BOOK PROPOSAL

INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA: ELIMINATING BOTTLENECKS AHEAD OF A SUSTAINABLE GROWTH TRAJECTORYEditors Nuno Gil, Professor of New Infrastructure Development, Alliance Manchester Business School, The University of Manchester

Innocent Musonda, Lecturer in Construction Project Management, University of Johannesburg

Anne Stafford, Senior Lecturer in Accounting and Finance, Alliance Manchester Business School, The University of Manchester

Guest Editor Ray Levitt, Kumagai Professor of Engineering in the Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering at Stanford University.

1. GENERAL DESCRIPTIONThe motivation for this book is to advance our empirical and conceptual understanding

of what it takes for an African country, and a developing economy more generally, to succeed in the global race for developing sustainable infrastructure. Our focus will be on long-lived, capital-intensive infrastructure including transport systems (roads, railways, airports), utility systems (potable water, sewerage, electricity, and gas), and social assets (schools, hospitals). Through a group of independent but complementary contributions this book will probe into the challenges which hinder new sustainable infrastructure development in African countries.

A golden thread unifying all the contributions will be a commitment to evidence-based arguments. Hence underpinning the conceptual arguments collated in this book will be a vast and rich empirical database of case studies and statistical records. The idea is to explore real-world data to advance our understanding of the advantages and disadvantages of alternative approaches for eliminating bottlenecks for new infrastructure development. We will also examine and discuss the influence of differing African local contexts in the implementation of development processes, governance structures, and the quality of the outcomes.

We aim to take stock from known but underexplored successful and less successful cases. Our aim is to cast a wide net over the cases and surrounding contexts as appropriate for management and organizational studies that investigate complex problems. As theorists in complexity science and collective action both argue, there are no simple solutions for complex problems—too many opposing forces, nonlinear relationships, and feedback loops invariably cause simple solutions to backfire1.1 Stacey, RD 1995. The science of complexity: An alternative perspective for strategic

change processes. Strategic Management Journal, 16:477-495

And yet, complexity is not the same as chaos2. Hence our contributions will examine the complex influence of contextual variables at different institutional levels notably the project, local government, and national government. We plan to discuss the implications to organizing and management of alternative financing structures including: i) opaque and murky bilateral agreements between African governments with Chinese state-owned companies, a widespread approach in Africa; and ii) more open but apparently slow to forge agreements with multilateral agencies such as the World Bank and the African Development Bank. We will also examine alternative ways to structure the project organizations tasked to develop new infrastructure, from working with bureaucratic public agencies already in place to setting up semi-autonomous agencies purposely created to develop new infrastructure.

Our core message is that it is within the reach of governments, businesses, and non-profits to design and implement solutions to bridge the infrastructure gap that besets African countries. But the problem is complex, and thus we should not expect simple solutions.

2. AIM This book is about furthering our conceptual and empirical understanding of the

challenges and opportunities created by the gap between infrastructure supply and demand in Africa. The problem could not be more relevant for society. According to recent data from the United Nations, Africa’s share of the world’s population (currently estimated around 7.3 billion) is about 1.2 billion or 16.1%.3 But this share is projected to increase to almost 40% by 2100. If UN figures are not too off the mark, by 2100, Africa’s population will reach 4.4 billion in a world with over 11.2 billion people. The growth of Africa’s population is predicted to happen in a rapid fashion. This is to the extent that by 2050—a date when we reckon many contributors to this book, contemporaneous readers, and their offspring will be alive—Africa’s population will make a quarter of the total population of the world. It gives cause to wonder if the escalating migrant crisis currently affecting Europe, which involves a large proportion of migrants from Africa, is not a harbinger of way more challenging times to come. And arguably, unless we find ways to develop sustainable infrastructure in Africa, and thus make Africa a better place to live and work, the situation can only get more complex.

Concurrently, Africa’s economy is also growing. As Mol et al. (2015)4 state in a recent note on strategic management in Africa, Nigeria and Zambia are notorious for high numbers of entrepreneurs; African multinationals such as Dangote Group and MTN have started to get attention in the international press; and foreign direct investment levels in Africa continue on a rise; China of course has been a long strategic investor in Africa, but other countries notably the USA are actively trying to augment their influence and economic presence on the continent.

2 Ostrom, E. 2010 A Long Polycentric Journey. Annual Review of Political Science. 13, 1-23

3 United Nations 2015. World Population Prospects: The 2015 Revision, Key Findings and Advance Tables. Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division Working Paper No. ESA/P/WP.2414 Mol, M., Stadler, C. Tunji, A. Arino, A. (2015). Strategic Management in Africa. Global Strategy Journal. Call for Papers for a Special Issue.

However, the scarcity of management and organizational studies grounded in the Africa reality has made Africa one of the last frontiers for management research5. Our book aims to contribute to literature that addresses issues of governance and growth in developing economies. For example, Brian Levy’s book on Working with the Grain (Oxford University Press) which offers a most insightful pragmatic analysis of the interaction between politics, institutions, and policy in developing countries; or Ngaire Wood’s book The Globalizers (Cornell Univ. Press) which explores the potential and limitations of interstate organizations such as the IMF and the World Bank to foster good governance in the borrowing countries.

