Palestine and won permission for pilgrims to enter the Holy City for a pilgrims to enter the Holy City for a few years.few years.

124124

125125

126126

Philip II of France

127127

Frederick I of Germany(Barbrossa)

128128

The CrusadesThe Crusades Crusades 3-6, 1189-1229Crusades 3-6, 1189-1229 The 4The 4thth began in 1202 under the began in 1202 under the

leadership of Pope Innocent III; he urged leadership of Pope Innocent III; he urged the capture of Egypt as a base of the capture of Egypt as a base of operations against Palestine.operations against Palestine.

In exchange for needed finances it In exchange for needed finances it supported the depose Byzantine emperor supported the depose Byzantine emperor in a bid to regain the throne.in a bid to regain the throne.

The result was a prolonged struggle at The result was a prolonged struggle at Constantinople and the destruction of the Constantinople and the destruction of the power of the Eastern empire and the power of the Eastern empire and the establishment of a Latin kingdom in its establishment of a Latin kingdom in its place.place.

129129

Innocent III

130130

131131

The CrusadesThe Crusades Crusades 3-6, 1189-1229Crusades 3-6, 1189-1229 The last crusade of significance was The last crusade of significance was

the 6the 6thth, led by Frederick II of , led by Frederick II of Germany in 1228-1229.Germany in 1228-1229.

By diplomacy he acquired for ten By diplomacy he acquired for ten years Jerusalem, Bethlehem, years Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nazareth, and a corridor connecting Nazareth, and a corridor connecting Acre and Jerusalem.Acre and Jerusalem.

132132

133133

The CrusadesThe Crusades The End and EffectsThe End and Effects They ended in failure with Jerusalem They ended in failure with Jerusalem

falling to the Egyptians in 1244 and falling to the Egyptians in 1244 and remaining in Muslim hands until 1917.remaining in Muslim hands until 1917.

While the RCC directed the energies While the RCC directed the energies of Europe in fighting an external foe, of Europe in fighting an external foe, she provided a safety valve that she provided a safety valve that spared her a great deal of internal spared her a great deal of internal stress.stress.

The effects were destined to be The effects were destined to be mainly political, social, and economic mainly political, social, and economic rather than religious.rather than religious.

134134

The CrusadesThe Crusades The End and EffectsThe End and Effects They contributed to the commercial They contributed to the commercial

revolution and its accompanying rise revolution and its accompanying rise of the middle class, the demise of of the middle class, the demise of feudalism, and the decline of feudalism, and the decline of provincialism in Western Europe.provincialism in Western Europe.

They discovered new foods, new They discovered new foods, new modes of dress and new ways of modes of dress and new ways of doing things.doing things.

All of this helped to pave the way for All of this helped to pave the way for the coming of the Renaissance.the coming of the Renaissance.

135135

The CrusadesThe Crusades The End and EffectsThe End and Effects Since profits do not usually flow in Since profits do not usually flow in

just one direction, rising commercial just one direction, rising commercial activity also stimulated a new activity also stimulated a new prosperity in Muslim lands, notably prosperity in Muslim lands, notably Egypt.Egypt.

The 4The 4thth C. helped to bring about the C. helped to bring about the fall of the Byzantine Empire.fall of the Byzantine Empire.

136136

Pope Innocent IIIPope Innocent III The pope at the very height of the The pope at the very height of the

medieval papacy’s power was medieval papacy’s power was Innocent III (1198-1216).Innocent III (1198-1216).

He had some indirect influence over He had some indirect influence over the Eastern church and empire the Eastern church and empire during the 4during the 4thth Crusade. Crusade.

In the West, he forced his will on In the West, he forced his will on France, England and the HRE.France, England and the HRE.

He forced Philip II of France to take He forced Philip II of France to take back his divorced wife by laying an back his divorced wife by laying an interdict on the whole nation.interdict on the whole nation.

