SUMBER: marno.lecture.ub.ac.id

SUMBER: marno.lecture.ub.ac.id

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ISS-V PPSUB 26-28 JUNI 2013

..JASA LINGKUNGAN…

SUMBER: . Glossary of Environment Statistics, Studies in Methods, Series F, No. 67, United Nations, New York, 1997. ..

Definition: Environmental services refer to qualitative functions of

natural non—produced assets of land, water and air (including related ecosystem) and their biota.

There are three basic types of environmental services: 1. disposal services which reflect the functions of the natural

environment as an absorptive sink for residuals, 2. productive services which reflect the economic functions of

providing natural resource inputs and space for production and consumption, and

3. consumer or consumption services which provide for physiological as well as recreational and related needs of human beings.

JASA EKOSISTEM

SUMBER: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_services...

Humankind benefits from a multitude of resources and processes that are supplied by ecosystems.

Collectively, these benefits are known as ecosystem services and include products like clean drinking water and processes such as the decomposition of wastes.

While scientists and environmentalists have discussed ecosystem services for decades, these services were popularized and their definitions formalized by the United Nations 2005 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), a four-year study

involving more than 1,300 scientists worldwide.

This grouped ecosystem services into four broad categories: 1. provisioning, such as the production of food and water; 2. regulating, such as the control of climate and disease; 3. supporting, such as nutrient cycles and crop pollination; and 4. cultural, such as spiritual and recreational benefits

EMPAT KATEGORI JASA EKOSISTEM


The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) report 2005 defines Ecosystem services as benefits people obtain from ecosystems and distinguishes four categories of ecosystem services, where the so-called supporting services are regarded as the

basis for the services of the other three categories.The following lists represent the definition and samples of each according to the MA:

1. Supporting services: ecosystem services "that are necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services“ • nutrient dispersal and cycling• seed dispersal• Primary production

2. Provisioning services: "products obtained from ecosystems“ • food (including seafood and game), crops, wild foods, and spices • water • minerals (including diatomite) • pharmaceuticals, biochemicals, and industrial products • energy (hydropower, biomass fuels)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_services

EMPAT KATEGORI JASA EKOSISTEM


3. Regulating services: "benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem processes“• carbon sequestration and climate regulation • waste decomposition and detoxification • purification of water and air • crop pollination • pest and disease control

4. Cultural services: "nonmaterial benefits people obtain from ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, reflection, recreation, and aesthetic experiences“ • cultural, intellectual and spiritual inspiration • recreational experiences (including ecotourism) • scientific discovery

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_services

JASA EKOSISTEM


KONSEPSI EKOLOGIUnderstanding of ecosystem services requires a strong foundation in ecology, which describes the underlying principles and interactions of organisms and

the environment. Since the scales at which these entities interact can vary from microbes to

landscapes, milliseconds to millions of years, one of the greatest remaining challenges is the descriptive characterization of energy and material flow between

them.

Note that it is often possible for multiple services to be bundled together and when benefits of targeted objectives are secured, there may also be ancillary benefits –

the same forest may provide habitat for other organisms as well as human recreation, which are also ecosystem services.

The complexity of Earth’s ecosystems poses a challenge for scientists as they try to understand how relationships are interwoven among organisms, processes and their

surroundings.

JASA EKOSISTEM


KONSEPSI EKOLOGI

The study of ecosystem services includes the following steps:

Identification of ecosystem service providers (ESPs) –

species or populations that provide specific ecosystem services – and characterization of their functional roles and relationships;

determination of community structure aspects that influence how ESPs function in their natural landscape, such as compensatory

responses that stabilize function and non-random extinction sequences which can erode it;

JASA EKOSISTEM


The study of ecosystem services includes the following steps:

Assessment of key environmental (abiotic) factors influencing the provision of services; measurement of the spatial and temporal scales

ESPs and their services operate on.Recently, a technique has been developed to improve and standardize the evaluation of ESP

functionality by quantifying the relative importance of different species in terms of their efficiency and abundance.

Such parameters provide indications of how species respond to changes in the environment (i.e. predators, resource availability, climate) and are useful for identifying species that are

disproportionately important at providing ecosystem services. However, a critical drawback is that the technique does not account for the effects of interactions, which are often both

complex and fundamental in maintaining an ecosystem and can involve species that are not readily detected as a priority.