However, our book is novel in that it aims to complement literature on development and growth in developing economies by focusing on a specific phenomenon—the development of new capital-intensive, long-lived infrastructure, the backbone of modern societies. Infrastructure is a fundamental pillar of sustainable development and growth, and indeed the World Economic Forum puts infrastructure on a par with health and primary education, the macro economic environment, and institutions. Hence our idea to organize an edited book wholly focused on new infrastructure development in Africa will enable us to probe much deeper into the issues of finance, governance, and management. This approach will offer a contrast to the cursory treatment that infrastructure typically receives in the economic development literature. It will also complement recent efforts to bring studies empirically grounded in Africa to the forefront of theoretical debates in management literature.6

Our book is also different from existing contributions within the literature in the projects domain. The research stream in this literature that looks into the so-called ‘megaprojects’ is of course highly relevant to our understanding of new infrastructure development. Many new infrastructure development schemes involve large sums of money and are institutionally so complicated to strategically plan and implement that they fit well with the megaproject construct. But the megaprojects literature is predominantly empirically grounded in Western problems. For example, Bent Flyvbjerg has just edited the Oxford Handbook of Megaproject Management which only includes one chapter out of 26 empirically grounded in an in-depth case study of a project in an African setting. And even books that offer a more global lens on the megaproject phenomenon such as Global Projects edited by Scott, Levitt, and Orr, include limited evidence-based research on new infrastructure development in Africa.

In addition, the megaprojects literature is heavily influenced by ideas and constructs that go back to the professionalization of the project management practice in a Western context in the 60s7. The world has changed enormously since then, and calls to reinvent the project management practice and conceptual foundations have been made8. But deep-seated social 5 Klingebiel, R., Stadler, C. 2015. Opportunities and challenges for empirical strategy research in Africa, Africa Journal of Management, 1:2, 194-2006 Uzo, U., Mair, J. 2014. Source and Patterns of Organizational Defiance of Formal Institutions: Insights from Nollywood, the Nigerian Movie Industry. Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal, 8, 56-74.7 Cleland, DI, King, WR 1968. Systems Analysis and Project Management. McGraw-Hill, NY.8 Shenhar, AJ, Dvir, D 2007. Reinventing Project Management. The Diamond Approach

to Successful Growth and Innovation, Harvard Business School Press; see also, Levitt,

norms and practices still associate ‘project success’ in the eyes of third parties (and the public more generally) to the capacity to avoid scope creep and to deliver scope on time and within budget. Because legitimacy is about external validation relative to what established norms deem appropriate (Scott 1987), failure to produce reliable plans equates to project ‘failure’. If projects ‘fail’, third-parties can then judge the leaders’ behavior as inappropriate. Project ‘failure’ thus impairs the legitimacy of the leaders to allocate the resources which their initial pledges in the strategic planning stage allowed them to acquire. If leaders lose legitimacy to lead, their long-term survival in a leadership position is at risk (Denis et al. 2001).

However, expectations that strategic planning can produce reliable plans in the African context are unrealistic. In these settings, skilled labor, specialized knowledge, and finance are scarce resources; legal frameworks and its enforcement, regulatory regimes, property rights and other institutions—the ‘rules of the game’ 9—are also under developed. There is also abundance of organizational defiance practices, and thus of the pursuit of informal economic activity either to seek rents by breaking the law, or to circumvent ambiguity in formal rules 10. In addition, in a context of fragile institutions, the assumption that lack of external legitimacy is a sufficient condition to put at risk the long-term survival of leaders seems also unlikely to apply in many African countries. Hence we would argue that the theoretical insights and practical implications from megaprojects literature have limited validity and predictability power when extended to an African context.

Our book will not, however, reinvent management and organization theory, but rather use it as a cognitive lens to illuminate and further our understanding of new infrastructure development in Africa. Admittedly, there are many differing African contexts. South Africa, for example, is one of the most important African economies with success in attracting foreign direct investment and in pursuing policy reforms since the 1990s11. In contrast, Nigeria and many other sub-Saharan countries are classic ‘neopatrimonial’ states. In these settings, the organizational or normative separation between the public and the private realms is weak, and many rulers and officials can be expected to treat public resources as their private property and use public authority to appropriate private property of others.12 And yet, the use of extant conceptual frameworks and tools in management studies to interrogate underexplored phenomena in Africa will enhance the robustness of our arguments and claims. As such, the book can become a useful resource for management scholars interested in exploring the boundaries of validity and application of extant knowledge and theory.

RE 2011. Towards project management 2.0. Engineering Projects Organization Journal 1 (3) 197-210

9. North D. 1990. Institutions, Institutional Change, and Economic Performance Norton: New York10 Uzo, U., Mair, J. 2014. Source and Patterns of Organizational Defiance of Formal Institutions: Insights from Nollywood, the Nigerian Movie Industry. Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal, 8, 56-74.11 Meyer, Klaus E. and Estrin, Saul and Bhaumik, Sumon Kumar and Peng, Mike W.(2009) Institutions, resources and entry strategies in emerging economies. Strategic management journal, 30 (1). pp. 61-8012 Wade, RH 2007. Ngaire Woods The Globalizers: The IMF, the World Bank and Their Borrowers. New Political Economy. 12 (1) 127-138.

2. OBJECTIVESWe turn now to briefly explain the six objectives which we aim to achieve with this

book, highlighting some central ideas as to how we plan to achieve each specific objective.