137137

Innocent III

138138

Pope Innocent IIIPope Innocent III Shortly after he humbled King John of Shortly after he humbled King John of

England in a struggle over the England in a struggle over the appointment of a new archbishop of appointment of a new archbishop of Canterbury—again using the interdict Canterbury—again using the interdict as well as a threat to have Philip of as well as a threat to have Philip of France invade England.France invade England.

He dictated the imperial succession in He dictated the imperial succession in Germany again with the threat of Germany again with the threat of Philip’s invasion.Philip’s invasion.

Last, he called the Fourth Lateran Last, he called the Fourth Lateran Council (1215) to settle certain Council (1215) to settle certain doctrinal matters.doctrinal matters.

139139

Pope Innocent IIIPope Innocent III Decisions:Decisions: Annual confession to a priest was Annual confession to a priest was

mandatory.mandatory. Transubstantiation (the bread and Transubstantiation (the bread and

wine become the actual body and wine become the actual body and blood of Christ upon pronouncement blood of Christ upon pronouncement of the priest) was proclaimed; the of the priest) was proclaimed; the priest could then perform an actual priest could then perform an actual sacrifice of Christ every time the sacrifice of Christ every time the mass was said.mass was said.

The council also give official sanction The council also give official sanction to the 7 sacraments and gave some to the 7 sacraments and gave some definition of them.definition of them.

140140

Pope Innocent IIIPope Innocent III Decisions:Decisions: Jews were ordered to always wear Jews were ordered to always wear

distinctive dress and to stay in their distinctive dress and to stay in their ghettos.ghettos.

6,000 of Innocent’s letters exist, 6,000 of Innocent’s letters exist, demonstrating his control over many demonstrating his control over many aspects of church and society in aspects of church and society in Western Europe.Western Europe.

141141

The InquisitionThe Inquisition One of the ways the medieval papacy One of the ways the medieval papacy

maintained power over the populace maintained power over the populace of Western Europe was the Inquisition.of Western Europe was the Inquisition.

The I. came to definitive formulation The I. came to definitive formulation under Pope Gregory IX (1227-1241).under Pope Gregory IX (1227-1241).

The Fourth Lateran Council of 1215 The Fourth Lateran Council of 1215 had spelled out aspects of the I. and had spelled out aspects of the I. and the church was about ready to the church was about ready to implement it.implement it.

But in addition, HRE Frederick II But in addition, HRE Frederick II assigned the apprehension of heretics assigned the apprehension of heretics to state officials; G. was willing to give to state officials; G. was willing to give up the church’s role in the matter.up the church’s role in the matter.

142142

The InquisitionThe Inquisition The program was launched to keep The program was launched to keep

Roman Catholics in line, not to obtain Roman Catholics in line, not to obtain the conversion of Jews and Muslims.the conversion of Jews and Muslims.

The great purges against those The great purges against those peoples in Spain were inventions of peoples in Spain were inventions of the Spanish throne after 1479.the Spanish throne after 1479.

The I. was deemed necessary The I. was deemed necessary because of the spread of groups such because of the spread of groups such as the Waldenses and the Cathari or as the Waldenses and the Cathari or Albigensians.Albigensians.

143143Waldensian Outdoor Drama at Valdese, North Carolina

144144

WaldensianSeal

145145

St. Dominic conducting a bookburning in 1207 in Albi, France.Catholic books fly up from thefire undamaged while hereticalbooks are consumed.

St. Dominic and the AlbigensesPedro Berruguete 1480

146146

147147

The InquisitionThe Inquisition Generally the Dominicans or Franciscans Generally the Dominicans or Franciscans

were in charge of Inquisitorial activities.were in charge of Inquisitorial activities. Trials were held in secret; there was no Trials were held in secret; there was no

way of obtaining useful legal defense—way of obtaining useful legal defense—any lawyer representing would himself any lawyer representing would himself become a target.become a target.

Confessions might be extracted by Confessions might be extracted by torture and testimony against accused torture and testimony against accused persons might be obtained by the same persons might be obtained by the same means.means.

Those who confessed were subjected to Those who confessed were subjected to various punishments, scourges, fines, etc.various punishments, scourges, fines, etc.

