Style.Atermdenotingmannerofdiscourse,modeofexpressionmoreparticularlythemannerinwhichaworkofartisexecuted.Inthediscussionofmusic,whichisorientatedtowardsrelationshipsratherthanmeanings,thetermraisesspecialdifficultiesitmaybeusedtodenotemusiccharacteristicofanindividualcomposer,ofaperiod,ofageographicalareaorcentre,orofasocietyorsocialfunction.

1.Definition.Styleismanner,modeofexpression,typeofpresentation.Fortheaestheticianstyleconcernssurfaceorappearance,thoughinmusicappearanceandessenceareultimatelyinseparable.Forthehistorianastyleisadistinguishingandorderingconcept,bothconsistentofanddenotinggeneralitiesheorshegroupsexamplesofmusicaccordingtosimilaritiesbetweenthem.AstylemaybeseenasasynthesisofotherstylesobviouscasesareJ.S.BachskeyboardstyleorMozartsoperaticstyle(bothcomprisedistinctivetexturalstyles,distinctiveharmonicstyles,distinctivemelodicstyles,etc.,andbotharefusionsofvariousstylistictraditions).Astylealsorepresentsarangeorseriesofpossibilitiesdefinedbyagroupofparticularexamples,asinsuchnotionsashomophonicstyleandchromaticstyle.Style,astyleorstyles(orallthree)maybeseeninanyconceptualunitintherealmofmusic,fromthelargesttothesmallestmusicitselfisastyleofart,andasinglenotemayhavestylisticimplicationsaccordingtoitsinstrumentation,pitchandduration.Style,astyleorstylesmaybeseenaspresentinachord,phrase,section,movement,work,groupofworks,genre,lifeswork,period(ofanysize)andculture.Stylemanifestsitselfincharacteristicusagesofform,texture,harmony,melody,rhythmandethosanditispresentedbycreativepersonalities,conditionedbyhistorical,socialandgeographicalfactors,performingresourcesandconventions.

2.Importofstyle.StylederivesfromthewordforaGreekandRomanwritingimplement(Lat.stilus),atoolofcommunication,theshaperandconditioneroftheoutwardformofamessage.Whiletheantithesisofappearanceandessence,orstyleandimport,isclearinthisoriginalgraphicalusage,therelationshipismorecomplexthansimpleantithesiswhereartisconcerned.Itiswidelyaccepted(e.g.bySachs,1946,andLippman,MGG1)thatinspeakingofthestyleofanepochorcultureoneistreatingofimport,asubstantivecommunicationfromasociety,whichisasignificantembodimentoftheaspirationsandinnerlifeofitspeople.Thesameistrueofsmallerunitsofartisticendeavourgenresspeakofthemenwhocreatedthemandthepeoplewhoreadilyreceivedthem,andapersonalstylespeaksoftheartistsviewoflife.Butintheindividualartworkother,moreintentionalmessagesarealsopresent.Thesearenotofcoursemessagesintheverbalsense.Butbytheactofcreativewillacomposerassertssomethinghemakesastatementofsomekind.Heinheritsausablepastandactsbyintuitivevision.Theproductofhisvisionbuildsonastylisticheritage,hasastyle

andimportofitsownandbequeathsanalteredheritage.Thestylisticheritagemaybeseenasgeneralprocedureswhichconditionthecomposersintuitivechoiceandinvention,thegeneralwhichlimitstheparticular,therelevantavailableresource,theessentialcontextofcreation.SuchnotionsareembodiedinSchoenbergsoppositionofstyleandidea,thoughthisisanoppositionwhich,sadly,Schoenbergtookontrustinhisbook,asintheessayfromwhichitstitlederives.Theideaworksthroughstyle.ThustheopeningofthethemaregiuminBachsMusicalOfferingisastately,measured,disjunct,minor,monophonicmelodysuitableforfugaltreatment,ratherthansimplyfiveminimsC,E ,G,A ,B.Animportantpartofthesignificanceofthisthemeistheconcatenationofqualitiesenumeratedabove,andtosomeextenttheparticularideaactsasthemediumofstyleandtheplayofsuccessiveandcoincidentstylesasthesubstanceofthemusic.ButtheparticulararticulationofthestylisticconcatenationisalsopartofthesignificancefiveminimsC,E ,F,G,Bwouldfitthisalbeitcrudestylisticanalysis,butBachs(orFredericktheGreats)creationisspecificallynotthat.Inmusictheparticularandthegeneralembodiedthereinandarticulatedtherebytogetherformmeaningorsignificance.Theydosobecausemusicisstylized.Thereisnoconsistentnaturalmeaninginmusicbyrelationtonaturalevents,andthereisnospecificarbitrarymeaningasinlanguage.Themeaninginmusiccomesfromarbitraryorderevolvedintoinheritedlogicanddevelopeddynamically.Agoodlistenerhearsbothstyleandutterance,andsavoursmeaningthroughhistory.Styleisthusthegeneralwhichsurroundstheparticularandgivesitsignificance.