1. Infrastructure gap in Africa It is our first objective that this book will contribute to articulate the gap between infrastructure demand and supply in Africa in the domains of transport systems, education and healthcare facilities, and utilities. But we will not do by producing and summarizing aggregate statistics—this perspective of the problem is already well covered in technical reports produced by multiple organizations such as the United Nations and the World Bank. Rather, it is our intent to further our understanding of the infrastructure gap through case studies that will illuminate the challenges to co-produce strategic plans and the subsequent adversities that emerge during the implementation of those plans. Our cases will shed light on the multiple institutional layers at which strategic planning and implementation of new schemes are challenged including at leadership level, organizational constituencies, and the broad environment.

In addition, bridging the infrastructure gap in Africa will require not only the development of local and national projects, but also to a degree the development of Pan-Africa and cross-border projects. Transnational infrastructures have long been a backbone of rich regions of the world notably North America and Europe. But cross-border infrastructure projects are difficult to pull off in Africa, a region with many ongoing religious and ethnic conflicts some of which extend across country borders. In addition if some African countries have prospered in recent years, other countries continue to be beset by wars, famines, diseases, and repressive regimes. Challenges notwithstanding, transnational infrastructure projects offer significant opportunities for development and growth, which we also plan to investigate and discuss.

2. Attracting and prioritizing infrastructure investment in Africa Why should investors such as pension funds, infrastructure funds, banks, and sovereign funds invest in infrastructure in Africa as opposed to invest in infrastructure in developed parts of the world? And if investors find interesting returns on investment in Africa commensurate with the risks that they expect to incur, which infrastructure sub-domains look more attractive? In turn, looking to the problem from the eyes of African governments, the question is how to persuade investors to invest in new infrastructure development in Africa? Which areas should they prioritize? Who are the potential investors, what are the differences in their needs and expectations? Infrastructure development cannot happen unless the financial problem is resolved; illuminating the strengths and weakness of alternative solutions to this problem is a second objective of the book.

3. Legal and ethical issues in new infrastructure development . New infrastructure development is rarely a consensual goal as it is difficult to build large-scale, long-lived assets without creating winners and losers along the way. The cost-benefit analysis underpinning a new infrastructure development is also often ambiguous given the long planning horizons, and the uncertainty surrounding the cost and benefits. Complicating

matters, large schemes require compulsory acquisitions of land, and divert large sums of money that could be channeled to address other priorities. If governance is fragile, the vast sums of money create situations that are vulnerable to illegal appropriation of funds, and personal embezzlement by elected leaders, public officials, and contractors.

And yet, new infrastructure cannot be developed unless countries work out the trade-offs, find ways to mitigate the downside risks, have procedures in place to compensate and safeguard the future of people likely to be displaced, and design structures to enable sustainable collective action. Commons theorists would argue that robust governance of collective action arenas would require at least: i) sanctions and monitors to dissuade rule-breaking; ii) affordable mechanisms to resolve emerging conflicts; and iii) delineation of authority and roles13. Addressing the tension between the pros and cons of creating enterprises to develop new infrastructure in Africa is not trivial. Exploring ways how this tension has been managed successfully is the third objective of our book

4. The politics of infrastructure development . In robust democratic societies, infrastructure development projects create the quintessential pluralistic setting. These are settings characterized by diffusion of power to make strategic choices across multiple stakeholders with conflicting goals and knowledge-based processes.14If pluralism is extreme, one ‘dominant coalition’15 of actors is unlikely to emerge to impose their preferences on others. As such, infrastructure development projects in robust democratic societies are characterized by long periods of strategic planning, or gestation, during which strategic choices are made, unmade and remade multiple times. Under these circumstances, strategizing is the outcome of intense interaction, negotiations, and compromises16; the risk of inaction, or ‘paralysis by analysis’17 is also high.

Arguably, the likelihood of a dominant coalition with a tight grip on decision-making power emerging in the context of conversations to promote a new infrastructure project is much higher in an African context. However, infrastructure finance is often controlled by powerful foreign state-owned companies or multilateral agencies, which suggests a level of power fragmentation more akin to extreme pluralistic settings. If this is the case, strategizing will then be inherently political. Looking at the politics affecting strategic planning of new infrastructure development projects in Africa is our fourth objective.

13 Ostrom, E. 1990. Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Actions Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

14 Denis, JL., Dompierre, G., Langley, A. Rouleau, R. 2011. Escalating indecision: between reification and strategic ambiguity. Organization Science, 22, 225–44.

15 Pettigrew, AM 1973 The Politics of Organizational Decision Making. Taylor & Francis, London16 Jarzabkowski, P, Fenton E 2006. Strategizing and Organizing in Pluralist Contexts.

Long Range Planning, 39 (6) 631-64817 Langley, A 1995. Between “paralysis by analysis” and “extinction by instinct.” Sloan

Management Rev. 36(3) 63–76.

5. Governance and leadership in new infrastructure development . What robust structures can be created to govern infrastructure development projects in Africa, and cope with the brutal local politics that permeate the strategic planning and project implementation? What leadership qualities are required to forge ahead with much needed infrastructure development projects in an African context, and prevent these projects from being captured by self-interested agents that turn their backs to public and national interests? To what extent can governance structures that decentralize decision-making authority and do without powerful outside referees have more chances to succeed than centralized structures as suggested by Ostrom’s theory of polycentric commons governance18?

