Structure of Matter

Atomic MacroAtomic Macro

Atomic MacroAtomic Macro

Atomic MacroAtomic Macro

Atomic MacroAtomic Macro

Atomic MacroAtomic Macro

Atomic MacroAtomic Macro

Atomic MacroAtomic Macro

Atomic MacroAtomic Macro

Atomic MacroAtomic Macro

Atomic MacroAtomic Macro

Atomic MacroAtomic Macro

Atomic MacroAtomic Macro

Atomic MacroAtomic Macro

Atomic MacroAtomic Macro

Draft for first version of Mendeleev's periodic table (17 February 1869).

“I began to look about and write down the elements with their atomic weights and typical properties, analogous elements and like atomic weights on separate cards, and this soon convinced me that the properties of elements are in periodic dependence upon their atomic weights.” --Mendeleev, Principles of Chemistry, 1905, Vol. II

Atomic Mass and Moles

Atomic Mass and Moles

= number of protons (= number of electrons)

= number of protons + neutrons(averaged over different isotopes)

(1 u = 1.661 x 10-27 kg)

Isotopesisotopes = same number of protons, different number of neutrons

Similar chemical properties, quite different nuclear properties!

Energy and Bond Formation

http://server.chem.ufl.edu/~chm2040/Notes/Chapter_10/properties.html#e_energies_and_affinities

Comparison of Bonding

Give up electrons Acquire electrons

He -

Ne -

Ar -

Kr -

Xe -

Rn -

F 4.0

Cl 3.0

Br 2.8

I 2.5

At 2.2

Li 1.0

Na 0.9

K 0.8

Rb 0.8

Cs 0.7

Fr 0.7

H 2.1

Be 1.5

Mg 1.2

Ca 1.0

Sr 1.0

Ba 0.9

Ra 0.9

Ti 1.5

Cr 1.6

Fe 1.8

Ni 1.8

Zn 1.8

As 2.0

CsCl

MgO

CaF2

NaCl

O 3.5

Adapted from Fig. 2.7, Callister 6e. (Fig. 2.7 is adapted from Linus Pauling, The Nature of the Chemical Bond, 3rd edition, Copyright 1939 and 1940, 3rd edition. Copyright 1960 by CornellUniversity.

Ionic Bonding

Covalent Bond• Shared electrons

• One electron from an orbital in atom A

• One electron from an orbital in atom B

• They become ‘spin paired’

• Molecules with nonmetals• Molecules with metals and nonmetals• Elemental solids (RHS of Periodic Table)• Compound solids (about column IVA)

He -

Ne -

Ar -

Kr -

Xe -

Rn -

F 4.0

Cl 3.0

Br 2.8

I 2.5

At 2.2

Li 1.0

Na 0.9

K 0.8

Rb 0.8

Cs 0.7

Fr 0.7

H 2.1

Be 1.5

Mg 1.2

Ca 1.0

Sr 1.0

Ba 0.9

Ra 0.9

Ti 1.5

Cr 1.6

Fe 1.8

Ni 1.8

Zn 1.8

As 2.0

SiC

C(diamond)

H2O

C 2.5

H2

Cl2

F2

Si 1.8

Ga 1.6

GaAs

Ge 1.8

O 2.0

colu

mn IVA

Sn 1.8Pb 1.8

Adapted from Fig. 2.7, Callister 6e. (Fig. 2.7 isadapted from Linus Pauling, The Nature of the Chemical Bond, 3rd edition, Copyright 1939 and 1940, 3rd edition. Copyright 1960 by Cornell University.

Covalent Bonding

3.5

• Prevalent in ceramics and polymers

• Arises from a sea of donated valence electrons (1, 2, or 3 from each atom).

•Primary bond for metals and their alloys high electrical conductivity. Why?

+ + +

+ + +

+ + +Adapted from Fig. 2.11, Callister 6e.

Metallic Bonding

Secondary Bonds

• Bonds between atoms without electron transfer or sharing

• Low bonding energies• Hydrogen Bonds

– Water molecules are polar

• Van der Waals Bonds– Attraction of opposite charges

• Electron density fluctuates around an atom• Instantaneous dipole-induced dipole interaction

Hydrogen Bonds in H2O

O

H H+ +

-

Hydrogen Bonds in H2O

O

H H+ +

-

O

H H+ +

-

www.scifun.ed.ac.uk/card/flakes.html

Graphite – Van der Waals Bonds

http://www.soes.soton.ac.uk/resources/collection/minerals/minerals/pages/M01-Graphite.htm

Graphite

www.webelements.com

Graphite

Soft and slippery Many strong covalent bonds holding the structure together but only in 2 dimensions. The layers are free to slide easily over one another. Graphite powder is used as a lubricant.

