Bibliography

• R. Huddleston, G.K. Pullum,

A student’s Introduction to English Grammar, CUP 2005

• R. Huddleston, G.K. Pullum, The Cambridge grammar of the English language, CUP 2002• Noel Burton Roberts, Analyzing sentences. An introduction to English syntax,

Pearson, 2010• E. Finegan, Language, its structure and use, Wadsworth, Cengage Lear1989• G. Yule, The Study of language, CUP 1991

Seminar topics1. Basic concepts in grammar, the parts of speech 2. Verbs, tense, aspect, and mood 3. Clause structure, complements, and adjuncts 4. Nouns and noun phrases 5. Adjectives, adverbs, prepositions and preposition phrases 6. Negation and related phenomena 7. Clause type: asking, exclaiming, and directing 8. Subordination and content clauses 9. Relative clauses 10. Grade and comparison 11. Non-finite clauses and clauses without verbs12. Coordination, information packaging in the clause13. Passive Voice 14. Morphology : morphological processes

Basic concepts in grammar, the parts of speech

5 October 2012

• Number of people who speak English all over the world.

• Widely spread language

• Language varieties/dialects

• Dialects and styles

Dialects

• Language varieties/dialects• Standard English-the central dialect• Other dialects, non-standard (regional, local, social)Examples:

I did it myself. I done it myself.I haven’t told anybody anything. I ain’t told anybody nothing.

• Differences in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar• Grammar more stable and uniform than accent and vocabulary• What does grammar deal with? Form of sentences and smaller

units: clauses, phrases and words.

Styles• Formal and informal styles, formal contexts vs casual

conversations.

He was the one with whom she worked.He was the one she worked with.

• Informal style is not restricted to speech, common in mass media, printed books on academic subjects.

Informal sentences are not non-standard.

What is the difference between a style and a dialect?

Switching between styles within your native dialect is easy.

Switching between dialects is not.

Descriptive and prescriptive approaches to grammar

• Descriptive grammar books describe the grammatical system people use when they speak and write.

Show what the language is.

• Prescriptive grammar books tell people how they should speak and write, give advice.

Show how to avoid mistakes.

Some grammar manuals do not make distinction between standard vs non-standard dialects, formal vs informal styles. They apply the term incorrect to both non-standard dialect and informal style. Is it fair?

• Do not mix non-standard or informal with incorrect.

More grammatical terms

To talk about a language we need some standard terms dealing with3 different areas within the study of a language:1. Syntax2. Morphology3. Semantics

1 &2 concern the form of sentences or words

Syntax

• Study of the principles governing how words can be put together to form sentences.

Ex.I found an un opened bottle of wine. (admissible)

I found a bottle unopened of wine. (not admissible)

Some customers complained a lot about the product . Some customers about the product complained a lot .

Morphology

Deals with the internal form of words.Examples:• unopened: un + open + ed

• inhabited• inadequately• preoccupied• dysfunctional• illogicality• unwillingness• unwellcoming

Semantics

• is about meaning• principles by which words/sentences are

associated with their literal meanings.Examples:unopened is the opposite of opened

More examples of grammatical terms

• subject/object• noun, noun phrases, verb, adjective, adverb

pronoun• tenses • passive/active voice• imperative• clauses

Misleading definitions of grammatical termsDefinition of the Past Tense:„The Past Tense expresses or indicates a time that is in the past.”

Grammatical category vs semantic property

Definition works

• The seminar started one hour ago.

• If he said that, he was wrong.

• I offended my friends.

Definition fails

• I thought the seminar started next week.

Past tense but not past time.

• If he said that, she wouldn’t believe him.

Past tense but not past time.

• I regret offending my friends.

Not every past time reference involves a past tense.

ImperativeA book definition: A form or instruction used to issue a command.

Is it a satisfactory definition?

• Command• Offer• Request• Invitation• Advice• Instruction

• Shut up!• Have a drink.• Please pass the salt.• Come to dinner.• Have a close look at it.• To see the picture click

here.

Instead of the term command we can use directive

• I direct you to pass me the salt• I direct you to click here, to come to dinner.

Go to bed. Sleep well.Both are imperatives .Go to bed is a directiveSleep well is not. I’m not directing you to sleep well. I’m wishing you a peaceful night.

Please pass me the salt. Could you pass me the salt?Both sentences are directives but Could you pass me the salt? is not imperative.

It’s a question=interrogative. Directives can be issued in other ways, not by the use of imperatives.

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• Imperatives• Declaratives• Interrogatives

What’s the main difference between imperatives and declaratives in English?

I am happy. Be happy.I help you. Help me.

Subjects are obligatory in declaratives and omitted in imperatives.

How do words combine to form sentences in Standard English?

Regularities, rules, technical terms.2 kinds of sentences: • clausual sentence ( a single clause) • compound sentence (coordinated clauses, joined by a coordinator)Ex.: She is a teacher. He is a doctor. I am a student.She is a teacher, he is a doctor and I am a student.

I like coffee. He likes tea.I like coffee but he likes tea.

The idea of a clause is more basic than the idea of a sentence.

More technical terms

• subject (Subj) & predicate (Pred)• Noun phrase (NP), Verb phrase (VP)Ex.: Subj Pred Subj Pred Subj PredThings change. Mark studied. Students complained.