The design of governance, or governmentality19 has direct implications for the performance of pluralistic settings. Governance relates to the organizing structures and rules that allocate decision-making authority and resource control, shape behaviors, and resolve disputes20 . Governance constrains and enables action. Designing governance is a task that requires the involvement of elected leaders, top civil servants and middle management, and thus requires integration across institutional levels. Hence the design of governance is a ‘substantive’ task of leadership.21 However, our focus will not be on the personalities, traits, and capabilities of individual leaders. Rather, our focus will be on the practice of leadership, and specifically on actions to create the structures necessary to govern infrastructure development. Investigating the problem of leadership and governance of new infrastructure projects is the fifth objective of this book.

6. Innovation in new infrastructure development It is unrealistic to assume that the fragility of the institutions in Africa can be fixed any time soon; some countries have made great strides to improve the quality of their institutions, but others have not or have experienced setbacks and reversals. Institutional change is a slow process. Hence, if we take a pragmatic stance, we have to accept that substantive efforts to develop critical infrastructure will occur in contexts where resources are scarce, needs are urgent, power asymmetries are sharp, politics are brutal, and institutions are very fragile. In these circumstances, it seems to us that innovation plays a fundamental role. Innovative ideas can find ways to circumvent obstacles embedded in the status quo, and show us original and unexpected ways to achieve goals albeit an adverse institutional environment.

At the same time, if we also accept that even in Africa new infrastructure development is likely to create pluralistic settings, we can expect complications. In pluralistic contexts,

18 Ostrom, E. 1990. Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Actions Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

19 Clegg, SR, Pitsis, TS, Rura-Polley, T., Marosszeky, M. 2002. Governmentality Matters: Designing an Alliance Cultura of Inter-organizational Collaboration for Managing Projects. Organization Studies, 23/3, 317-37

20 Galbraith, JR 1973. Organization design: An information processing view. Interfaces 4(3) 28–36.

21 Denis, JL., Lamothe, L., Langley, A 2001 The dynamics of collective leadership and strategic change in pluralistic organizations. Academy of Management J., 44, 809-37

power is diffused across actors with conflicting goals, and thus strategic choices frequently require striking a consensus. Consensus can be fatal to innovation.22 And indeed, whilst there is a lot of potential for innovation when promoting a new infrastructure project, innovation often fails to occur because the participants cannot find ways to bridge their differences.23 It is our sixth objective to uncover some innovative cases where infrastructure development occurred perhaps against all odds, and uncover the original processes and structures that enabled the innovations to happen.

3. PRELIMINARY TABLE OF CONTENTS AND LIST OF CHAPTERSWe plan to organize the book in three parts. The first part will be dedicated to articulate

and examine more in-depth the infrastructure gap in Africa. The second part will look into strategic planning, and the third part will be dedicated the project implementation stage. Appendix II includes more detailed information about committed chapters.

Part I: The Infrastructure Gap in Africa The introduction to the first section, and indeed to the book as a whole, will piece together the most salient conceptual insights learned from the different contributions. In so doing, we expect the first chapter of part I to provide an overview of the infrastructure gap in Africa, and the challenges and opportunities related to this infrastructure gap. We anticipate opportunity for different chapters in this part to choose to investigate the instantiation of the infrastructure gap at the different levels (city, national level, transnational), in different local contexts (poor sub-Saharan Africa nation, South Africa, North Africa), and look at efforts to bridge the gap from different perspectives.

For example, we expect one chapter to look into the problems of Kampala, Uganda’s capital, which has yet to install traffic lights despite rampant growth in car acquisition. Kampala City Authority has been, however, attempting a turnaround with financial and technical support from the World Bank in the last few years, and this case is already documented24. This evolution offers an instantiation of the complex interface between local bureaucracies and multilateral agencies in a context of brutal local politics. Further conceptualizing the conditions that enabled the turnaround, and what it means in terms of actual outcomes, can further our understanding of new infrastructure development in Africa.

In addition, we expect other chapters to look into problems at national level such as lessons that can be drawn from the power crisis in South Africa, or Gautrain, Africa’s first high-speed transit railway system. And we would very much welcome to see at least one chapter looking at the challenges and opportunities in Pan-African and cross-border projects.

22 Tushman, ML, O’Reilly III, CA1996. Ambidestrous Organizations: Managing Ecolutionary and Revolutinary Change. California Management Review, Summer, 38,4,8-30.23 Gil, N., Miozzo, M., Massini, S. (2012). The Innovation Potential of New Infrastructure Development: An Empirical Study of Heathrow airport's T5 Project Research Policy, 41 (2) 452-46624 Gil, B., Okuk, O. (2015). The Kampala City Authority: The turnaround of Uganda’s Capital (A). Centre for Infrastructure Development, The University of Manchester

Part II: The Strategic Planning Challenge The second part of the book will be focused on the problem of strategic planning and co-production of strategic choice under a complicated pluralistic context. We will argue that many African contexts offer a particular situation of extreme pluralism in which some influential actors will concentrate substantial amount of power over decision-making. And yet, those powerful actors are not omnipotent. Hence they are unlikely to have absolute control over all strategic choices and to be capable to unilaterally impose all their preferences on others. Put differently, it will be unlikely that a single actor controls all the resources necessary for a new infrastructure scheme to forge ahead, and thus power remains fragmented across multiple actors with conflicting goals.

Strategic planning then creates the challenge of reconciling conflicting goals with the resources that other actors are willing to commit. We expect this challenge to be amplified by the scarcity of critical resources (e.g., technical and managerial expertise, land, finance). Slack resources are useful to reconcile incompatible goals without necessarily resolving the conflict, this is to ‘quasi-resolve’ conflicts25, and thus to sustain pluralistic organizations. Strategic ambiguity in the public discourse and practices of reification (e.g. enthusiastic discourse, exaggerated claims, memoranda of understanding) are less expensive and equally useful to mask conflict and thus sustain pluralistic organizations26. But alone, strategic ambiguity and reification do not suffice to produce results.

