SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF Bottor of …ir.amu.ac.in/2347/1/T 4853.pdf · an integrated approach for ground water resource evaluation of rajgarh district, m. p. (india)

AN INTEGRATED APPROACH FOR GROUND WATER RESOURCE EVALUATION OF

RAJGARH DISTRICT, M. P. (INDIA)

ABSTRACT

T H E S I S SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

Bottor of MilomhV IN

GEOLOGY

BY

MOHD. ASIF M. Phil. (Allg)

DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY FACULTY OF SCIENCE

ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH (INDIA)

1995

AN INTEGRATED APPROACH FOR GROUND WATER RESOURCE EVALUATION OF RAJGARH DISTRICT, M.P. [INDIA]

MOHD. ASIF

ABSTRACT

The area of Rajgarh district, Madhya Pradesh (India) has been

selected for the present investigation. In order to formulate the groundwater

resource evaluation of the district an attempt has been made to study the

geology, structure, morphometry, geomorphology and hydrogeology . using

remote sensing techniques. Topography, soil, landuse/landcover, weathering

characteristics and drainage of the study area were also studied.

The rocks encountered in the area of interest include sandstones of

the Upper Vindhyan, Lameta limestones and Deccan Trap basalts. Recent

alluvium is developed along the rivers and streams. Basaltic rocks are

comprises of number of flows and each flow is further divided into massive

basalt, vesicular and amygdaloidal basalt and weathered basalt. These

basalts are occasionally marked by the presence of red bole bed at the +op

of the flow. Joints are open in nature and show two prominent set of joints

in the directions of NW-SE and NE-SW. The lineaments predominantly

trending E-W and NE-SW directions.

The morphometric parameters of the Chhapi, Garganga,

Ghorapacchar and Dudhi drainage basins were determined with respect to

linear, areal and relief aspects. The values of bifurcation ratios suggest that

the drainage pattern of watersheds is not distorted by geological structures.

Garganga drainage basin Is more elongated, while Dudhi is more circular.

In comparison to other drainage basins, Chhapi has possesses more

permeable subsoil material. The process of erosion on the slope of

Ghorapachhar drainage basin is more intense as compared to other basins.

In case of Garganga drainage basin, the possibility of slope steepness is

relatively more.

Geomorphic units have been indetified and recognised as units of

depositional, denudational and structural origin. Units of depositional origin

2^

include alluvial plains, flood plains and channel fill deposits. Units of

denudational origin are moderately dissected plateau, highly dissected

plateau, residual hills (L) and residual hills(V). Structural hills are identified

under the unit of structural origin.

Groundwater in the study area occurs under unconfined conditions in

shallow aquifers but feebly semi-confined conditions also recognised in the

deeper aquifers of trappean rocks. Depth to water level in phreatic zone

varies from 2.90 to 13.90. Water level fluctuates within the range of 0.0 - 5.0

m. in different litho-units. Phreatic surface elevation varies from 340.00 to

462.30m. The regional groundwater flow is towards northwest.

Groundwater prospects in the alluvial and flood plain areas are very

good, whereas channel fill areas show good prospects. In moderately

dissected plateau regions, the groundwater prospects are found moderate,

whereas highly dissected palteau, resiudal hills(L), residual hills(V) and

structural hills have shown poor prospects of groundwater. It is suggested

that the groundwater resources of the study area should be conserved by

the means of aquifer recharge through lateral and vertical processes.

AN rNTEGRATED APPROACH FOR GROUND WATER RESOURCE EVALUATION OF

RAJGARH DISTRICT, M. P. (INDIA)

T H E S J S SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

Bottor of $I)tIoiBiopI)p IN

GEOLOGY

BY

MOHD. AaiP M. Phil. (Alio)

DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY FACULTY OF SCIENCE

ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH (INDIA)

1995

T4853

>'^^ A fc.. ^4o.

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dedicated to my father

Late Sayed Mohammad Zafeel

D E P A R T M E N T O F G E O L O G Y ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY

ALIGARH—202 002

PHONE : ( 0571) 2 B 6 1 5 TELEX : 564-230-AMU-IN

Ref.No.^ - /Geol.

Dr. Liaqat A.K. Rao M . S c , M.Phil . , Ph.D. PG Dip. Hydrogeology Dip. Stat is t ics (Alig.) Reader

Dated "2- g^ • / ^ • ^^ ^^

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr. Mohd Asif has completed his

research work under my supervision for the degree of Doctor of

Philosophy of the Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. This work is an

or ig ina l contribution to my knowledge of the groundwater resources of

Rajwt^yt. d is t r ic t , M.P. ( Ind ia ) and has not been published anywhere.

Mr. Asif is allowed to submit the work for the Ph.D. degree

in Geology of the Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh.

L.A.K. RAO Supervisor

INDEX OF CONTENTS

Page No.

Table of contents i

List of tables i v

List of figures ^

Chapter I 1-7

Chapter II 8-12

Chapter III 13-24

Chapter IV 25-35

Chapter V 36-59

Chapter VI 60-65

Chapter VI f 6 6-74

Chapter v i l l 75-81

Chapter IX 82-85

iJ ib i i09raphy 86-93

Exp lanat ion of P la tes 94

U )

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter I INTRODUCTION General statement Location and accessibility Physiography Climate Drainage and vegetation Crops Soil Landuse/landcover Aim of the study Previous work Acknowledgements

Chapter II DATA BASE AND METHODOLOGY General statement Data requirement Brief outline of the methodology

Chapter III REMOTE SENSING IN GENERAL Introduction Aerial photography Satellite remote sensing Thermal infrared images Radar imaging system Application of remote sensing in groundwater prospects

Chapter IV GEOLOGY AND STRUCTURE General statement Geological set-up Lithological units Alluvial/colluvial deposits Deccan trap basalt Massive basalt Vesicular and amygdaloidal basalt Weather basalt Red bole bed Weathering in Deccan trap country of the study area Lameta limestone Vindhyan sandstone Structures Lineament study

Page No. 1 1 1 1 2 4 4 4 5 5 6 6

8 8 8 8

13 13 13

15 20 21

22

25 25 25

26 27 28 28 29 29 29 29 30 30 32 32

l i i )

Chapter V

Chapter VI

Chapter VII

DRAINAGE BASIN MORPHOMETRY General statement 1

II

III

Linear aspects of the channel network Stream orders Bifurcation ratio Stream length Areal aspects of the drainage basin Basin area Basin shape Elongation ratio Form factor Circularity ratio Drainage density Stream frequency Infiltration number Length of overland flow Relief aspects of channel network and contributing slopes Channel gradient Maximum basin relief Relief ratio Relative relief Ruggedness number

GEOMORPHOLOGICAL MAPPING General statement

(1)

(2)

(3)

Units of depositional origin (A) Alluvial plains (B) Flood plains (C) Channel fill deposits Units of denudational origin Plateau area (i) Highly dissected plateau (ii)Moderately dissected plateau Residual hills (i) Residual hills(L) (ii) Residual hills(V) Unit of structural origin Structural hills

HYDROGEOLOGY General statement Occurrence of groundwater Depth to water level Water level fluctuation Movement of groundwater

36 36 42 42 42 45 45 45 49 49 49 49 51 51 51 53

56 56 56 56 58 58

60 60

62 62 62 63 63 63 63 64 64 64 64 65 65

66 66 66 70 70 72

t i i i )

Chapter VIII GROUNDWATER PROSPECTS 75 General statement 75 Groundwater prospects of the study area 75 Very good 75 Good 76 Moderate 7 7 Poor 7 7 Conservation of groundwater resources 80 Synthesis and discussion 80

Chapter IX SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 32

BIBLIOGRAPHY 86

EXPLANATION OF PLATES 9 4

l i v )

LIST OF TABLES

I Landuse/landcover pattern of the Rajgarh district. 5 II Satellite remote sensing system in general. 7 III Principal application corresponding to bands of different sensors deployed

in LANDSAT, SPOT and IRS-IA & IB. 18 IV Radar bands with their corresponding wavelengths. 2 2 V Generalised geological succession of district Rajgarh. 26 VI Photocharacters of litho-units identified from LANDSAT 5 images. 31 VII Number and length of lineaments corresponding to their class intervals. 34 VIII Stream orders and bifurcation ratios. 43 IX Stream lengths and length ratios. 46 X Shape parameters of different drainat je. basins 50 XI Drainage density, stream frequency and infiltration number of

catchments 54 XII Gradient of various streams. 57 XIII Parameters of gradient aspects for var ious drainaye basins 59 XIV Hydrogeological details of well inventoried in the study area. 68 XV Integrated information in relation to groundwater prospects of the area. 79

( V )

LIST OF FIGURES

1. Location map of the study area. 2. Isohyetal map of the Rajgarh district, Madhya Pradesh. 3 3. Index to Landsat images and degree sheets of Rajgarh district, Madhya

Pradesh. 9 4. Base map of the study area. 11 5. Geological map of the study area based on LANDSAT TM, FCC 2 7 6. Lineament map of the study area based on LANDSAT TM, FCC images. 33 7. Rose diagram for azimuth distribution and length of lineaments. 35 8. Drainage map of the study area. 37 9. Map of Chappi drainage basin showing stream orders and other basin

characteristics. 3g 10. Map of Garganga drainage basin showing stream orders and other basin

characteristics. 39 11. Map of Ghorapachhar drainage basin showing stream orders and other

basin characteristics. 4 0 12. Map of Dudhi drainage basin showing stream orders and other basin

characteristics. 41 13. Semi -log plots of stream order vs stream number . 44 14. Semi-log plots of mean stream length Vs stream order. 47 15. Log-log plots of Cumulative stream length Vs stream order. 48 16. Plot showing the shape parameters of different drainage basins. 52 17. Log-log plot of drainage density Vs stream frequency. 55 18. Geomorphological map of the study area based on LANDSAT TM, FCC

images. 61 19. Location of observation wells in the study area. 67 20. Depth to water level map of the study area'. 71 21. Water table contour map of the study area. 72

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CHAPTER -1

INTRODUCTION

GENERAL STATEMENT

Madhya Pradesh state occupies the central position of India which is

underlain by a variety of hard rocks with alluvium along the river courses.

Groundwater occurs in the localized pockets of hard rock terrains, resulting in the

scarcity of groundwater resources. The lack of surplus groundwater resources do

hamper the economic and agricultural development of the region. In such situation,

remotely sensed data can act as an effective tool for accurate appraisal of

groundwater resources and their conservation.

In order to evaluate the groundwater resources by integrated approach, with

the aid of remote sensing technology. Rajgarh district (M.P.) has been taken for

the present research work. The area under study forms a part of huge Malwa

Plateau, largely composed of vast stretch of Deccan Trap of flood basalt overlain

by alluvium/colluvium of variable thickness. Few outcrops of sandstones and

limestones are also exposed.

LOCATION AND ACCESSIBILITY

The Rajgarh district is a drought prone area, lies in north-western portion of

Madhya Pradesh State (Fig. 1). It is bounded by longitudes 76°11'-77°20' E and

latitudes 23 28' and 24 18' N and encompasses the total geographical area of

about 6116.7 sq. km.

The study area is included in the Survey of India degree sheet Nos. 54 D,

54 H, 55 A and 55 E. The area is approachable from Jaipur and Bhopal by

National Highway No. 12 while National Highway No. 3 connects Agra and

Bombay, passes through the central part of the district. Biaora town is the nearest

railway station from Rajgarh city.

PHYSIOGRAPHY

Physiographically, Rajgarh is divided into various distinct regions viz., flat

valley plains, undulating surfaces, gently rolling upland and high hill ranges. Flat

valley plains are the result of deposition of sand, silt and clay, brought by the

rivers. Because of differential weathering and erosion of trappean rocks the

undulatory surfaces have been developed. Left out surfaces have been resulted

in the gently rolling upland due to dissection of marginal areas. The high hill ranges

can be seen around Narsinghgarh area.

Topographic divides have been developed between Kali-Sindh, Newaj and

Parbati catchments trending almost north-south directions. The area vary in

elevation from 318.5 m near Gordhanpura village to 576 m at Narsinghgarh area

with regional slope from south-east to north-west.

CLIMATE

The study area falls under the semi-arid climatic zone dominated by south-western

monsoon, commences in the middle of June and lasts till the end of September or

early October.

i) Temperature :- The average minimum and maximum temperature recorded

in the Rajgarh are 10.5 C and 43.1 °C in the months of January and May

respectively. The temperature begins to rise rapidly from the month of

March and reaches to its climax in May. The temperature in the area of

study starts falling steadily and drops to minimum in the month of January.

ii) Rainfall :- The period from June to September receives maximum

precipitation whereas little or no shower has been reported during other

months. The average annual rainfall in the area of interest ranges in

between 796.6 and 1219.3 mm.

A perusal of isohyetal map (Fig.2) of the Rajgarh district shows that the

intensity of rainfall decreases from south-east to north-west. The

Southeastern part of the district receives slightly more than 1400 mm annual

rainfall which gradually decreases to 900 mm in the northwestern part of the

study area.

jii) Humidity :- The months from June to September have humidity more than

70 percent. The humidity starts falling rapidly with the beginning of October

while May becomes the driest period of the year and in this month humidity

recorded about 25 percent.

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DRAINAGE AND VEGETATION

The western and eastern part of the area is drained by rivers Kali-Sindh and

Parbati respectively. River Newaj is flowing through the central portion of the

Rajgarh district (PI. I, Fig.1) . All these rivers are perennial while Chhapi,

Garganga, Ajnar and Ghorapacchar are ephemeral. Most of the rivers have flow

towards north while few show north-westerly direction. The Ajnar river near Biaora

is fed by leaves and other vegetative material indicating thick plantation at either

banks (Pl.l, Fig.2 & PI. II. Fig. 1).