All things change. Mark studied yesterday. Some students complained about it.

NP VP NP VP

NP: things, Mark, students, all things, some students

Phrase= head + 0 or more dependents

NP = a noun with or without dependents

Subj + Pred

• Subj =actor Pred=actionSemantics vs syntax

Subject usually has the form of an NP.Its default position is before the verb.

Ex.:

Basic clause InterrogativeThe seminar has finished. Has the seminar finished?Mark is here. Is Mark here?The students complained. Did the students complain?

Rule: the subject proceeds the verb in the basic version and follows it in the interrogative.

Words, Lexemes, InflectionEx.:My students have many books and a computer programme; one book deals with the programme.

programme & programme. books & bookbooks & book are different words but forms of the same lexeme.

Different inflectional forms of the same lexeme, plural and singular.Book and books are inflectional forms of the lexeme book.

Ex.:drive, drives, drove, driving, drivenfast, faster, fastest

Lexeme – a minimal unit (as a word or stem)

The parts of speech, 8 categoriesCategory Example

noun The students worked

verb The students worked.

adjective He’s smart.

determinative The students worked.

adverb The lecturer spoke clearly.

preposition It’s in my schedule.

coordinator I got up and left.

subordinator It’s suprising that my students were late.

Example Example

That is Mark. We saw him.

It is clear. I have a headache.

It looks easy. I’ve got a new exam.

He needs some books.

All exams change.

She’s not very old. I almost died.

I gave my notes to him.

Here’s a list of them.

Mark or Alice took it.

It’s difficult but interesting.

I wonder whether it’s true.

I don’t know if you’re telling the truth.

Noun (N), (n)Nouns:• 37% of the words in almost any text. • Physical objects, inanimate objects, abstract nouns• Noun categories in traditional grammar: common nouns (book, man), proper

nouns (Alice, Europe), pronouns (I, you, his, them)• Inflectional forms: singular, plural• Nouns function as head in NP.; have a function of a subject in a clause.

Verbs (V), (v)

Verbs:• In clauses verbs point at:a) an action: I made a cake. b) some other event: The seminar started. c) a state: Students know Standard English.

• Auxilary verbs: do, does, did, have, has, will, am, is, are • Lexical verbs• Verbs are head in VPs, predicate in a clause• Inflectional contrast of tense between past and

present: -ed, -s, -ing.

Adjective (Adj)1. Express properties of people or things; with the verb be describe states. The long seminar. Students are happy.

2. Two adjective functions: ATTRIBUTIVE PREDICATIVE ( after be, become, feel, seem etc.)

The long seminar The seminar is long.An angry student He became angry.

3. Adjectives are gradable. The degree is indicated by:• modifiers like - fairly big, suprisingly good, extremely polite, very cold• inflectional system, comparison- 3 grades: plain, comparative, superlative. old, older, oldest

Adverbs (Adv)1. Most are derived from adjectives by adding – ly.2. Other common adverbs: almost, always, not, often, quite,

rather, soon, too, very3. Adverbs are modifiers of verbs (or VPs), adjectives, adverbs.

Modififes a v or VP She spoke clearly. I often teach them.

Modifies an adj. a remakably long seminar

It’s very long.

Modifies an adv. She spoke quite clearly.

It’ll end quite soon.

DETERMINATIVES (D)

• a, an, the, ; definite, indefinite• this, that, these, those, some, any, many, few,

one, two, three, etc

Prepositions (Prep)• Prepositions express relations of space or time.

across the street, at the corner,, under the bridge,after classes, before Christmas

• Prepositions depend on nouns, verbs/VPs, adjectives.

Dependent on a verb/VP

I sat by the door. I met him after classes.

Dependent on a noun

the student in the room

the day before that

Dependent on an adjective

keen on grammar superior to others

Coordinators & subordinators(Co) & (Sub)

• Coordinators (and, or, but)My students need good books and more time.My students need good books. My students need more time.Coordinators serve to mark coordination between 2 or more expressions of equal syntactic status.

• Subordinators (that, whether,if)The seminar is difficult. I realise that the seminar is dififficult. main clause subordinate clause

Complements (object, predicative complement), modifiers

The structure of phrases (VP, NP)NP: She regularly gives us very useful advice on grammar.advice-head, on grammar-complement, very useful-modifierVP: He kept her letters for years.; kept-head, her letters-complement, for years-modifier• The structure of VPSubtypes of complement: object & predicative complementPredicative complements occur with a limited number of verbs: be, feel, seem.

Object Predicative complement

I met a friend of yours. She was a friend of yours.

She appointed a real idiot. I felt a real idiot.

very friendly (AdjP) can’t be an object

They seemed very friendly.

Canonical and Non-canonical clauses

Canonical clauses (syntactically the most basic or elementary clauses)

• Positive: It is easy.

• Declarative: I can do it.

• Declarative: I am patient.

• Main: You’re great.

• Non-coordinate: That’s Anna. I’m blind.

• Active: I finished the seminar.

Non-canonical clauses (more complex syntactically)

• Negative: It isn’t easy.

• Interrogative: Can I do it?

• Imperative: Be patient.

• Subordinate: I know that you’re great.

• Coordinate: That’s Anna or I’m blind.• Passive: The seminar is finished.