In this section we will include chapters that can illuminate how particular institutional frameworks can be of help to strategically plan new projects. Case research can be useful to shed light on the advantages and disadvantages of alternative structures to govern strategic planning, and how they can cope with local politics. The chapters in this second part will be particularly beneficial to policy makers and to those operating in the statutory side of the equation who seek ways to streamline and facilitate successful infrastructure investment.

For example, we have already empirically documented the challenges facing LAMATA, a semi-autonomous public agency created to modernize the transport systems in Lagos, Nigeria27. Lagos is expected to become the largest city of Africa by population before the end of this decade, and continues to receive on a daily basis new migrants. And yet, Lagos has hardly any public transport systems and only an incipient road network that is a legacy from the dictatorial regime. Whilst the competence and capabilities of LAMATA top managers are recognized, they have struggled to make substantive progress apart from a few exceptions. For sure, the achievements fall short of the ambition to develop extensive networks of bus rapid transit corridors and light-rail. Conceptualizing the obstacles encountered by

25 Cyert, R. M., J. G. March. 1963/1992. A Behavioral Theory of the Firm. 2nd ed. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.

26 Denis, JL., Dompierre, G., Langley, A. Rouleau, R. 2011. Escalating indecision: between reification and strategic ambiguity. Organization Science, 22, 225–44; Jarzabkowski P, Sillience, JAA Shaw D 2010. Strategic ambiguity as a rhetorical resource for enabling multiple interests. Human relations, 63 (2) 219-248

27 Msulwa, R., Gil, N. (2015). Lamata (Nigeria): A Beacon of Light for Lagos Transport System. Centre for Infrastructure Development. The University of Manchester, UK

LAMATA, and ways to eliminate existing bottlenecks will be the focus of one chapter in this section.

Part III: The Project Implementation Challenge The third part of the book will focus on the problems of project implementation. In this part we will look into the issues of procurement, technical and managerial capabilities, contractual governance, and flexibility to cope with change in requirements, and problems in acquiring land and finance. We will also look into governance structures that can be robust to dissuade people in positions of authority from falling in the temptation to divert funds, engage in corruption and bribes, and award contracts without competitive bidding. We will also discuss how infrastructure projects can be catalysts of development of local capabilities and capacity to get things done.

In addition, we will expect at least a few contributions to take an innovation perspective. Innovation in financing, procurement and development of infrastructure is a prerequisite to bridge the infrastructure gap facing Africa. African nations are competing in a global race for money to finance new infrastructure development, and successful nations will have to be innovative to win this race.

For example, we have already documented the case of Uganda’s first toll road, the expressway connecting the capital city, Kampala, to the country’s main international airport in Entebbe.28 The idea of introducing toll roads in Uganda is a major innovation in a country where the legal frameworks disallow charging for the use of roads, and thus will have to change before the road opens. The approach to implement the toll road is also constrained by the financing mechanism, which involves a US$350million preferential loan from the Export-Import Bank of China negotiated under opaque conditions. Implementation has encountered numerous challenges notably in terms of taking possession of land, and dealing with corruption scandals within the Uganda National Roads Authority. But it is unclear which other financial mechanisms could be used to finance the much needed project to catalyze socio-economic growth, and how could land have been acquired in a more efficient way. Using the innovative Kampala case to conceptualize project implementation expectations in challenging institutional contexts will be the focus of one of the chapters in this book.

The closing chapter of this section and indeed of the book will summarize the key empirical and conceptual insights, and take stock of this project. In addition, this final chapter will seek to articulate fundamental gaps in knowledge that urge to address, and thus suggest, opportunities for further research. This chapter will also reflect over the methodological challenges facing researchers who consider doing management research in Africa, and spell out some clues and ideas helpful to gain access to exciting but complex settings. We believe the opportunities to do research in Africa with global relevance are many and rewarding.

The table below summarizes a preliminary list of committed contributions.

PART I - The Infrastructure Gap in AfricaChapter 1 Introduction (the editors) In the introduction the editors will build on this

28 Gil, N., Okuk, O. (2015). UNRA Kampala-Entebbe Expressway: Uganda’s First Toll Road (A, B). Centre for New Infrastructure Development, The University of Manchester.

proposal to articulate the sstrucutre of the challenge of developing infrastructure in Africa, and highlight fundamental insights deriving from the set of contributions in the book. Our goal is to yield a conceptual framework that encapsulates the factors that create a complex problem, and highlights ways in which complex solutions can be constructed.Chapter xx Wafaa Nadim [w.nadim@gmail.com] Urban Poverty and Future Housing in Egypt. Waffa proposes to examine the problem of lack of housing in Egypt, and investigate Government initiatives that led to unsuccessful housing schemes. This will be contrasted with current informal developments using a case study in order to explore success factors

