STUDY MATERIAL - Effective Business Writing

8/2/2019 STUDY MATERIAL - Effective Business Writing

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Gender-Biased Gender-Neutral

Chairman Chairperson

Spokesman Spokesperson

Actress Actor

9. Use Proper Sentence Design• The cumulative losses showed an increase. The sales for the year increased.

• This sentence can be redrafted to focus on losses or sales.

10. Use Proper Flow

• Sentences should have clarity

• Sentences must blend into paragraphs

• Each paragraph discusses an idea

• Paragraphs must blend together to form the central theme

11. Consistency & Continuity

• Each correspondence should deal with only one subject.

12. Linkages

• Ideas must merge in a smooth flow• A paragraph should end in such a way that the next paragraph looks logical.

13. Use of Space and Formatting

• The letter should be neat and easy on the eye.

• Emphasis on words or sentences can be added with underscoring, italics,

CAPITALS, bold, colour etc.

But these should be used sparingly.

14. Attachments

• An Appendix amplifies a portion of the main text.

• Appendices are alphabetically listed. (Appendix A, Appendix B etc).

• A single Appendix need not be listed.

• Annexure could be - amplification of an Appendix.• An Annexure could also be an independent document.

Written Communication

Basics of written communication

We will address:

Wordiness (“loose, baggy sentences”)

Weak verbs / ponderous nouns / strings of prepositional phrases

Tone / meaning

Plain talk

Structure Commas Plagiarism



Wordiness (“loose, baggy sentences”)

Omit needless words.

“Frankly, I am sick and tired of corporate indifference.” (either sick or tired

will do)

Think very hard about the use of “very.” What is the real difference between “important” and “very important?”)

Weak verbs (lifeless verbs) / ponderous nouns

He was the winner!

He won!

The ball went to center field.

The ball sailed to center field.

She is quick.

She moves quickly.

Nouns ending in tion, ment, ence, etc. are heavy.

The stability and quality of our financial performance will be developed

through the profitable execution of our existing business, as well as the

acquisition or development of new businesses.

We will improve our financial performance not only by executing our

existing business more profitably but by acquiring or developing new

businesses.

Tone, meaning Value content over tone.“I believe Bill’s Hamlet is the high point in English literature. (too informal)

"Life is pleasant. Death is peaceful. It's the transition that's troublesome”. - Isaac

Asimov (not appropriate at a funeral)

Adopt the tone appropriate to the occasion.

Know your audience

Be sincere (be yourself).

Engage the audience - make them care.

Plain talk (from “The Art of Plain Talk”)

Write things that convey your meaning in plain English.

Prefer the familiar word to the far-fetched Prefer the concrete word to the abstract Prefer the single word to the circumlocution

Prefer the short word to the long

Language consists of two parts: the things we say and the machinery by which we

say them.



Misplaced modifiers

Word order is important for meaning.

For sale. Antique desk suitable for lady with thick legs and large drawers.

Fur coats made for ladies from their own skin.

Enraged cow injures farmer with ax.One morning I shot an elephant in my pajamas.

“How he got in my pajamas, I’ll never know.” Groucho Marx, While touring Africa...

Structure

Subject -- verb -- object

The boy– bounced-- the ball.

“People for whom the nuclei of atoms are as real as the bacon and eggs they have for

breakfast are exceedingly rare.”

“People for whom the nuclei of atoms are as real as their breakfast bacon and eggs

are exceedingly rare.”

Commas

…the most common punctuation mark and the most troublesome.

Only four places where they’re needed (aside from dates, addresses etc)

Before conjunctions joining independent clauses (before “and, but, for, nor,

yet, so…”)(links 2 parts of a sentence)

Between adjacent, important, descriptive, parallel items

Around parenthetical, but potentially important, elements

In sequences where you need to prevent misreading

Plagiarism

To avoid plagiarism, you must give credit whenever

you use another person's idea, opinion, or theory;

any facts, statistics, graphs, drawings--any pieces of information-- that are

not common knowledge;

quotations of another person's actual spoken or written words; or

paraphrase of another person's spoken or written words.

Basic need for adaptation

For writing to be clear, it must be adapted to the reader

Adaptation = fitting the message to the specific reader

All readers do not have –

The same vocabulary or the same knowledge of the subject

The same mentality or the same ability to understand

Form the message to fit the person’s mind. This helps us to communicate better – it

is also the basis of business etiquette.



Visualizing the reader

Adaptation begins with visualizing the reader

Imagining what he or she knows, feels or thinks

Technique of adapting

Often you will have to write to levels lower than your own When writing to a less educated person you will need to simplify

You may write differently for highly educated people

Adapting to multiple readers

If you write for one person in a group, you will miss the others

To communicate with all of them, write for the lowest member of the group

Governing role of adaptation

Adaptation underlies all that will be said about writing

It should be applied to all other writing instructions

Suggestions for selecting words

Selecting right words is a part of adaptation Many people tend to write at a difficult level The writer usually knows the subject better than the reader; and

Writing below the reader’s level of understanding communicates best.

Use familiar words.

Familiar words communicate, use them.

Use your judgment in determining what words are familiar.

Difficult words are not all bad.

Use them

- when they fit your need and

- when they are understood by your reader

Use slang and clichés with caution Use them only when they are meaningful

Used only in informal communication

The good old days, pearls of wisdom, fit as a fiddle, go figure, live and let live,

Crap, goof up, go bananas, hole in the wall, hyper, jerk, screw up, sucks…

Use of short words

Generally short words communicate better

They are more familiar and hence understood easily

Heavy use of long words, leaves an impression of difficulty that hinders

communication

However there are a few exceptions Some long words are common and are understood even by children

Use technical words with caution

Use when you communicate with people in your own field

Use initials and acronyms

They may not be known to the reader

Spell out and define as required

E.g. ELT (English Language Teaching / WE (World Englishes)



Select words with the right strength

Words have personalities, select the stronger ones

To select words wisely, select shades of difference in their meaning

Example:

Tycoon is stronger than the term ‘eminently successful businessman’;

Mother is stronger than ‘female parent’.

Sometimes, weaker words serve your purpose the best

E.g.: Bill is stronger than statement

Debt is stronger than obligation

Die is stronger then passed away

It is better to use the weaker terms in such cases.

Use Active Voice

Use active instead of passive

In active – subject does the action

In passive, it receives the action Active is stronger and shorter.

The results were reported in our letter dated September 21, 2010.

We reported the results in our September 21st letter.

Passive voice also has a place

It is better when doer of the action is not important.

Helps avoid accusing the receiver

Example:

The damage was caused by exposing the material to sunlight.

It was damaged because you exposed it to sunlight.

Passive is better when the performer is not knownE.g.: During the past year, the equipment has been damaged several times.

Select words for precise meaning.

Writing requires knowledge of the language. Study language and learn shades of

difference in the meaning of similar words.

E.g.: Weary, tired, fagged out, exhausted / fired, dismissed, terminated, discharged–

all refer to the same thing, but have different shades of meaning.

Use correct idioms and phrases

Avoid words that discriminate against sex, race, nationality, age or disability

Use Gender Neutral words

Emphasis on short sentences

Short sentences communicate better due to mind limitations

However, excessive use of short sentences is also bad. It gives a choppy effect

Use moderately long sentences occasionally



Best tip for Better Writing

If you want to write, READ.

Not just books on writing,

but magazines, websites, newspapers, newsletters

everything you can get your hands on.

Proofread your copy even if spell check says there are no errors.

Effective Writing – Tips

Language is the primary conductor between your brain and the minds of your

audience. Ineffective language weakens and distorts ideas.

If you want to be understood, if you want your ideas to spread, using effective

language must be your top priority.

Effective writing is built on the following principles.

• Your document should have one governing idea.

• You should address a specific person or group.

• You should make your point, then support it.

• Support your governing idea with a limited number of other ideas, ordered

logically.

• Make the document as easy to read as possible.

Never use a long word where a short one will do.

• Long words don’t make you sound intelligent unless used skillfully.• In the wrong situation, they’ll have the opposite effect, making you sound

pretentious and arrogant.

• They’re also less likely to be understood and more awkward to read.

Simpler, and better words and those are the ones to be used.

• access (as a verb) get, reach

• accommodate fit, hold, adapt, house, adjust, help, grant, allow

• consequence result, effect, outcome, importance, note, weight

• diminutive small, tiny, little

• effectuate carry out, bring about, achieve, realize, cause

• feasible possible, probable, likely • miniscule tiny

• obligation debt, duty, bond, contract, tie, favor

• render make, give, deliver, hand over, present, send in, pay, show

• substantiate back up, confirm, prove, support, verify

• summon send for, call, call up, call on



If it is possible to cut a word out, always cut it out.

Any words that don’t contribute meaning to a passage dilute its power.

Less is always better. Always!

1. Look at a passage of your writing that seems slowed down, that isn’t getting to thepoint.

2. Underline all of your adjectives.

3. One by one, read aloud or to yourself what that sentence would be like with or

without adjectives.

4. If you feel that you are losing something by taking out the adjective, consider

inserting more descriptive, active writing—a phrase or sentence—in its place.

5. Instead of writing about a “fancy party,” consider describing the restaurant itself:

“waiters walked around carrying bottles of champagne and caterers served filet

mignon and fresh salmon.”