148148

The InquisitionThe Inquisition Those who refused to recant had Those who refused to recant had

property confiscated, were property confiscated, were imprisoned or were handed over to imprisoned or were handed over to secular authorities to be executed, secular authorities to be executed, usually by burning.usually by burning.

The whole system remains a blot on The whole system remains a blot on the history of the RCC.the history of the RCC.

149149

Scholasticism Scholasticism Other doctrines (besides annual Other doctrines (besides annual

confession Transubstantiation) were confession Transubstantiation) were being formulated at the time, largely being formulated at the time, largely through the efforts of the Scholastics.through the efforts of the Scholastics.

S. was the sum of the teachings and S. was the sum of the teachings and methods of the prominent Western methods of the prominent Western philosophers most widely accepted philosophers most widely accepted during the Middle Ages.during the Middle Ages.

It constituted a harmonization of It constituted a harmonization of philosophy and theology in one philosophy and theology in one system for the purpose of rational system for the purpose of rational demonstration of theological truth.demonstration of theological truth.

150150

Scholasticism Scholasticism The Ss sought certainty and better The Ss sought certainty and better

understanding of the truth and salvation understanding of the truth and salvation by way of knowledge and reason.by way of knowledge and reason.

The 9The 9thth-12-12thth c. constitute the formative c. constitute the formative period; the 13period; the 13thth c. the height, and the c. the height, and the 1414thth-15-15thth centuries a period of decline. centuries a period of decline.

Anselm and Abelard=cofounders; Hugh Anselm and Abelard=cofounders; Hugh of St. Victor and Peter of St. Victor and Peter Lombard=important representatives Lombard=important representatives along the way; Thomas Aquinas=the along the way; Thomas Aquinas=the movement at its height; Duns Scotus movement at its height; Duns Scotus and William of Ockham=the period of and William of Ockham=the period of decline.decline.

151151

Abelard & Heloise

152152

Anselmof

Canterbury

153153

Duns Scotus

154154

William of Ockham

155155

ThomasAquinas

156156

Scholasticism Scholasticism The Sc and especially Aquinas, are The Sc and especially Aquinas, are

responsible for helping to formulate responsible for helping to formulate the sacramental system of the the sacramental system of the Roman church—a system through Roman church—a system through which one was to obtain salvation.which one was to obtain salvation.

They placed the number at 7 and They placed the number at 7 and then spelled out in greater detail the then spelled out in greater detail the significance of baptism, the significance of baptism, the Eucharist, confirmation, penance, Eucharist, confirmation, penance, extreme unction, holy orders and extreme unction, holy orders and marriage.marriage.

157157

Scholasticism Scholasticism They also set forth theories of that They also set forth theories of that

atonement still common today, atonement still common today, defined the way of salvation, and in defined the way of salvation, and in general produced many of the ideas general produced many of the ideas that the Council of Trent (1545-63) that the Council of Trent (1545-63) would draw together in a tight, would draw together in a tight, coherent system and would officially coherent system and would officially establish as orthodox RC teaching for establish as orthodox RC teaching for centuries to come.centuries to come.

Aquinas’ arguments for the existence Aquinas’ arguments for the existence of God have been widely used in of God have been widely used in modern times.modern times.

158158

Mysticism Mysticism M. aimed at a certainty of salvation M. aimed at a certainty of salvation

and the truth through spiritual and the truth through spiritual experience and surfaces especially in experience and surfaces especially in a time like the Middle Ages when a time like the Middle Ages when religion has become too religion has become too institutionalized and seeks a more institutionalized and seeks a more individualistic and personal individualistic and personal relationship with God.relationship with God.

Sometimes M. led to heresy as Sometimes M. led to heresy as adherents ignored biblical norms in adherents ignored biblical norms in favor of experience, or to social favor of experience, or to social passivity, as they concentrated on passivity, as they concentrated on personal salvation to the exclusion of personal salvation to the exclusion of service to God.service to God.