Even so, estimating the functional structure of an ecosystem and combining it with information about individual species traits can help us understand the resilience of an

ecosystem amidst environmental change.

JASA EKOSISTEM


KONSEPSI EKONOMI

Although environmental awareness is rapidly improving in our contemporary world, ecosystem capital and its flow are still poorly understood, threats continue to

impose, and we suffer from the so-called ‘tragedy of the commons’.

Many efforts to inform decision-makers of current versus future costs and benefits now involve organizing and translating scientific knowledge to economics, which

articulate the consequences of our choices in comparable units of impact on human well-being.

An especially challenging aspect of this process is that interpreting ecological information collected from one spatial-temporal scale does not necessarily mean it

can be applied at another; understanding the dynamics of ecological processes relative to ecosystem services is essential in aiding economic decisions.

Weighting factors such as a service’s irreplaceability or bundled services can also allocate economic value such that goal attainment becomes more efficient.

Wetlands can be used to assimilate wastes.

JASA EKOSISTEM


KONSEPSI EKONOMI

The economic valuation of ecosystem services also involves social communication and information, areas that remain

particularly challenging and are the focus of many researchers.

In general, the idea is that although individuals make decisions for any variety of reasons, trends reveal the aggregative preferences of a

society, from which the economic value of services can be inferred and assigned.

The six major methods for valuing ecosystem services in monetary terms are:

JASA EKOSISTEM: Valuasi Ekonomi


1. Avoided cost Services allow society to avoid costs that would have been incurred in the absence of those services (e.g. waste treatment by wetland habitats avoids health costs)

2. Replacement cost Services could be replaced with man-made systems (e.g. restoration of the Catskill Watershed cost less than the construction of a water purification plant)

3. Factor income Services provide for the enhancement of incomes (e.g. improved water quality increases the commercial take of a fishery and improves the income of fishers)

4. Travel cost Service demand may require travel, whose costs can reflect the implied value of the service (e.g. value of ecotourism experience is at least what a visitor is willing to pay to get there)

5. Hedonic pricing Service demand may be reflected in the prices people will pay for associated goods (e.g. coastal housing prices exceed that of inland homes)

6. Contingent valuation Service demand may be elicited by posing hypothetical scenarios that involve some valuation of alternatives (e.g. visitors willing to pay for increased access to national parks).

BARANG DAN JASA EKOLOGI

SUMBER: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_goods_and_services

Ecological goods and services (EG&S) are the benefits arising from the ecological functions of healthy

ecosystems.

Such benefits accrue to all living organisms, including animals and plants, rather than to humans alone.

However, there is a growing recognition of the importance to society that ecological goods and services provide for health, social, cultural, and

economic needs.



Examples of ecological goods include clean air, and abundant fresh water.

Examples of ecological services include purification of air and water, maintenance of biodiversity, decomposition of wastes, soil and

vegetation generation and renewal, pollination of crops and natural vegetation, groundwater recharge through wetlands, seed

dispersal, greenhouse gas mitigation, and aesthetically pleasing landscapes.

The products and processes of ecological goods and services are complex and occur over long periods of time. They are a sub-

category of public goods.



A market may be created wherein ecological goods and services are demanded by society and supplied by public and private landowners. Some believe that public lands alone are not adequate to supply this market, and that privately held lands are needed to close this gap.

What has emerged is the notion that rural landowners who provide ecological goods and services to society through good stewardship

practices on their land should be duly compensated.

The main tool to accomplish this to date has been to pay farmers directly to set-aside portions of their land that would otherwise be in

production. This exemplifies a shift in thinking from the "polluter pays" to the

"beneficiary pays“.

Kapital (modal) ALAM

SUMBER: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_Capital

"Natural capital is the extension of the economic notion of capital (manufactured means of production) to goods and services relating to

the natural environment.

Natural capital is thus the stock of natural ecosystems that yields a flow of valuable ecosystem goods or services into the future.

For example, a stock of trees or fish provides a flow of new trees or fish, a flow which can be indefinitely sustainable.

Natural capital may also provide services like recycling wastes or water catchment and erosion control.

Since the flow of services from ecosystems requires that they function as whole systems, the structure and diversity of the system are

important components of natural capital.