Thorny bushes, dry grasses and babool trees (Accasia nilotica) can be seen

on the rolling and upland areas. Mango and tamarind trees are common in the flat

valley plains while palm trees are concentrated along the valley side. Thick

vegetation cover is confined to the flat valley plains and in the moist zone along

the valleys whereas vegetation is sparse on the gently rolling surfaces. Bare rocky

slopes are often devoid of vegetation.

CROPS

Most of the cultivation is restricted to flat valley plains and moist zones along

the streams. Gently rolling areas are sparsely cultivated whereas, undulating and

hilly areas are devoid of it.

The deficiency of surplus water resources by and large has made the area

to be monocropped. Cotton is the principal crop whereas, Jawar, groundnut, paddy,

maize, wheat, gram, mustard and vegetables are also common in the study area.

SOIL

More than 50% area of the Rajgarh district is covered by black cotton soil

recognized by its dark gray to black colour, composed of clay, plastic and steaky

in nature. These soils have been formed due to decomposition of underlying

trappean rocks. The southern portion of Rajgarh district is dominated by black

cotton soil while northern part is marked by the presence of hard lateritic soil

occupies the areas of higher elevations. The loamy soil is brick red to red colour,

consists of sandy and clayey loam and appears to be derived from the Vindhyan

sandstones around Narsinghgarh area. Alluvial soil which is deep grayish to brown

in colour confined mainly along the major rivers and streams.

LANDUSE/LANDCOVER

Landuse/landcover of the district has been classified into various categories

viz., forest land, agricultural land, upland with or without scrub, gullied and/or

ravenous land, under utilized/ plantation crop, barren rocky/stony waste/sheet rock

area and steep sloppy area. Table - 1 depicts geographical area in sq. km. and

percentage of the total geographical areas.

TABLE - 1

Land use/Land cover pattern of the Rajgarh district.

Category

Forest

Agricultural land

Upland with or without scrub

Gullied and/or ravenous land

Under utilized/degraded

notified forest land Degraded land under plantation crops

Barren rocky/stony waste/sheet rocks area

Steep slopy area

Total

Area in Sq.Km.

143.14

4398.77

1218.86

244.86

80.06

1.00

66.31

1.50

6154.00

Percentage to total geographic area

2.33

71.48

19.80

3.98

1.30

0.01

1.08

1.08

100.00

AIM OF THE STUDY

Little or no systematic work regarding hydrogeomorphology and groundwater

prospects has so far been carried out in and around Rajgarh district, M.P. The

continuous repeated drought recurrences, over exploitation of groundwater

resources, degradation of forest wealth and improper water resource management

are largely responsible for the depletion of ground water resources and lowering

of water table upto a considerable depth. Thus, an urgent need is felt to explore

the new aquifer zones and their optimal and conjunctive use with which the

economic and agricultural development of the study area may speed up.

In the light of above mentioned conditions, the present investigation is aimed

at the identification and delineation of groundwater prospects of the study area and

to locate the suitable sites for constructing artificial recharge structures for

groundwater conservation and surface water storage using remotely sensed data.

The assessment of groundwater resources is primarily based on the

comprehensive study of lithology, structure, drainage, landform and hydrogeology.

Various drainage parameters, which are of great importance in understanding the

complex hydrogeological behavior of rocks are also determined and discussed

separately.

PREVIOUS WORK

For the first time personnels of the Geological Survey of India (1976 a) have

reported the development of lateritic profile due to weathering of rocks of Rajgarh

district. Preliminary geological map was prepared at the scale of 1:1000,000 and

geological setup, economic minerals and groundwater conditions of the different

rocks occurring in the Rajgarh district have been discussed briefly by G.S.I. (1976

b). Some hydrogeological investigations were carried out by the personnels of the

Remote Sensing Application Center, M.P. (1987) using remote sensing techniques.

A detailed study of landform was carried out using remotely sensed data around

Rajgarh district and water resources were evaluated (Rao, L.A.K. and Asif, M.,

1989). Various groundwater potential zones were identified and delineated around

Machalpur town of Rajgarh district, M.P. by Rao, et al. (1992).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to record his deep sense of gratitude to his supervisor

Dr. Liaqat A.K. Rao, Reader, Department of Geology, Aligarh Muslim University,

Aligarh, under whose able and inspiring supervision this work has been brought to

a successful completion.

Sincere thanks are also due to Prof. Iqbaluddin, Chairman, Department of

Geology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, for providing the research facilities

available in the Department.

The author is greatly thankful to Mr. Sami Ahmad, Reader, Geology

Department, A.M.U., Aligarh for his constant encouragement and invaluable

suggestions, specially in the field of hydrogeology.

The author is also thankful to Dr.S. Ahmad All, Lecturer, A.M.U., Aligarh for

important discussions on some aspects of Remote Sensing.

The author is sincerely thankful to Dr. Subhrata Khan, Incharge, Remote Sensing

Application Centre, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, for providing Landsat data and lab

facilities. The author is grateful to Mr. Tasneem Habib, Senior Scientist, RSAC,

Bhopal, M.P. for his invaluable suggestions, unfailing source of encouragement and

inspiration throughout the completion of this work.

The author is also thankful to Mr. M.A. Qureshi, Deputy Director, Dr. Subhan

Khan, Scientist 'E' and Mr. S.K. Prasad of National Institute of Science,

Technology & Development Studies (NISTADS) (CSIR), New Delhi for their helpful

suggestions and encouragement.

Thanks are due to Mr. Salimuddin Ahmad for excellent cartographic work and Mr.

Fazal Ahmad for typing this thesis.

Finally, language fails here to acknowledge his mother and wife, who have

always took keen interest, inspired and help him in his my all endeavour.

CHAPTER - II

DATA BASE AND METHODOLOGY

GENERAL STATEMENT

Remote sensing offers an additional advantage over the old age

conventional field methods, as it provides multithematic information, synoptic view

and repetitive coverage of the area. The satellite image provides a synoptic view

of a region that allows large scale features to be identified which may be missed

with aerial photography or ground survey (Moore, G.K., 1979). Thus, the remote

sensing techniques have their importance in monitoring the groundwater resources,

particularly in the demarcation of prospective zones, chosen as an approach to the

present investigation.

DATA REQUIREMENT

Various space-borne data product along with other ancillary data were used

in order to formulate the present study. Beside these, various other instruments

and materials were also used during the course of present investigation. A list of

the data required and used for the analysis is given below :

i) Survey of India topographical maps on 1 : 250,000 and 1:50,000

scales.

ii) Landsat 5 images covering path- row Nos. 164-043 and 146-044.

A) Black and white multispectral data (MSS) of band 2 and 4 on

1:250,000 scales.

B) Standard false colour composites of Thematic Mapper data of

band 2, 3 and 4 on 1:250,000 scales.

iii) Available meteorological data.

Fig. 3 depicts the index of LANDSAT images and topographical sheets covering

Rajgarh district.

BRIEF OUTLINE OF THE METHODOLOGY

During the course of investigation, the present study was carried out In the

following steps :

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(1) A base map (Fig. 4) was prepared using survey of India topographical

maps, which show different types of base information such as roads, railway

lines, major towns, significant villages and important rivers, geographical

coordinates and political boundaries.

(2) Visual interpretation of Landsat MSS and TM, FCC images was carried out

using light table and hand lens.

(3) Overlays were prepared by identification, interpretation and delineation of

various thematic details about lithology, structure and geomorphology of the

study area using standard interpretation techniques.

(4) The interpreted thematic details were then transferred and the base map

and preliminary geological, lineament and geomorphological maps were

prepared.

(5) Lineaments, picked up through Landsat TM FCC images, have been studied

in detail.

(6) A drainage map was prepared using survey of India topographical maps for

interdisciplinary studies.

(7) Detailed field traverses have been taken in order to collect ground truths.

It involves the checking of various delineated lithological and

geomorphological units and their boundaries, physical examination of

different rocks, rock units, presence and absence of joints and fractures and

their attitudes, lineament confirmation to exclude the pseudolineaments,

landuse/landcover, depth of weathered zone etc. In addition to these,

hydrogeological studies were carried out. Observation wells were setup at

different places in the Rajgarh district and relevant subsurface geological

and hydrogeological informations along with present water level and other

related parameters were collected.

(8) Preliminary maps were modified by certain post field corrections and final

geological, lineament, drainage and geomorphological maps were prepared.

(9) Detailed hydro-geomorphic investigations of different drainage basins were

carried out through quantitative analysis and synthesis of morphometric

parameters.

11

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DISTRICT BOUNDARY f TEHSIL BOUNDARY

N.H.3 NATIONAL HIGHWAY

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Fig. 4: Base Map of the Study Area.

12

(10) Depth to water level and water table maps of the district were prepared and

an effort was made to achieve the regional picture about the ground water

occurrence, movement and it's fluctuation.

(11) By integrating information about lithology, structure, drainage, landuse/

landcover, geomorphology, hydrogeology, etc., of the study area,

groundwater resources were evaluated.

CHAPTER - III

REMOTE SENSING IN GENERAL

INTRODUCTION

Remote sensing is the technique of collecting.information about object and

features placing measuring instruments in contact with them. The human eye with

its muscular control retina is one of the best example of a remote sensing system.

In practice, the term is confined to the use of sensors detecting, measuring and

recording the target characteristics using electromagnetic energy. During the early

stages of remote sensing technology, the data were gathered in the form of

photographic imagery. Various techniques were evolved in deducing useful

information from simple black and white as well as multiband photo imagery.

However, modern remote sensing system an aircraft and spacecraft collect vast

quantities of data. These are increasingly collected in the form of electrical signal,

mostly as trains of digital pulses. Modern remote sensing devices include passive

and active systems and employ different bands in the visible spectrum, in the near

infrared as well as in the centimetre radiowaves. The reflectivity and immissivity of

the terrestrial objects in the lithosphere, hydrosphere or biosphere in the various

bands of true electomagnatic spectrum are quantitatively registered by the sensitive

sensing system. Recording in about ten bands - visible and invisible - over a ten

stage intensity scale, can provide ideally ten billion combinations of terrestrial (land,

sea and air) features. The remote sensing system records the energy only from

long wavelength portion of ultraviolet, visible, infrared and microwave regions of the

spectrum because the energy in gamma ray. X-ray and most of ultraviolet portion

is absorbed by the ^ r th 's atmosphere and thus, not available for remote sensing.

The remote sensing involves the multistage concept of satellites data, high

altitude data, low altitude data and ground observation. Each successive stage

furnished detailed information over smaller area. A brief description of various

methods employed in remote sensing is given as follows :

AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

Aerial photography is the oldest mode of remote sensing and even today in

the age of electronic scanners, it remains one of the most widely used technique.

14

The aerial photographic system operates in long wavelength portion of ultraviolet,

visible and reflected infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum ranging from

0.3 to 0.9 micrometers in wavelength. Daylight and good weather conditions are

essential in order to operate the aerial photographic mission. Usually, the

photographs are acquired between 10.00 A.M. to 3.00 P.M., except some low-sun

- angle photographs which are often valuable for geologic interpretation of subtle

topographic features.

The aerial photography is well known remote sensing system in which

focused image is recorded on photographic film, using special type of camera

mounted on aircraft. The photographic film consists of a flexible transparent base

and emulsion. The resulting film is known as negative film which is subsequently

printed on photographic paper called aerial photograph.

The terrain is photographed in >uns'. These runs are determined with the

direction of flight, keeping forward overlap in the order of sixty percent and sidelap

thirty percent. When a pair of successive overlapping photographs along the flight

line are viewed under stereoscope gives a three-dimensional image known as

stereo model.

The scale of aerial photographs plays an important role in photographical

mapping and interpretation. The scale is the ratio of unit distance on the

photographs to the number of unit distance on the actual ground. The scale of

photograph (S) is determined by the following relationship.

where,

H is vertical height of the camera lens above the ground.

f is focal length of camera.

The angle at which the aerial photographs are acquired is used to classify

the photographs into one of the three types, vertical, low oblique and high oblique

photographs. When camera axis pointing vertically downwards (inclination from

vertical should not exceed more than three degree) the resulting photographs are

known as vertical photographs. In case of low oblique photographs horizon does

not appear, whereas high oblique photographs have got sufficient tilt to include

horizon. The vertical aerial photographs are most commonly used among these

photographs.

15

In order to study the subtle topographic features, low-sun-angle photographs

are acquired when sun angle is at low elevation above the horizon. Black and

white film exposed to visible light results in panchromatic photographs. These

panchromatic photographs are widely used in preparation of topographic maps,

engineering projects, photogeological studies, crop inventories etc. The infrared

black and white photographs can be obtained by using IR sensitive film and filter

which transmits only reflected IR energy (0.7. to 0.9 jum). IR photographs are

commonly used for mapping plant communities and differentiating submerged

areas from land. For monitoring the thin film of oil on water surface, the ultraviolet

photographs are used. Normal colour photographs are obtained by using colour

film sensitive to visible spectrum of light and found useful in soil survey. Infrared

colour photographs are used for a variety of purposes on account of their high

contrast ratio and spatial resolution.

Multiband photographs are also obtainable using four cameras, usually to

acquire the photographs of the same scene simultaneously. Each camera uses

different black and white film and filter combination so that typically blue, green, red

and photographic I.R. spectral bands are recorded.

