UoL_2013Januar

1 Super control Out of control In control

Healthy, happy, effective, wellbeingDelusions of control. Obsessive controlHelplessness, hopelessness, suicidal thoughts2BackgroundFeeling in control involves learning about action-outcome causal relationships

How we do it:As cause cannot be observed, it must be inferred (Hume): space, time, contingencyTwo broad theoretical accounts of the causal process : Associative models & inferential accounts

When it goes wrong:Different theory: e.g., cognitive accounts of depression invoking higher level constructsSelf esteem, negative biases, depressive realism, healthy optimism

Theoretical dualism

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Action-outcome contingency

Delta P = P = measure of contingency between binary eventsp(outcome/action) - p(outcome/no action) = (a/(a+b))-(c/(c+d))-1 = negative preventative relationship, 0 = no relationship,+1 = perfect generative relationship

5Contingency effects on causal judgementStronger casual judgements with positive than zero contingencies (e.g. Allan, 1980; Wasserman et al., 1993)

P(O/A) = 20/20+0 = 1.0P(O/NoA) = 10/10+10 = .50P = 1.0-.50 = .50P(O/A) = 15/5+15 = .75P(O/NoA) = 15/5+15 = .75P = .75-.75 = 0I have some control!I have no control!6Time effects on causal judgements

A-O delay

Weaken or eliminate perception of cause (e.g., Shanks, Pearson & Dickinson, 1989)

Cause determined by action-outcome association. Association formation is competitive process with other cues like context. Increase the strength of Cxt-O association (e.g., Rescorla & Wagner, 1972)Temporal information / knowledge is used to determine whether a causal relationship exists (e.g., Griffiths & Tennenbaum, 2005)

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Distinguishing time, context & contingency effects

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Our time manipulationsA-O delay

ITI durationDecrease the strength of Cxt-O association> Stronger causal rating (e.g., Msetfi et al., 2005)Decreased rates of AO pairings over time might weaken causal perception, secondary effect

Increase the strength of Cxt-O associationKnowledge used to infer absence of causal relationship> Eliminate / decrease perception of cause 9Depression effects on causal judgementsDepressed peoples judgements more consistent with programmed contingencies than others (e.g., Alloy & Abramson, 1979)Depression: two key cognitive characteristics linked to causal learningSlowed time perception (Bschor et al., 2004; Gill & Droit-Volet, 2009: Msetfi et al., 2012) > increase time effectsImpaired context processing (Msetfi et al., 2009) and learning (Msetfi et al., 2005) < decrease time effectsTest effects of depression (low & high) on causal judgements across a range of time manipulations and a range of conditions10Causal learning procedureVirtual context causal learning taskThe house has a stereo system, connected to speakers in every room, which can be controlled using the remote control. Sometimes the remote control doesnt seem to work. Your job is to test the remote control in the various rooms in the house by trying to turn on the music. Each condition takes place in a distinct room.

We also wanted to use a causal judgement procedure which would involve an explicit context, and a measurement of the relationship between the context and the outcome.So we used virtual contexts, displayed as pictures on the computer screen in our experiments, a couple of examples are shown on the screen. The general causal scenario used is that participants must imagine they are in a house with a rather fancy stereo system, connected to speakers in every room, and controlled by a remote control. There has been some talk of the remote control working intermittently and participants task is to test the remote control in the various rooms. Each experimental trial would be an opportunity to test the remote control, and would constitute one of the action-outcome conjunctions shown on the contingency table earlier.12Each condition would be composed of a number of experimental trials with a similar structureYou can press the button now!Action or no action3-secondsMusic switches on or stays off2-secondsITI - waiting

13Each experimental trial would be programmed such that it would start with a waiting period, the inter-trial interval the ITI, this would be followed by a signal to tell the participant that they could try pressing the button on the remote control, this would be followed by a short period during which the music either switched on or remained off.

At the end of a number of experimental trials, which would be the end of each condition, participants would then rate their own control over the music switching on and also the relationship between the context and the music switching on. Both judgements would be made on a slider with a negative 100 to positive 100 numeric scale as shown on the screen, where neg 100 represents completely prevent, positive 100 indicates completely control and judgements of zero indicate no relationship at all.

So this was the general procedure used in all the experiments presented here.

The first experiment was pretty much designed as a baseline experiment.

14General experimental design (E1-3)Experimental variables (repeated measures)2 A-O delay: short 0s, long 4-s2 ITI length: short 3-s, long 15-sControl: Two versions of each experimentFixed Time: All conditions same procedure time 960 sec, trials varied 40, 80, 48, 120Fixed Trials: All conditions have the same number of trials, 60, procedure time 480, 720, 1200, 1440 secsCategorisation by levels of depressed mood Beck Depression Inventory (BDI: Beck et al., 1961) Median split: Low BDIs 5; High BDIs 6+Groups matched on age, IQ, digit15

Ex 1: Positive contingencies, have control (DP = 1.0|0.5 = 0.5) N=10316Findings with positive contingenciesStronger time effects in the depressed, which are mirrored in context ratingsEffect of depression:Impaired context processing? Slowed time perception? Consistent with slow time magnifying time effects through context associations, also compatible with knowledge based processesTime effects with negative contingencies, delays should:strengthen context association AND strengthen perception of preventative causeWeaken perception of any causal relationship according to knowledge based accounts17