Kapital (modal) ALAM

SUMBER: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_Capital

In a traditional economic analysis of the factors of production, natural capital would usually be classified as "land" distinct from "capital" in

its original sense. The historical distinction between "land" and "capital" was that land is naturally

occurring and its supply is assumed to be fixed, whereas capital as originally defined referred only to man-made goods, (e.g., Georgism).

It has been argued that it's useful to view many natural systems as capital because they can be improved or degraded by the actions of man over time (see Tragedy of

the commons), so that to view them as if their productive capacity is fixed by nature alone is misleading.

Moreover, they yield benefits naturally which are harvested by humans, those being nature's services, 17 of which were closely analyzed by Robert Costanza.

These benefits are in some ways similar to those realized by owners of infrastructural capital which yields more goods, e.g. a factory which produces

automobiles just as an apple tree produces apples.

JASA EKOSISTEM

SUMBER: http://knowledge.sagepub.com/view/greenbusiness/n66.xml

Environmental services is a concept from the ecological economics literature.

A well-known definition of environmental services is “any functional attribute of natural ecosystems that are demonstrably beneficial to

humankind.”

The concept basically tries to capture in broad terms the idea that the natural environment provides particular important uses or benefits

that can be captured under the concept of “services.”

As such, it aims to frame the interdependence of humans and nature in ways attuned to mainstream economic discourse and as a logical

“asset” to take into account in business and private sector decisions.

PES: Payments for Environmental Services

SUMBER: http://www.oas.org/dsd/PES/DefinitionPES.htm...

Pagiola (2004) refers to payments for ecosystem services as a method of internalizing the positive externalities associated with a given ecosystem or a specific

resource use.

According to Wunder (2005), PES can be defined as:1. a voluntary transaction where2. a well-defined environmental service (ES) (or a land-use likely to

secure that service)3. is being ‘bought’ by a (minimum one) ES buyer from a (minimum

one) ES provider4. if and only if the ES provider secures ES provision conditionally.

5. Pagiola, S. et. al. 2004. Paying for Biodiversity Conservation in Agricultural Landscapes. The World Bank, Washington, D.C.

6. Wunder, S. 2005. Payments for Environmental Services: Some Nuts and Bolts. CIFOR, Occasional Paper No.427. Wunder, S. 2005. Payments for Environmental Services: Some Nuts and Bolts. CIFOR, Occasional Paper No.42


STRUKTUR UMUM MEKANISME PES

PES: Payments for Environmental Services


Services provided by the environment are of great importance to sustain life on the planet. For the last century, humans have

deteriorated the environment through economic activities such as agricultural practices, industry and incorrect use of technology.

Regulatory and protected area approaches are now known to be

insufficient to ensure the conservation of biodiversity. A main problem is financial, especially for resources that lie outside protected areas. For these to be conserved, they need to be more valuable than the

alternative uses of land.

The failure of landowners to capture financial benefits from conserving ecosystem benefits can lead to overexploitation of natural

resources and undersupply of ecosystem services, for instance..

TRADE IN ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES: OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS

SUMBER: http://www.jnu.ac.in/Faculty/Asawhney/Sawhney2003wp102.pdf

The OECD definition, environmental services consist of those activities, which measure, prevent, limit, and correct environmental damage to

air, water, soil, and problems relating to waste, noise, and ecosystems.

The US environment industry defines environmental services as all revenue generating service activities, which are related to compliance with environmental regulations, environmental assessment, analysis, and protection, pollution control, waste management, remediation,

provision and delivery of environmental resources like water, recovered materials, and energy, and activities for improving energy

and resource efficiency, increasingproductivity, and enabling sustainable economic growth.

TRADE IN ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES: OPPORTUNITIES ANDCONSTRAINTS


The OECD definition of environmental services describes the coverage ofenvironmental services in terms of groups of activities and in terms of core and non-

core areas of activity within each of these groups.

The three broad groups of activities in this sector are as follows:

The first is the pollution management group which consists of activities such as airpollution control, waste water management, solid waste management, remediation,

cleanup of soil and water, noise and vibration abatement, environmental monitoring, analysis, assessment, environmental research and development, and

environmental construction and engineering. For instance, waste management services include core activities such as collection,

transport and landfill operations, waste to energy conversion services, recycling, industrial resource recovery, and waste reduction services. In addition, there are

non-core activities such as ecological consulting, legal, land use advisory and analytical services, which are also relevant to this group.