Photogeologic interpretation of aerial photographs is based primarily on

qualitative use of fundamental recognition elements viz; photogeologic elements

include tone, texture, shape, size, pattern and relationship while geotechnical

elements are landforms, drainage density and pattern, vegetation cover, erosion,

landuse along with factors like convergence of evidence, scale, vertical

exaggeration etc.

Photogeologic mapping involves the identification and delineation of rock

types, structures, drainage, landforms along with landuse/landcover analyses and

provides applications in various earth resources surveys.

SATELLITE REMOTE SENSING

Images were acquired from satellites prior to 1972 for many years but

satellite remote sensing has gained impetus with the advent of landsat technology.

This technology is advantageous in a manner that it provides repetitive coverage

of the same area after every few days, low cost data in digital format available for

16

computer processing and records energy in wide range of electromagnetic

spectrum.

The satellite remote sensing system consists of a platform, navigation

device, operator, sensor, data processor and interpreter. The electromagnetic

energy reflected or radiated from the object is received through the sensors fixed

on the platform. The sensor converts the energy into signals. These signals are

transmitted to the ground receiving station, where they are recorded on magnetic

tape.

Five landsat satellites of two generations with different platforms and three

different imaging systems have been launched. The first generation of satellites

consists of Landsat 1,2 & 3 and Landsat 4 & 5 are of second generation.

Return-beam-vidicon (RBV), multispectral scanner (MSS) and thematic mapper

(TM) are the imaging system deployed in the different satellites.

Return-beam-vidicon is a type of television camera, operates in framing system.

M.S.S. is a cross-track scanner and records energy in four spectrual bands viz, two

visible bands and two reflected IR bands. Thematic mapper (TM) is a major

improvement over MSS. TM is a cross-trek multispectral scanner that acquires the

images in seven spectral bands viz; three visible, three reflected IR and one

thermal IR bands.

French space agency has launched the SPOT satellite with high resolution

visible (HRV) imaging system. HRV is an along-track scanner operates either in

high-resolution panchromatic or multispectral modes. High-resolution panchromatic

mode records a single panchromatic image in 0.51 to 0.73 /jm spectral band.

Multispectral mode records images in three spectral bands (green, red and

reflected IR).

Indian Remote sensing satellite (IRS-IA & IRS-IB) employ linear imaging self

scanning (LISS) imaging system. This imaging system has three bands in visible

and one in reflected IR spectral regions. IRS-IC is launched successfully on 28th

December 1995 from Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan.

Various satellite remote sensing systems are tabulated comprehensively and

presented in Table-ll. Table-Ill exhibits the principal applications corresponding to

the bands of different sensors deployed in LANDSAT, SPOT, IRS satellites.

17

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18

TABLE III

Principal application corresponding to bands of different sensors deployed in LANDSAT, SPOT and IRS-IA & IB.

NAME OF SATELLIT E (1)

SENSOR BAND S

(2) (3)

WAVE LENGTH ( U ) (4)

PRINCIPAL APPLICATION

0.5 - 0.6 Sediment, rock types, lineament, water delinneation, shallow water areas.

<:

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0.52 0.60

0.63 0.69

0.76 0.90

1.55 1.75

10.4 12.5

2.08 2.35

0.51 0.73

Multis pectra 1 mode

Cultural features, vegetation types, aerial extent of water, cloud cover mapping

Vegetation, boundaries between land and water, landforms.

Penetration of atmospheric haze, vegetation, water bodies, landforms, cloud mapping.

Water body penetration, coastal water mapping, soil & vegetation descrimination, forest mapping, cultural feature identification.

Green reflectance peak of vegetation, cultural feature.

Chlorophyll absorption region aidiing in plant species differentiation.

Vegetation types, biomass content, delineating water bodies, soil moisture.

Vegetation moisture and soil moisture.

Vegetation stress analysis, soil moisture, thermal mapping

Mineral & rock types descrimination, hydrothermal mapping

I. Topographic feature in 15-30 m should be visible.

II. Drinage between 10$20m should be visible, less than 5m may be detected

III. Lineaments identified from landsat will be easily visible on spot.

19

NAME OF SATELLIT E (1)

SENSOR S

(2)

BAND

(3)

WAVE LENGTH ( U ) (4)

PRINCIPAL APPLICATION

O

a, >

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0.61 0.68

0.79 0.89

0.45 0.52

0.52 0.59

0.62 0.68

0.77 0.86

IV. Small geological features like gossans, dykes, instructions and rock inliers in the order of 10m to 80m in diameter and width will be more easily identified.

V. Small field pattern can be identified and mapped.

VI. Wide range of land-cover types can be recognised (i.e. grass land, woodland, baresoil, mineral workings, quarries.

VII. Improved identification of land-cover types due to greater radiometric & spatial resolution by supervised classification procedure.

Coastal environment studies chlorophyll absorption region.

Green vegetation, useful for discrimination of rocks and soils for their iron content.

Strong correlation with chlorophyll absorption in vegetation, discrimination of soil and geological boundaries.

Sensitive to green biomass, opaque to water resulting in high contrast with vegetation.

20

The satellite remote sensing has become most valuable tool for the

adequate and up-to-date resource informations in various disciplines such as

forestry, agriculture, geology and hydrogeology and equally valuable for landuse

analysis, environmental monitoring, resource exploitation, evaluating ground water

prospects and natural hazards.

THERMAL INFRARED IMAGES

The technology of imaging thermal infrared portion of electromagnetic

spectrum was developed in the year of 1950 and restricted to the military

purposes. In the mid-1960s, it was released for non-military applications.

Acquisition of thermal IR images from satellite began in the year of 1960. Band

6 of Thematic Mapper system deployed in Landsat 4 and 5 produces thermal

images with a 120 meters spatial resolution and proved useful for potential

applications of terrain studies and soil moisture contents. In the year cf 1980

thermal IR multispectral scanner (TIMS) was developed in order to acquire images

at six bands with the interval of 1 )L/ m or even less. These images are applicable

in differentiation of rock types based on the variation of silica content.

Thermal IR images may be acquired by optical mechanical scanners and

special vidicon system, which records images at two atmospheric windows with

wavelength ranges from 3 to 5 jjm and 8 to 14 pm. Thermal images from

satellite can only be recorded from 10.5 to 12.5 /./m band, owing to presence of

absorption band (9 to 10 /L/m). This absorption band is caused by the ozone layer

present in the atmosphere. The aircraft fly beneath the ozone layer record energy

from 8 to 14 /i/m band.

Emissivity, thermal capacity, thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity, thermal

inertia etc are some of the thermal properties of the matter that determine the rate

and intensity of interactions between the thermal energy and matter. Thermal IR

line scanner data have been used to detect very small temperature differences

particularly in the identification of crop types, location of forest fire and hollows etc.

While interpreting the thermal IR images, acquisition time of day is most important

factor. Daytime and nighttime images may display different thermal signatures of

the same target. Water bodies show cooler signatures in relation to adjacent

features on daytime images, while night-time images have warmer signatures.

21

Thermal IR images are useful for a variety of applications in different areas

of interest. Forest fire is located easily on images because long wavelengths of

thermal IR radiations can penetrate smoke plums produced by fire. Thermal IR

radiations can not penetrate clouds and record radiant temperature of cloud.

Lineaments which are the zones of weakness can be readily identified by their cool

linear anomalies and on account of evaporative cooling effect various rock types

are also differentiated on a principle that lighter rocks show cooler signatures than

those of warmer signatures recorded by denser rocks. Thermal IR images have not

got their potential applications in mapping of geologic structures, soil moistures,

geothermal areas such as subsurface coal fires, measuring the surface

temperatures of active volcanoes etc. Geological Survey of India has taken into

account the geothermal prospects of western India and role of remote sensing in

exploration of geothermal resources (Roy, A.K., 1978).

RADAR IMAGING SYSTEM

Radar (Radio detection and ranging) is an active remote sensing system,

which records electromagnetic energy at various wavelength bands in microwave

region (0.1 to 30 cm). This system operates irrespective of daylight and cloudy

weather conditions. Images are obtained with high degree of resolution and high

contrast ratio because atmospheric absorption and scattering are very less except

at the shortest wavelengths of microwave region.

Radar was developed for navigation and locating targets during World War

- II . In the year of 1950, the side - looking airborne radar (SU\R) was developed

and reconnaissance surveys were conducted in continuous strips. Recently,

synthetic aperture radar (SAR) has been developed with high degree of spatial

resolution of (6 to 10 meters) and has potential applications in geological studies.

Different types of radars have been developed from time to time are imaging

radars and non-imaging radars. The imaging radars are SLAR and SAR. The

non-imaging radar include scatterometers, altimeters, low frequency sactterometer

and radar spectrometers. The imaging radar commonly use wavelength at Ka,X

and L bands. The radar wavelengths used in remote sensing are presented In

Table - IV.

22

TABLE - IV

Radar bands with their corresponding wavelenghts

Band

Ka (0.86 cm)

K

Ku

X (3.1 and 3.2 cm)

C

L (23.5 and 25.0 cm)

P

Wavelength (cm)

0.8- 1.1

1.1 - 1.7

1.7-2.4

2.4-3.8

3.8 - 7.5

7.5 - 15.0

30.0- 100.0

Radar imaging system provides its own source of electromagnetic energy

to illuminates the terrain and amount of energy reflected from the terrain to radar

antenna is known as radar return. These radar returns are detected and recorded

as images. The radar return is dependent on various radar system properties such

as polanzation, wavelength and depression angle and terrain properties include

surface roughness, dielectric properties and feature orientation. Stronger radar

returns result in the light tone and indicate the influence of cultural features. The

intermediate returns produce medium tone on the image, are the areas of open

country. Weaker or no return gives dark tone, suggesting the presence of water

body or hydrogeologic features. During interpretation of radar images, the image

must be oriented in such a way that the radar shadow should falls towards the

observer.

Radar imaging system is supplementary to aerial photography because it

can operates under unfavorable weather conditions. These images are very useful

in estimating the soil moisture which is useful for hydrogeology and agronomy.

Faults or zones of weakness is easily deciphered on radar images.

APPLICATION OF REMOTE SENSING IN GROUND WATER PROSPECTS

The technology of remote sensing has proved it's worth in deciphering the

ground water resources. It is advantageous in a manner of being time-and-cost

23

effective, synoptic coverage facility and operation in inaccessible areas. A study

of landforms and fracture pattern in integration with other related informations has

become the most powerful aiding tool in order to obtain informations about the

hydrogeologic properties of the formation.

The visual interpretation of aerial photographs and satellite images with

ground truth data provides adequate information about the hydrological behavior

of rocks occurring in the area. False colour composites of Thematic Mapper data

appear to be the most useful for mapping of hydrogeomorphological units. Uses

of aerial photographs in ground water studies gained impetus in the year of 1950.

Procedures of air photo-interpretation were applied in the location of groundwater,

(Howe, R.H.L., 1950). Nefedov, K.E. and Popova, T.A. 1972) has described the

methods of mapping groundwater from aerial photographs. In the year of 1972, it

has become possible to map the potential zones of groundwater by satellite images

with the successful launch of Landsat-1 in 23rd July. Roy, A.K. (1972, 1976, 1979)

and Sharma, S.K., et al. (1975) have explained the successful use of

hydromorphogeological approach in groundwater mapping. In hard rock areas, the

fractures and weathered zone serve as an fruitful exploration base in planning of

groundwater prospects (Baweja, B.K., et al. (1979). The application of remote

sensing for groundwater exploration has described by Cho, M., et al. (1989).

Landsat data were used for groundwater study in the Kalahari Plateau of Botswana

by Gurney et al., (1982).The following main trends of remote sensing applications

for ground water exploration has explained by Roy (1984) :

1) Mapping of drainage and drainage network analysis.

2) Mapping of Landforms, Landuse and changes therein.

3) Geologic and structural mapping vis-a-vis groundwater controls.

4) Mapping of vegetation and drainage anomalies as indicators for

groundwater.

5) Evaluation of soils (hydrologic soil groups) and soil moisture conditions.

6) Delineation of groundwater potential zones, based on geologic as well as

landscape studies (hydromorphogeology).

The infra-red images are used to map the temperature variation of

ground surfaces, enables the evaluation of groundwater resources. Shallow aquifers

can be delineated by thermal infrared data taken at appropriate times of the diurnal

24

and seasonal temperature cycles (Heilman, J. L. and Moor, D.G.. 1980 ). Thermal

data may also be used to identify alluvial deposits, shallow groundwater, spring

and seeps through the differences in temperature resulting from near surface

groundwater (Engman, E.T. and Gurney, R.J., 1991).

The synthetic aperture radar (SAR) is found very useful in groundwater

prospecting, particularly in arid areas. It can detect the soil moisture by virtue of

the penetrating capability of long wave. Singh, R., et al. (1979) have measured the

dependence of dielectric constant of soil on the moisture content in the X-band.

From the preceding discussion, it appears that the knowledge of physiography,

soil, landuse/landcover, vegetation cover, drainage, depth and intensity of

weathering, hydromorphogeological units and lineaments is essential in the

resource exploration of groundwater.

CHAPTER - IV

GEOLOGY AND STRUCTURE

GENERAL STATEMENT

It is well known that the occurrence and movement of groundwater Is mainly

governed by the geological formations and structures. A comprehensive account

on different geological formations acting as aquifers is described by Todd, D.K.