Brittle All of the bonds are directional within a layer and stress across a layer will tend to break them. Graphite rods used for electrolysis easily break when dropped.

Electrical conductor Only three of the valence (outer shell) electrons are used in sigma bonding. The other electron is in a 'p' orbital which can overlap laterally with neighbouring 'p' orbitals making giant molecular pi orbitals that extend over the whole of each layer. Electrons are free to move within these delocalised pi orbitals.

Insoluble in water. There are only very weak Van der Waal's attractions between the carbon atoms and the water molecules whereas the carbon atoms are bonded very tightly to one another.

Very high melting point Many strong covalent bonds holding the layers together - it requires massive amounts of energy to pull it apart

Graphite

www.mythinglinks.org/ct~landscape~minerals~diamonds.html

Diamond

www.webelements.com

Diamond

Hard Many strong covalent bonds holding the structure together.

Brittle All of the bonds are directional and stress will tend to break the structure (In a malleable substance, such as for example a metal, the bonding is non-directional and can still act if the particles are displaced with respect to one another).

Insulator All of the valence (outer shell) electrons are used in bonding. The bonds are sigma and the electrons are located between the two carbon nuclei being bonded together. None of the electrons are free to move

Insoluble in water. There are only very weak Van der Waal's attractions between the carbon atoms and the water molecules whereas the carbon atoms are bodned very tightly to one another.

Very high melting point Many strong covalent bonds holding the structure together - it requires massive amounts of energy to pull it apart

Diamond

www.webelements.com

Diamond

Properties & Applications

• Electrical

• Mechanical

• Thermal

• Storage

Nanocarbon

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4yRjYiw_H_s

Discovered in 1985

Nobel prize Chemistry 1996 Curl, Kroto, and Smalley

Fullerenes

Fullerenes

Architect: R. Buckminster Fuller

Epcot center, Paris

Buckyballs

C60

32 facets

(12 pentagons and 20 hexagons)

C70, C76, and C84

Buckyballs

C60

32 facets

(12 pentagons and 20 hexagons)

Bucky Balls

• Symmetric shape → lubricant• Large surface area → catalyst• High temperature (~750oC)• High pressure• Hollow → caging particles

Buckyballs• Forms a crystal by weak van der

Waals force • Superconductivity - K3C60: 19.2 K

- RbCs2C60: 33 K

Kittel, Introduction to Solid State Physics, 7the ed. 1996.

Buckyballs• Forms a crystal by weak van der

Waals force • Superconductivity - K3C60: 19.2 K

- RbCs2C60: 33 K

http://invsee.asu.edu/nmodules/Carbonmod/crystalline.html

Soft and slippery Few covalent bonds holding the molecules together but only weak Vander Waals forces between molecules.

Brittle Soft weak crystals typical of covalent substances

Electrical Insulator No movement of electrons available from one molecule to the next. The exception could be the formation of nano-tubes that are capable of conducting electricity along their length. These are the subject of some experiments in micro electronics

Insoluble in water. There are only very weak Van der Waal's attractions between the carbon atoms and the water molecules whereas the carbon atoms are bonded very tightly to one another in the molecules.

Low Melting Point Solids Typical of covalent crystals where only Van der Waal's interactions have to be broken for melting.

Buckyballs

Carbon Nanotubes (CNT)

• Like graphite but all coiled up• Typically 10 Angstroms in diameter• Can be electrically conductive or semiconducting• SWNT and MWNT

– Composites, transistors, hydrogen storage

Courtesy of and ©Copyright Professor Charles M. Lieber Group

Nanotube

The "armchair" type has the characteristics of a metal

The "zigzag" type has properties that change depending on the tube diameter

The "spiral" type has the characteristics of a semiconductor

Armchair

Zigzag

Spiral

Nanotube

Zheng et al. Nature Materials 3 (2004) 673.

SWCNT – 1.9 nm

Diameter:

as low as 1 nm

Length:

μm to cm

High aspect ratio:

1000diameter

length

→ quasi 1D solid

Nanotube Intro Video

• Earth and sky: Properties of Nanotubes• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zQAK4xxPGfM&mode=related&search=Nanotube

Nanotube Stats

• Current capacity

Carbon nanotube 1 GAmps / cm2

Copper wire 1 MAmps / cm2

• Thermal conductivity

Comparable to pure diamond (3320 W / m.K)

• Temperature stability

Carbon nanotube 750 oC (in air)

Metal wires in microchips 600 – 1000 oC

• Caging

May change electrical properties

→ can be used as a sensor

NanotubesCarbon nanotubes are the strongest known material.