Write With Necessary Caution...• Be mindful that once something is in written form, it cannot be taken back.

• Communicating in this way is more concrete than verbal communications,

with less room for error and even less room for mistakes.

• This presents written communicators with new challenges, including

spelling, grammar, punctuation, even writing style and actual wording.

• Today’s technology mak es writing much easier by providing reliable tools

that check and even correct misspelled words and incorrect grammar use.

• Unfortunately, these tools are not fail proof. It will require your support, and

make your knowledge in this area important.

Some of the most basic tips to remember when writing include:• Avoid the use of slang words

• Try not to use abbreviations (unless appropriately defined)

• Steer away from the use of symbols (such as ampersands [&])

• Clichés should be avoided, or at the very least, used with caution

• Brackets are used to play down words or phrases

• Dashes are generally used for emphasis• Great care should ALWAYS be taken to spell the names of people and

companies correctly

• Numbers should be expressed as words when the number is less than 10 or

is used to start a sentence

Example: Ten years ago, my brother and I….• The number 10, or anything greater than 10, should be expressed as a figure

Example: My brother has 13 Matchbox cars.

• Place quotation marks around any directly quoted speech or text and around

titles of publications.

• Keep sentences short



The importance of proof reading

• Perhaps the most important thing to remember when writing a letter is to

check it thoroughly when it is completed.

• Even when you think, it is exactly what you want, read it one more time.

• This “unwritten” rule holds true for everything you write – memos, letters,

proposals, and so on.• Use both the grammar and spell check on your computer, paying very, very

close attention to every word highlighted.

• Do not place total faith on your computer here.

• Double-check everything your computers editing tools highlight, as these

tools are certainly not always reliable, for a variety of reasons.

• When checking your written communications make sure the document is

clear and concise.

• Is there anything in the written communication that could be

misinterpreted?

• Does it raise unanswered questions or fail to make the point you need to get

across?• Can you cut down on the number of words used?

• For instance, don’t use 20 words when you can use 10.

• While you do not want to be curt or abrupt, you do not want to waste the

reader’s time with unnecessary words or phrases.

• Is your written communication well organized?

• Does each idea proceed logically to the next?

• Make sure your written communications are easy to read and contain the

necessary information, using facts where needed and avoiding information

that is not relevant.

Convincing Use the active voice (emphasizes who does what) instead of the passive

voice(emphasizes what is done).Example:

passive - The prison lawn is mowed by the inmates.

active - The inmates mow the prison lawn.

passive - Inexpensive cheese will be studied by the science students.

active - The science students shall study inexpensive cheese.

passive - A large for sale sign was knocked down by the wind.

active - The wind knocked over a large for sale sign.

Passive - The consequences were known by each member.

Active - Each member knew the consequences.

Comprehendible

Eliminate words that are nonessential to meaning or mood.

Example:

Words that weakly emphasize adjectives include very, really, terribly, and awfully.

Easy to read



Combine short sentences to consolidate ideas, but don't ramble. Consecutive lengthy

sentences burden readers and appear intimidating.

Example:

ineffective - I dropped an egg and it landed on my dog. The egg was boiled and it did

not crack open.

Effective - When I dropped a boiled egg, it landed on my dog without breaking.Ineffective - The boy had orange hair color and freckles. Because of these traits, he

looked very much like his mother.

Effective - The boy, with his orange hair and freckles, strongly resembled his

mother.

Ineffective - His wet sneakers squeaked on the tile. This noise annoyed the teachers.

Effective - The squeak of his wet sneakers on the tile annoyed the teachers.

Interesting throughout

Vary the structure of your sentences.

Example:

Dull - We own seven barns in that town. We also own forty-two horses there. Welike to ride horses in that countryside.

Intriguing - Riding horses is enjoyable for us in that country town. We own seven

barns and forty-two horses there.

Exhibits a clear voice

Reword redundant or wordy phrases.Example:

Ineffective - It is a [musical] one.

Effective - It is [musical].

Example:

Ineffective - It is something that [makes your pet sleepy].Effective - It [makes your pet sleepy].

Example:

Ineffective - He is a man who [plays baseball].

Effective - He [plays baseball].

Ineffective - She is a woman who [spends most of her time in the office].

Effective - She [spends most of her time in the office].

Example:

Ineffective - [Her performances] are of a [stellar] nature.

Effective - [Her performances] are [stellar].

Example: Ineffective - Only a person who is [healthy may donate blood].

Effective - Only a [healthy] person [may donate blood].



Memorandum - Memo

What is a Memorandum?

A memorandum is a brief and small written record or document used in offices for

internal communication purposes. Whether it's a business, government/education

institution, or legal office, memoranda are used whenever required.

In other words

A memo or memorandum is

A type of communication commonly used in businesses.

Memo's are sent to colleagues and co-workers.

They differ from letters as they are more informal and

Do not require a salutation or a closure statement as in business letters.

Purpose of a Memo

is generally short

consists of between one and four sentences.

longer format might consist of several paragraphs but should never exceed

one page in length.

If the information you need to communicate exceeds one page it is better to

write a report.Structure of Memo

A typical Memorandum has the following structure:

To: The recipient of the memorandumFrom: The person circulating the memorandum

Date: The date of issue of the memorandum. Usually, the date is written in a formal

manner – e.g. 14th February, 2012

Subject: Provides a short title describing the topic of discussion in the

memorandum.

Main Body: The main body or the actual content of the Memorandum contains:

Introduction: Giving a brief description as to why the Memorandum has

been written and the topic of discussion.

Body: The topic of discussion is explained in detail.

Conclusion: Explaining what will or should follow after this, when the

follow-up will occur, and why the date is so important.

When writing a memo –

State the purpose clearly at the beginning as seen in the first sentence.

At the end of the memo let the recipient know what action is expected.

Memos are concise and focus on a single purpose.

If you have more topics to discuss write a separate memo for each.

Use lists and headings to highlight important items.



Take the time to analyze your reader;

Reflect how he or she (always a single reader) wishes to be approached with

your message.

Consider the tone or language that will appeal to the reader.

Your organization pays you to think and to communicate that thinking to

others.

What to Include in Your Memo

I am writing because

The facts are

I will, or

I propose that you

Format Hints and Tips

How much information do you need to convey?

Who do you need to communicate with?

The content of a memo includes information such as: Times, dates and places to meet Reminders

New basic information

Requests for confirmation, information or feedback

Formatting

When writing a memo

margins should be 1 inch all around and

text should be left justified using block-style paragraphs

Single-space your memo. Double-space a very short memo.

Use 12-point Times Roman as the default. Do not add a complementary close (e.g., sincerely).

Do not sign memos at the bottom

Add initials beside your name to indicate that you have read and approved

the memo (optional).

If the "copies to" list is longer than ten names, place it at the end of the memo.

If your memo is addressed to a distribution list, name the list.

If your memo is long, start with a paragraph which functions as an executive

summary.

Always proofread, spell check doesn’t doesn’t catch everything. Remember

Each memorandum should be about a single idea, subject, or

report

regardless of what a Memorandum deals with.



Business Proposals

What is A Business Proposal?

• A business proposal is an unsolicited or solicited bid for business.

• There are two types of business proposals that can help you gain morebusiness to grow your company.

• Some things are similar with business proposals.

• Tendencies and not rules.

• Rules apply when the customer issues a Request for Proposals (RFP).

What does RFP do?

• Tells what goes into your proposal.

• How it should be presented.

Sometimes, nature of product, service offered or industry practices provide some

guidelines for proposal composition and/or layout.

A typical business proposal includes

An Executive Summary. This

• introduces your company,

• what you will do or provide the customer,

• and how the customer will benefit from what you propose.

A management plan

• Describes how you will organize and supervise any work to be performed.

• A schedule of major milestones and allocation of resources may be provided.

A statement of work or technical approach• Describes what you will do or provide to the customer.

• Implementation schedule and description of deliverables is included.

• If products are proposed, product descriptions are provided (detail depends

on the customer’s requirements).

Corporate qualifications

• describes your capability to do or provide what you propose. Relevant prior

experience is usually highlighted.

A Staffing Plan

• describes how the project will be staffed. (resumes are provided for

important people).

Contracts and Pricing.• If proposal is used to close a business deal, business and contractual terms

are provided.

• Some RFPs will set page limit on proposal. Some don’t.• Some will tell the format/layout, and some won’t.



• Some will tell the evaluation criteria and process the customer needs to

follow, some won’t. The customer sets the standards and defines the rules.

If a proposal is submitted to a Government agency,

• the composition and layout of the proposal may have regulatory

requirements to comply with.In the case of the Federal Government,

• these are usually based on the Federal Acquisition Regulation (FAR).

Consider the situations in which proposals occur.

• A company sends out a public announcement requesting proposals for a

specific project. This announcement -called a request for proposals (RFP) -

could be issued through newspapers, trade journals, Chamber of Commerce

channels, or individual letters.

• Firms or individuals interested in the project write proposals - they

summarize their qualifications, project schedules and costs, and discuss their

approach to the project.• The recipient of all these proposals - evaluate, select the best candidate, and

then work up a contract.

But proposals come about much less formally.

• Imagine that you are interested in doing a project at work (for

example, investigating the merits of bringing in some new technology

to increase productivity). Imagine that you visited your supervisor

and tried to convince her of this. She might respond by saying, "Write

me a proposal and I'll present it to upper management.”