(1980) and geological structures helps to locate the possibility of aquifers (Pandey

S.N. 1987). Studies regarding geology and structure have been carried out from

different parts of world (Sabins, 1983, Sarkar, P.K. and Soman, G.R., 1986, Negi,

R.S. etal., 1988, Kher, S.V., 1989, Kunte, P.D., 1990 and Tulshibagwale, S.C. and

Peshwa, V.V. 1990). In the present study LANDSAT MSS (black & white) of bands

2 & 4 and TM, FCC of bands 2,3 & 4 data were used in order to identify and

delineate the various lithological units and lineaments of the area of interest.

Recognition elements such as tone, texture, topographic expression, drainage

pattern & density, vegetation cover and landuse etc. have been utilised for the

geologic interpretation.

GEOLOGICAL SET-UP

The study area is represented by a variety of rocks ranging from the

Precambrian to Recent in age. The Precambrian rocks are exposed as sandstones

of the Upper Vindhyans forming structural and residual hills in the study area. The

Lameta limestone of Upper Cretaceous age lies unconformably over the rocks of

the Vindhyan Supergroup and exposed as isolated residual hills of limited aerial

extent. The major portion of the study area is covered extensively by the Deccan

Trap Basalt of the Upper Cretaceous to Lower Eocene age. Alluvial/Colluvial

deposits of Recent age are restricted mainly to the major river valleys and their

tributaries.

The geological succession of the area established by the personnels of the

Geological Survey of India (1976 b), later modified by Remote Sensing Application

Centre, M.P. (1987), is followed in the present investigation and is given in

Table-V.

26

LITHOLOGICAL UNITS

The study area has been mapped using LANDSAT, TM FCC images of

band 2,3 and 4. The lithological units viz. Alluvial/Colluvial deposits, Deccan Trap

Basalt, Lameta Limestone and Vindhyans Sandstone have been identified and

delineated (Fig. 5). In order to facilitate the description of these units,

photocharacters have also been described separately (Table - VI).

TABLE - V

Generalised geological succession of district Rajgarh.

System

Recent

Upper Cretaceous to Lower Eocene

Upper Cretaceous

Precambrian

Series

-

Deccan Trap

Lameta bed

Upper Vindhyan

Lithology

Alluvium comprising of sand silt and clay

Basaltic lava flows

Siliceous limestone

Sandstone -Qaurtzites and Shales

ALLUVIAL/COLLUVIAL DEPOSITS

Alluvial/Colluvial deposits of Recent age in the study area occupies

the banks of rivers and streams. They are recognised by light to dark grey

tone on black and white satellite images and pink to red colour on false

colour composites (FCC) with smooth texture. This red colour on FCC

images is clearly indicates that the alluvium/colluvium is cover mainly by the

natural vegetation. Dendritic to sub-dendritic drainage pattern with low

drainage density is also observed.

Narrow patches of these deposits have also been identified and

delineated on Landsat images and disseminated over a wide area in Rajgarh

district (Fig. j ) . The concentration of these patches is abundant around

Zeerapur and along the Parbati river, having their thickness vary from few

meters to about eight meters. The thickness of alluvial/colluvial deposits

have been identified and can be seen on either sides of river Parbati.

27

7«*J0' 7 6 ' « ' 7 7 V

IS'

0

23 .

23 30

[•^1 Alluvial Deposits

f <<\ OecconTrop BQSOU

tomelo Limestone

Viodhyon Sandstone

_L. T V 76''15' Te'SO' VS^S'

Fig. 5: Geo log i ca l Map o f the Study Area Hascd on L A N D S A T T M , FCC Images.

28

DECCAN TRAP BASALT

The lava errupted during the Cretaceons-Eocene period is largely

responsible for the formation of extensive Deccan Trap. About 90% of the

total geographical area of Rajgarh district is covered by Deccan Trap Basalt

consists of a number of flows forming conspicuous hillocks and plateaus. In

general, the trappean rocks are dipping very gently towards north and

northwest following the general topographical slope of the area and overlain

by variable thickness of alluvial/colluvial deposits.

Deccan Trap Basalt shows medium to dark grey tone on MSS black

and white satellite images and greenish to bluish grey colour on FCC of T

M data. In general, the mottled texture is recognised but at places, smooth

texture is also seen . Sub-dendritic drainage pattern with the local

development of rectangular pattern over the trappean rocks is also identified

and recognised.

Highly dissected areas, undulatory in nature (PI. II, Fig.2) are having

high drainage density. However, drainage density is medium to low in the

areas where dissection is less. A number of tongue like features and

cerraited margins have been identified in the northwestern portion of the

study area and they play a significant role in identification of Deccan Trap

terrain.

Each flow of trap rock can be followed upto a considerable distance

and local succession may possibly be established. However, mapping of

individual flow is a difficult task using satellite data. The study of the sections

in the dug wells (unlined) and basaltic rocks exposed along the rivers,

streams and rock cuttings reveals that each flow can be sub-divided into

different units. These units in ascending order are massive basalt, vesicular

and amygdaloidal basalt, weathered basalt and finally followed by red bole

bed. A brief description of each unit is given below:

Massive Basalt

The lowermost unit of the flow Is represented by massive basalt which

is fractured and jointed. Columnar jointing (PI. Ill, Fig. 1& 2) is common in

this unit. This unit constitutes at least three quarters of the total thickness of

29

each flow. The massive basalt is greenish grey to dark grey in colour, hard

and compact, fine to medium grained and predominance of ferromagnesium

minerals with plagioclase feldspar.

Vesicular and Amygdaloidal Basalt

The upper portion of the flow constitutes vesicular and amygdaloidal

basalt ranges from few meters to about twelve meters in thickness. These

vesicles are formed as a result of the escape of volatile constituents during

the cooling of lava. In due course of time, these vesicles are filled up by

secondary minerals to give rise amygdales. Amygdaloids filling vesicles are

mostly composed of quartz, chert, chalcedony, agate, zeolite and calcite.

Weathered Basalt

The uppermost unit of flow is characterised by the presence of

weathered basalt. Intensity of weathering appears to be reduced downward

and posses into lower unit (PI. IV, Fig. 1) The weathered basalt appears as

dirty yellow in colour.

Red Bole Bed

The top of the individual flow is occasionally marked by the presence

of red, brown clayey material known as 'Red Bole' . At place, red bole also

show grayish clayey material. The thickness of red bole is not more than

few centimeters. This bed acts as "Marker Horizon" and is very helpful in

demarcating the individual flow. The red bole has been reported along the

road cutting near Rajgarh city. (PI, III, Fig. 1).

WEATHERING IN DECCAN TRAP COUNTRY OF THE STUDY AREA

The physio-chemical weathering results dirty yellow colour of trappean

rocks. A large number of pebbles and boulders are set in a matrix of

weathered rock debries, are the product of spheroidal weathering

(Thornbury, W.D., 1969) (PI.IV. Fig. 2).

30

Due to intense weathering of trappean rocks under oxidising condition in the

tropical climate of the study area, the laterite has been developed and

reported over the flat topped hills of Rajgarh area. (PI. V, Fig.1).

LAMETA LIMESTONE

The infra-trappean Lameta rocks are distinguished by their light grey

tone on MSS (Black and white) images and light yellow colour on TM, FCC

with rough texture. The aerial extent of this unit is very limited and rocks are

mainly exposed as isolated patches near Bhayana, Simroul and Chhan area.

These limestones are light buff and grey in colour, fine grained, compact and

siliceous in nature. They are almost horizontally bedded, forming the

subdued residual hills in the area of interest.

VINDHYAN SANDSTONE

The sandstones have been picked up very well on the satellite images

and can be easily identified on the basis of their conspicuous tone and

texture. The Sandstone is characterised by light to medium grey tone with

rough texture on MSS (black and white) images whereas false colour

composites show yellow brown colour and rough texture. The Vindhyan

sandstone in the study area are characterised by sub-dendritic to

sub-parallel drainage pattern with low to medium drainage density. The

sandstone is exposed around Narsinghgarh area, northeast of Biaora town

and southwest of Mokanpura village.

The rock exposed in the Narsinghgarh dips 6° to 10° towards east

and southern east. The rock exposed in the northeast of Biaora town dipping

toward north with an angle of about 10" while rocks near Mokanpura village

are almost horizontal.

The Vindhyan sandstones are light brown in colour, fine to medium

grained, well sorted, indurated and ferruginous in nature. At places, it is

quartizitic and jointed (PI. V, Fig.2). The sandstones occur associated with

thin laminated, splintery shales. The chunks of conglomerate have been

commonly reported with in the debries collected on the lower portion of the

31

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32

escarpment around Narsinghgarh area (PI. VI, Fig.1). The conglomerate

chunks infer the presence of intraformational conglomerate beds.

STRUCTURES

The study area seems to have not been experienced any major

structural disturbance. The resulting landscape is produce by the operation

of normal geomorphic processes. Due to cooling of lava, joints and fractures

have been developed in the Trappean rocks. The joints are open in nature

and the width of joint's opening varies from few millimeters to about several

centimeters. However, width of the joint's opening, decreases downwards

and may possibly be closed at depth. The trappean rocks exhibits two

prominent sets of joint oriented in NW - SE and NE - SW directions. The

Vindhyan sandstones also show two sets of joints oriented similar to those

within the traps.

LENEAMENT STUDY

A lineament is expressed on the surface of the earth as relatively

straight line and probably represent the trace of fracture or fracture system

on the surface (Bilings, M.P., 1968). The lineaments were studied for

groundwater resource evaluation by Moore, J.D. et al. (1977), Sharma, D.

and Jugran, D.K. (1992), Tiwari, O.N. (1993), etc. In the area of interest

about 126 lineaments were picked-up from LANDSAT TM, FCC of band 2,3

and 4 (Fig. 6) and are expressed as changes in microrelief, linear tonal

variation, linear vegetation pattern, local linearity or rectilinearity of

drainages. The total length of these lineaments is about 997.2 Kms. (Table

VII). The lineaments are mainly developed due to joints and a set of joints.

Intersection of lineament is also a common feature of the study area.

Rose diagram at 10 interval was prepared (Fig. 7) for finding out the

predominant trends of lineaments .The frequency diagram shows the

predominant trends in the east-west and northwest-southeast directions. The

maximum lengths of lineatments are in north-south and northwest-southeast

directions. The longest lineament of 38 kilometers is trending

northwest-southeast direction (Fig.6).

33

7615 7 6 4 5 ' 1

T70' 1 —

77 IS' — T

!*•

76°15 76°« '

Fig. 6: Lineament Map of the Study Area Based on LANDSAT TM, FCC Images.

34

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35

0 5

Frequeny Of Lineaments

0 b

50Km =d

Length Of Lineaments

Fig. 7: Rose Diagram for Azimuth Distribution and Length of Lineaments.

CHAPTER - V

DRAINAGE BASIN MORPHOMETRY

GENERAL STATEMENT

Morphometric analysis of the drainage basin and channel network

plays a vital role to understand the hydrogeological behaviour of drainage

basin. Quantitative hydromorphometric analysis of drainage basins was

initiated by Norton, R.E., (1932, 1945). His work was supplemented by

Langbein, W.B. et al. (1947) and followed-up by various workers, viz;

Golding, B.L and Low, D.E. (1950), Strahler, A.M., (1952, 1954, 1957,

1958), Schumm, S.A., (1956), Coats, D.R. (1958) etc.

The morphometric analysis of Neon, Bah, Bina, Sanur, Mulka, Deora,

Sagar and Begmati sub-basins of Upper Betwa river basin have been carried

out. Further, the role of geology on the development of drainage

characteristics was deciphered and these characteristics were related to the

runoff. (C.G.W.B., 1981).The drainage analysis of a part of Trichinopoly

district, Tamil Nadu have been carried out by Raghavan, H., et. al. (1983).

The study indicates that the drainages of Lower order basins are controlled

by structure, whereas higher order streams apparently follow the direction of

regional gradients. Morphometric analysis of Khairfuii basin is recently

carried out by Nautiya, M.D. (1994).

The drainage map (Fig. 8) of the study area was prepared and four

drainage basins namely. Chhapi, Garganga, Ghorapachhar and Dudhi (Fig.

9 to 12) were selected for detailed morphometric analysis. Various drainage

parameters are determined and discussed in detail with respect to following

aspects :

I. Linear aspects of channel network.

II. Areal aspects of the drainage basin.

III. Relief aspects of channel network and contributing slopes.

37

7« 15 76 30 7 6 * 5 77 0 77 IS

15'

o"

23 IS

23 30

l O K m = 1

f

7 7 ^

. 2 3 45'

23, 30

Drainage Map of the Study Area.

38

ye'^is' 76*30'

76*15' 76°30

Fig. 9: Map ofChhapi Drainage Basin shwoing Stream Orders and other Basin Characteristics.

39

7 6° 30'

2A 15'

o 2A

Symbols

/r \. \

S t r e a m orders

1st 2nd 3rd «th

Basin Boundary

Lb Length of Basin

5 lOKm

76°30' 76^5'

24,° 15'

2A° 0 '

Fig. 10: Map of Garganga Drainage Basin shwoing Stream Orders and other Basin Characteristics.

40

7 6 " A 5 ' o

77 0 Symbols Stream

orders 2C 15'

2A^ 0 '

Basin Boundary

Lb Length of Basin

0 b

lOKm =i

On/

Fig. 11:

77°0

Map of Ghorapachhar Drainage Basin showing Stream Orders and other Basin Characteristics.

41

77° 0'

Symbols Stream orders

- — Bas in Boundary

Lb Length of Basin

10 Km = 1

23 A5

30

Fig. 12: Map of Dudhi Drainage Basin showing Stream Orders

and other Basin Characteristics.