Chapter xx Brian Levy, John Hopkins University [Brian Levy [blevy9@jhu.edu]Brian will examine the political economy of decision-making on public sector restructuring using data from the power outages in South Africa.Part II: The Strategic Planning ChallengeChapter xx Chileshe, Nicholas [Nicholas.chileshe@unisa.edu.au] Bottlenecks and Coping Mechanisms Nicholas will draw upon the extant literature in identifying the critical success factors associated with managing infrastructure project in Africa, as well coping mechanisms and strategies for dealing with risk management practices. Some advocated solutions and roadmap for addressing the identified bottlenecks will be put forward.Chapter xx Anne Stafford, Pam Stapleton, Cletus Agyemin-BoatengUsing data from Ghana, the authors will look to the ex post implementation side, and critical issues necessary to ensure infrastructure projects in Africa deliver the social and economic benefits promised. Specifically, the authors will look at the relationships and monitoring processes between the indigenous government, the institutional funders and the construction companies to examine the affordability and viability of projects in the long term.Chapter xx Donald Roy Lessard [dlessard@mit.edu], Valerie Karplus [vkarplus@mit.edu] Institutions, policy support, and the pace of renewable energy development in Egypt, Mozambique, Ghana, and Kenya This chapter will explore the conditions for inception and success of clean energy projects in which the technology and investment to date largely originate overseas but interact in important ways with the domestic business, infrastructure, and policy landscapeChapter xx Gil, Nuno, Msulwa, Rehema. The authors will use data from transport infrastructure development enterprises in Uganda and Nigeria to develop a contingency argument of strategic planning performance that contains a relationship between the source of finance (interstate agencies vs. bilateral agreement) and the embeddedness of the promoter’s agent (semi-autonomous agency vs. established bureaucracy)Part III: The Project Implementation ChallengeChapter xx Mark Hellowell , mark.hellowell@ed.ac.uk (Univ. Edinburgh, School of Social Policy and Political Science) Mark will use data from Lesotho to examine the delivery of healthcare infrastructure through integrated public private partnershipsChapter xx Trynos Gumbo tgumbo@uj.ac.za, Innocent Musonda imusonda@uj.ac.za , Walter Musakwa wmusakwa@uj.ac.za , Boniface Bwanyire [bbwanyire@gmail.comThe authors will use data from rapid railway mega- infrastructure investments and development projects from South Africa and Ethiopia. As the pioneer in the tailoring of huge investments in fast railway infrastructure, South Africa provides a wealth of data that is gathered from the various phases that have so far being completed as well as the ongoing expansion initiatives. The Ethiopian case serves to buttress the nature of investment, procurement and governance systems that obtain in the African continent. A comparative approach of the two cases is adopted to reveal the merits, challenges being faced and determine the future prospects of mega projects in Africa in terms of policy and approachesChapter xx Jochen Markard [jmarkard@ethz.ch] and Hagen Worch

[hagen.worch@ffhs.ch] The authors will use a capability perspective to examine the severe power outages experienced by South Africa between 2005 and 2008, and trace performance problems  in public utilities back to regulatory policies and organizational capabilities.Chapter xxx Edoun, Emmanuel [eiedoun@uj.ac.za]; Dikgang Motsepe In this chapter the authors will discuss the implications of the Private sector Investment in improving the state of Infrastructure in Africa. They will use data from the African Forum and Network on Debt and Development (AFRODAD); the Global Action for Africa’s Development (GLAFAD); the Pan African Parliament (PAP); African Capacity Building Foundation (ACBF); and the African Union (AU).Chapter Concluding remarks (the editors)

Later contirbutions:

Tuna, Gokce [gokce.tuna13@imperial.ac.uk]; Kivleniece, Ilze [ilze.kivleniece@imperial.ac.uk]

Parikh, Priti [priti.parikh@ucl.ac.uk]; Davies, Andrew [a.c.davies@ucl.ac.uk]

Richard de Neufville [ardent@mit.edu]; Amy Michelle Rose [amrose@mit.edu]; Robert James Stoner [stoner@mit.edu]; Jose Ignacio Perez-Arriaga [ipa@mit.edu]

5. LENGTH AND SCHEDULEIt is too early to predict reliably how many tables, diagrams or illustrations we plan to

include in the book as the book will rely on the independent contributions from a group of authors. However, given our emphasis in producing a collection of evidence-based arguments, we expect our contributors to use tables and diagrams to illustrate their data and results from the analysis. Likewise, it is difficult to predict the length of the book. That said, we plan to have about 12-15 chapters; and we can assume a chapter will adopt a standard format of 40 pages (Time New Roman, 12 font, double-space, one inch margins). Our plan is to have a manuscript ready to be delivered in Spring 2017.

6. DEFINITION OF THE MARKETFrom the list provided, we think the business/management sub-disciplines potentially most interested in the book will be International Business; Public & Nonprofit Management; Complex Systems, Strategic Management; and Projects. In addition, the book will be relevant to schools of the built environment which traditionally host scholars undertaking development studies; schools of public administration; and the groups of construction management traditionally based in engineering schools.

In regards to the use of the book as essential prescribed reading we can conceive this scenario occurring in top programs in civil engineering, construction management, and management schools in Africa and to schools with international development programs on a worldwide basis. In some African countries, local universities have been gradually developing research capacity and improving the quality of teaching. Civil engineering, quantity surveying/ construction management, and urban and regional planning are core academic disciplines in many technical schools, and we conceive these schools interested in problems of infrastructure development in Africa, and more generally in making students aware of how to accomplish goals in complex systems. These goals frequently involve

project-based forms of organizing which will be central to the book, and thus we can conceive book adoption as recommended or supplementary reading in many courses.