• This shows us that proposals can be divided into several categories

Unsolicited Business Proposal

• Your small business may want to do business with a larger company/ forge a

joint venture.

• A well-written business proposal can win the hearts and minds of your target

audience.

• If you need to win a bid, you will need to write a business proposal,

• You need to know the key winning elements of a successful proposal to make

sure your proposal stands out in the stack of competitor proposals.

Solicited Business Proposal

• A corporation or government body is seeking a business to fulfill a project or

complete a task . This allows companies to bid for the project.

• An open bid is placed on the market with other companies competing for an

interview spot.

• The winning candidate is offered the project.



Internal, external. • If you write a proposal to someone within your organization (a business, a

government agency, etc.), it is an internal proposal. With internal proposals,

you may not have to include certain sections (such as qualifications), or you

may not have to include as much information in them.

• An external proposal is one written from one separate, independent organization or individual to another such entity. The typical example is the

independent consultant proposing to do a project for another firm.

Solicited.

• If a proposal is solicited , the recipient of the proposal in some way requested

the proposal.

• Typically, a company will send out requests for proposals (RFPs) through the

mail or publish them in some news source.

• But proposals can be solicited even on a very local level: for example, you

could be explaining to your boss what a great thing it would be to install a

new technology in the office; your boss might get interested and ask you towrite up a proposal that offered to do a formal study of the idea.

Unsolicited

• Unsolicited proposals are those in which the recipient has not requested

proposals.

• With unsolicited proposals, you sometimes must convince the recipient that

a problem or need exists before you can begin the main part of the proposal.

Executive Summary

• Write your executive summary as if it were the only part of your proposal

that is read by the prospect. In fact, the balance of your proposal is just

support material to the executive summary.

• The executive summary should not exceed three pages. Keep editing thedocument until all redundant information is eliminated. Reduce wordy

sentences and paragraphs until they are crisp and hard hitting.

• Open with a strong lead line to gain the prospect's interest. Use one or more

of the prospect's main concerns or problems, and turn it into a positive

statement. For example:

• "Within 120 days City Center Towers can substantially improve occupancy

while reducing expenses."

• After the opening sentence, identify the prospect's problems, concerns, and

needs in reasonable detail. This immediately separates you from the

competitor that is offering a canned proposal. It demonstrates that you have

made good observations, listened, and understood the main issues.• After identifying the problems, offer solutions with alternatives. The reason

for alternatives is that the prospect may not agree with all of your solutions

and presenting options keeps the dialogue open for further discussion.

• Highlight the specific benefits the prospect will receive by implementing

your solutions. For example: 15 percent higher occupancy, 9 percent lower

expenses, 24 percent increase in value, or other benefits that fit the

situation. Be specific.



• Finish the executive summary with convincing reasons that shows why your

firm is the most qualified to solve the prospect's problems. This is sell time,

not tell time. Pull out all the stops, but remember to avoid exaggerated,

general statements, such as "We are the country's No. 1 management

company, hands down."

• Lastly, create a sense of urgency. You want to start on the assignment todaynot next month or next quarter. For example. offer to pay the 30-day

cancellation fee to the current management company so you can start

immediately.

Other options for the proposal assignment.

• It may be that you cannot force your report-project plans into the proposal

context. It may be that you cannot force your brain into imagining a proposal

scenario. There is the option of writing the straight academic proposal—you

address it to your instructor and make no pretense of realism. Talk about this

option with your instructor—there may be other requirements or a

difference in the way it is evaluated.Common Sections in Proposals

• The following is a review of the sections you'll commonly find in proposals.

Don't assume that each one of them has to be in the actual proposal you

write, nor that they have to be in the order they are presented here—plus

you may discover that other kinds of information not mentioned here must

be included in your particular proposal.Qualifications.

• Most proposals contain a summary of the proposing individual's or

organization's qualifications to do the proposed work.

• It's like a mini-resume contained in the proposal.

• The proposal audience uses it to decide whether you are suited for theproject. Therefore, this section lists work experience, similar projects,

references, training, and education that shows familiarity with the project.

Conclusions.

• The final paragraph or section of the proposal should bring readers back to a

focus on the positive aspects of the project (you've just showed them the

costs).

• In the final section, you can end by urging them to get in touch to work out

the details of the project, to remind them of the benefits of doing the project.

• And put in one last plug for you or your organization as the right choice for

the project.

Organization and requirements - Business Proposals

Organization of Proposals

organization of the content of a proposal, is essentially a sales, or

promotional kind of thing.



Some of the basic steps it goes through …

You introduce the proposal, tell the readers its purpose and contents.

Present the background - the problem, opportunity, or situation that brings

about the proposed project.

Get the reader concerned about the problem, excited about the opportunity,

or interested in the situation in some way.

State what you propose to do about the problem,

how you plan to help the readers take advantage of the opportunity,

how you intend to help them with the situation.

discuss the benefits of doing the proposed project,

the advantages that come from approving it.

Now (and only now),

list the costs of the project,

the resources you'll need to do the project.

Conclude with

a review of the benefits of doing the project (in case the shock from the costssection was too much),

and urge the audience to get in touch or to accept the proposal.

The overall logic of the these sections are:

you get them concerned about a problem or interested in an opportunity,

then you get them excited about how you'll fix the problem or do the project,

then you show them what good qualifications you have

then hit them with the costs,

but then come right back to the good points about the project.

Format of Proposals

It does not matter which you use as long as you use the memorandum format for internal proposals and

the business-letter format for external proposals.

Cover letter with separate proposal:

you write a brief "cover" letter and attach the proposal proper after it.

The cover letter briefly announces that a proposal follows and outlines the

contents of it.

The contents of the cover letter are pretty much the same as the introduction.

The proposal proper that follows the cover letter repeats much of what you

see in the cover letter.

This is because the letter may get detached from the proposal or therecipient may not even bother to look at the letter and just dive right into the

proposal itself.

Cover memo with separate proposal: You write a brief "cover" memo and attach the proposal proper after it.

The cover memo briefly announces that a proposal follows and outlines the

contents.



The contents of the cover memo are pretty much the same as the

introduction.

Business-letter proposal:

In this format,

You put the entire proposal within a standard business letter. You include headings and other special formatting elements as if it were a

report.

Memo proposal:

In this format,

You put the entire proposal within a standard office memorandum.

You include headings and other special formatting elements as if it were a

report.

REVISION / Checklist

Make sure you use the right format.

Remember, the memo format is for internal proposals;

the business-letter format is for proposals written from one externalorganization to another. (Whether you use a cover memo or cover letter is

your choice.)

Write a good introduction

state that this is a proposal,

provide an overview of the contents of the proposal,

make sure to identify exactly what you are proposing to do.

Make sure that a report —a written document —is somehow involved in the

project you are proposing to do.

Remember that in this course we are trying to do two things: write a

proposal and plan a term-report project.

Make sure the sections are in a logical, natural order. For example, don't hit

the audience with schedules and costs before you've gotten them interested

in the project

Break out the costs section into specifics;

include hourly rates and other such details.

Don't just hit them with a whopping big final cost.

For internal projects

Don't omit the section on costs and qualifications: there will be costs, just not

direct ones. For example, how much time will you need, will there be

printing, binding costs?

Include your qualifications—imagine your proposal will go to somebody inthe organization who doesn't know you.

Be sure and address the proposal to the real or realistic audience.

Watch out for generating technobabble. Yes, some of your proposal readers

may know the technical side of your project —but others may not.

Challenge yourself to bring difficult technical concepts down to a level that

non-specialists can understand.



Tips for Writing a Business Proposal

Success or failure of business depends upon that business's ability to be

awarded contracts or to attract other businesses into Joint Ventures or

strategic alliances.

To accomplish either one usually requires two key items:

good ideas and the ability to present those good ideas in a superbly developed business

proposal.

Business proposals are developed for one of two possible reasons.

A business entity has called for tenders or has invited you to submit a RFP

(Request for Proposal).

your goal here is to get "short listed," meaning that you will be one of

the three or four bidders who is awarded an interview.

Your proposal must stand out among possibly dozens of submissions.

You have an idea, concept or project that you want to propose to someone

with the goal of gaining support, funding or an alliance.

Here, there is no competitive bidding process. However, your proposal must make a favourable impression. Explain all aspects of your proposed concept clearly and quickly.

A document that is vaguely written, difficult to understand or that presents more

questions than answers will likely be discarded promptly.

1. Clarity.

Before you begin to write the proposal, summarize the concept in 2-3

sentences.

Show it to a lay person and check for understanding.

Rewrite if they don't grasp the basic idea.

Until they grasp the idea, you are not ready to start writing the proposal.

How many times have you received a document that you had to read over and over

before you comprehended the meaning?

When this happens, it may be because

your comprehension skills are under-developed,

more likely that the writer substituted clarity of thought and good document

structure with sloppy thinking, wordy, rambling explanations, vague

descriptions and heavy reliance on buzzwords and jargon.

It's worth saying once again: If you can't summarize it in 2-3 sentences, you are not

ready to start writing.

2. Strive to communicate, not to impress.

If you have a good idea and you communicate that idea clearly and

effectively, the recipients will be impressed.