42

I. LINEAR ASPECTS OF THE CHANNEL NETWORK :

STREAM ORDERS

The system for designation of streann order was introduced by Horton

(1945) for the first time and later modified by Strahler (1957). Melton, M.A.

(1959) has explained mathematical concept for ordering the streams. In the

areas of investigation, streams upto fifth order are found to be present. The

number of stream segments present in each order were counted and

presented in table VIII. It was observed that the number of stream segments

decreases as the stream order increases. This observation verifies the

Morton's law of stream number, i.e., the number of stream segments of

each order form an inverse geometric sequence with order number.

BIFURCATION RATIO (Rb) : It is the ratio of number of stream segments

present in the given order to number of stream segments present in next

higher order and can be determined by the formula.

R h - ^ "

Where Nu = Number of stream segment present in the given order.

Bifurcation ratio, mean bifurcation ratio and weighted mean

bifurcation ratio for different sub-basins have been determined (Table VIII).

Bifurcation ratio of different watersheds ranges from 2.00 tO 5.50. The mean

bifurcation ratio and weight mean bifurcation ratio are in the order of

3.30-4.73 and 3.40-4,91 respectively. The mean bifurcation ratio values show

only small variation in these drainage basins of the area of study. The values

of bifurcation ratios are well within the range of 3.00 to 5.00 (Chow, 1964),

clearly indicate the drainage pattern of watersheds is not distorted by the

geological structures.

Semi-log plots of stream order Vs stream number have been drawn

and a straight line was fitted through these points. The slope of-which is the

bifurcation ratio (Fig. 13).

43

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45

STREAM LENGTH

Norton (1945) has postulated that the length ratio, tend to be constant

throughout the successive orders of a watershed. His law of stream lengths

states that the mean length of stream segments of each of the successive

orders of a basin tend to be approximate a direct geometric sequence in

which the first term is the average length of segments of the first order. The

length ratio is the ratio of the mean stream length of the given order to the

mean stream length of next lower order.

RL = -^•'?-Lu-1

where RL = Stream length ratio

Lu = Mean stream length of a given order

Table IX depicts the total stream length against each order, mean

stream length of each order and stream length ratio. In general, mean

stream length increases with the increase of stream order and vice versa.

The mean stream length of each order were plotted against the stream

orders and a best fit regression line was drawn. The slope of this line gives

mean length ratio (Fig. 14).The cumulative stream lengths were also plotted

against the stream order on log-log paper as suggested by Strahler (1957)

and it was observed that cumulative stream length decreases with the

increasing order (Fig. 15). The mean stream length of fourth order streams

in every watershed has abnormally increased and it may be attributed by the

influence of lineaments at fourth order streams (Table IX).

II. AREAL ASPECTS OF THE DRAINAGE BASIN :

BASIN AREA

The area which is drained by stream or a system of stream in such

a way that all stream flow originating within the basin parameter discharged

through a single outlet. The maximum drainage area is covered by Dudhi

basin where as Ghorapachhar basin has got minimum drainage area (Table

X).

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49

BASIN SHAPE

The shape of the basin is a very important factor in determining

discharge characteristics of streams. Elongation ratio (Re), form factor (Rf)

and circularity ratio (Re) are some of the parameters, which give an account

of the shape of the basin. These parameters are briefly described and

discussed as follows :

Elongation Ratio (Re) : This parameter was used by Schumm (1956) and

defined as the ratio of diameter of a circle of the same area as the basin to

the maximum basin length.

2/AU/7V Re= ----,- ,

Lb (max.)

where, Au = Area of the basin (Km )

Lb (max.) = Maximum length of the basin (Km)

The elongation ratio is generally ranges between 0.6 and 1.0 over wide

variety of climatic and geologic types.

Form Factor (Rf) : Quantitative expression of drainage basin outline form

was made by Norton (1932) through form factor, which is the ratio of basin

area to the square of basin length and can be determined by the formula : Rf = -^H

where, Au = Basin area (Km )

Lb = Basin length (Km)

Circularity Ratio (Re): This term was introduced by Miller, V.C. (1953) and

is the ratio of basin area to the area of a circle having the same perimeter

as the basin, thus :

RC. . ^ , . .

where Au = Basin area (Km )

P = Perimeter of the basin (Km)

The above shape parameters are dimensbniess and express

the degree of circularity of the basin. These parameters are presented In

Table X. The various shape parameters of the watersheds (Fig. 16) give an

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idea about the shape of the basin, it is noted that Garganga drainage basin

is more elongated and Dudhi drainage basin in nnore circular in comparison

to any other drainage basin (Fig. 16).

DRAINAGE DENSITY (Dd)

The drainage density is the mean length of streams within a

catchment per unit area and it is determined by dividing the total

channel-segments cumulated for each order to the basin area (Norton,

1932),. :

Dd =----Au

Where/ j L = Tdtal channel-segment lengths cumulated for each order (Km)

Au = Basin area (Km^)

In general, low drainage density is favoured in regions of highly

resistant or highly permeable subsoil material, under dense vegetative cover

and where relief is low. High drainage density is favoured in regions of weak

or impermeable subsurface materials, sparse vegetation and mountaineous

relief (Chow, 1964). The low drainage density is also indicative of relatively

long over land flow of surface water.

STREAM FREQUENCY (Fs)

The term stream frequency or channel frequency was introduced by Morton

(1932) and defined as the number of stream segments per unit area, : Ns

Fs= - - - -Au

where, Ns= Total number of streams in the basin

Au = Basin area (Km )

INFILTRATION NUMBER (If)

Infiltration number of a drainage basin is the product of drainage

density and stream frequency of a basin under investigation. It is the number

by virtue of which an idea regarding the infiltration characteristics of the

52

o cr c o

(A

o >

0.7

0.6

0.5

a:

0.3

0.2

0.1

A Elongation ratio (Re) • Form fac to r ( Rf ) oc i rcu lar i ty rat io (Re)

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53

basin is obtained. The higher values of the Infiltration number, clearly

Indicates that the basin will have low infiltration and high runoff.

Numerical values of drainage density, stream frequency and infiltration

number is presented in the table XI. From the definition of drainage density

and stream frequency which are the increase of the texture and drainage

network, it is possible to construct two hypothetical basins with same

drainage density but different stream frequency or vice versa. Melton (1958)

tested this possible range of variation in nature by plotting stream frequency

verses drainage density for 156 drainage basins, covering the vast range In

scale, climate, relief, surface cover and geologic type. The remarkable, small

scattered was found on log-log graph between Fs and Dd and related as:

Fs = 0.694 Dd^. Log -log plot of drainage density Vs stream frequency have

been drawn for the watershed, (Fig. 17).

The numerical values of drainage density, stream frequency and

infiltration number of every watershed were compared and it was observed

that the Chappi drainage basin possesses least value of a aforesaid

morphometric parameters while Garganga has got maximum values of these

parameters (Table XI) It was also observed that the numerical values of

above parameters of Chhapi drainage basin favours relatively more

permeable subsoil material due to high infiltration capacity and low runoff in

this watershed, whereas values of above parameters of Garganga drainage

basin is suggestive of relatively less permeable subsoil material owing to low

Infiltration and high runoff in this watershed.

LENGTH OF OVERLAND FLOW (Lg)

The length of overland flow is the length of flow path, projected to the

horizontal of nonchannel flow from a point on the drainage divide to the

adjacent stream channel (Norton, 1945). He has further observed that length

of overland flow is one of the most important independent variable which

affects hydrologic and physiographic development of drainage basins. The

length of overland flow is approximately equal to half of the reciprocal of

drainage density, thus 1 Au

1-9=

TABLE - XI

Drainage density, stream frequency and infiltration number of catchments

54

Drainage basin

Drainage density (Dd)

Stream frequency (Fs)

Infiltration number

(If)

Chhapi 0.478 0.101 0.048

Garganga 0.607 0.163 0.099

Ghorapachhar 0.44 8

Dudhi 0.572

0.156

0.133

0.070

0,076

55

(/)

u c

cr

e o

2 OJ -

0.01 0.1 1

Dra inage densi ty ( D d )

Fig. 17: ^ Log-log Plot of Drainage Density Vs Stream Frequency.

56

The numerical values of length of overland flow for different drainage basins

in increasing order are as follows :-

Garganga = 0.824 Km

Chhapi = 1.045 Km

Ghorapachhar = 1.115 Km

Dudhi = 1.707 Km

III. RELIEF ASPECTS OF CHANNEL NETWORK AND CONTRIBUTING

SLOPES :

CHANNEL GRADIENT

The channel gradient in the present study was determined by dividing

the differences in altitudes from source to mouth by horizontal distances

along the river. The channel gradient of different rivers is tabulated and

presented in the table XII.

MAXIMUM BASIN RELIEF

The maximum basin relief (H) is the elevation differences between

basin outlet and the highest point on the perimeter of the basin. It is very

important factor to obtained the potential energy of drainage system. The

values of maximum basin relief for drainage basins were determined and

presented in the table XIII.

RELIEF RATIO (Rh)

It is the ratio of maximum basin relief to horizontal distances along

the longest dimension of the basin parallel to the principal drainage line

(Schumm, 1956), is :

Rh='-?-Lb(max. )

Where H = Maximum basin relief (m)

Lb(max.) = Maximum basin length (m)

The numerical values of relief ratio for different drainage basins are

given in Table XIII. The present study indicates maximum relief ratio in the

case of Dudhi drainage basin. The higher relief ratio of Ghorapachhar

drainage basin compared with other drainage indicates that the process of

TABLE - XII

Gradient of various streams

57

Name of basin

Chhapi

Garganga

Ghorapachhar

Dudhi

Elevation

Source point (in)

440

460

502

480

End point (m)

300

300

352

400

Fall between source & end point

(m)

140

160

150

80

the stream length

(km)

67.50

75.00

45.00

57.50

Slope

m/km

2.07

2.13

3.33

1.39

58

erosion on the slopes of this basin is more intense as compared to other

drainage basins.

RELATIVE RELIEF (Rhp)

This term was used by Melton, (1957) and the relative relief is :

Rhp = ^ p

Where, H = Maximum basin relief (m)

P = Perimeter of the basin (m)

The relative relief of different drainage basins were determined and it was

noted that Ghorapachhar drainage basin has got maximum relative relief and

Dudhi drainage basin has minimum relative relief (Table XIII).

RUGGEDNESS NUMBER (HD)

The ruggedness number is the product of maximum basin relief and

drainage density, where both parameters are in the same units. Extremely

high values of the ruggedness number occur when both variable are large,

i.e. when slopes are not only steep but long also (Strahler, 1958).

The observed values of ruggedness number as low as 0.06 in the

subdued relief of Louisiana coastal plain to over 1.0 in the coast range of

California or in badlands on weak clays.(Chow, 1964).

The numerical values of ruggedness number for different watersheds

of the study areas are given in the table XIII. Low value of Dudhi sub-basin

is the indicative of subdued relief. It has also been observed that the

Garganga drainage basin shows higher ruggedness number when compared

with the other drainage basin, possibly attributes the fact that the slope

steepens of this drainage basin is more when compared with the other

drainage basin.

TABLE - XIII Parameters of gradient aspect for various drainage basins

59

Name of basin

Chhapi

Garganga

Ghorapachhar

Dudhi

Elevation of the highest point on basin perimeter

(m)

497

487

556

502

Elevation of lowest point the mouth

(m)

300

300

352

400

the at

Maximun basin relief

197

187

204

102

Relief ratio

(Rh)

.0037

.0029

.0047

.0020

Relative relief

(Rhp)

0.1487

0.1210

0.1897

0.0710

Ruggedness nunber

(HD)

0.0941

0.1135

0.0913

0.0583

CHAPTER - VI

GEOMORPHOLOGICAL MAPPING

GENERAL STATEMENT

Geomorphology is considered to be a very important tool in

conducting groundwater resource surveys using remote sensing techniques.

Various geomorphic features can readily be recognized on aerial

photographs and satellite images. The proper interpretation of geomorphic

features give adequate information about lithology, structure and geological

history of the area, The above information seems to be extremely important

in order to decipher the groundwater prospects of a region.

Application of geomorphology to hydrogeology was explained by Thornbury

(1969). Rao, D.P. (1984) has successfully applied the geomorphological

techniques in groundwater investigation and emphasized about their genetic

classes of various landforms, salient features of the various morphoclimatic

regions, geomorphological expression of rock types, drainage pattern, fluvial

morphometry, etc. Rao (1985) also explained the methodology of

geomorphological analysis for ground water studies.

Hydrogeomorphic mapping for groundwater surveys using remotely

sensed data has been carried out by Aganwal, A.K. and Mishra, D. (1992),

Bhattacharya, A. (1972), Kumar, S.S. (1982), Mangrulkar, A.D. etal. (1993),

Raghvswami, V. et al. (1983), Ravindran, K. V. et al. (1992), Roy (1979),

Srivastav, J.B. and Murty, CD. (1992) and Shah, P.N. et al. (1992).

The present geomorphological mapping and photo geomorphic studies

aimed mainly to identify and delineate the various groundwater potential

zones of the area of interest. ( F i g . 18)

The geomorphic mapping has been carried out using LANDSAT TM,

FCC (bands 2,3 and 4) of the area of interest. The recognition elements

such as colour, texture, pattern, drainage pattern, size, shape, land use/land

cover, erosion etc. have been utilized for the convergence of evidence. The

geomorphic units identified and delineated in the study area have been

categorized under the following heads.