In addition, we suspect the book can be of interest to numerous practitioners that work in the domain of infrastructure development in Africa, and developing economies more generally, including practitioners based at multilateral agencies, civil servants in African governments, donor agencies, state-owned lenders (China, Japan), and even middle and top managers at companies operating in Africa in the broad domain of new infrastructure development. We can conceive a scenario where the book will also be endorsed by professional institutions such as the chartered institute of building or civil engineering, and in this way reach out to many communities of practitioners.

The book draws on well-established research streams in management studies, public policy and political science, and more technical literature in planning and management of project-based forms of organizing work. In its most abstract form, some contributions will be expected to draw from literature on management under pluralism and thus studies that look at the institutional and political challenges inherent to settings with diffused power, conflicting goals, and knowledge-based processes. Other literatures where we expect some chapters to draw from will be the megaprojects and complex systems literature; and literature in planning and policy studies, commercial management and accountability and governance.

7. COMPETITIONAside some of the books aforementioned on megaprojects, and which deal with problem

of infrastructure development in Africa in passing, or infrastructure handbooks with high-level reference to Africa or to individual countries29 we are not aware of major contributions to further our understanding of this phenomenon. The exceptions are technical publications which as we argued above are complementary to our goal, as opposed to constitute direct competition. This is the case, for example, of Vivien and Briceno-Garmendia (2010)’s publication Africa’s Infrastructure: A time for transformation published by the World Bank. The strength of this publication is to offer extensive statistics on the infrastructure problems facing Africa and document progress and recent achievements on an aggregate basis. The book is sprinkled with some successful and not so successful stories to illustrate the claims. It should by now be clear that our book differs significantly from technical reports.

8. MARKETING INFORMATIONWe were asked for some input at this early stage about a marketing plan for the proposed book.

We discussed the topic among ourselves, and came up with some ideas of professional societies and organizations interested in this project notably the Chartered institute of building (Liezl Botha is Regional Manager and based in South Africa lbotha@ciob.co.za), the South African Council for project and construction management professions (jimmym@sacpcmp.org.za), the Institution of civil engineers, and the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors who has a strong presence in Africa through RICS - Africa .

In terms of five academic journals whose readership we think would find our book most interesting and would be likely to either purchase a copy or recommend that their library do so, we

29 Roumboutsos, A. ed., 2015. Public Private Partnerships in Transport: Trends and Theory. Routledge; Akintoye, A., Beck, M. and Kumaraswamy, M. eds., 2015. Public Private Partnerships: A Global Review. Routledge.

would highlight: Construction Management & Economics, Research Policy, Building Research & Information, Journal of Construction Engineering & Management, Africa Journal of Management.

In terms of conferences, some of the contributors are management scholars and attend regularly the Academy of Management which is gaining more and more interest among African scholars, and indeed organizes every other year a conference in Africa. The global strategy journal has also recently issued a call for papers for a special issue which again suggests the growing interest for Africa in the management community. Others are scholars in technical schools and thus regularly attend the CIB world congress, DII Conferences on infrastructure in Africa, International cost engineering council, CIB W099 conference on health and safety, and Engineering Project Organizations Conference.

In terms of other sales opportunities, it occurred to us that opportunities exist to seek support from institutional and international organizations. Institutions such as the Development Bank of Southern Africa (DBSA), NEPAD, World Bank, EU, and the AU may be contacted to support the book. In addition, we can imagine many universities interested in purchasing copies of the book to use as a resource in postgraduate education. It is our aim that the book can become a key reference material to inform education, policy, research, and practice on infrastructure development in Africa.

APPENDIX I: ABOUT THE EDITORS AND GUEST EDITOR

Gil, Nuno, Ph.D. Nuno is Professor of New Infrastructure Development, the world's first professorial handle of this nature in a Business school. He joined the Manchester Business School in October 2004.Nuno coined the term New Infrastructure Development to designate a theoretical perspective that encompasses the intertwined socio-political, financial, and technical challenges that are central to the leadership, management, and governance of large infrastructure (so-called mega-projects), and more broadly, portfolios of megaprojects hold by corporations, cities/regions, and nations. Nuno earned a PhD in Civil and Environmental Engineering, UC Berkeley, and interdisciplinary certificates in the Management of Technology and in Logistics with the Haas Business School. He had professional practice stints in structural engineering and project management, following completion of a 5-year degree in Civil Engineering in the Institute Superior Técnico, Lisbon, Portugal. Nuno is a fellow of the Institution of Civil Engineers, and is a non-executive independent director of an European construction group.

Nuno is associated editor of IEEE Transactions in Engineering Management. Nuno has worked, or done research, with various organizations including CH2M HILL and Intel (USA); in the UK: Rolls Royce, BAA (now Heathrow Ltd), BP, Manchester City Council, Network Rail, Beetham Organization, Crossrail, London2012, High-speed 2, and LEK. Consulting; in Portugal: EDP-Energy, Crossrail; in India: Larsen & Toubro, Dedicated Freight Corridor Corporation of India; in Nigeria: Lamata; in Uganda: Road Fund and Kampala City Authority; in Pakistan: MJLA Solutions.