• Young Modulus (stiffness): Carbon nanotubes 1250 GPa Carbon fibers 425 GPa (max.) High strength steel 200 GPa

• Tensile strength (breaking strength)

Carbon nanotubes 11- 63 GPa

Carbon fibers 3.5 - 6 GPa

High strength steel ~ 2 GPa

• Elongation to failure : ~ 20-30 %• Density: Carbon nanotube (SW) 1.33 – 1.40 gram / cm3

Aluminium 2.7 gram / cm3

E

Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes

• IFW-Dresden Carbon Nanotubes• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tgToxaOqF10&mode=related&search=Nanotube

• Synthesis of Carbon nanotube• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8N79nlhwcgM&mode=related&search=C60%20Ful

lerene%20Fullereno%20Buckyball

• Growth of Carbon nanotube• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1p8vFdCJRZE&NR=1&feature=fvwp

Stain, static, and liquid-resistant fabrics

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g9UENE6JMLIhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lbf6uKcT1l8

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HIGMB_R3pgI&feature=relatedhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nTbz8w1SB1U&feature=fvw

Water Resistant Coatings

Carbon FiberA 6 μm diameter carbon filament (running from bottom left to top right) compared to a human hair.

Sports Equipment

Sports Equipment

CNT Carbon Nanotube Opti-Flex composite handle technology, provids maximum handle flex-three times greater than aluminum

Carbon Nanotube/Cement Composite Systems

In concrete, they increase the tensile strength, and halt crack propagation.

www.nanooze.org

The Space Elevator

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lVV0S9cNLKI&feature=related

www.enterprisemission.com

Space Elevator

• NOVA space elevator intro• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pnwZmWoymeI&mod

e=related&search

• 2 minute space elevator intro• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F2UZDHHDhog

• Space Elevator Competition: USST's First Place Climb

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VkdfuQdoW_Q&mode=related&search=space-elevator%20turbo%20crawler

CNT light bulb filament: alternative to tungsten filaments in

incandescent lamps

The average efficiency is 40% higher than that of a tungsten filament at the same temperature (1400–2300 K).

Nano Radio

•http://nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=110566

•http://nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=110566

When a radio wave of a specific frequency impinges on the nanotube, it begins to vibrate vigorously.

An electric field applied to the nanotube forces electrons to be emitted from its tip.

This electrical current may be used to detect the mechanical vibrations of the nanotube, and thus listen to the radio waves.

Nanotube Radio

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gkQkzvnstkg• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yQz9C7yE1kc

&feature=related

Carbon Nanotube Electronics

• Carbon nanotube in microchip• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=74YkJYT7Uj4&mod

e=related&search=Nanotube

• Customized Y-Shaped Nanotubes• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SGWHBQQKmOs

Transistors – the active component of virtually all electronic devices, are what we refer to as electronic switching devices. In a transistor, a small electric current can be used to control the on/off of a larger current.

Semiconducting CNTs have been used to fabricate field effect transistors (CNTFETs). The electron mean free path in SWCNTs can exceed 1 micron (this is very large) therefore it is projected that CNT devices will operate in the frequency range of hundreds of GHz.

Kavli Institute Delft SEM image of superconducting transistors

CNT-FED

Professor George Lisensky http://mrsec.wisc.edu/Edetc/cineplex/nanoquest/applications.html

CNT-FED

Carbon nanotubes can be electrically conductive and due to their small diameter of several nanometers, they can be used as field emitters with extremely high efficiency for field emission displays (FED). The principle of operation resembles that of the cathode ray tube, but on a much smaller length scale.

Bucky Paper

A thin sheet made from nanotubes that are 250 times stronger than steel and 10 times lighter that could be used as a heat sink for chipboards, a backlight for LCD screens or as a faraday cage to protect electrical devices

Warwick ICAST http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i4Ax8sY2U4A&mode=related&search=Nanotube

Hydrogen Storage Carbon nanotubes covered in titanium atoms provide a very efficient method for storing hydrogen.

'Artificial muscles' made from nanotubes

"Artificial muscles" have been made from millions of carbon nanotubes. Like natural muscles, providing an electrical charge causes the individual fibers to expand and the whole structure to move.

Bone cells grown on carbon nanotubes

Researchers at the University of California, Riverside have published findings that show, for the first time, that bone cells can grow and proliferate on a scaffold of carbon nanotubes. Scientists found that the nanotubes, 100,000 times finer than a human hair, are an excellent scaffold for bone cells to grow on.

http://biosingularity.wordpress.com/2006/03/21/researchers-grow-bone-cells-on-carbon-nanotubes/http://neurophilosophy.wordpress.com/2006/03/17/123/

Nano SQUID

A SQUID is a superconducting interferometer device. SQUID devices can be used to monitor infinitesimally small magnetic fields or currents. The originality of this work, is to use gate-tunable carbon-nanotubes (CNT) for the Josephson junctions. The device combines features of single electron transistors with typical properties of a SQUID interferometer. The gate tunability of the CNT junctions enhance the sensitivity of the device which can in principle detect the spin of a single molecule.