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Mysticism Mysticism Bernard of Clairvaux, one of the best Bernard of Clairvaux, one of the best

known mystics, is known for several known mystics, is known for several famous hymns. For e.g., “O Sacred famous hymns. For e.g., “O Sacred Head, Now Wounded,” “Jesus, the Head, Now Wounded,” “Jesus, the Very Thought of Thee,” and “Jesus, Very Thought of Thee,” and “Jesus, Thou Joy of Loving Hearts.”Thou Joy of Loving Hearts.”

M. and Scholasticism were a good M. and Scholasticism were a good counterbalance to each other; M. counterbalance to each other; M. kept S. from being too academic, and kept S. from being too academic, and S. helped the mystics keep their feet S. helped the mystics keep their feet on the ground.on the ground.

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Christ-mysticism ofBernard of Clairvaux

…the reason for loving God is GodHimself; and the measure of love dueto Him is immeasurable…

Bernard of Clairvaux, On Loving God

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Monasticism Monasticism The monastic movement was the The monastic movement was the

backbone of the medieval papacy; backbone of the medieval papacy; the list of leaders of the Middle Ages the list of leaders of the Middle Ages who came from the monastery or who came from the monastery or were associated with it was lengthy.were associated with it was lengthy.

The monasteries were conservatories The monasteries were conservatories of learning and the centers of of learning and the centers of missionary and philanthropic work.missionary and philanthropic work.

The monks were the writers, The monks were the writers, preachers, philosophers and preachers, philosophers and theologians of the time.theologians of the time.

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Monasticism Monasticism The monasteries provided something The monasteries provided something

of a safety valve for the RCC—in them of a safety valve for the RCC—in them earnest Christians had a great deal earnest Christians had a great deal more freedom from ecclesiastical more freedom from ecclesiastical machinery than they would have had machinery than they would have had outside the cloister.outside the cloister.

Benedict (c. 500) developed the Benedict (c. 500) developed the Western European form of monastic Western European form of monastic life, and other orders were, in general, life, and other orders were, in general, offshoots of the Benedictine order.offshoots of the Benedictine order.

The Cluniac order was instituted in 910 The Cluniac order was instituted in 910 and the Cistercian in 1098.and the Cistercian in 1098.

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Cluniacs atworship

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The CluniacsThe Cluniacs

An offshoot of the Benedictine order, they An offshoot of the Benedictine order, they derived their name from the Abbey of derived their name from the Abbey of Cluny in Burgundy where they originated.Cluny in Burgundy where they originated.

The order was distinguished by its The order was distinguished by its emphasis on the most elaborate church emphasis on the most elaborate church ceremony—formal prayer and liturgy.ceremony—formal prayer and liturgy.

Their buildings, services and vestments Their buildings, services and vestments (religious clothing) were much grander (religious clothing) were much grander than that of the Benedictines.than that of the Benedictines.

With so much time spent in worship there With so much time spent in worship there was little time for manual work or study.was little time for manual work or study.

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The CluniacsThe Cluniacs

An offshoot of the Benedictine order, they An offshoot of the Benedictine order, they derived their name from the Abbey of derived their name from the Abbey of Cluny in Burgundy where they originated.Cluny in Burgundy where they originated.

The order was distinguished by its The order was distinguished by its emphasis on the most elaborate church emphasis on the most elaborate church ceremony—formal prayer and liturgy.ceremony—formal prayer and liturgy.

Their buildings, services and vestments Their buildings, services and vestments (religious clothing) were much grander (religious clothing) were much grander than that of the Benedictines.than that of the Benedictines.

With so much time spent in worship there With so much time spent in worship there was little time for manual work or study.was little time for manual work or study.

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The CisterciansThe Cistercians A Benedictine order founded at A Benedictine order founded at

Citeaux in France in 1098; it Citeaux in France in 1098; it emphasized poverty, simplicity and emphasized poverty, simplicity and eremitical solitude.eremitical solitude.

Rejecting all feudal incomes, they Rejecting all feudal incomes, they based their economy on the monks’ based their economy on the monks’ labor assisted by lay brothers.labor assisted by lay brothers.