TRADE IN ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES: OPPORTUNITIES ANDCONSTRAINTS


The second set of activities falls under the cleaner technology group.

These activities are aimed at eliminating or reducing the impact of technologies, processes, and products.

These include activities such as design of new processes and products, environmental research and development, and

environmental monitoring and impact assessment.

Again, non-core areas such as consulting, engineering, technical analysis and testing are relevant to this group of

activities.

TRADE IN ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES: OPPORTUNITIES AND CONSTRAINTS


The third set of activities falls under the resource management

group.

This group includes activities that enable efficient and

sustainable use of resources, for instance:

Solid waste recycling and resource recovery relating to

disposal,

Management and recycling services.

Characteristics of Environmental Services


The environmental services sector has three important characteristics.

The first important characteristic is that it overlaps with activities in just about all other sectors of the economy. For instance, the sector overlaps with activities in sectors as diverse as architecture services, construction and related engineering services, technical analysis services, auditing and risk assessment, research and

development, and consulting services.

As a result, the range of establishments and occupations that are relevant to the environmental services sector is quite large and diverse.

The range of occupations includes, for instance, environmental impact assessors, environmental consultants, ecological advisors, landscape consultants and urban

planners, environmental management consultants, environmental law counsellors, and ecological marketing advisers. This overlap is due to the fact that activities

within the environmental services sector, unlike those in other sectors, are meant to internalize the environmental costs of economic activities into the economic system.




A second important characteristic of this sector is that the consumption of several environmental services has

properties of public goods, and this makes pricing based on consumer use difficult.

Hence, considerations of equity, universal provision, and affordable access are very important in this sector.




The third important characteristic is that the provision of several environmental services typically requires large investment to ensure that collection and distribution networks reach the entire population

(e.g. sewerage system network).

This feature supports the emergence of natural monopoly for efficiency in the provision of environmental services requiring large capital investment (i.e. to minimize the cost of per unit provision of

the service)..


Environmental services under the GATS are defined to include:

(a) sewage services; (b) refuse disposal services; (c) sanitation and similar services; (d) other environmental services.

The other environmental services category has been expanded to include the remaining elements of the CPC environmental services

category:

1. cleaning services of exhaust gases, 2. noise abatement services3. nature and landscape protection services4. other environmental protection services.

The environmental services industry consists of both public sector environmental utilities/ infrastructure, as well as private sector environmental support services.

Even with privatization in the infrastructure services, the public sector plays a large role (as both producer and

consumer) of the most significant environmental services (by value),

including sewage treatment, refuse disposal, sanitation and drinking water.

STRUCTURE OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES INDUSTRY


Where We Are...

• Call for liberalization:– “the reduction or, as appropriate, elimination of

tariff and non-tariff barriers to environmental goods and services”, Doha Ministerial Declaration, para 31(iii)

• Uncertainty about definitions and classifications

• Defining negotiations or negotiating definitions?

Sumber: www.unep-unctad.org/cbtf/cbtf2/meetings/singapore/egs_upload.ppt

Definitions and Classifications

1. Historically, each sector is a response to a regulation (demand factor)

2. All definitions are based on supply side approach3. No comprehensive international statistical

definitions4. No international agreed criteria for classification5. Where these exist, differ from from country to

country


Narrow ApproachCPC = Central Product Classification

• Technology/capital goods, based on HS

• GATS/SSCL W/120, based on CPC – A. Sewage services– B. Refuse disposal

services– C. Sanitation and

similar services– D. Other


Problematik dengan HS Harmonized Commodity Description

and Coding System (HS)

1. No chapter for environmental goods2. Harmonized up to 6 digit - comparison of tariff

levels across markets3. “National lines” differ4. Based on physical characteristics, precludes

defining goods through services


Wide Approach: OECD

• Definition:– Measuring, preventing, limiting, minimizing or

correcting environmental damage to water, air and soil, as well as problems related to waste, noise and ecosystems

• Indicative list of goods and services:– all environmental media– three broad rubrics

• APEC modeled after OECD


Environmentally Preferable Products

• More environmentally friendly at some stage in life/cycle

superior to petroleum-based products PPMs: organic coffee, cocoa, tea, jute, tropical timber

from sustainable forests contribute to preservation of environment, e.g. non-

timber forest products – rattan and bamboo• Cross-overs, e.g. jute: superior to polyethylene,

organic


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