If you try to baffle them with your brilliance, you'll lose ground.



3. Error Free:

Your proposal will be competing with proposals prepared by professional

writers, graphic designers and desktop publishers.

You may not have those resources at your disposal, but you can be fastidious

about checking for typing, spelling and grammatical errors.

Spell checkers can only go so far; the rest is up to you. Ask someone else to check your document for errors before you submit it, or

wait a few days before rereading it.

If you have worked on a document intensely, you will "learn" to interpret

errors as being correct.

It takes a fresh eye to spot the typos.

4. Print and Bind:

Print your document on good quality, heavy- bond paper, using either a laser

printer or a good-quality bubble jet.

Take it to an office service for backing and binding.

Produce a nicely done, professionally presented package.5. Layout:

When laying out your document,

Format it so the body of the text appears in the right two-thirds of the page.

The one-third of the page to the left contains titles and white space.

The white space to the left allows the reader to make notes.

This sounds like a trivial matter, but it elicits positive reactions from

recipients.

6. Visual Elements:

Include visual elements sporadically throughout your document. Logos, clip art, graphs, charts, tables and other elements greatly enhance the

visual appeal of your document and make it easier for many people to read

and comprehend.

Pages of pure text are tiring to the eye and a challenge to the attention span.

Many people are visually oriented, meaning the preferred method of learning

is through imagery and not text.

7. Title Page.

Begin with a Title Page that includes images (graphics, pictures, etc.),

the name of the proposal recipient,

the name of the project,

your company name and address,

the date,

and your copyright symbol.



8. Be Politically Correct.

Whether you support political correctness or not, avoid offending people

who will receive your proposal document.

Avoid any language that can be construed as offensive to any group of people

- including women, men, persons with disabilities, persons belonging tovisible minorities, senior citizens, and so on.

If you're not certain of correct terminology, consult with someone

knowledgeable before submitting your proposal.

9. Write for Global Audiences:

Emerging technologies, immigration policies and agreements have produced

a global marketplace.

Write documents with the understanding that it may be evaluated by people

from other countries or for whom English is a second language.

Even if you are submitting your proposal to a local business, they may have

joint ventures with international companies, and these companies may beasked to peruse your document.

Avoid use of slang expressions. People from other cultures study the English

language in a formal way. They are often unfamiliar with the use of slang

terms.

10. Jargon Free:

Every industry has its own particular "language" - words, terms and

expressions that are common to that industry but foreign to other industries.

Avoid the use of jargon, or if you must use it, explain it.

Also remember that your proposal may go to a committee that is comprised

of people from various walks of life. Make sure they understand what you are talking about.

11. Technology.

What was just said about jargon goes double for technology. If your proposed

project involves the use of technologies, be very careful with your

explanation.

The persons reading the document may have little or no technological

background.

In the body of the proposal, explain your technology in terms of what it will

do - i.e. "A data base that members can use to search for information about your products.”

There is a place for detailed information about the technology that you are

proposing - and that spot is the appendix.

In many cases, a non-technically oriented business will engage a technology

consultant to review your proposed technology.

This person can use the detailed explanations that you include in the

appendix while other readers will be able understand the proposal itself.



Write the Table of Contents First

Drafting the Table of Contents (TOC), before you start writing the actual

report is the single most important key to developing a successful business

report.

This document can normally be done before, or in parallel with, the first

phase of project information gathering. This takes a certain amount of time and brain power up-front,

It streamlines the rest of the process. This TOC then becomes a step-by-step

template for the rest of the process.

Tips for Creating a Great Business Proposal

Write Clearly and Succinctly: There is a tendency in business writing generally, to

try and show how smart you are by using excess verbiage, jargon, and run-on

sentences.

Don't do it. Be succinct. Make your point and move on.

Remember: people have little or no idea what you are proposing, so you have to

walk them through the process. You do so by starting at the beginning and clearly, simply, and logically

moving forward by making your points one at a time.

Start with the big picture and drill down as you go along.

Make a Good Argument and Counter Possible Obstacles:

A great proposal is, essentially, a sales brochure, disguised.

put your best foot forward,

put your company in the best light, and

make yourself irresistible to the reader.

How do you do that? The best way is to marshal the top facts and arguments in your favor.

Have a theme and reinforce it again and again.

Take the reader down a path that leads but to one conclusion - that hiring

you makes the most sense for them.

You also have to put yourself in the readers' position,

Think of what counter arguments they may be considering, and deal with

those potential obstacles honestly.

That makes you trustworthy.

Show your Personality:

Business proposals are devoid of life, as if the person writing it is some robot,programmed to say nothing, be boring, and not offend.

Let your personality come through. you have to follow some business

conventions, but as you do, also let the reader see who you are.

Share your enthusiasm for your business, their business, the idea, something.

Use Graphics Intelligently



Don't make the mistake of bogging down a perfectly fine proposal with

excess graphics.

you need graphics - use them

to clarify an idea, and

liven up a proposal and

allow readers to focus on something other than words.That's smart. Just don't get carried away.

Don't Oversell:

Avoid hyperbole.

As soon as you cross the line from understandable pride to obnoxious

overstatement, you lose credibility.

Once readers think you're not shooting straight with them, they may

question the truthfulness of everything in your proposal—all that they read

so far, and all that is still to come.

You avoid this unenviable fate by staying on the safe side of overstatement.

Always Keep the Reader in Mind: A proposal is a marketing tool,

Stress benefits, benefits, benefits.

Finally, while price is important and must be discussed,

do so only after you have wowed readers with your crisp writing, powerful

arguments, supporting graphics, and a plethora of potential benefits.

Then you can go in for the sale.

Confirm Exactly What the Client Wants

This is a very important initial step.

Be sure that everyone is talking about the same thing in terms of finaloutcome and expectations.

Always think specifically in terms of the final deliverable (usually the final

report).

What issues must it address?

What direction/guidance is it expected to give

What exactly will it contain?

What bottom line are they looking for?

Determine What Type of Report Is Required

This is another very important initial matter to clarify. do they want:

a business plan, a business proposal, a strategic plan,

a corporate information management plan,

a strategic business plan,

a marketing plan,

a financial plan,

or what?



Know exactly what type of final report is expected from the outset.

AGENDA AND MEETING

What is a meeting?

An act or process of coming together as an assembly for a common purpose.

A meeting is a gathering of two or more people convened for the purpose of

achieving a common goal through verbal interaction, such as sharing

information or reaching agreement.

Meetings may occur face to face or virtually, as mediated by communications

technology, such as a telephone call conference, a skyped conference call or a

videoconference.

Various purposes of meetings

Reviews progress or activities Takes up issues on decisions to be made Shares information

All of the above

A decision or action is not always required

Since a meeting can be held once or often, the meeting organizer has to

determine the repetition and frequency of occurrence of the meeting.

Options generally include the following:

A one-time meeting is the most common meeting type and covers events that

are self-contained. They may repeat often, the individual meeting is the entirety of the event.

This can include any conference. The version of the conference is a stand-

alone meeting event.

Recurring Meeting

A recurring meeting is a meeting that recurs periodically, every Monday staff

meeting from 9:00AM to 9:30 AM.

The organizer wants the participants to be at the meeting on a constant and

repetitive basis.

A recurring meeting can be ongoing, such as a weekly team meeting, or have

an end date, such as a 5 week training meeting, held every Friday afternoon.

Series meeting A series meeting is like a recurring meeting, but the details differ from

meeting to meeting.

One example of a series meeting is a monthly "lunch and learn" event at a

company, church, club or organization.

The agenda and topics to be covered vary. This is more of a recurring

meeting with the details to be determined.



Organizing a meeting

Progresses through three phases

1. The Preparatory phase

2. The Conduct phase

3. The follow-up phase

Overall responsibility for organizing a meeting lies with the secretary.Phase I – Agenda

An agenda is a list of meeting activities in the order in which they are to be

taken up, beginning with the call to order and ending with adjournment.

It usually includes one or more specific items of business to be considered.

It may, but is not required to, include specific times for one or more activities.

Agenda outlines

Specific items to be discussed

Person responsible for the topic

Time allotted for each item(Optional)

Supportive information to be reviewed If information available – use for problem solving and decision making

Agenda ensures

All group members are adequately prepared

Each agenda item is raised by specific persons

Prevents waste of time

The agenda is usually headed with the date, time and location of the meeting,

followed by a series of points outlining the order of the meeting.

Points on a typical agenda may include:

Welcome/open meeting Apologies for absence

Approve minutes of the previous meeting

Matters arising from the previous meeting

A list of specific points to be discussed — this section is where the bulk of the

discussion as well as decisions in the meeting usually takes place

Any other business (AOB) — allowing a participant to raise another point for

discussion.

Arrange/announce details of next meeting

Close meeting

Phase II - Taking Meeting Minutes Minutes are a record of discussions, which take place in regard to an item. The secretary of the meeting records minutes.

Before the Meeting

Choose your tool: Decide how you will take notes, i.e. pen and paper, laptop

computer, or tape recorder.



Make sure your tool of choice is in working order and have a backup just in

case.

Use the meeting agenda to formulate an outline.

During the Meeting

Pass around an attendance sheet. Get a list of committee members and make sure you know who is who.

Note the time the meeting begins.

Don't try to write down every single comment - just the main ideas.