61

::: ••<y.:::Q.;j

• ; • . > • ' . > I

''''m':,m^S^W?^ ••'••'••-^^^^

i ^ y m ^ f S •?•;•.••v--::; • ••-••#,t!i;?^-. - ; ^

• :

ODSSEfflil-^

c o

(U

p w

T3 3 *-•

I— U

"5 so

S o c

G O C -

• l o =" o IZ ;s <u <

00

bJD

62

(1) Units of depositional origin,

(2) Units of denudational origin.

(3) Unit of structural origin.

(1) UNITS OF DEPOSITIONAL ORIGIN

Fluvial processes appear to be responsible for the formation of units

of depositional origin. On LANDSAT TM, FCC images they show thick

vegetation and soil cover, indicates clearly the presence of high moisture

zone. A brief description and photocharacters on LANDSAT false colour

composites of band 2,3 and 4 are given as follows.

(A) Alluvial Plains

Alluvial plains (Scheidegger, A.E., 1970) occur as disseminated

patches all over the Rajgarh district and consist of variable thickness

of alluvial material such as sand, silt and clay. This geomorphic unit

is mainly developed along the course of the major rivers and their

tributaries but extensive alluvial plains can be seen well along the

course of river Parbati. On the LANDSAT TM, FCC, alluvial plains are

characterized by pinkish to reddish colour, mottled texture, dendritic

to subdendritic drainage pattern, thick soil and vegetation cover and

high moisture content. The landuse is exhibited by the development

of human settlement and accompaning agriculture.

(B) Flood Plains

Flood plains (Leopold, L.B., 1964, Scheidegger, 1970, Thornbury,

1969) occur along the course of ephemeral rivers such as Newaj,

Kali-Singh an Parbati. This unit is developed as a result of alluvial

deposits laid down by stream along its course at the time of high

water. It consists of subrounded to rounded fragments of sand, silt

and clays. Flood plains appear as the youngest geomorphic unit are

located in topographically low lying areas . On the LANDSAT TM,

FCC images the flood plain areas are picked up by reddish brown

colour and smooth texture. The flood plains are elongated with flat

valley floor. They are characterized by the high moisture content and

extensively cultivated at the time of low water.

63

(C) Channel Fill Deposits

The channel fills are linearly disposed and formed by the

unconsolidated alluvial/colluvial material partly or completely fills the

valley. The unconsolidated material includes mainly gravel, sand, silt

and clay and deposited within the depressed part of plateau area

along the stream courses (PI. V, Fig. 1 & PI. V I , Fig. 2). The moisture

content in soil within these areas is high which is expressed by

reddish colour on false colour composites of TM data. They show

mottled to smooth texture, linear or curvilinear in shape and are

narrow. The landuse exhibited by the human settlements and

agricultural fields. The channel fill deposits are scattered all over the

district of Rajgarh but concentrated more around Zeerapur Town and

within the Parbati catchment.

(2) UNITS OF DENUDATIONAL ORIGIN

Geomorphic units under this head have been developed by the

processes of denudation. Further, the units of denudation origin, on the basis

of their shape and relief characteristics have been divided as plateau areas

and residual hills.

Plateau Areas

The plateaus are high lands underlain by uplifted horizontal strata

(Worcester, P.G., 1965).The plateau surfaces are dissected in nature. On the

basis of degree of dissection, it can be separated into the following

geomorphic units,

(i) Highly Dissected Plateau

Scarp retreat process (Twidale, C.R., 1976) and dissection by the

action of streams are largely responsible for the development of

highly dissected plateau. The northern part of the study area is mostly

covered by this unit but few patches of this unit can also be seen in

the southern portion of the district. The highly dissected plateau areas

on the LANDSAT TM, FCC is characterized by medium to dark gray

and reddish gray colour, smooth to mottled texture and sub-dendritic

drainage pattern. The surface of this unit are highly dissected by

64

Streams. The drainage density is high forming run off zone. Generally,

the plateau surfaces are highly undulatory in nature and practically

devoid of vegetation cover except some bushes and dry graces. (PI.

II, Fig. 2& PI. VI,Fig. 2). At places, this unit is marked by the presence

of cerraited margins and development of mesa and bute hills. The

mesa hill is reported near Mokanpura village (PI. VII, Fig. 2).

(ii) Moderately Dissected Plateau

Moderately dissected plateau is spread all over the Rajgarh district

and on LANDSAT TM, FCC images , it is characterized by light to

dark gray colour, mottled texture and dendritic to sub-dendritic

drainage pattern. At places, rectangular pattern is also recognized,

which may be due to lineament intersection. The landuse is moderate

as indicated by human settlement and less cultivation. Low degree of

dissection and rolling topography are the factors by virtue of which

this unit is separated from highly dissected plateau.

Residual Hills

Isolated, low lying hills of the Lameta limestone and sandstone of the

Vindhyans are mapped as residual hills.Their aerial extent is very limited.

Two distinct types of residual hills have been identified on the basis of

photogeomorphic study.

(i) Residual Hills (L)

Sub-horizontally bedded, hills of limestone showing the presence of

few sinkholes which have been recorded from Bhayana and Chhan

towns. This unit is characterized by whitish to light yellowish colour

and mottled texture on LANDSAT TM, FCC.

(ii) Residual Hills (V)

Sub-horizontally bedded, subdued hills of the Vindhyan sandstone

have been mapped near Mokanpura village. In the false colour

composites, they are picked up from their yellow brown colour and

smooth to rough texture. This unit shows the development of dendritic

to sub-dendritic drainage pattern with moderate density.

65

(3) UNIT OF STRUCTURAL ORIGIN

The prominent geomprphic features of the study area mainly formed

due to structural implications, are designed as structural hills, A brief

description and photogeomorphic characters of the unit of structural

origin is given as follows ;

STRUCTURAL HILLS

The structural hills in the study area (Ali, S.A., 1982) have attain the

higher elevation in the study area. The outcrops of this unit are exposed

around Narsinghgarh and north-west of Biaora towns. This geomorphic unit

on LANDSAT TM, FCC has come up very well and characterized by yellow

brown colour and rough texture. The drainage pattern is sub-dentritic to

sub-parallel. The parallel drainages of first channel are mostly joint

controlled. Escarpments have been developed very well in the opposite

direction to the dip slope, cutting across the bedding planes. The scraps, is

full of vegetation whereas hill tops are devoid of it (PI. IX, Fig. 1).

CHAPTER - VII

HYDROGEOLOGY

GENERAL STATEMENT

The study area is represented by a variety of rocks but major part of

the area is occupied by the volcanic rocks. The volcanic suite generally

represent multiaquifer system where shallow aquifers are under unconfined

conditions while deeper ones may be under confined or semi-confined

conditions (Singhal, B.B.S., 1984). Comprehensive hydrogeological studies

using remotely sensed data have been carried out in various parts of the

country by the number of workers . (Pathak, B.D., 1984, Raju, K.C.B., 1984,

Bewaja, B.K.. 1984, Srinivasan, P., 1988, Narasimhan, T.M., 1990, Debe,

V.N., 1992 and Sing.B.K. et al., 1992).

In the study area, hydrogeological investigations were carried out in

order to ascertain the overall general groundwater conditions of the study

area, depth of aquifer , fluctuation of water table, regional and local

groundwater movements and the selection of the areas of recharge and

discharge. A systematic well inventory of fifty nine dug wells (Fig. 19) was

carried out and relevant subsurface geological and hydrogeological

informations along with present water levels were collected during May-June

1992 (Table-XIV).

OCCURRENCE OF GROUNDWATER

Groundwater occurs under confined conditions in the shallow aquifers.

Feebly semi-confined conditions also exists in the trappean rocks when

deeper aquifers are tapped for exploitation of groundwater through bored

wells installed with handpump (RSAC, 1987).

The groundwater occurs within the pore spaces of sand and sandy

clay, weathered rocks and porous secondary structures of vesicular and

leached lateritic zones, joints and fractures. The fresh and compact

sandstone has particularly impermeable and therefore, acts as the base for

the groundwater occurrence.

67

^—^ iz r Gena/J

Maopura

•Khilchipur

45 ' 77 0' — I —

15

15'

Oeoli

Rampur ia Sonthatia

Piplya \{ ? ' ° ° ' ° Bhagoro Sondiya Bonskheri Shamsherpura

„ ( r ^ : ^ ; Bamangaon (r*=^^Samelj Boinhera Bakler Banskhera • "Kalan

Mundia ipQChor Mandwar • , ._ , i /» • Narsinghgarh/

Ramgorh ((tj MawasaKalan vJ^

ParsuKher i

Talen

Sj ^g SemloGoga

/ f fSawar iKhera / — , Kurawar,

0 5 lOKm ^ , i

_L

\ I

2C 0'

45

23 30

76"15' 77''0' 30' ^5'

Fig. 19: Location of Observation Wells in the Study Area.

IS '

TABLE - XIV

Hydrogeological d e t a i l s of wel l inventoried in the study area

68

Mo

HI

W2

¥3

W«

H5

W6

W,

ws

W9

HIO

nil

W12

W13

H14

WIS

wie

W17

W18

H19

H20

M21

W22

W23

W24

W25

W26

W27

H28

W29

W30

W31

W32

W33

H34

W35

H36

W37

H36

W39

W4 0

H41

W42

H43

W44

Topo«h»»t Mo

S4

55

55

55

55

55

55

54

55

55

55

55

55

5<

54

54

55

55

55

54

D/16

»/io

A/13

A/9

A/9

A/9

A/13

D/6

A/6

E/1

A/IO

A/13

A/9

D/12

D/12

D/16

D/12

E/2

D/16

D/8

1 55 E/2

55

55

55

55

54

54

55

54

54

54

54

55

54

54

55

55

55

55

55

54

55

54

55

A/5

D/12

K/2

E/1

D/4

D/e

E/1

A/14

D/12

A/14

D/8

A/14

A/5

E/2

A/10

A/9

A/6

A/14

A/9

D/<

A/13

D/12

E/2

Location |

AHBA 1

ASAKETA 1

BAINHERAKALAH|

BAXLER I

BAMANGAON |

BANSKHERA |

BANSKHERI 1

1 BAKGAON 1

BAROJ 1

BHACORA 1

BAWARI KHERA !

BIAORA

BYAWARA KALAN;

CHHAN

DHABLI 1

DEOLI !

GENA 1

GANESM 1

JAGNjyAPARA |

JETHLI i

1 JHARXIYA

JHARHAHU !

KHILICHIPAR 1

KURAWAR 1

LAKHANWAS |

LIHODA !

HACHAI.PUR i

MALAWAR

HANDWAR

HAOPURA

HAWASA KALAN

MOKANPURA 1

MUNDLA

NAMDANI .

NARSINGHSARH !

PACHOR

PANDA 1

PARLIVA I

PARSUKHERI

PIPLYA ;

PIPLrAKOLMI

PUMABKHERI i

RAIGARK ;

RAHGARH

H«aBuring point •sl (•)

1.00

0.50

1.10

0.40

0.80

0.00

1.50

1.00

0.50

I.IO

0.90

0.80

0.00

0.50

0.70

1.20

1.60

1.20

0.70

0.50

; 0.00

0.80

0.70

1.00

0.90

1.60

1.13

0.40

1.00

1.20

1 .00

0.70

I. 00

0.50

1.50

1.10

0.00

0.60

1.50

0.60

0.80

0.00

1.50

1.20

D*pth to watvr l«v*l

7.50

5.50

9.30

3.80

12.70

3.20

4.10

6.80

8.20

7.00

8.20

9.40

9.20

6.20

3.10

3.60

4.60

8.70

8.20

2.90

4.50

3.60

8.60

3.20

5.80

7.30

13.90

11.60

5.50

13.50

9.30

6.20

11.70

5.30

8.10

6.30

10.60

5.80

1 7.20

' 6.40

8.40

6.70

6.00

; 12.80

H«ll depth

8.20

6.00

10.50

5.10

13.90

4.00

5.00

7.20

8.80

8.40

8.90

11.50

10.40

7.00

4.50

4.20

5.80

9.80

9.00

6.80

1 5.50

5.00

11.30

5.30

6.90

9.00

14.80

12.10

6.70

14.00

11.00

7.30

12.00

6.60

9.80

7.00

11.50

7.90

8.00

7.50

9.00

7.60

7.20

13.50

Watxr Colujnn (>) 0.70

0.50

1.20

1.30

1.20

0.80

0.90

0.40

0.60

1.40

0.70

2.10

1.20

0.80

0.60

0.60

1.20

1.10

0.80

3.90

1 1.00

1.40

2.70

2.10

1.10

1.70

0.90

0.50

1.20

0.50

1.70

1.10

0.30

1.30

1.70

0.70

0.90

2.10

0.80

1.10

o.eo

0.90

1.20

0.70

Klavation of land •urfaoa (»)