Liturgy was simplified together with Liturgy was simplified together with vestments and furnishings; their habit vestments and furnishings; their habit was white or gray under a black was white or gray under a black scapular.scapular.

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The CisterciansThe Cistercians Expansion was early and rapid Expansion was early and rapid

largely due to Bernard, founder and largely due to Bernard, founder and abbot at Clairvaux (1115), who was abbot at Clairvaux (1115), who was responsible for founding 65 new responsible for founding 65 new houses in France and abroad.houses in France and abroad.

By 1200 there were over 500 By 1200 there were over 500 houses throughout Europe.houses throughout Europe.

Later, Strict Observance Later, Strict Observance Cistercianism manifested itself as Cistercianism manifested itself as Trappists.Trappists.

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Monasticism Monasticism Bernard of Clairvaux was a Cistercian.Bernard of Clairvaux was a Cistercian. Francis of Assisi founded the Francis of Assisi founded the

Franciscan order in 1209, Dominic the Franciscan order in 1209, Dominic the Dominicans in 1216.Dominicans in 1216.

The Augustinian Hermits were founded The Augustinian Hermits were founded in 1256; Martin Luther later come from in 1256; Martin Luther later come from this order.this order.

The 13The 13thth c. was the heyday of c. was the heyday of monasticism; it declined at the end of monasticism; it declined at the end of that c. and throughout the 14that c. and throughout the 14thth c.; c.; there was some reform in the 15there was some reform in the 15thth..

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Monasticism Monasticism The Reformation destroyed most of The Reformation destroyed most of

the monasteries of northern Europe the monasteries of northern Europe and seriously curtailed the activities and seriously curtailed the activities of those in central Europe.of those in central Europe.

Though monasticism continued to Though monasticism continued to prosper in RC countries, the French prosper in RC countries, the French Rev. and Napoleonic conquests dealt Rev. and Napoleonic conquests dealt it a very severe blow.it a very severe blow.

The mid-19The mid-19thth c. saw a resurgence in c. saw a resurgence in most countries of Western Europe most countries of Western Europe (except Scandinavia) and North (except Scandinavia) and North America.America.

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Monasticism Monasticism Monasticism continued to prosper in Monasticism continued to prosper in

the Orthodox East until the the Orthodox East until the onslaughts of Islam and more onslaughts of Islam and more recently Marxism.recently Marxism.

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Decline of Medieval ChurchDecline of Medieval Church Decline may be dated 1305-1517—Decline may be dated 1305-1517—

from the Babylonian Captivity of the from the Babylonian Captivity of the papacy to the posting of Martin papacy to the posting of Martin Luther’s Luther’s 95 Theses.95 Theses.

1. The rise of national monarchs and 1. The rise of national monarchs and the decline of feudalism.the decline of feudalism.– Was a corresponding developing sense Was a corresponding developing sense

of nationality; the church claimed a of nationality; the church claimed a supranational loyalty; strong monarchs supranational loyalty; strong monarchs became jealous of the wealth and power became jealous of the wealth and power of the RCC.of the RCC.

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Decline of Medieval ChurchDecline of Medieval Church 1. The rise of national monarchs and 1. The rise of national monarchs and

the decline of feudalism.the decline of feudalism.– In 1296 Boniface VIII issued the bull In 1296 Boniface VIII issued the bull

ClericisClericis laicoslaicos, which prohibited taxation , which prohibited taxation of the clergy by secular princes.of the clergy by secular princes.

– Aimed especially at Philip IV of France Aimed especially at Philip IV of France and Edward I of England, it immediately and Edward I of England, it immediately drew opposition from them.drew opposition from them.

– Edward placed the clergy outside the Edward placed the clergy outside the protection of the law until they paid the protection of the law until they paid the taxes.taxes.

– Philip merely confiscated all moneys Philip merely confiscated all moneys being sent from France to Rome.being sent from France to Rome.

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Decline of Medieval ChurchDecline of Medieval Church 2. The rigid enforcement of doctrine 2. The rigid enforcement of doctrine

and practice, especially by means of and practice, especially by means of the Inquisition, stirred up opposition the Inquisition, stirred up opposition and dissent.and dissent.