Note the ending time of the meeting.

A minute shows the following:

Details of person who initiated discussion

A record of the discussions arrived at

A record of the direction/ instruction passed by the chairperson

Details of person/department to take action

Write down motions, who made them, and the results of votes, if any; youmay write down who seconded a motion.

Make note of any motions to be voted on at future meetings.

After the Meeting

Type up the minutes as soon as possible after the meeting, while everything

is still fresh in your mind.

Include the name of organization, name of committee, type of meeting (daily,

weekly, monthly, annual, or special), and purpose of meeting.

Include the time the meeting began and ended.

Proofread the minutes before submitting them.

Expression and Language used

“Mr. ABC briefed all those present…”

“Mr. XYZ was of the view…”

“Mr. K Singh suggested…”

“Mrs. KLM presented…”

“The chairperson expressed concern…”

“The chairperson appreciated…”

Very formal meetings

Attract the chair’s attention by raising your hand – to make a motion

Frame request with “I wish to move/amend the motion…”

Phase III – Follow-up

Circulation of minutes:

Recorded and prepared normally within 24 hours of meeting

Draft circulated to all participants

Comments asked

Received comments, examined and amended



Customary sentence

“In case no comments are received by …(date) it will be deemed that the minutesare agreed to.”

These conventions are related to very formal meetings.

MEETING - Preparation and Conduct - A recap

Time and Venue

• The initiator sends meeting requests to all required to attend, specifying the

date, time and venue.

• If it’s a teleconference or a videoconference with participants from multiple

locations, meeting request should contain the date and time of the various

time zones.

• The initiator ensures a discussion or conference room large enough to hold

the requisite number of attendees is booked for the scheduled time.

Material• The initiator arranges materials such as a projector, computer, slides,

handouts, or even just a whiteboard and markers – unorganized meetings

lead to delay, walk out or rescheduling.

• If handouts are distributed, make sure you read those notes before attending.

It will keep you in tune with the discussions once you are part of the meeting,

and will demonstrate your preparedness with ideas and thoughts on the

topic at hand.

Agenda

• Once time and venue is fixed, it’s vital the initiator decides points on the

agenda. Each point must be covered in detail and decisions taken before the

meeting wraps up.• Preferably, these points can even be briefly enumerated on the whiteboard in

the room - allows everyone to be aware of the agenda, helps initiator keep

an eye on it at all times.

Minutes of the meeting

• During the meeting, several points and ideas will arise which, if not

documented, will evaporate into thin air well before the end. Impossible to

retain all points in memory, hence, it’s best to appoint one person to jot down

notes.

• It’s the duty of the person assigned to note down minutes to create a

document and circulate it amongst all attendees.

• This document contains the date and time of the meeting, number and namesof attendees, the agenda and, against each of the points on the agenda, the

action items.

The focus on agenda

• Despite an agenda and strict time adhered and scheduled on a few points,

discussions deteriorate into heated debates.

• It is the prerogative of the initiator to ensure objective discussion.



• If a member starts rambling for hours without any end in sight, he must be

brought back on track.

• It should be made clear that although brainstorming is acceptable, digression

into irrelevant territory is entirely unwelcome.

Conclusion• When all points on the agenda have been discussed to the satisfaction of all

parties, the person writing the minutes or even the initiator can wrap up by

briefly reading out the salient points of all that has been discussed, including

action to be taken once people return to their work.

• The minutes of the meeting is a good starting point to follow up with team

members in the following days if necessary action has been taken, as

discussed.

Claims and Responses

What is a claim? To demand or ask for one’s own due. A demand for something as rightful or due.

Something claimed in a formal or legal manner.

A demand for payment in accordance with an insurance policy or other

formal arrangement.

Claim letters are formal letters which are written in order to claim for

something.

The language used is very direct and contains no flowery words

If you are writing a claim letter be sure that you are very well convinced of

the claim. If you have a speck of doubt, get it cleared.

Aspects

Content and Purpose

Layout

Organization of Text:

Logical flow

Cohesiveness

Paragraphing

Evidence of Introduction, Body & Conclusion

Effective Claim Letter At the beginning of your letter, indicate that you are making a claim and

specify the type of claim that you are making (e.g., an insurance claim).

State the policy number, if applicable.

Describe the specific circumstances or details of the claim (for example, that

a product is defective or the details of an accident). Give all relevant facts

concerning the claim.



Effective Claim Letter

Indicate the amount that you are claiming or what action you would like the

reader to take and the date by which you expect the action to be taken.

Refer to any documents that you are including with your letter, including

claim forms, repair estimates, warranty, or records or receipts.

Ask if there is any other information or documents or forms that you need tosend.

Effective Claim Letter

If you are using some of the enclosed documents as evidence to substantiate

your claim, specifically mention the content of the documents and illustrate

how they support your claim.

Indicate by when you would like to receive a reply to your letter and include

contact information that will allow the person to easily reach you.

You may want to thank the reader for his/her (anticipated) help before

ending your letter.

Claim Letter Tips

Remain courteous and respectful. Even if you feel you have been wronged,maintain a professional, though assertive, tone at all times.

Send your claim letter within the prescribed time period so that the claim

will be valid.

Remain courteous and respectful. Even if you feel you have been wronged,

maintain a professional, though assertive, tone at all times.

Send your claim letter within the prescribed time period so that the claim

will be valid.

In the beginning of the letter indicate the purpose.

Give all the concerning facts regarding the claim. If it is regarding some defective product, mention the date of purchase,

receipt number, product number etc.

Indicate the amount you are claiming for and by which date are you

expecting the amount.

Refer to the documents that you are including with your letter

This includes claim forms, repair estimates, warranty records or receipts.

Include your contact information with proper details to avoid any unwanted

circumstances.

Remain courteous and respectful.

Even if you know that the fault lies on their part, be professional in tone.

Do not play the blame game. Be assertive throughout the letter. Send the claim letter within the prescribed period so that there are no

confusions.

Make the claim letter very specific.

Do not let the addressee guess anything.

Mention the amount you want and the purpose of the claim.

There is no need to use harsh language or threaten.



Keep the language uncomplicated.

As a claim letter is a purely formal letter the basic rules of writing a formal

letter remains intact.

do not use stylish fonts.

avoid using color paper; the envelope should be a right match of the paper,

there should not be any graphics as far as possible.

When denying a Claim…

Open by stating your regret that the claim must be denied.

Include the policy number, if applicable.

Give the reasons why the claim was denied or rejected. Include any

documents that provide evidence to support this action.

Include information about what the claimant must do or change to have the

claim approved, if desired.

Denying a Claim Include any important dates, such as the date by which an appeal or

resubmission must be made, if applicable.

Include the contact information for the person to whom an appeal would be

made, if appropriate.

Reiterate your regret that the claim must be denied and express your

willingness to discuss the matter further or work to resolve the problem, if

necessary.

Close by stating that you value the reader’s business or that you appreciate

him/her as a customer.

Refusal Letter Tips

A refusal letter communicates unhappy news in a diplomatic way. It isbasically a “bad news letter.”

You have one chance to say it right.

Be as diplomatic as possible.

Don’t let your words come back to haunt you someday.

Open your refusal letter with a sincere expression of regret as you state

exactly what you are refusing and how you received the request.

Explain your reasons for refusing and any evidence you may have to back up

your position.

Offer alternate sources that your reader could appeal to with a better chance

of success as a “consolation prize.”

Use courteous language throughout your letter, and end by expressingwishes for the reader's success elsewhere.

Show your regret regarding the denial of the claim in the opening line s of

your letter.

Include the details. In case there is more than one issue to be settled, there

should be no confusion.

Give logical reasons, if possible with proofs attached, as to why the claim is

denied.



Do not forget to include important dates if any.

Include the proper information about what is needed from the claimant to do

if he needs the claim to get approved.

Show the regret of the denial once again while ending the letter. Indicate

your willingness in order to discuss the matter with the claimant.

Do not forget to write that the customer is important for you and that youvalue his/her clientage.

If as an organization you are replying to a claim letter, make sure that it is

written on a letter head of the organization.

Accepting a Claim

It is generally appropriate to use a warm, cordial tone for letters of approval.

To begin your letter, specifically state what it is that you are approving.

Give the reasons for the approval, if desired.

If appropriate, indicate the next steps that the person should take or what to

expect next.

Restate or announce important dates associated with the approval (date

promotion becomes effective, date the account will be activated, dates of theevent, etc.).

Include any other important information (such as any parameters, for

example), if needed.

If applicable, close your letter by reiterating your appreciation or by offering

best wishes for the new project, position, appointment, etc.

Normally approval letters can be short and to the point.

Clearly state what is being approved, including any associated dates,

locations, or similar information so that there will be no room for

misunderstanding.

If you have any special stipulations or guidelines that apply to the situation,

include them in your letter.

Effective claims should be

concise

authoritative

factual

constructive

Useful Key phrases

I was very disappointed to read your letter of ... dealing with ...

As someone who values your business, I have already ...

Also, we will deduct another X percent of the bill for the misunderstanding. Thank you for your patience.

Useful Expressions

Acknowledging receipt of a complaint letter

Thank you for your letter of … regarding / concerning / in connectionwith …

I refer to your letter of … about / relating to …



Apology for the error or fault

We must apologize for …

We sincerely apologize for …

Please accept our apologies for …

I would like to apologize for the error made by our company.