404.70

452.20

410.00

434.50

438.10

421.00

422.00

391.80

417.10

409.20

442.30

390.60

402.00

356.40

397.90

379.10

344.60

432.25

411.20

348.30

1 446.70

407.50

393.50

465.50

421.40

357.30

387.10

440.90

426.00

401.00

432.30

400.00

421.55

416.30

430.20

419.75

451.80

418.60

443.20

411.10

388.80

413.00

391.00

447.00

Elavation of watar laval (") 379.20

446.70

400.70

430.70

425.40 1

417.80

417.90

385.00

408.90

400.20

434.10

381.20

392.80

350.20

394.80

375.50

340.00

424.05

403.00

345.40

1 442.20

403.90

384.90

462.30

415.60

350.00

373.20

429.30

420.50

388.50

423.00

393.80

1 409.85

411.00

422.10

413.45

441.20

412.80

436.00

404.60

1 380.40

406.30

1 385.00

1 434.20

nature of watar baaring formation

Jointad i waatharad basalt

-do-

-do-

-do-

-do-

-do-

jointad ( conpactad baaalt

-do-

-do-

jointad ( waatharad baaalt I

-do-

AlluviTin

jointad & waatharad baaalt |

jointed & coMpacta basalt

-do-

-do-

-do-

jointad < weathera< baaalt

j(c baaalt

jiw basalt

I .do-

-do-

-do-

-do-

-do-

Alluviaum

j&c basalt

-do-

jfcw basalt

j6e basalt

jlw basalt

j4c baaalt

j(w baaalt

-do-

jointed est

jtw basalt

-do-

Alluvixua

j&w basalt

j(c baaalt

jtw basalt

-do-

j6c basalt

jointed sat

1

1

1

69

N o

H45

W«6

H4 7

W4 8

W49

W50

W51

WSJ

H53

VIS4

W55

wse

T o p o » h « » t N o

5S

a

5 5

D / 1 6

D / a

A / 1 3

1 5 5 I / l

5 5

5 5

5 5

5 5

5 5

5 5

5 5

5 4

X / t

1 / 2

E / 1

A / 1 4

A / 9

A / I O

A / 1 0

D / «

L o c a t i o n

RAHPURIA

•UNTORA

EAMELI

1 EANTHALIA

£ARANGPUR

SEHLAGOSA

EHAHSHERPURA

SIKA

SONDIYA

TALES

UDANKHERI

IIRAPUR

H t a a u r i n g p o i n t • 9 I (1*1)

o .eo

0 . 5 0

1 . 1 0

1 0 . 4 0

1 . 6 0

0 . 0 0

O.eo

1 . 5 0

0 . 8 0

1 . 3 0

0 . 7 0

1 . 5 0

D » p t h t o w a t e r l a v » l b g l (m)

5 .BO

4 . 8 0

5 . 6 0

1 3

6 . 4 0

7 . 5 0

4 . 8 0

1 2 . 7 0

5 . 8 0

6 . 1 0

9 . 3 0

3 . 6 0

! d^-pth b 9 1 ( m )

6 . 3 0

1 5 . 5 0

1 7 . 0 0

80

7 . 1 0

1 8 . 0 0

; 5 . 9 0

1 3 . 6 0

6 . 8 0

6 . S O

1 0 . 7 0

1 4 . 8 0

H a t a c C o l u m n

( IK)

0 . 5 0

0 . 7 0

0 . 4 0

6 . 2 0

0 . 7 0

0 . 5 0

1 . 1 0

0 . 9 0

1 . 0 0

0 . 7 0

1 . 4 0

1 . 2 0

l l a v a t i o n o f l a n d • u r f a c a (m)

3 8 8 . 0 0

4 0 6 . 0 0

4 0 0 . 9 0

1 2 . 40 1

4 2 4 . 6 0

4 5 2 . 8 0

4 09 . 1 0

4 5 8 . 5 0

4 2 5 . 6 5

4 3 9 . 1 0

4 4 7 . 7 0

3 8 5 . 8 0

l i v v a t i o n o f w a t a r l a v a l

(») 3 8 2 . 2 0

4 0 1 . 2 0

3 9 4 . 3 0

3 8 3 . 2 0

4 1 8 . 2 0

4 4 5 . 3 0

4 0 4 . 3 0

4 4 5 . 8 0

4 1 9 . 8 5

4 3 3 . 0 0

4 3 8 . 4 0

3 8 2 . 2 0

1

n a t u r a o f w a t a r b a a r i n g f o r l a a t l o n

j ( c b a a a l t

- d o -

- d o -

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70

The annual precipitation is mainly responsible for the groundwater

recharge in the area of interest. Beside rains the irrigation return flow, flow

of groundwater from neighbouring areas, infiltration through the surface

water bodies like lakes, rivers and streams also contribute water to recharge

the aquifer zones.

DEPTH TO WATER LEVEL

The study of depth to water level map shows the regional variation of

depths of groundwater below the ground level (b.g.1.). Water standing in dug

well represent the water level. The depth to water level map of the area of

interest has been prepared, based on the data collected during pre-monsoon

period (Fig. 20). The depth to water level in phreatic zone varies from 2.90

meters to 13.90 meters. It was observed that elevation of water level has a

configuration similar to that of topography of the land surface. In general, the

depth of groundwater in the upland regions is greater than the low lying

areas.

WATER LEVEL FLUCTUATION

The groundwater level fluctuates due to change in the storage of

groundwater in the area. This change in storage occurs on account of

differences between supply and withdrawal of groundwater.

The water table fluctuation is a direct responce of the groundwater

discharge or recharge in an area. Since rainfall Is the principal source of

groundwater recharge, the rise of water table is sympathetically related to

the rainfall in a particular period. Intensity and distribution of rainfall are the

controlling factors of groundwater recharge. In addition, topography plays a

vital role on the water table fluctuation and quantum of recharge.lt is

commonly observed that the water table is deep in the topographic highs

and shallow towards topographic lows. Accordingly the annual fluctuation of

water table is also high in the upland and low in the depressions, whereas

amount of rainfall remaining the same in the area. The sub-surface outflow

or inflow component of groundwater makes this difference. It appears that

sufficient space available for groundwater infiltration and accumulation in the

http://recharge.lt

71

76°15 76 30 7645' 77 0

; MAY-JUNE 1992)

OEPTH OF WATER LEVEL (BELOW GROUND SURFACE)

23- ^ 2 -4 - j ^ « I I A-6m

H 6-8"'

^ 8-10-"

10-12™

r-Cj >12m

23" 30' 0 S 10 Urn

1 I -

Fig. 20: Depth to Water Level Map of the Study Area

72

upland areas whereas, shallow water table and water logged conditions in

the low lying areas have little space for groundwater recharge. As a

consequence, there may be more surface run-off in the low lying areas (Rao,

G.K. 1987).

The water level fluctuations in the various lithounits occurring in the

study area have been worked out by RSAC, M.P., from the monitoring of

C.G.W.B. hydrograph stations. Water level fluctuation in the alluvium was

observed between 3.0 to 4.0 meters, in Deccan Traps 2.0 to 5.0 meters and

in the Vindhyan group of rocks is it 0.0-0.5 meters. This abnormal behaviour

of water level fluctuation may be attributed to* the lithologies which have

different recharge capacity and show different reaction of the recharge

proportionate to their porosity and permeability.

MOVEMENT OF GROUNDWATER

Groundwater flow systems in hard rock areas of Peninsular India were

studied in detail by Narasimhan (1990). A water table map of the study area

(Fig. 21) was prepared in order to study the behaviour of groundwater within

the flow system boundaries. The phreatic surface elevation varies from a

minimum of 340.00 meters in the Gene village to a maximum of 462.30

meters in the Kurawar village. The movement of groundwater takes place

through the interconnected pore spaces, tensile joints and fractures of

saturated portion of rock from areas of higher energy potential to the areas

of lower energy potential (Hubbert, M.K., 1940).

The groundwater flows vertically downward from the water table

beneath the upland through somewhat less permeable unconsolidated

materia) into underiying deeper aquifers which is composed of vesicular and

fractured basalt. The lateral movement of groundwater is conducted through

major aquifer zones and discharged along the low lying area and valley

sides.

The convex contours in the water table map indicate regions of

groundwater recharge, whereas concave contours are associated with

groundwater discharge (Todd, D.K., 1980). The hydraulic gradient in

unconfined aquifers vary from 0.64 m/km to 5.12 m/km. The regions of low

73

potential gradient are associated with widely spaced contours, whereas the

high fluid potential gradient areas coincide with relatively closer spacing of

contours. Thus, when groundwater moves through the aquifer material of low

hydraulic conductivity, the fluid potential gradients are high . In contrast the

relatively low fluid potential gradient clearly indicates the presence of more

permeable aquifer material. The northwestern, northeastern and northern

corners of the map give steep fluid potential gradient, while other areas give

relatively flatter potential gradient, suggests a relatively high conductivety.

Furhter the groundwater flow regime depicts a general northwesterly

major flow direction clearly indicates that the area is recharged by inflow

from south and south-east.

On account of lateral flow of groundwater towards valley sides, it has

been noticed that the rivers kali-Sindh, Newaj and Parbati are effluent in

nature as they receive their water from water table during pre-monsoon

period.

74

f'-Oo WATER TftBLE '^^—' CONTOUR

I j f GROUND WfllER <~ '^ FLOW DIRECTION

76°15' 76 30' 7S\5' 77V

Fig. 21: Water Table Contour Map of the Study Area.

CHAPTER - VIII

GROUNDWATER PROSPECTS

GENERAL STATEMENT

Studies regarding integrated surveys for groundwater using remote

sensing techniques have been successfully carried out from different parts

of the world (Bhangaonkal, R.K. et al., 1988, Nefedov and Popova, 1972,

Nair, M.M. and Raju, A.V., 1984, Ramamoorthi, A.S., 1984, Roy, 1984, Rao,

R.V.R. & Rao. V. V., 1984, Kaufman, H., et al., 1986, Engman and Gurney,

1991). These workers have stressed the need to compile the geology,

structure, geomorphology, landuse, drainage etc. resulting the location of

groundwater resources, recharge and discharge si tes.

Hydrogeomorphological units in different parts of Peninsular Indian Shields

were mapped and groundwater potential zones were deciphered with the aid

of remote sensing techniques (Chatun/edi, R.S. et al., 1983, Kumar, 1982,

Raghavswamy, 1983, Sharma, S.K 1984, Agrawal and Mishra, 1992,

Ravindran, etal., 1992, Mangrulkar, A. D. et al. 1993.

GROUNDWATER PROSPECTS OF THE STUDY AREA

In order to evaluate the groundwater prospects of the study area, the

information was generated in the light of geology, structure, geomorphology,

hydrogeology, soil, drainage, landuse/landcoverand topography, which have

direct bearing on the occurrence and movement of groundwater.

Morphometric parameters of various sub-basins present in the area were

studied to derive information quantitatively about the geometry of fluvial

system and correlated with hydrologic information (Rao, 1984).

In the light of above informations, groundwater prospects of every

geomorphic unit were studied and tabulated (Table - XV). Further the

groundwater prospective zones were classified into very good, good,

moderate and poor by relating groundwater prospects of various

geomorphic units and discussed as follows:

76

Very Good

Alluvial and flood plains fall under this category. These geomorphic

units show flat depositional surfaces but alluvial plains have a very gentle

slope towards valley side with poor lineament density. The drainage pattern

Is dendritic to sub-dendritic and low density is developed on alluvial soil,

indicating high infiltration capacity and general pervious nature of material.

On account of high moisture content, the alluvial soil is extensively cultivated

and exhibits moderate to high vegetation cover. Most of the human

settlement is confined in and around this zone.

The geomorphic units within this zone comprises unconsolidated sand

and sandy clay beds. The thickness of sand and sandy clay beds varies

from few meter to about eight meters. These sand and sandy clay beds are

highly porous and permeable where groundwater occurs under unconfined

condition and moves through interconnected pore spaces of sand and sandy

clay beds and serves as good discharging zone of groundwater.

Groundwater prospect of alluvial and flood plain areas are very good and

having potential scope for groundwater utilization.

Good

The channel fill deposits occur within the depressed part of plateau

areas and are kept under this zone. They are linearly disposed in the plan

view and most of them are restricted to the lineaments. Alluvial/colluvial soil

is developed within the channel fill areas supports moderate to high

vegetation cover. The landuse is moderate to high as indicated by the

agricultural fields and human settlements. Moreover these channel fill areas

have relatively high moisture content in comparison to the neighbouring

areas as indicated by the reddish colour within the zone, following the

drainage pattern and mostly situated at higher reaches where runnoff is high

clearly indicates low infiltration capacity. The groundwater prospects of this

zone depend upon the thickness of fill material and occurence of lineament

along the channel.

This zone is represented by unconsolidated alluvial/colluvial material

which are porous and permeable. Groundwater occurs within the pore

77

spaces of alluvial/colluvial materials under water table condition. On the

basis of above factors, it is logically concluded that the groundwater

prospects of this zone are good and best suited for aquifer recharge through

lateral process.

Moderate

Moderately dissected plateaus showing gently rolling topography,

represented by basaltic rocks, which are weathered, fractured, jointed and

have moderate lineament density. As a result of decomposition of underlying

trappean rocks, the black cotton soil is developed. The thickness of soil

cover vary from less than a centimeter to about a meter. The major portion

of the study area is covered by black cotton soil. At places, deep open

cracks down to the base of soil region can be seen. These deep cracks

appear to be responsible for the relatively somewhat high infiltration and low

run off. The landuse is moderate as indicated by the sparse cultivation, show

moderate vegetation cover and scattered human settlements. This unit

represents dendritic to sub-dendritic drainage pattern with moderate density

but at places rectangular drainage pattern is also recognised. Moderate

density of drainages favours for relatively high infiltration capacity of

sub-surface materials too.