3. The increasing cost of maintaining 3. The increasing cost of maintaining the hierarchy and the employment of the hierarchy and the employment of oppressive means of securing money oppressive means of securing money alienated many.alienated many.

4. There was an increasing moral 4. There was an increasing moral laxity among churchmen, especially laxity among churchmen, especially during the 15during the 15thth c. c.

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Decline of Medieval ChurchDecline of Medieval Church 5. Moral relaxation was accompanied by 5. Moral relaxation was accompanied by

a general secularization of the church a general secularization of the church during the 14during the 14thth and especially 15 and especially 15thth centuries.centuries.– Secularization of all of life was in process, a Secularization of all of life was in process, a

feature of the Renaissance.feature of the Renaissance.– R. was not just a rebirth of knowledge, but R. was not just a rebirth of knowledge, but

a rebirth of a rationalistic outlook on life.a rebirth of a rationalistic outlook on life.– R. marked the rise of the middle class with R. marked the rise of the middle class with

new wealth spent on art, literature, etc., new wealth spent on art, literature, etc., rather than on the church.rather than on the church.

– With the R. man instead of God increasingly With the R. man instead of God increasingly became the measure of things.became the measure of things.

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Decline of Medieval ChurchDecline of Medieval Church 5. Moral relaxation was accompanied 5. Moral relaxation was accompanied

by a general secularization of the by a general secularization of the church during the 14church during the 14thth and especially and especially 1515thth centuries. centuries.– The individualistic spirit of the R. also The individualistic spirit of the R. also

weakened the corporate orientation and weakened the corporate orientation and demands of the RCC.demands of the RCC.

– The invention of printing not only The invention of printing not only facilitated the distribution of Scripture facilitated the distribution of Scripture and a return to New Testament and a return to New Testament Christianity, but also spread satirical and Christianity, but also spread satirical and critical literature that often ridiculed the critical literature that often ridiculed the church.church.

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Decline of Medieval ChurchDecline of Medieval Church 6. The Crusades contributed in many 6. The Crusades contributed in many

ways to the decline of the church.ways to the decline of the church.– Many Europeans who had lived on their Many Europeans who had lived on their

lord’s manor without education and bred lord’s manor without education and bred on the superstitions of the time, learned on the superstitions of the time, learned that life elsewhere was different.that life elsewhere was different.

– The new ideas and ways of life they The new ideas and ways of life they found in the East weakened the ties of found in the East weakened the ties of many to the church.many to the church.

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Decline of Medieval ChurchDecline of Medieval Church 7. The Babylonian Captivity of the church 7. The Babylonian Captivity of the church

and the Papal Schism did much to weaken and the Papal Schism did much to weaken the power of Rome in Western Europe.the power of Rome in Western Europe.

The Babylonian CaptivityThe Babylonian Captivity BC was a period of approximately 70 years BC was a period of approximately 70 years

(1305-1377) when the pope ruled from (1305-1377) when the pope ruled from Avignon on the southern border of France.Avignon on the southern border of France.

Italian patriots like Dante and Petrarch Italian patriots like Dante and Petrarch likened this period when the pope was a likened this period when the pope was a virtual prisoner of the French king to the virtual prisoner of the French king to the 70 years when the Jews were captive in 70 years when the Jews were captive in Babylonia.Babylonia.

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Decline of Medieval ChurchDecline of Medieval Church The BC came about partly because of The BC came about partly because of

rising nationalism and partly because rising nationalism and partly because Pope Boniface VIII overreached Pope Boniface VIII overreached himself.himself.

In his famous bull In his famous bull Unam SanctumUnam Sanctum (1302), he insisted that all rulers were (1302), he insisted that all rulers were subject to him and it was “necessary subject to him and it was “necessary for salvation” for every human being for salvation” for every human being to be subject to the pope.to be subject to the pope.

Philip IV of France (1285-1314) sent Philip IV of France (1285-1314) sent officials to Italy to arrest Boniface; officials to Italy to arrest Boniface; though rescued by townspeople, B. though rescued by townspeople, B. died a month later.died a month later.