Accepting the Complaint We agree that the usual high standards of our products / services

were not met in this instance.

A short explanation of the fault

Introductory phrase

As a result of our investigation, we found that... (Not: After our

investigation...)

Causes

The error was caused by … / was due to …

Apparently, the problem was the result of … / resulted from …

The cause of / reason for the mistake was … Effects

As a result …

This led to …

Consequently …

Solutions

We have modified / changed our ...

We have implemented a system to...

To prevent re-occurrences we have set up a verification procedure.

Assurances

We assure you that this will not happen again.

Investigation to be made We are currently investigating the cause of ...

We will investigate the cause of...

Proposal to settle the difficulty

As a gesture of our regret, we are prepared to …/ we are willing to …/

we would like to …

To show goodwill, we will …

An offer to take goods back, make a replacement, give a discount etc.

We have dispatched the new items by express courier. They should

arrive by Thursday, 1 March 2012.

To show our goodwill, we would like to offer you a 5% discount on

your next order with us. Regret at dissatisfaction

While we can understand your frustration, ...

We understand how disappointing it can be when your expectations

are not met.

Rejecting responsibility for the problem leading to the complaint

I regret to inform you that …

I am afraid that …



Unfortunately, I must point out that …

Reasons for the rejection

This is because the guarantee period has expired.

This is due to the fact that the guarantee period has expired.

If a third party (another person or organization) is to blame, direct the

complainer to that party We therefore suggest that you contact...

A concluding paragraph aiming at retaining the goodwill of the

customer

We look forward to receiving your further orders, and assure you that

they will be filled correctly / promptly.

Report Writing

What are reports?

Reports are documents written for specific groups which present: Facts

Ideas

Conclusions

Sometimes suggestions/ recommendations

Why are reports prepared?

Reports are prepared to

Provide and obtain information

To review and analyze problems

To make recommendations

To decide the future course of action

Kinds of Reports

Government Reports

Feasibility Reports

School Progress Reports

Business Reports

Appraisal Reports

Technical Reports

Relevance of reports

They convey facts, data, analyses and trends to review past performance. They decide the future of projects.

They are very critical for decision making

and also for any reviews.

Relevance of reports

They convey facts, data, analyses and trends to review past performance.

They decide the future of projects.

They are very critical for decision making



and also for any reviews.

Purpose of Report writing

Clarity on purpose is very important to

Identify information

Decide on the research methodology

Approach to analysis, interpretations and recommendations And on how to present the report

Types of Reports

Informational

Helps to monitor and control operations, implement policies and comply with

legal requirements.

Analytical

Helps to take decisions and propose plans and proposals through interpretation

and analysis of information.

Process of Report Writing

Identify the problem

Identification of factors influencing the problem:

Explanatory factors / Evaluative factors

Preliminary Outline

Gathering Information on factors/Collection of Data

Evaluation/Analysis of factors

Interpretation

Recommendations

Problem Statement & Statement of purpose

Problem statement defines the area being investigated. ( A response is

instigated)

Statement of purpose defines the reason for writing the report. (Indicates the

scope of the response)

Identifying factors influencing issue

Factors are of three types

Informative or factual

Explanatory or hypothetical

Comparative factors

Preliminary outline

Helps you gather information and facilitate evaluation and analysis of factors.

It undergoes changes during actual preparation of report.

New factors emerge during the process which gives direction to

investigations.

Collection of Data



Primary Research

Scrutiny of documents, Observation, Questionnaires, Surveys, Interviews

Secondary Research

Previous Records, Government Policy Statements & Publications, Books,

Newspapers, Periodicals & Journals, etc.

A Note on Primary Data

Reliability and Validity to be the premise

Open ended Questions:

Two options / Multiple options

Grades / Rankings

Opinions

Close ended Questions

Verification Questions

Identifying Information

Understand your topic thoroughly

Gather as much information as possibleSome of the sources are books, newspapers, periodicals and government

publications.

Primary Information

Can be collected by scrutinizing

Documents: Sales report, minutes, memos, contracts

Observations: By studying physical activities, behaviour or any specific object

Surveys: Interviewing people, circulating questionnaires

Surveys

Need to satisfy two aspects:

Reliability: Should produce similar results when conducted repeatedly in the

same environment.

Validity: The information should be measurable.

While making a questionnaire…

Detailed instruction: People should know how to respond

Short and easy questions: easy and precise

What would you do if you won Rs. 100,000/- ?

Collation of data: Questions should facilitate collection of information for

further analysis Why did you decide to participate in this competition?

Leading and suggestive questions: To be avoided

You were at the competition, weren’t you?

Were you at the competition?

Don’t you think this was wrong?

Do you think this was wrong?

Multiplicity: One question, one issue



Collation of information

File or store graphs, charts, tables and other information

to facilitate

Easy reading

Easy retrieval

Easy analysis

Evaluation of analysis

Evaluate collected data under -

Does the information affect the purpose of my report?

How does it affect the purpose?

In what manner?

Are there any variables?

Are the factors within control?

Is there any relationship with other factors?

Can we draw any conclusion?

Interpreting Errors

To avoid errors in interpretation –

Let facts speak for themselves

Compare only logical related data

Use reliable and authentic data

Avoid making hasty interpretations

Read the work from the reader’s point of view

Recommendations

Should be comprehensive and detailed since: They help in making decisions

Your preferences could be suggested

A different course of action could be taken

Layout of Report

Introduction

Main Body

Introduction

Covers

Purpose: Similar to title Scope: Defines factors and areas covered

Limitations: Limitation of resources

Perspective of the problem: Background and expectations of report

Research Methodology: Method of getting information

Layout of Report: Sequence of discussion



Organization of the Report

A Report contains three major parts:

Part I – Introduction of the Report

Part II – Body of the Report

Part III – Attachments / Reference Material

Part I-Introduction of the Report

Cover

Title Page

Authorization

Acknowledgements

Table of Contents

Executive Summary/Synopsis/Abstract

List of Illustrations (If necessary )

Cover

Contains Title of the report

Author

Name of the organization related to the report

Title

Should be precise and comprehensive.

Should convey the theme of the report and the organization it relates.

Title Page

Consists of

The title

Organization for which the report is prepared

The author

Date of submission of Report

Authorization

Indicates the person or the department which authorized the making of the report.

It also includes an authorization form.

Acknowledgements

All sources of information from publishers, research guides to others whocontributed towards the preparation of the report should be acknowledged.

Table of contents

Indicates the arrangement or sequence of parts.



Executive summary

It is the core of the project report. Enables the reader to understand the

purpose, broad findings and the recommendations of the report.

No technical jargon to be used

Needs to be listed in The Table of Contents

Should be concise Has two parts–Background, Major findings

Abstract

Abstract is a technical summary

Read by persons familiar with the report

Use of technical terminology allowed

Abstract can be part of the report

Synopsis

Provides a brief outline of

The purpose of the project

Deliverables of the project

Methodology/ approach

In most cases a synopsis may not be apart of the report and is submitted to the

authorities before a project is undertaken to ensure outline plan is on the right lines.

List of Illustrations

In case there is a large number of tables and figures, a separate list of

illustrations is given.

It will follow the same layout as the Table of Contents

Gives information on number, title and page reference of each illustration. Divided into two parts if large – List of tables & List of figures

Part II – Body of the Report

This part contains the main body of the report

It has an introduction and

The Body

Introduction

Prepares the reader to read the entire report and should be brief. It states the

following:

The background Circumstances necessitating the Report

The purpose of the Report

The broad layout of the report



Body

Includes:

Factors

Interpretation

Findings: Result of research / investigation Conclusions: Relates to interpretation

Recommendations: based on findings and conclusion. Offers the reader to

base their decision related to various issues involved in the project.

Part III

Attachments/Reference Material

It is customary to attach any references from information has been accessed.

Bibliography

References

Bibliography

Two methods of acknowledging sources:

Author –Date reference: Source is acknowledged right after the matter

referred within brackets.

The sequence – author’s surname, year of publication, page reference.

E.g.: (Shaw 2008, pp 68-69)

Foot notes: References made at the end of the page. Texts to be acknowledged

is numbered serially.

Footnotes are conventional, explanatory and should be used only when material

presented needs acknowledgement or amplification.

References

Periodical (journal, magazine, etc.), general form:

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (1994). Title of article: Subtitle. Title of

periodical . vol (no), page-page.

Periodical, one author:

Bickman, L. (1971). The effects of social status on the honesty of

others. Journal of Social Psychology , 85 , 87-92.

Periodical, two authors:

Bersheid, E., & Walster, E. (1972). Beauty and the best. Psychology

Today , 5 , 42-46, 74. Book, general form:

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (1994). Title of work . Location: Publisher.

Book, one author:

Stanton, G.C. (1988) Numerical control programming: Manual CNC and

APT/Compact II . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Regents/Prentice-Hall.

Book, two or more authors:



Boyd, P.M., Dewey, D., Chettum, A.M. & Howe, A.H. (1995). CERCLA &

the superfund: An insider's guide to the comprehensive, endless revenue

campaign for lawyers act . Cambridge, MA: Fair City Press

Report from a private organization:

International Business Machines. (1989). Computer integrated

manufacturing: The CIM enterprise (Doc. No. G320-9802-00). WhitePlains, NY: Author.