3.Phenomenaofstyle.Brossard,Apel,BukofzerandLippmanregardstyleandformasopposed.Styleinthissensemaybeusedtodescribetheshapeofdetails,andformtheshapeofthewhole.Thewhole,however,ismadeupofitspartsandtheirrelationships,andformmayberegardedasaphenomenonofstyle.Eachpiecehasitsownuniqueform,whichcontrols,relatesandcomprehendsallitsdetails.Thisformbelongstoaclassofforms,andclassesofformsbycharacteristicprocedureswhichconcentrateonparticularpartsofmusicaltechniquegenerateandcarrydistinctivestylisticdetails.Fugalstyleandsonatastylearefamiliartermsvariationstyleandternarystylearealsomeaningfulandimportant,thoughnotoftenusedasconcepts.Formsmayalsobeviewedastakingtheirbeginningsfromstylisticdetailsitwascertainfeaturesinthedetailsofmusicallanguagearound1750thatpromotedtheevolutionandprominenceofsonataform.Formssuggest,incorporate,belongtoandgrowoutofspecificstyles.Indifferentperiodscharacteristicformshavedependedondifferentelementsofmusicalmaterialindifferentemphases.ThusintheArsNova,forinstance,texturewasanimportantformaldeterminant,whereasintheClassicalandRomanticperiodsformslargelydependedonlongrangethematicandharmonicthinking.Whateverparameterisusedasthechiefpresenterofform,twogeneralformalprinciplesmaybepostulated.Formscanbebasedoncontinuityorondiscontinuity(evolutionorcontrast,flowordisjunction).Thetwoprinciplesneverexistinisolation,andspecificformshavecharacteristicmixturesofthem.Abasically

continuousformlikeaBachfugueshowspointsofarticulationandchangesofmaterial,buttheoverridingimpulseiscustomarilyoneofevolutionandgrowthratherthancontrastandcomparison.Discontinuousforms,suchasthesectionalformesfixesof14thand15thcenturysecularpolyphony,havecontinuitywithinsections,andnoformcanavoidtemporalsequence.Inthe19thcenturycontinuousforms,amongwhichsonataformwasprime,werecomplicatedbygreatercontrastelements,anddisjunctiveformssuchasthemultimovementstructureofsonata,quartetandsymphony,andsuchasternaryandrondoforms,werecomplicatedbyincorporatingthematicsimilaritiestobridgethepointsofarticulation.Thisbridgingofarticulationsincontrastformshadhappenedbefore(e.g.inthe15thcenturycyclicmass).Repetitionisatypeofcontrast,andvariedrepetitionis,perhapsparadoxically,formallymoreevolutionarythismaybeunderstoodbycomparingstrophicandvariationforms.Textureisthedispositionoftheelementsofmusicalargumentonthechosenforcesitissonority,andisconditionedbytonecolour,idiomandcompositionaltechnique.Thetermappliesbothtosimultaneousandtoconsecutivesounds.Aswithform,textureisameansofpresentingstyle,andindeedtexturalfeatureshavegivenrisetostylisticnames:monodicstyle,homophonicstyle,polyphonicstyle(stratifiedorimitative),keyboardstyle,etc.Agoodcomposerwillusetexturalpossibilitiestoshapeandenhancehismusicalstatement,andtextureswillbothgenerateandbegeneratedbythemusicalmaterial.Textureissometimesofformalsignificance,asinthemotet(ofanyperiod)orthefugue.Theopposingprinciplesoftexturearehomogeneityandheterogeneity.Thisbeginswiththeselectionofmusicalforces,whichmaybe,inthetermsofthelateRenaissance,eitherawholeconsortorabrokenconsort.Awholeconsortisaselectionofinstrumentsorresourcesofthesamefamilybutdifferentpitches,andabrokenconsortisamixtureofdifferentinstrumentsorresources.Voicesalonearethusawholeconsort,buttheyreadilymixwithinstrumentsevenfromearliestpolyphonictimestoformabrokenconsort.Thetextureofacompositionmaylikewisedependonsimilarconstituents(voicesorpartswhichdosimilarthings)orstratifiedconstituents.StratifiedtextureisafeatureoftheFranconianmotet,whereashomogeneoustextureoccursinthe16thcenturymotet.Theoppositeprinciples,aswiththoseofform,arenotmutuallyexclusive:heterogeneoustexturesblendintheearandhomogeneoustexturesconsistofdifferentparts.Idiomaticusageswilllinkbrokenconsortsandheterogeneoustexture,andwholeconsortsareaptforhomogeneoustexture.Harmonyasavehicleforstyleismostlyanindicatorofhistoricalpositionitispartofidiom,anditsproceduresmustberegardedinthelightofchangingconventions.Itmaybemodal,diatonic,chromaticoratonal.Somecomposershoweverhavestretchedandenrichedtheharmonicresourceoftheirtimesforexpressivepurposes(Gesualdo,WagnerandDebussy),andoperacomposershaveoftendeliberatelyjuxtaposeddifferentharmonicstylesforsuchreasons(Parsifalismerelyagreatexampleamongmanythatusechromaticismasasymbolforevil,magicorsensualityanddiatonicismforgoodness,naturalnessandinnocence).Besidesbeingrhetoricalorexpressive,orboth,harmonyalsohasoppositeprinciplesrelatedtotheseprinciplesresultingfrompartwritingorresultingfromsonorousimagination.Harmonyresultingprimarilyfrompartwritingisacharacteristicofsuccessivecomposition,suchasoccurredinpreandearlyRenaissancetimes,andcanwellbeseeninMachauts

MassharmonyresultingfromsonorousimaginationmaybeseeninsomeWagnerandImpressioniststyles.Againthetwoprinciplesneverexistinisolation.SuccessivelycomposedpartswerewrittenwithsomeawarenessofhowtheywouldfitWagnersharmonicexpressionisoftenthroughchordjuxtapositions,andTristanshowsharmonicsensuousnessexpressedthroughcounterpoint.Melodyisofgreatimportanceasamusicalfeatureitispossibletoregarditastheessentialconditionofmusic,whichisguidedbyform,supportedbyharmonyandarticulatedbytextureandrhythm.Whilethatissomewhatmetaphysical,thereisnodoubtthattheethosofthegenerativethemesforatonalpiecerepresentsaverylargepartofthemusicalstatementandimpact,orthatthecharacteristicconvolutionsofanearlyRenaissancelineareabeguiling,immediateandforcefulexperience.Melodyshouldnotbeunderratedasanelementofformitisnotabyproductornecessaryevilwhichthemusicalacceptasameanstohigherkindsofstatement,norisitsomethingtobeseparatedfromthetotalformassomethingbetterthanthat.Melodyisaprimeconnectivefeatureinthecontinuumofaudibletime,andassuchisanimportantandformcarryingstylisticphenomenon.Itconsistsofasinglelineofrelatedpitches,butarpeggiobasedmelodies(especiallyoftheBaroqueperiod)canimplymorethanoneline(oratleaststronglysuggesttheirownharmony),contrapuntalformscombinemelodiessimultaneously,andmodernmusiccanexistasatexturalsequence(asinPendereckisPolymorphia)insuchcasesthehorizontalexpandsintoandblendswiththevertical.Melodicstylesmayberegularorirregular,flowingorspasmodic,motivicoradditive,presentationalordevelopmental,conjunctordisjunct,vocalorinstrumental,ornamentalorstructural,decoratedorsimple.Rhythmistheverylifebloodofmusicitisthetermfororderedchange,howevercomplex.Itisanintegralpartofformal,textural,harmonicandmelodicconsiderations.Musicalrhythmmaybeviewedasacombinationofobjectivetemporalsegments(pulse)andemotionalsequence(theebbandflowcreatedby,forinstance,discordandresolution,cadence,differentiatedmelodicandharmonicnotevalues,melodicshape,agogicaccents,syncopation).Suchafeltexperienceoftimegainssignificancefromitsenforcedcomparisonwithpulse.Pulsesmaybemoreorlessstronglygroupedinmetres,eachwithitsownstylisticsuggestions,andtheebbandflowoffeelingmoreorlessstronglyorganizedinphrases,periodsorsections.Irregularityofmetreorphrasestructurehasanaturaltendencytocontrastwithregularity.Rhythmicstylesmayfavouranevenprogression,asinmuchpreRenaissanceanddancemusic,ortheexcitementofgrowthtoandrecessionfrompointsofclimaxoranimation,asinmuch19thcenturymusic.Onthesmallscaleundifferentiatedordisjunctrhythmicstylesoffermuchscopefordistinctiveutterance.Intherhythmicaspectofstyletheartformsofmusicanddanceareclosest,andtheinfluenceofdanceonmusicisanimportantareaofcriticism.Theseaspectsofmusicallanguagewhichpresentstyleareunitedinuniqueblendsbyuniqueexpressivepurposes.Theadditionoffactorsdoesnotexplaintheirrelationship,andthefactorsassumenewsignificanceinnewrelationshipsandcontexts.Theexpressivepurposemayberelatedtosocialfunction,ortoamoreorlessdetailedprogramme(asinthesymphonicpoem,andanysettingofwords),ormaybemoreabstractanexpressivepurposetobeseenandsavouredinpurelymusicalterms.Expressivepurposesmayalso

havestylenames,bothgeneral(sacredstyle,secularstyle)ormorespecific(heroicstyle,reflectivestyle,everydaystyle,pastoralstyle)andcharacterdescriptionslikesad,desolate,happy,ebullient,carrystylisticimplications.