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Portrait ofBoniface VIII

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Unam SanctumUnam Sanctum

“…“…There is one holy Catholic and There is one holy Catholic and Apostolic Church, outside of Apostolic Church, outside of which there is neither salvation which there is neither salvation nor remission of sins…”nor remission of sins…”

“…“…Indeed we declare, say, Indeed we declare, say, pronounce, and define that it is pronounce, and define that it is altogether necessary to salvation altogether necessary to salvation for every human creature to be for every human creature to be subject to the Roman Pontiff.”subject to the Roman Pontiff.”

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Unam SanctumUnam Sanctum

A bull is a solemn papal letter. A bull is a solemn papal letter. The form was given this name The form was given this name because it was sealed with a because it was sealed with a bullabulla, a round lead seal. This , a round lead seal. This particular bull was written as the particular bull was written as the latest round in an ongoing war of latest round in an ongoing war of words between the pope and King words between the pope and King Philip IV “the Fair” of France.Philip IV “the Fair” of France.

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Boniface VIIIsatirized

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Pilgrimage to Rome

Boniface VIII declareda Jubilee Year in 1300.Crowds of pilgrims cameto Rome to pray over thetombs of Peter and Paul to receive indulgences.

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Decline of Medieval ChurchDecline of Medieval Church His successor, Benedict XI (1303-4), His successor, Benedict XI (1303-4),

lasted for only 8 stormy months and lasted for only 8 stormy months and the papal chair was empty thereafter the papal chair was empty thereafter for 11 months.for 11 months.

Finally it was filled by Clement V, a Finally it was filled by Clement V, a Frenchman who was under constant Frenchman who was under constant pressure from Philip.pressure from Philip.

Threatened by unsafe conditions in Threatened by unsafe conditions in Italy, Clement settled at Avignon in Italy, Clement settled at Avignon in 1309.1309.

Whether or not later popes were under Whether or not later popes were under French control, Clement was, and all French control, Clement was, and all popes of the period were Frenchmen.popes of the period were Frenchmen.

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Palace of the PopesAvignon

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Decline of Medieval ChurchDecline of Medieval Church The perception by rulers and many of The perception by rulers and many of

their subjects was that papal interests their subjects was that papal interests were closely tied to those of France.were closely tied to those of France.

During the Captivity, the Hundred During the Captivity, the Hundred Years War broke out between England Years War broke out between England and France, greatly weakening the and France, greatly weakening the power of the papacy in England; for power of the papacy in England; for e.g., during the war the pope e.g., during the war the pope demanded the surrender of Wycliffe demanded the surrender of Wycliffe the reformer, but a powerful party at the reformer, but a powerful party at the English court protected him.the English court protected him.

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Decline of Medieval ChurchDecline of Medieval Church Further, the papacy gained a Further, the papacy gained a

reputation for extravagance in reputation for extravagance in expenditure and offensiveness in expenditure and offensiveness in taxation during the period.taxation during the period.

The 7 Avignon popes often allowed The 7 Avignon popes often allowed their nationalistic feelings to influence their nationalistic feelings to influence their policies and thus alienated their policies and thus alienated England and Germany.England and Germany.

They gained a reputation for being They gained a reputation for being luxurious, bureaucratic and rapacious, luxurious, bureaucratic and rapacious, as wolves rather than shepherds of as wolves rather than shepherds of the flock.the flock.

190190

Decline of Medieval ChurchDecline of Medieval Church The Avignon popes, however, were The Avignon popes, however, were

not necessarily out of step with the not necessarily out of step with the clergy of the time; they were clergy of the time; they were generally more interested in their generally more interested in their economic well being than in the economic well being than in the spiritual well being of the people; spiritual well being of the people; even in the monasteries the rules even in the monasteries the rules tended to be relaxed.tended to be relaxed.