Electronic Media

Hannah, M.J. (1996). HTML Reference Manual [On-line]. Available URL:

http://www.sandia.gov/sci_compute/html_ref.html

Format of Report

1 Section Headings

1.1 Main Paragraphs

1.1.1 Sub Paragraphs

(a) Lists within paragraphsi. Items within lists

Tables

Placement of Tables and Figures

Numbering the Tables and Figures

Table and Figure Captions

Format of Tables

Preparation of Figures

Footnotes to Tables and Figures

(abbreviations, symbols, sources)

Page numbers and Margins

Spacing and Alignment

Tables

Tables present lists of numbers or text in columns, each column having a title

or label.

Do not use a table when you wish to show a trend or a pattern of

relationship between sets of values - these are better presented in a Figure.

For instance, if you need to present population sizes and sex ratios for

your study organism at a series of sites, you would use a table.

However, if you wanted to show that sex ratio was related topopulation size, you would use a Figure.

Figures

Tables present lists of numbers or text in columns, each column having a title

or label.

Do not use a table when you wish to show a trend or a pattern of

relationship between sets of values - these are better presented in a Figure.



For instance, if you need to present population sizes and sex ratios for

your study organism at a series of sites, you would use a table.

However, if you wanted to show that sex ratio was related to

population size, you would use a Figure.

Using figures, tables and graphs Figures, tables and graphs are often used in reports.

They are valuable because they can be used to present complex results in a

readable way.

It is important that they are used carefully.

Using tables and diagrams

Tables and graphs should be:

Numbered sequentially

labelled clearly and

Positioned as close to the relevant text as possible.

Refer to figures and tables

Make specific reference to each figure and table.

Do not assume that the reader will make the necessary connection between

the text and the figure or table.

Write something about each figure and table.

Refer to each figure or table in the text by its figure or table number

Remember to guide the reader in interpreting the information in the table or

figure.

What does the table show?

What specific point are you making?Labelling

Label tables above the table and figures below the figure.

A table or figure from an outside source should be labelled like any other

outside information and its source should be provided

Number all tables and figures, even if you use only one of each.

Titles of tables

Keep titles brief but informative.

You can include explanatory notes, if needed, as footnotes under the table or

figure.

Referring to tables and figures

When referring to tables and figures,

you can use:

As shown in Table I below,

passive voice

samples are shown in Table 1



Numbering Tables and Figures

Figures and Tables are numbered independently , in the sequence in which you

refer to them in the text, starting with Figure 1 and Table 1.

Page numbers

Every page in the thesis, including those with tables and figures, must becounted.

Use small Roman numerals for the front matter and

Arabic numbers for the text (the text must begin with page 1)

The title page and signatory page, although counted, should never show a

page number (they are actually pages i and ii, respectively).

The first page that shows a number is the Abstract, and it always begins on

page iii.

Page numbers should appear on every page that is counted.

Make sure that all pages are present and in proper order when they are

numbered.

Margins

All margins (left, right, top, and bottom) should be set to one (1) inch.

For reports that will either be bound or punched for three ring binders, use a

1.5 inch left hand margin.

Line length and spacing

Line Length or Alignment:

Left justify only.

Line Spacing:

All technical papers should be double spaced (or Line Spacing = 2). Leave one full-size blank line between each line of type on the page.

Hyphenation

As a rule, do not divide words at the end of a line, or hyphenate.

Basically, do not underline text.

Fonts

Be consistent in your use of typefaces.

For short reports, choose only one typeface for use throughout the body of

the paper.

For longer reports with section headers, you may use one or two typefaces,one for the body text and either a heavier weight (i.e., bold) or a contrasting

typeface for the section headers.

The default proportional typeface is a version of Times Roman.

Font Sizes

For body text, set the default text size to either 11 or 12 points.



Section headers may use point sizes between 11 or 14 point size depending

upon the body text.

Do not use any text size below 10 points.

Dos

Finalize and Submit on schedule Use of Simple Language

Clarity in Explanations

Short sentences and paragraphs

Use good quality A4 size paper

Run a spell-check

Present in a neat format

Maintain consistency

Don’t

Plagiarize

Use too many graphs and diagrams

Overload with information

Use irrelevant anecdotes

Use unfamiliar words/phrases

Resume writing

The purpose

A resume’ is a brief factual document of one’s self. It summarizes a description of yourself

It represents you in your absence.

You need a resume’ that can –

* Get the attention of the employer.

* Persuade them that you are a great fit.

There may be hundreds of resume’s and

You need an interview to show off your skills.

Hence vitalize your resume.

‘Objective’ in a resumeThink and rethink your objective

What is your objective for an objective?

What your are seeking?

What are the benefits you can bring to the company?



Your objective should be:

Specific to the field

Too long – words not important

Focused

ClearOne sentence – a statement that is very clear

For example:

Job in retail: Seeking a job in the retail utilizing my strong customer service abilities

/ skills.

It not only says what you want but also how you view customer service.

Revise your profile

Tailor your resume to suit each application.

Analyze job description.

Reinforce your can-do attitude

Problem-solver

Don’t be modest

Challenges, initiatives, projects

Describe your achievements

Use active verbs/ add drama

Don’t leave it to the reader to work out it out!

Represent your unique qualities

Ask your self what makes you stand out from the crowd.Show case your attributes.

Review your resume

Key words

Legible

Spell check

Headers

Bullet points

Some points to bear in mind

No abbreviations/acronyms Use standard fonts & bold type headings Use simple and effective language

Do not display arrogance

False statements are strictly a no-no



Applications

Purpose of Applications

To clarify the purpose of sending resume’.

Arouses enough interest in the employer

Guidelines Include details which do not appear in the CV

Base it on facts

Address by name – shows interest in job and the company

Be short – not more than a page

Quality – proofread, no spelling and grammar errors

Beginning

Include details which do not appear in the CV

Base it on facts

Address by name – shows interest in job and the company

Be short – not more than a page Quality – proofread, no spelling and grammar errors

Beginning

Gain the employer’s attention

Mention key requirements that you meet

Be crisp, emphatic and precise

Middle

Summarize

Skills set

Experience Personal attributes

Draw employer’s attention to the resume’ Do not repeat but summarize, it’s an art!

Close

Request for an interview

End on a positive note

Writing a Case Analysis

What is a 'case'?

• A case is a scenario that gives you the opportunity to identify problems and

recommend a course of action in a business situation.

• The case may be real or fictional, but will usually represent a complex

situation with no ready solutions.



What is your role as an analyst?

In analyzing a case your task is to

• Identify the problem(s) in the situation presented in the scenario

• Analyze the key issues within the context of the theory presented in your

course

• develop and compare alternative solutions to the problems• consider the advantages and disadvantages of various possible solutions

• select the best solution and make recommendations for action

• write up your case analysis in appropriate case analysis report format.

Why are you asked to write case analyses?

• You are asked to write case analyses in some of your courses to enable you to

demonstrate that you can apply conceptual frameworks from your course to

real situations and integrate topics in your analysis.

• Case analyses also enable you to improve your critical thinking and analytical

abilities, your ability to evaluate sources of information and your written

communication skills.

Case analyses are often used in employment interviews to assess:

• how you think

• how you structure problems

• your ability to conceptualize, draw clarity from ambiguity, form views, make

recommendations.

What are the stages in preparing a case analysis?

• understanding the case

• identifying the core problem in the case• analyzing the issues in the context of a theoretical framework

• exploring alternative solutions with reference to a theoretical framework

• choosing the best solution

• making recommendations for action.

What do you need to do to understand the situation?

• Your first task is to understand the scenario you are given.

• When you read the scenario you should identify the facts of the case.

The following questions can guide you in doing this.

• What is the mission of the organization?• Who are the "stakeholders" within the organization?• Who are the "stakeholders" or target groups outside the organization?

• What is the formal decision making process in the organization?

• What are the informal decision making processes in the organization?

• What is the process of production or service delivery?

• Who are the competitors?

• What external factors impact on the organization?



• What is the major problem?

• What are subsequent problems and implications?

• What is the role of management in relation to the problem?

• What is the role of production/service providers in relation to the problem?

What are the steps in identifying the core problems?

• As you identify the facts of the case you will begin to think about the

problems and to decide which problems are core problems.

In doing this you will need to

• distinguish between symptoms of the major problems and the major

problems themselves

• distinguish between immediate and longer term problems

• find evidence to support your decision about what you believe to be the core

problems.

What are the steps in analyzing issues?

• As you identify the core problem(s) you will begin to analyze the issues

underlying these problems.

The following steps assist with this.

• Identify any bias in the way the case is described.

• Classify the factors that influence the problem as internal or external to the

organization.

• Reflect on theoretical principles from your course that might explain aspects

of the case.

• Apply analytical models from your course to further illuminate the situation.• Identify the decisions that need to be made.

• Identify strategic issues.

• Identify risk factors.

• Identify historical precedents.

What are the steps in exploring alternative solutions?

• consider individual and organizational levels

• consider the long and the short term

• define the alternative possible solutions

• compare the alternative solutions in regard to theoretical grounding,

strengths and weaknesses, risk factors.

How do you choose the best solution?