4.Conditionersanddynamicsofstylisticdifferences.Personalstyleisoneofthecommonestunitsfordiscussioninmodernmusiccriticism.Asadifferentiatingfactorinstyleitisofvariableimportance,partlybecauseofthedifferingattitudesofsocietiesandcomposers.ItisnotanimportantfeatureinmanynonWesternmusicalcultures,inplainchantorinWesternfolkmusicssuchrepertoriesmaydependfortheirformationonindividualsandtheiridiosyncraticperformingstyles,butinthisformationtheindividualissubordinatetoacommunalartisticpurpose.Personalstylemaybemoreimportanttoobjectiveanalysisthantothesocietyinwhichtheartistworked,asinGermanBaroquemusic,orpersonaldifferencesmaybeencouragedbysocialattitudessothatpersonalstylesbecomemoredistinctive,asinthe19thcentury.TherelativeimportanceofpersonalstyleisasignificantandtosomeextentdistinguishingfeatureoftheWesterntradition,anditmaybeseenwithnotationaspartoftheprocessofcomparativelyfastdevelopmentofmusicalidiomintheWest.Stylisticchangeisinherentinmeaningfulcreation,atleastwithintheWesterntradition,andthepersonalstylesofgreatcomposersarehardlyeverstaticsuchacomposerlearnsfromhimselfandisconstantlyaddingtohisusablepast.Theamountofchangeoveralifetimevariesaccordingtoitslength,accordingtopersonalityandintellectualdevelopment,andaccordingtooutwardculturalandeconomiccircumstances.Normalprocessesofapprenticeship,maturityandrefinementmaybelargelyundisturbed(PalestrinaandBrahms),orhaveimposedonthemmoredramaticchangesaffectingstyleandderivingfromachangeofideals(Liszt,Wagner)orchangesinexternalrequirements(BachandHandel).Stylesofcomposersworkingatthesametimemaybecompared,likethoseofHaydnandMozartorBrucknerandMahler,andwhensimilaritiesaredrawnquestionsofepochalstylemayarise.Suchaconceptdenotesageneralrangeofresourceandusageavailableatanyonetimelikepersonalstyle,epochalstyleisthereforeinaconstantstateofflux.Itispossiblehowevertousetheconceptstretchedoverlargeperiodsoftimebecausethisfluxshowsdifferingtypesofchangesomechangeshavebeenmuchmoreradicalordramatic,orboth,thanothers.HistoriansfromAdleronwardshavedividedWesternmusicalstyleatabout1000and1600.Thechangefromthemonophoniceratothepolyphonicwasgradual,withpolyphonyimprovisedatleastasearlyasthe9thcenturyandplainsongcomposedevenafterthe14th.Butthedevelopmentofmonophonyintopolyphonybywayofparallelism(adifferentiationoftexture)tomelodicandrhythmicindependenceofparts,andtheevolutionofpolyphonyfromanimprovisedsemiautomaticelaborationintoawrittenandcomposedphenomenonformafundamentalchangeinthemeansofexpressionachangethatjustifiesgroupinginmajorstyleareasthemusicbeforeandafterit.Similarlythedevelopmentsofmodalityintotonalityandoflinearintoharmonicthoughtwhichreachedacruxaround1600arealsobothgradualandfundamentalchangesintechnique.Afurtherchangeofthistypeandmagnitude,awayfromtonality,maybeseenaround1900.

Inmorerecenthistoriography,writers(e.g.Reese,Bukofzer,Blume)havefurtherdividedmusicsince1000andtheepochalstylesofArsAntiqua,ArsNova,Renaissance,Baroque,ClassicalandRomantichavebecomefamiliarconcepts.BlumehasconvincinglyarguedtheinnercoherenceofClassicandRomanticasonestylisticperiod,andtheseepochsthendependonsignificantandradicalstylisticchangeatintervalsofabout150years(thoughadetailedchronologyofstylisticdevelopmentsinthe12thcenturyisamatterforconjecture).Newstylesgrowoutofsuggestionsinherentintheold,andanyexampleofastylewillhaverelicsofitspredecessorsandpremonitionsofitssuccessors.Thechangesinthe12thcenturyandinabout1300,1450,1600,1750and1900showconsistentlynewtreatmentsofrhythminmostcasesformal,textural,harmonicandmelodiccharacteristicschangetoo,butrhythmicchangeisastronganddramaticinitialfactorintheformationoftheseepochalstyles.The12thcenturysawtheadoptionofmodalrhythmasacentralfeaturethebeginningoftheArsNovadependsonincreasedimportanceofduplerhythmandsyncopation,andthatoftheRenaissanceonthehomogenizationoftherhythmicconstituentsofpolyphonictextureandanawarenessoftherhythmofgrowth.TheBaroquebeginswiththenewaffectiverhythmofmonody,thecontinuomadrigalandFrescobaldistoccatastheClassicalperiodbeginswithanewinterestinphrasestructureandagreaterdiversityofnotevalueswithinmelodiesandthemodernperiodbeginswiththerhythmicrevitalizationsofBartkandStravinsky.TheepochalstylesarehowevernotalwaysbestcharacterizedinrhythmictermstheBaroqueforinstanceisprimarilytheageofthecontinuo,theClassicandRomanticperiodtheageoftonalityasalargescalestructuralforce,themoderneratheageofalternativestotonalityandtriadicharmony.Theaphoristiccharacterizationofeachperiodhoweverisalwaysproblematic,forperiodsthemselvesincludemuchchangestylesbegin,growanddie.Initially,newtechniquesofexpressionareexploredandadjustedtobycomposerslearning,likechildren,thepossibilities.Thesetechniquesareincorporatedintosuitableformswhichbecomeestablishedinaphaseofconsolidation,whichmaybeseenintermsofabalancebetweencontrolleddevelopmentofstyleandnewnessofimport.Consolidationleadstorefinementandcomplication,andthestylesofcomposersattheendofepochs,suchasBach,BrahmsandWagner,arenothingifnotcomplexsometimesthisphaseincludeswhatareafterregardedasoverripemodesofexpression,liketheelaborationsofPetrusdaCruce,GesualdoandReger.Styleisgreatlyconditionedbytheexpectationsandrequirementsofanaudienceorotherpatronsofcomposers,especiallyinmattersofgenreandethos.Thegenresofmass,operaandchambermusicbecomepopularwithcomposerspartlybecauseofpopulardemand,andtheycarrytheirownstylisticcharacteristics.Associatedethos,suchastheexpressionofreligiousemotionsinchurch,oftheatricalemotionsinoperaandofrefinementinthechamberarealsotheresultofsocialexpectationsandtaste.Sometimesmorethanacceptabilityandexpectationisinvolvedthereisafunctionalroleanddemandformilitarymusic,andtherequirementsofSovietrealismhaveaquasilegalforce.Stylisticcrossovers,suchasMahlersuseofmilitarymusicinasymphonyorStrausssuseofchambermusicinanopera(Capriccio),havedenotivevalue.

Geographicallocationisastrongconditionerofstyle,andcaninvolveparticularsocialpressureswhichexistonlyincertainplaces:examplesarethebirthofoperainItaly,therequirementsofthe17thcenturyFrenchcourt,andRussianrealismofboththe19thand20thcenturies.Geographicaldifferencesareimportantinculturaldevelopmentbecauseofdifficultiesofcommunication,andlocalstylesmaygrowupinacity(suchasMannheimorVienna),aregion(aswiththevariousGermanorganschoolsofthemiddleBaroque),acountryoracontinent.Thefolkcultureofacountryoftenhasstronginfluencesonstyle(especiallyinthe19thcentury),andtheseinfluencesmaybeconsciouslyenhancedbycomposersasameansofnationalassertion.Languagealsohasadecisiveeffectonnationalstyles,asAbrahamhasshowninhisfascinatingcomparisonofItalianandCzechstyles(1974,chap.4).Apreferenceofsouthernracesformelodyandofnorthernracesforthegreatertechnicalintricaciesofcounterpointhasbeenremarked,andisattributedtointeractionsofclimate,religion,personalityandlanguage.Sometimesstylesbecomeinternational,aswithlateRenaissanceNetherlandishstyle,BaroqueItalianopera,orearly19thcenturyGermanicstyle.Theinteractionofstylesbornindistinctlocalitiesisanabsorbingstudy.ThemutualinfluenceofDuFayandDunstapleandthewaysinwhichDunstaplediffersfromEnglishcomposersworkinginEnglandshowsomeoftheintricacyoftheissues.HistoricalaccidentsofcommunicationcanhavefarreachingconsequencesfortheevolutionofmusicalstyleAgincourt,spreadingtheEnglishstyleontheContinentatatimewhenRenaissancestylewasinembryo,andthemarriageofPhilipIIofSpain,bringingtheIberiankeyboardvariationtoEnglandintimefortheEnglishvirginaliststodevelop,haveartisticaswellaspoliticalsignificance.Theresourcesofperformanceareimportantformativeinfluencesonstyle,andParry(1911)usedtherelationshipbetweenresourcesandutteranceasthestartingpointforandmainfeatureofadefinitionofstyle.Characteristicsoundsareadirectelementofstyle,whilethetechniquesofperformingonspecificresources,withattendantidiomaticproclivitiesandpossibilities,influencemelody,rhythmandtexture.Conventionsinthegroupingofresourcesandinperformingpracticeunderlievariousdistinctivepersonal,epochal,socialandgeographicstyles.Eachresourcehasitsownespeciallysuitableformsofexpression.Voicesaregoodatsustained,conjunctmusic,whileinstrumentsaresuitedtoagilityanddisjunction.Theviolinhasacapacityforwiderangingmelody,asCorelliexploited,andveryhightessitura,asRomanticcomposersfoundtheorganpedalsparticularlyrequirefiguresinvolvingtheuseofalternatefeet,givingrisetopatternsthatbecameafeatureoflateBaroqueGermanorganmusic.Instrumentscome,developandgo,andthetechniquesofplayingthemdevelop(usuallyinthedirectionofgreaterfacilityandcomplication,butnotalways,asmaybeseenfromhornandtrumpettechniqueinthe18thcentury)suchchangesareintegralindeterminingstyle.Idiomsfromoneinstrumentpassintootherusages,asdidthevocalornamentsofthelateRenaissanceintotheviolinrepertoryandthelutestyleoftheearlyBaroqueintokeyboardresource.Forfurtherdiscussionofthefactorsgoverningepochalstyles,seeArsantiquaArsnovaArssubtiliorMedievalRenaissanceBaroqueRococoGalantEmpfindsamkeitClassicalBiedermeierandRomanticismseealsoHistoriographyandMusicology,II,1.

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Geographicalandinstrumentalstylesarediscussedinentriesofthecountriesandinstrumentsconcerned.

5.Stylisticawareness.Composershavealwaysbeenawareofstylisticdifferences,asmayeasilybeseenfromanycursoryexaminationofWesternmusicanditssupportingbodyoftheoreticalliterature.ThatiswhyplainchantcomposersproducedalleluiamelodiesdifferentfromsettingsoftheAgnusDei,whyDuFaywrotechansonsintrebledominatedstyleanddiscanttenorstyle,andwhyLisztwrotedifferentlyforthepianoandfortheorchestra.Theoristsandcriticstoohavebeenawareofstylisticdistinctions.MusicalstyleinGreecewasasubjectforphilosophersbecauseoftheethicandeducativepowersofdifferentstylesJohannesdeGarlandia(13thcentury)distinguishedbetweendiscant,copulaandorganum,andJohannesdeGrocheo(c1300)betweenmusicavulgaris,musicacompositaormensurataandmusicaecclesiastica.ItwashoweverinthelateRenaissanceandearlyBaroquethattheoreticaldiscussionofstylebecameanimportantareaofliteraryproductionindeedthewordstyleentersthevocabularyofmusiccommentaryatthistime.Monteverdi(likePhilippedeVitrybeforehimandC.P.E.Bachafterhim)wasoneofthegreatcomposerswhowasalsoanimportanttheorist.Hedrewdistinctionsbetweenprimapratica(reallylateRenaissancestyles)andsecondapratica(thenewaffectivestylesoftheearlyBaroque),andbetweenstileconcitato,molleandtemperato(intheprefacetotheeighthbookofmadrigals,1638)hedividedsecularmusicintoteatrale,dacameraanddaballo.ThedistinctionbetweenthetwopracticescontinuedinDoni(Compendio,1635),whospokeofstileanticoandstilemoderno,andinChristophBernhard(Tractatuscompositionisaugmentatus,c1657),whospokeofcontrapunctusgravisorstylusantiquusandcontrapunctusluxuriansorstylusmodernus.BernhardalsointroducedtheconceptsofFigurenlehreandAffektenlehre,whichcombinestylisticdetailsandexpressivepurposesandwhicharesoimportantforthehighBaroqueaesthetic.Kircher(Musurgiauniversalis,1650)synthesizedastylisticsystemthatfoundmuchpopularityandacceptance,basedondifferencesofmusicalpurpose,genre,personality,locationandmood.StyledependentonpersonalityandtemperamentKirchercalledstylusimpressus,styledependentontechniqueandAffektstylusexpressusfurtherhedistinguishedstylusecclesiasticus,canonicus,motecticus,phantasticus,madrigalescus,melismaticus,choriacussivetheatralisandsymphoniacus.Brossard(1703)andJ.G.Walther(1732)followedhim.TheimportantbasicstylisticclassificationofthelateBaroqueperiodhoweverwasstylusecclesiasticus,styluscubicularisandstylusscenicus.ThisappearedfirstinMarcoScacchi(Brevediscorsosopralamusicamoderna,1649)andwascontinuedbyBerardi(Ragionamentimusicali,1681)andMattheson(DasbeschtzteOrchestre,1717DervollkommeneCapellmeister,1739GrundlageeinerEhrenPforte,1740).Matthesonalsospokeofnationalstyles(welschenundfrantzsischen)towhichScheibe(CritischeMusikus,1745)addedperformingpracticeasastylisticphenomenontheyfollowedBach,Telemann,Rameauandotherswhocomposedmusicinspecific,andspecified,nationalorlocalstyles.Thedifferencesbetweenandthe

relativemeritsoftheFrenchandItalianstylesofcompositionandperformance,inparticular,wereanimportantpartof18thcenturymusicalconsciousness.IntheClassicalandRomanticperiodsthefashionforstylistictheoryabated,butbytheendofthe19thcenturythefundamentalconcernsofmodernmusicologyasadisciplineofculturalhistorywerewellestablished.Adler(18551941)describedmusichistoryasthehistoryofstyle,andthetheoryofstyleasanepochalconceptwassubsequentlytreatedofbyBcken,Mies,Riemann,Handschin,GurlittandSchering.Epochalnamesweretakenfromarthistoryandfromliterature.MajormodernachievementsinepochalhistoriographyaretheOxfordHistoryofMusicandtheNortonseriesincludingworkbyReese,BukofzerandEinstein.Studiesofpersonalstyles,beginningwithworkbyBainiandWinterfeldintheearly19thcentury,werecontinuedinthe20thbysuchasJeppesensstudyofPalestrina(1922)andRosensofHaydn,MozartandBeethoven(1971).Thestudyoffolkcultureswasanimportantaspectof19thcenturymusicologyandwasexpandedinthe20thcenturybythedisciplineofethnomusicology.AnalysisofthestyleofexamplesofmusicisbasictoallthesebranchesofmusicologysuchanalysishasbecomemorejustifiedinitsownrightsincetheworkofSchenkerandTovey.(Foradiscussionofstyleanalysis,seeAnalysis,II,5.)Stylisticcriticismisthemeansofbothculturalhistoryandthehumanresponsetoanartwork.Itdistinguishestheblendandoriginofstylesastheyarepresentedintheindividualartwork,whichisafixingorcrisisoftradition.Aworkcannotproperlybeappreciatedorstudiedinisolationneithercanstylisticevolutionandtrendsbedistinguishedwithoutathoroughunderstandingofindividualexamples.Bytheapplicationofstylisticquestionsonemayarriveatadeeperviewofmusicalutterance,anintellectualinterpretationofmusicwhichenrichestheresponsetoit.

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