191191

Decline of Medieval ChurchDecline of Medieval Church The Papal Schism (1378-1417) hurt the The Papal Schism (1378-1417) hurt the

church even more than the BC; the church even more than the BC; the schism resulted from the total schism resulted from the total incompetence of Pope Urban VI, who incompetence of Pope Urban VI, who within a few months of his election in within a few months of his election in Rome (1378) had alienated the entire Rome (1378) had alienated the entire college of cardinals.college of cardinals.

All the French cardinals slipped out of All the French cardinals slipped out of Rome, declared Urban’s election void, Rome, declared Urban’s election void, and elected Robert of Geneva as and elected Robert of Geneva as Clement VII.Clement VII.

When Urban refused to be deposed, the When Urban refused to be deposed, the French cardinals and Clement moved to French cardinals and Clement moved to Avignon.Avignon.

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Urban VI

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Decline of Medieval ChurchDecline of Medieval Church The princes of Europe lined up The princes of Europe lined up

behind the pope of their choice and behind the pope of their choice and Western Christendom was split.Western Christendom was split.

When the Council of Pisa (1409) tried When the Council of Pisa (1409) tried to settle the problem by deposing to settle the problem by deposing the two popes and electing a new the two popes and electing a new one in their place, the result was the one in their place, the result was the election of a 3election of a 3rdrd pope. pope.

For several years there were 3 popes For several years there were 3 popes anathematizing and anathematizing and excommunicating one another.excommunicating one another.

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196196

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Baptistery, Pisa

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Decline of Medieval ChurchDecline of Medieval Church Reforming parties grew during the Reforming parties grew during the

period; Hus preached with success in period; Hus preached with success in Bohemia and the Lollards (followers Bohemia and the Lollards (followers of Wycliffe) grew in England.of Wycliffe) grew in England.

Finally the Council of Constance Finally the Council of Constance managed to depose all three popes managed to depose all three popes in 1417 and elect a new one, who in 1417 and elect a new one, who then would permanently reside in then would permanently reside in Rome.Rome.

Some call the last part of the 15Some call the last part of the 15thth c. c. the paganized stage of the papacy.the paganized stage of the papacy.

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Decline of Medieval ChurchDecline of Medieval Church The Renaissance was taking its toll in The Renaissance was taking its toll in

the secularization of some of the top the secularization of some of the top clergy.clergy.

Pope Nicholas V (1447-1455), a lover Pope Nicholas V (1447-1455), a lover of classical literature and founder of of classical literature and founder of the Vatican library, spent large sums the Vatican library, spent large sums on his pet project and on the repair of on his pet project and on the repair of several classical structures in Rome.several classical structures in Rome.

Julius II (1503-1513) is known as the Julius II (1503-1513) is known as the patron of artists, especially patron of artists, especially Michelangelo, who painted the Sistine Michelangelo, who painted the Sistine Chapel ceiling from 1508-1512.Chapel ceiling from 1508-1512.

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Nicholas V

201201

Julius II(by Raphael)

202202

Decline of Medieval ChurchDecline of Medieval Church Pope Leo X (1513-1521), pope when Pope Leo X (1513-1521), pope when

the Reformation began, was very the Reformation began, was very extravagant; his court was a constant extravagant; his court was a constant round of banquets, theatrical shows round of banquets, theatrical shows and balls.and balls.

As builder of St. Peter’s in Rome, he As builder of St. Peter’s in Rome, he used the revenues of the papacy on used the revenues of the papacy on art, architecture and the like.art, architecture and the like.

The conflict with Luther came over the The conflict with Luther came over the sale of indulgences, a project sale of indulgences, a project designed to raise money for the designed to raise money for the building of St. Peter’s.building of St. Peter’s.

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Leo X

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Decline of Medieval ChurchDecline of Medieval Church At the beginning of the 16At the beginning of the 16thth c. the c. the

medieval papacy was sick.medieval papacy was sick. Some within the church began to Some within the church began to

propose remedies; these, coupled propose remedies; these, coupled with the disruptions caused by the with the disruptions caused by the Reformers, stirred the church to Reformers, stirred the church to make some changes that would allow make some changes that would allow for a resurgence later.for a resurgence later.

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