The central question at the heart of Nuno’s research asks: which structures bring the best of people in consensus-oriented collaborations (aka pluralistic settings)? Nuno arrived at this question after a decade studying how democratic societies produce long-lived infrastructure. In these complex forms of organizing, power to make decisions is distributed across multiple actors with conflicting goals and knowledge-based processes. Pluralistic settings cannot simply rely on authority or meritocracy-based hierarchies neither market mechanisms to get things done. Achieving goals under pluralism requires collaboration, and yet we cannot take for granted that collaboration will emerge under pluralism. Jointly with PhD students and collaborators Nuno investigates development processes, design structures, contracting and procurement strategies, governance structures, and the practice of leadership to achieve system-level goals in pluralistic settings. In 2013, Nuno and Professor Carliss Baldwin (Harvard Business School) coined the term design commons to encapsulate the pluralistic nature of the problem of developing infrastructure. Nuno is currently writing a book on Megaproject Leadership and Governance: Designing Solutions for a Collective Action Problem.

Musonda Innocent, Ph.D. Innocent Musonda completed his undergraduate studies in Civil Engineering at the Copperbelt University in Zambia in 1998. He obtained his Master of Science Degree at the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University in 2005. He also holds a Philosophiae Doctor Degree from the University of Johannesburg. Dr. Musonda is a Registered Engineer with the Engineers Registration Board of Zambia, a Professional Construction Manager with the South African Council for Project and Construction Management Professions, and a Chartered Member with the UK’s Chartered Institute of Building.

He has worked for Tertiary Education and Government Institutions and private construction firms as a lecturer, civil Engineer and Construction Project Manager in Zambia, Botswana and South Africa. He currently lectures and conducts research at the University of Johannesburg in construction project management and health and safety. He is an invited lecturer and examiner at Witwatersrand University, Tshwane University of Technology, and the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University. He has presented and published over twenty research articles in peer reviewed academic journals and conferences.

Stafford, Anne, B.A., Ph.D. , FCCA. Anne is Senior Lecturer (Associate Professor) in Accounting and Finance at Alliance Manchester Business School. Following undergraduate studies in Management Studies and Spanish at the University of Leeds, she worked in industry and commerce for five years, becoming a Fellow of the Association of Chartered Certified Accountants (ACCA) during this time. She has lectured widely in accounting-related areas and gained a PhD in Industrial and Business Studies from the University of Warwick in 2003. She joined the Alliance Manchester Business School in August 2004.

Anne has a strong international reputation for research into the complex accounting transactions and governance activities surrounding innovative infrastructure projects, especially Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs). Such research has provided powerful critiques of economic and political theories such as the presumed rationality of market forces and claims of private sector efficiency – and, in the process, has served distinctively to extend the areas to which detailed empirical financial and governance analysis can serve to make not just theoretical but also major public policy contributions. She has exposed significant gaps and failings in accountability processes and levels of transparency due to the lack of consistent, comparable and understandable financial information and governance shortcomings. Her work has notably shown that not only is it very difficult to understand how public money has been spent on PPPs, but that the extent of future financial commitments under such schemes is both unclear and frequently underestimated. This can destabilise public service provision as affordability becomes a challenge, leading, in turn, to the cutting back of services. Given the ongoing global interest in different, emerging forms of public-private partnerships and more efficient infrastructure models, there continues to be great scope for developing such robust financial critique to new public policy models and the sectors within which they are being applied.

Anne has carried out research on infrastructure projects in the UK and Spain, and has supervised students carrying out research in Africa and Asia. Her work has been published in relevant accounting and management journals, as well as professional reports. She has been invited to present her work at the World Bank and at high profile international academic/practitioner workshops on PPPs. She is a member of the ACCA Global Forum for the Public Sector and a Board member of CIGAR (Comparative International Governmental Accounting Research) network.

GUEST EDITOR

Raymond Levitt is the Kumagai Professor of Engineering in the Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering at Stanford University. Dr. Levitt received his Ph.D. in Civil Engineering from Stanford University in 1975. He served on the faculty of MIT’s Department of Civil Engineering from 1975-1980; he joined Stanford’s faculty in 1980 and has been the group leader of Stanford’s four graduate degree programs in Sustainable Design & Construction from 2004-2015.  In 2002, Dr. Levitt co-founded, and has continuously served as the Academic Director of, Stanford’s Global Projects Center (GPC), a multinational consortium of companies, governmental agencies and universities that conducts research and outreach to enhance the financing, governance and life-cycle sustainability of long-term building and infrastructure investments.

Ray was a Senior Fellow of Stanford’s Woods Institute for the Environment from 2004-2015, leading its Sustainable Built Environment Initiative. He is founding Chair of the Engineering Project Organization Society and a charter member of the Organization Design Community.

In 2008 Dr. Levitt was appointed a Commissioner of California's Public Infrastructure Advisory Commission, to develop guidelines and policies for channelling private investment and expertise into California’s aging and underfunded transportation infrastructure.

Ray’s teaching and research focus on the organization and governance of large, complex projects and project-based companies, and on innovation and entrepreneurship in mature industries like construction and shipbuilding. In addition to teaching graduate and undergraduate degree classes on organization design and entrepreneurship, he launched the award-winning Stanford Advanced Project Management Program, an executive education certificate with more than 8,000 graduates to date. 

Ray has received multiple research awards and honours, including: the Commitment to Life Award of the National Safe Workplace Institute, the Walter Huber Research Prize and Peurifoy Research Award of the American Society of Civil Engineers and the Pathfinder Award of the Engineering Project Organization Society. He was elected to the rank of Distinguished Member of the American Society of Civil Engineers in 2008. 

Dr. Levitt has consulted to multiple Fortune 500 projects, programs and companies and has been a co-founder and Director of three software companies related to engineering and management of complex projects. He is President of the Farmers Investment Club, an “angel” investment group that makes early, seed-stage investments in Stanford-affiliated start-up companies.