The water holding capacity of this unit depends upon the depth of

weathered mentle, intensity of fractures and joints, thickness of vesicular and

leached lateritic zones and occurrence of lineaments in topographical low

areas and their intersection. Groundwater occurs under unconfined condition

in shallow aquifers but feebly semi-confined condition is also exists in deeper

aquifers reported by RSAC, M.P. (1987). On the basis of above factors, it is

interpreted that the groundwater prospects of moderately dissected plateau

is less than those of channel fill deposites and this geomorphic unit is

identified as zone of moderate groundwatfe'lf. ^dl iljfeistp." ,

f/i^/ Am No. " - ^

Poor ^[^^ 7^^<9S3, /); Highly dissected plateau, resiclual hill (L), residual hillj^) and structural

hills are classed under this category. Hfghly-ajs&eetea plateaus compnses

78

of basaltic rocks and have undulatory topographic surfaces. The lineament

density of these rock, is moderate, but fractures and joints are also common

and on lower side when compared with moderatily dissected plateau.

Lateritic soil developed on the basaltic rocks appear to be derived from

trappean rocks. These soil support sparse vegetation and occur along the

hilly regions. The drainage pattern is sub-dendritic with high density,

indicates low infiltration and high runoff.

Residual hills[L] of the lameta limestone are represented by low lying

subdued residual hills in the study area. The rock surfaces are barren and

vegetation cover is represented by some bushes and dry grasses. These

rocks are compact in nature and possess impermeable subsurface material.

Residual hills(v) of the Vindhyan Sandstone are developed as low lying

subdued hills where lineament density is poor, joints and fractures are

confined to surface. Red loamy soil is occuring adjacent to subdued hills and

having dry grasses and small bushes. The drainage pattern is dendritic to

sub-dendritic with moderate density. The sandstone, which is hard and

compact have practically no porocity.

The structural hills formed by the Vindhyan Sandstone represent high

relief features in the study area. Lineament density is also poor in the

aforesaid sandstone, whereas joints and fractures are open in nature and

well seen at the surface level but they seems to be closed at depth. Red

loamy soil is developed in the valley portion and adjacent to hills of the

Vindhyan rocks. Vegetation cover is moderate to poor on the escarp faces,

whereas hill tops are devoid of vegetation. The drainage pattern is

sub-dendritic to sub-parallel with high density over the Vindhyan rocks. Fresh

and compact sandstone has practically no porocity or open fractures and

may form the base to the groundwater occurrences in the area.

In the light of above discussion, it is logically interpreted that these

unit act as runoff zone with temporary storage in the secondary opening

developed due to joints/fractures and possess poor prospects of

groundwater.

79

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CONSERVATION OF GROUNDWATER RESOURCES

In order to facilitate the conjunctive use of groundwater, conservation

of groundwater resources is very important The conjunctive use, thus

requires a planned use of groundwater resources and the feasibility of

conjunctive use project in a basin depends on the availability of space in

groundwater basin to store the recharge water which may be used when

needed.

The area has been studied for selecting the conservation site by

means of aquifer recharge i.e. through lateral and vertical processes. The

channel fill deposits of the area have been found suitable for aquifer

recharge through lateral porcess. Satellite data have been used for selecting

such sites, with a view to recharge the aquifers through lateral process.

Topography, geology, structure, landuse, geomorphology and hydrogeology

have been integrated to arrive at the conservation of groundwater resources.

The channel fill areas follow drainages, aligned by lineament and filled up

with relatively thick unconsolidated material are choosen for diaphragm

construction across such features. This will lead to rise of water table in and

around channel fill areas. The cross check of the feasibility of above

structure can be performed through the regular water level monitoring.

Another possibility of getting aquifer recharge through lateral process is the

site where vesicular basalts are exposed in the nala cuttings and covered

by another flow are generally remain unsaturated to water. The construction

of stop dam along such areas will recharge aquifers through lateral

processes.

The method of aquifer recharge through vertical process can be

employed in the area where top massive layer of basalt is not very thick and

underlain by vesicular basalt of another flow. Trenches can be developed

after removing this massive layer and percolation tanks can be constructed

4n.4>fderlax(etlJmxe[tica[^recha£gej)f_such aquifers.

SYNTHESIS AND DISCUSSION

From the foregoing study, it appears that alluvial and flood plain

deposits can be exploited for groundwater development with planning without

81

disturbing the groundwater balance by overdraft. But these deposits have

limited area! extent and confined to major river valleys and may not meet the

ever increasing demand for water supply of the entire Rajgarh district in time

and space. Since most of the area is covered by trappean rocks and

depressed parts of this region along the channels are filled -up with relatively

thick unconsolidated materials. So, these channel fill deposits are most

suitable and potential sites for groundwater storage and conjunctive use by

vertue of which groundwater resources may be conserved. Another,

conservation site is the place where vesicular basalts are exposed along the

nala cuttings and thin massive layer of basalt underlain by vesicular basalt.

The same can be developed through vertical process of aquifer recharge.

Rsidual hills[L&V] and structural hills show patchy distribution with limited

areal extent. These regions have been recognised as runoff zone, where

prospects of groundwater for conjunctive use are poor.

CHAPTER IX

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

The present investigation has been carried out to evaluate the

groundwater resources of Rajgarh district using remote sensing techniques.

Considerable attention has been paid to the study of geology, structure,

drainage basin morphometry, geomorphology and hydrogeology of the study

area. Information regarding the topography, soil, landuse/landcover,

weathering characteristics and drainage of the area were also taken into

account during the course of present investigation.

The study area lies in the north-western portion of the Madhya

Pradesh State (India) and is bounded by the longitudes 76° 11' - 77° 20" E

and latitudes 23° 28' - 24 18' N. The eastern and western boundaries of the

district are marked by the presence of rivers Parbati and Kali-Sindh

respectively, whereas river Newaj is draining to the central portion . More

than fifty percent area of the district is covered by black cotton soil and rest

of it is represented by lateritic, loamy and alluvial soils.

Stratigraphically, the area is represented by a variety of rocks ranging

from the Precambrian to Recent in age. The Precambrian rocks include

sandstones of the Upper Vindhyans, having unconformable relationship with

the overlying Lameta Limestone of the Upper Cretaceous age. Most of the

portion of the study area is covered by extensive basaltic rocks of Upper

Cretaceous to Lower Eocene age. Alluvial/coiluvial material was deposited

by the action of rivers and their tributaries during Recent time.

The Sandstone is light brown in colour, fine to medium grained, well

sorted, ferruginous in nature and jointed. At places, it is quartzitic and

associated with shales. Limestone is characterised by buff to grey colour,

fine grained, compact and silicious in nature. The basaltic rocks comprises

of a number of flows and each flow has been sub-devided into different

units. These units in ascending order are massive basalt. Vesicular and

amygdaloidal basalt, weathered basalt and top of the flow Is occasionally

marked by the presence of red bole bed. Laterite is reported on the flat

topped hills composed of basaltic rocks. Narrow patches of alluvial/coiluvial

83

deposits, composed of sand, silt and clay are confined to major rivers and

streams.

Joints encountred in the area are open in nature and width of joint's

openings ranges from few millimeters to about several centimenters. The

rocks exhibit two predominant sets of joints oriented in the directions of

NW-SE and NE-SW.

The predominant trends of lineaments are in E-W and NE-SW

directions and maximum lengths of these lineaments are in the directions of

N-S and NW-SE. Lineament intersection is also a common feature.

Various morphometric parameters of the rivers viz., Chhape,

Garganga, Ghorapachhar and Dudhi drainage basins are discussed with

respect to linear aspects of channel network, areal aspects of drainage

basins and relief aspects of channel network and contributing slopes.

Streams upto fifth order are present in all watersheds. The values of

bifurcation ratio are well within the range of 3.00 to 5.00, clearly indicates

that the drainage pattern of the watersheds is not distorted by any geological

structure. The mean stream length of fourth order streams in every

watershed has abnormally been increased, it may probably be due to the

influence of lineaments at fourth order streams. Analysis of various shape

parameters indicates that Garganga drainage basin is more elongated

whereas Dudhi drainage basin is more circular when compared with other

drainage basins.

The quantified values of drainage density, stream frequency and

infiltration number of every watershed were compared and it was observed

that the Chhapi drainage basin has relatively more permeable subsoil

material due to high infiltration and low runoff while Garganga drinage basin

possesses less permeable subsoil material owing to low infiltration and high

runoff. The low values of channel gradient, maximum basin relief, relief ratio

and relative relief of Dudhi drainage basin are obtained, whereas these are

maximum in Ghorapachhar basin. Length of overland flow is maximum in

case of Dudhi basin. The highest relief ratio of Ghorapachhar drainage basin

suggests that the process of erosion on the slope of this basin is more

intense as compared to other basins. Gorganga drainage basin shows

84

maximum ruggedness number, possibly attributes to the fact that slope

steepness of this watershed is more in contrast to other basins.

Various geomorphic units have been identified and delineated

categorised under the heads of the units of depositional, denudational and

structural origin. The units of depositional origin include alluvial plains, flood

palins and channel fill deposits. These units have been differentiated on the

basis of thick vegetation and soil cover and show the presence of high

moisture zone.

The units of denudational origin are the result of the process of

denudation, divided into two broad groups viz; plateau areas and residual

hills. The plateau surfaces are dissected in nature and on the basis of

degree of dissection, they are separated into moderately dissected plateau

and highly dissected plateau. Two distinct type of rsidual hills i.e. residual

hills(L) and residual hills (V) are identified and recognised. Structural hills in

the study areas of study appear to be the result of structural implications and

are identified as units of structural origin.

Hydrogeological studies indicate that groundwater occurs under

unconfined conditions in shallow conditions also in the deeper aquifers of the

trappean rocks. Groundwater occurs within the pore spaces of sand and

sandy clay, weathered rocks and porous secondary structures in hard rocks.

The depth of water level in the phreatic zone varies from 2.90 m to 13.90m.

The water level fluctuation in alluvium ranges between 3.0 and 4.0 m, in

Deccan Traps between 2.0 and 5.0 m and in the Vindhyan group of rocks

between 0.0 and 5.0 m. This abnormal behaviours may possibly be due to

different recharge capacity of different lithologies. Phreatic surface elevation

varies from a minimum of 340.00m to a maximum of 462.30 m. The general

groundwater flow is towards NW indicates that the area is recharge by inflow

from south and SE. It was observed that the rivers Kali Sindh, Newaj and

Parbati are effluent in nature.

The groundwater prospect of alluvial and flood pain areas found very

good and potential scope exists for groundwater utilization in the area of

interest. Groundwater prospects of channel fill deposits are good and these

deposits are suitable for aquifer recharge through lateral process. Water

85

holding capacity of these deposits depends upon the thickness of fill nnaterial

and occurence of lineament along the channel. The groundwater prospects

in the moderately dissected plateau regions are moderate and water holding

capacity depends upon the depth of weathered mantle, intensity of

fracture/joints , thickness of secondary porous structures and occurence of

lineaments in topographycally low areas.

Highly dissected plateau, residual hills(L), residual hils(\/) and

structural hills served as runoff zone and exhibits poor groundwater

prospects. In order to use groundwater conjuctively the groundwater

resources should be conserved by virtue of lateral and vetical processes of

aquifer recharge.

The role of integrated studies in respect of geology, structure,

geomorphology, drainage morphometry, hydrogeology, etc. with the aid of

remotely sensed data leads one to conclude that landforms originated by the

action of fluvial processes posses potential aquifers while prospects of

groundwater within the landforms originated by means of denudational

process and strutural implications seems to be not much incouraging.

86

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94

EXPLANATION OF PLATES

PLATE I Fig.1 A view of river Newaj in Rajgarh city drainage to the central

portion of the study area. Fig.2 A view of Ajnar river near Biaora town having a thick cover of

leaves and vegetative materials.

PLATE Fig.1 Fig.2

A closer view of Ajnar river near Biaora town. Dissected hills of Deccan Trap Basalt (east of Malawar village).

PLATE in Fig.1 Columnar joints in Deccan Trap Basalt exposed along the road

cutting near Rajgarh city. Red bole bed is also seen demarcating the younger flow from older one.

Fig.2 Closer view of columnar joints near Rajgarh city.

PLATE IV Fig.1

Fig.2

PLATE V Fig.1

Fig.2

PLATE VI Fig.1

PLATE VII Fig.1

Fig.2

An uniined well showing decreasing intensity of weathering downward in the uppermost unit of basalt, (south-east of Lacchmipura village). Weathered basalt exposed along the nala cutting shows decreasing intensity of weathering downward [east of Bamnia Kheri village].

A large number of pebbles and boulders are set in a matrix of weathered rock debries [north-east of Minagaon village]. Laterite capping is observed over flat topped hills of Rajgarh area. Valley fill area is extensively cultivated.

A closer view of Vindhyan sandstones around Narsinghgarh area.

Fig.2 Chunks of conglomerate within the debries on the lower portion of escarpment around Narsinghgarh area.

Highly dissected plateau regions, practically devoid of vegetation except some bushes and dry grasses. At the background thick vegetation cover is seen in the valley fill deposits (west of Machalpur town). Mesa hill developed with steep sides and horizontal capping of hard rock (near Mokanpura village).

PLATE VIII Fig.1 Escarpment developed around Narsingarh area.

PLATE-I

Fig. 1

Fig.2

PLATE-II

™™^^*- Tm.^."J&ilMtlWULtNliB "mmm

Fig.l

Fig. 2

PLATE-III

Fig.1

Fig. 2

PLATE-IV

Fig.l

Fig.2

PLATE-V

Flg.1

Fig.2

PLATE-VI

Fig. 1

Fig.2

PLATE-VII

Fig.l

Fig. 2

PLATE-Vin

Fig.l

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