• As you explore the alternative solutions you will begin to decide on the best

solution for the organization in solving its problems.

• It is important at this stage to provide a justification for the solution you

choose.



What are the steps in making a recommendation?

• Express your recommendation(s) precisely.

• Ensure that your recommendations are complementary.

• Ensure that it is feasible to implement the recommendations.

How do you present your case analysis?

• A case analysis is presented as a report.

Suggested structure for a case analysis report:

Introduction:

• Describe the situation and identify the main problem.

Body:

• Analyze the problem and the issues underlying the

problem.

• Present and analyze alternative solutions to the

problem.Conclusion:

• Identify the best solution.

Recommendations:

• Identify the courses of action needed to implement the

best solution.

What makes a good case analysis?

• clearly identifies the core problem(s)

• provides a justification for the choice of core problem(s)

• analyzes the issues underlying the problem in terms of the relevant theory• uses appropriate terminology

• justifies the alternative solutions in terms of appropriate theory

• justifies the choice of the best solution

• presents feasible and complementary recommendations for implementing

the best solution

• is presented in appropriate report format.

Is there a best answer for a case analysis?

• Remember that there is no one correct answer to any case analysis.

• As in real life, there is more than one way to interpret a case and solve

problems,So there is no single answer.

• The approaches, interpretations and recommendations will vary

considerably.

• This provides a useful opportunity to compare and discuss different analyses

and alternative solutions, which is a common practice in real life before

finally recommending one solution.



Are all case analyses similar?

• The general principles explained here are relevant for all case analyses.

• However, there are some differences in requirements from one course or one

case analysis to the next.

• Sometimes, it will not be necessary to make recommendations.

• These is a general understanding BUT you should always give priority toyour lecturer's requirements!

Writing a book review

• A book review is a description, critical analysis, and an evaluation on the

quality, meaning, and significance of a book, not a retelling.

• It should focus on the book's purpose, content, and authority.

• A critical book review should include a statement of what the author has

tried to do, evaluates how well (in the opinion of the reviewer) the author

has succeeded, and presents evidence to support this evaluation.

State the author’s purpose in writing the book. Sometimes authors state their

purpose in the preface or the first chapter. When they do not, you may arrive at an

understanding of the book’s purpose by asking yourself these questions: • Why did the author write on this subject rather than on some other subject?

• From what point of view is the work written?

• Was the author trying to give information, to explain something technical, to

convince the reader of a belief’s validity by dramatizing it in action?

• Who is the intended audience?

• What is the author's style?

• Is it formal or informal?• Does it suit the intended audience?

• How well has the book achieved its goal?

• Would you recommend this book or article to others? Why?

• How did the book affect you?

• Were any previous ideas you had on the subject changed, abandoned, or

reinforced due to this book?

• How is the book related to your own course or personal agenda?

• What personal experiences you've had relate to the subject?

• Most reviews start off with a heading that includes all the bibliographic

information about the book, like:Title. Author. Place of publication: publisher, date of publication. Number of

pages.

• The review usually begins with an introduction that lets your readers know

what the review will say.

• The first paragraph usually includes the author and title again, so your

readers don’t have to look up to find the title.



• You should also include a very brief overview of the contents of the book, the

purpose or audience for the book, and your reaction and evaluation.

• Reviews then generally move into a section of background information that

helps place the book in context and discusses criteria for judging the book.

• Next, the review gives a summary of the main points of the book, quotingand paraphrasing key phrases from the author.

• Reviews then generally move into a section of background information that

helps place the book in context and discusses criteria for judging the book.

• Next, the review gives a summary of the main points of the book, quoting

and paraphrasing key phrases from the author.

• Finally, reviewers get to the heart of their writing—their evaluation of the

book.• It is important to carefully distinguish your views from the author’s, so that

you don’t confuse your reader.

• Like other essays, book reviews usually end with a conclusion which ties

together issues raised in the review and provides a concise comment on the

book.

• There is, of course, no set formula, but a general rule of thumb is that the

first one-half to two-t hirds of the review should summarize the author’smain ideas and at least one-third should evaluate the book.

Reviewing specific genres

Fiction

Character

• From what sources are the characters drawn?

• What is the author's attitude toward his characters?

• Are the characters flat or three-dimensional?

• Does character development occur?

• Is character delineation direct or indirect?

Theme

• What is/are the major theme(s)?

• How are they revealed and developed?

• Is the theme traditional and familiar, or new and original?

• Is the theme didactic, psychological, social, entertaining, escapist, etc. in

purpose or intent?



Plot

• How are the various elements of plot (eg, introduction, suspense, climax,

conclusion) handled?

• What is the relationship of plot to character delineation?

• To what extent, and how, is accident employed as a complicating and/or

resolving force?• What are the elements of mystery and suspense?

• What other devices of plot complication and resolution are employed?

• Is there a sub-plot and how is it related to the main plot?

• Is the plot primary or secondary to some of the other essential elements of

the story (character, setting, style, etc.)?

Style

• What are the "intellectual qualities" of the writing (e.g., simplicity, clarity)?

• What are the "emotional qualities" of the writing (e.g., humour, wit, satire)?

• What are the "aesthetic qualities" of the writing (e.g., harmony, rhythm)?

• What stylistic devices are employed (e.g., symbolism, motifs, parody,allegory)?

• How effective is dialogue?

Setting

• What is the setting and does it play a significant role in the work?

• Is a sense of atmosphere evoked, and how?

• What scenic effects are used and how important and effective are they?

• Does the setting influence or impinge on the characters and/or plot?

Biography

Does the book give a "full-length" picture of the subject? What phases of the subject's life receive greatest treatment and is this

treatment justified?

What is the point of view of the author?

How is the subject matter organized: chronologically, retrospectively, etc.?

Is the treatment superficial or does the author show extensive study into the

subject's life?

What source materials were used in the preparation of the biography?

Is the work documented?

Does the author attempt to get at the subject's hidden motives?

What important new facts about the subject's life are revealed in the book?

What is the relationship of the subject's career to contemporary history?

How does the biography compare with others about the same person?

How does it compare with other works by the same author?



History and other Nonfiction

With what particular subject or period does the book deal?

How thorough is the treatment?

What were the sources used?

Is the account given in broad outline or in detail? Is the style that of reportorial writing, or is there an effort at interpretive

writing?

What is the point of view or thesis of the author?

Is the treatment superficial or profound?

For what group is the book intended (textbook, popular, scholarly, etc.)?

What part does biographical writing play in the book?

Is social history or political history emphasized?

Are dates used extensively, and if so, are they used intelligently?

Is the book a revision? How does it compare with earlier editions?

Are maps, illustrations, charts, etc. used and how are these to be evaluated?

Poetry

Is this a work of power, originality, and individuality?

What kind of poetry is under review (epic, lyrical, elegiac, etc.)?

What poetical devices have been used (rhyme, rhythm, figures of speech,

imagery, etc.), and to what effect?

What is the central concern of the poem and is it effectively expressed?

Writing Challenges

Every book review is different, but each successful review includes a couple of key

elements. As you think about what you want to say in your review, complete these

challenges. They're designed to help you work on telling your reader what's most

important.

Describe the setting of the book.

How does it compare or contrast to the world you know? A book's setting is one of

its most vital Does the author make you feel like you're a part of the setting? Can you

picture the book's setting if you close your eyes? As you write, try to pass on to your

reader the sense of the setting and place that the author has provided.

Describe the book's main characters.

Does the writer make you believe in them as people? Why or why not? Think about

whether you like the characters and about how liking them or disliking them makes

you feel about the book. As you write about the characters, use examples of things

they've said or done to give a sense of their personalities.



Give your reader a taste of the plot, but don't give the surprises away.

Readers want to know enough about what happens in a book to know whether

they'll find it interesting. But they never want to know the ending! Summarize the

plot in a way that will answer some questions about the book, but leave other

questions in the reader's mind. You may want to make a list of questions about the

book before you begin.

Writing Tips

Before you begin writing, make a few notes about the points you want to get across.

While you're writing, try thinking of your reader as a friend to whom you're telling a

story.

Try to mention the name of the author and the book title in the first paragraph —

there's nothing more frustrating than reading a review of a great book but not

knowing who wrote it and what the title is!

If possible, use one paragraph for each point you want to make about the book. It's a

good way to emphasize the importance of the point. You might want to list the mainpoints in your notes before you begin.

Try to get the main theme of the book across in the beginning of your review. Your

reader should know right away what he or she is getting into should they choose to

read the book!

Think about whether the book is part of a genre. Does the book fit into a type like

mystery, adventure, or romance? What aspects of the genre does it use?

What do you like or dislike about the book's writing style? Is it funny? Does it give

you a sense of the place it's set? What is the author's/narrator's "voice" like?

Try using a few short quotes from the book to illustrate your points. This is not

absolutely necessary, but it's a good way to give your reader a sense of the author's

writing style.Make sure your review explains how you feel about the book and why, not just what

the book is about. A good review should express the reviewer's opinion and

persuade the reader to share it, to read the book, or to avoid reading it.

Do research about the author and incorporate what you learn into the review.

Biographical information can help you formulate your opinion about the book, and

gives your review a "depth." Remember, a book doesn't come directly from a

printing press, it's a product of an author's mind, and therefore it may be helpful to

know something about the author and how she or he came to write the book.