Ex 2: Negative contingencies, preventative control (DP = 0.5|1.0 = -0.5) N=9918

Ex 3: Negative contingency, preventative control (DP = .25|.75 = -0.5) N=10019Findings with negative contingenciesNon-depressedNo time effects: delay or ITIDepressedSome evidence of delay effects but dependent on specific contingency: Less frequent cxt-outcome pairingsLonger delay stronger preventative cause, not elimination of cause. Consistent with associative model 20Behavioural data: The story so far using standard causal theory..Non-depressed groupsPresence of time effects contingency dependentDepressedAsymmetrical delay effects: weaker cause > positive; stronger cause > negativeTime effects stronger & more general for the depressed: slow time magnifies but through effect on context associationsConsistent with associative models of causal learningMsetfi, R. M., Wade, C., & Murphy, R. A. (2013, Under revision). Context and time in causal learning: Contingency and mood effects. PLOS ONE.21Psychopharmacological dataSerotonergic dysfunction in depression (increased receptor sites in postmortem brains etc etc)Efficacy of antidepressant drugs, but psychological effects unclear, links to emotional processing

Serotonin depletion in rats decreases context learning in rats (Wilkinson et al., 1995) & increased release of 5HT in learned contexts (1996)Could the effects we have observed here and previously be located in the serotonin system?MethodologyReduce levels of serotonin in the central nervous systemAcute tryptophan depletion (ATD) using amino acid mixture at T1 vs placebo at T2 (double blind, order counterbalanced) N = 155.5 hours rest then causal learning task Check blood plasma levels of TRPIncrease levels of serotonin in the central nervous systemAdminister 10mg escitalopram or placebo for 7 days (double blind, mood tested at screen, randomisation, & test) N = 154Causal learning taskSame causal learning procedure are previous experimentsto model aspects of the serotoninergic dysfunction which accompanies depression (Cowen 2008) although without affecting mood in participants ATD: L-alanine, 4.1 g; L-arginine, 3.7 g; L-cystine, 2.0 g; glycine, 2.4 g; L-histidine, 2.4 g; L-isoleucine, 6 g; L-leucine, 10.1 g; L-lysine, 6.7 g; L-methionine, 2.3 g; L-proline, 9.2 g; L-phenylalanine, 4.3 g; L-serine, 5.2 g; L-threonine, 4.9 g; L-tyrosine, 5.2 g; and L-valine, 6.7 g. Total: 75.2 g.

Escitalopram, increases extra-cellular levels of S, therefore enhancing transmission231. ATD study: data from low BDI scorers only, Ps do have control over the outcome

BAL (placebo): action > context but p = .125ATD: action >> context, p = .016The ATD effect was located in context ratings, p = .031

Reducing levels of serotonin in healthy people affects control learning through weaker context ratings (enhanced extinction?)Chase, H., Crockett, M., Msetfi, R. M., Murphy, R. A., Clark, L., Sahakian, B. & Robbins, T. (2011). 5-HT Modulation by Acute Tryptophan Depletion of Human Instrumental Contingency Judgements. Psychopharmacology, 213(2-3), 615-623 Freidman test:242. Escitalopram study: Ps do not have control over the outcomeControl = Context versus actionBehaviour rates of respondingIs the relationship between depression and control judgements mediated by low / high rates of behaviour? ( e.g., Blanco, Matute & Vadillo, 2009, 2012)Does drug administration influence these relationships?DepressionHigher control value = lower perceived control

2. Escitalopram study: Drug eliminates mediated pathway from Depression > behaviour > Control; This effect was located in judgements made about the contextNB: Higher control value = lower perceived controlMsetfi, R.M., Kumar, P. Harmer, C. & Murphy, R.A., (2013, to be submitted). The effect of escitalopram and depressed mood on human instrumental contingency judgements. Neurosychopharmacology Pharmacological data summaryReducing serotonin levels reduced context ratings specifically. When Ps had some control over the outcome, this increased perceived control (unrealistically?) Increasing serotonin levels (ADs) increased levels of behaviour & context sensitivity to reward. When people had no control, this had a knock on strengthening context ratings, increasing feelings of controlEffect of serotonin manipulations is situation / contingency specificPutting it all togetherControl judgements made by depressed and non-depressed people are well explained by causal learning theories, provided insight into underlying mechanisms need for theoretical dualism?Very subtle changes in time perception, possibly due to attentional lapse (Msetfi et al., 2012), can have a strong knock on effect on other cognitive processes (context) and feelings of controlTime and context processing key components of control learning, located in serotonergic system, and interact with each other & specific situationFinal thoughtsUtility of time / context findings in a therapeutic setting?Mindfulness, present awareness: Mindfulness means paying attention in a particular way; On purpose, in the present moment, and non-judgmentally. (Kabat-Zinn, 1994)Mindfulness based therapies have been very effective Implications?Active ingredients and psychological effects of the mindfulness interventionsPsychological effects of antidepressant drugsMeditate and Medicate

Thank you for listeningMore information: Rachel Msetfi, Department of Psychology, University of Limerick www.judgementexperiment.com/RachelMsetfi/Rachel_Msetfi_Research.html

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