Structural, Environmental, Coastal and Offshore Engineering · 2 nd International Conference on Civil, Offshore and Environmental Engineering ... Abd Nasir B Matori , Zubair Imam

Structural, Environmental,

Coastal and Offshore

Engineering

Edited by Abd Nasir B Matori Zubair Imam Syed

Mohamed Hasnain Isa Bashar S. Mohammed

Structural, Environmental, Coastal and Offshore

Engineering

Selected, peer reviewed papers from the 2nd International Conference on

Civil, Offshore and Environmental Engineering (I CCOEE 2014),

June 3-5, 2014, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Edited by

Abd Nasir B Matori, Zubair Imam Syed,

Mohamed Hasnain Isa and

Bashar S. Mohammed

Copyright 2014 Trans Tech Publications Ltd, Switzerland

All rights reserved. No part of the contents of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means without the written permission of the publisher.

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Volume 567 of Applied Mechanics and Materials ISSN print 1660-9336 ISSN cd 1660-9336 ISSN web 1662-7482

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FOREWORD

ASSOC. PROF. IR. DR. MOHD SHAHIR

LIEW Head of Civil Engineering Department &

Chairman of ICCOEE2014

Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS

Dear Distinguished Delegates, Sponsors and Exhibitors,

Greetings and welcome to the 2nd International Conference on Civil, Offshore & Environmental Engineering 2014 (ICCOEE2014).

Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS warmly welcomes you to the 2ndInternational Conference on Civil, Offshore & Environmental Engineering 2014 (ICCOEE2014) in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. ICCOEE 2014 is an international forum of distinguished intellectuals engaged in scientific, engineering and technological research dedicated toward the sustainability of civil engineering knowledge and application.

The conference provides a venue for you to share and exchange the wealth of knowledge in the civil engineering fraternity with the delegates. ICCOEE2014 is part of the World Engineering, Science & Technology Congress (ESTCON2014), whereby 8 other conferences are being held simultaneously at the same venue. The potential collaboration is unlimited as participants can freely attend any of the other conferences. ICCOEE2014 will bring together colloquy and exchange of ideas of latest research and development in the main traditional areas of civil engineering, including coastal and offshore structures. It is our aspiration that

this conference will nurture research in the areas of civil engineering, and amplify its positive impact to the mainstream built environment.

Malaysia is fast becoming a hub for knowledge and R&D for South East Asia. With PETRONAS’

support, the University conducts extensive research activities in collaboration with PETRONAS and other institutions and industries locally and internationally.

It is my pleasure to personally invite you to participate in this conference for showcasing your latest academic achievements and for networking with key researchers from all over the world.

Come and join us in Kuala Lumpur Convention Centre on the 3rd-5th June 2014 at our once in two years Engineering Congress, ESTCON 2014, in particular the ICCOEE 2014.

Thank you.

Conference Organizing Committee

CONFERENCE CHAIR Assoc. Prof. Ir. Dr. Mohd Shahir Liew

CO-CHAIR Assoc. Prof. Dr. Shamsul Rahman

Mohamed Kutty

SECRETARY Dr. Teh Hee Min Dr. Zubair Imam Syed

TREASURER Ms. Niraku Rosmawati Ahmad

Dr. Nurul Izma Mohammed

TECHNICAL

Dr. Zahiraniza Mustaffa (L)

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Salah Elias Zoorob

Dr. Montasir Osman Ahmed Ali

Mr. Muhammad Hafiz Baharun

PUBLICATION Assoc. Prof. Dr. Abd Nasir Matori (L)

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Bashar S Mohammed

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohamed Hasnain Isa

LOGISTICS Dr. Syed Baharom Azahar Syed Osman

Ir. Idris Othman

PUBLICITY & PROTOCOL

Dr. Muhammad Raza Ul Mustafa Assoc. Prof. Ahmad Mustafa Hashim

IT & MULTIMEDIA Dr. Ibrisam Akbar

SPONSORSHIP Dr. Noor Amila Wan Abdullah Zawawi

Assoc. Prof. Ir. Dr Mohd Shahir Liew

F & B Mr Ahmad Zamdi Ab Hamid

EVENT MANAGEMENT Assoc. Prof. Dr. Amirhossein Malakahmad

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Khamaruzaman Wan Yusof

REVIEWERS

Abdul Nasir Matori Abdullah Zawawi Awang Abu Bakar Hassan Ahmad Al Yacouby Ahmad Mustafa Hashim Ahmad Khairi Abd Wahab Amirhossein Malakahmad Azam A Rahman Bashar Mohammed Chen J. Paul Chimay Anumba Fadzli M Nazri Faridah Othman Faridah Sedek Fatimah De'nan Hanaa Elsayad

Hasanuddin Zainal Abidin Ramli Nazir Husna Takaijudin Idris Othman Indra Sati H. Harahap Kamal Nasharuddin Bin Mustapha

Khairunisa Muthusamy Khamaruzaman Wan Yusof Khandker M. Nurul Habib

Kousik Deb Lam Wei Haur M Nazmi M Ali M Sapihie B. Ayob Madzlan Napiah Mastura Jaafar Mehdi Setareh Mohamad Khattak Mohamed Mubarak Abdul Wahab Mohamed Hasnain Isa

Mohammad Ismail Mohd Azrai Azman Mohd Sanusi S. Ahamad Mohd Shahir Liew Muhammad Joehan Rohani Muhammad Raza Ul Mustafa Muhd Fadhil Nuruddin Muhd Zaimi Abd Majid Narayanan Sambu Potty Nasir Shafiq Niraku Rosmawati Ahmad Noor Amila Wan Abdullah Zawawi Norhazilan Md Noor Nur Izzi Md. Yusoff Nurul Izma Mohammed Othman Che Puan

Preben Pedersen Raza Ali Khan Roderick Jones Saied Saiedi Shaliza Binti Ibrahim Shamsul Rahman Kutty

Sih Ying Kong Sivadass Thiruchelvam Syed Baharom Azahar Syed Osman

Teh Hee Min Velluruzhathil John Kurian Teo Wee Yutaek Seo Zafarullah Nizamani Zahiraniza Mustaffa Zubair Imam Syed

PLENARY SPEAKER 1

PROF. DR. IR. PIETER VAN GELDER

Professor of Safety Science, Faculty of Technology, Policy and Management, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands.

Safety Matters in Civil Engineering - A Historical Overview and a Look into the

Future

BIOGRAPHY

Prof. Dr. Ir. Pieter van Gelder is a full-time professor of safety science at the Faculty of

Technology, Policy and Management of Delft University of Technology since 2013. Until then

he was the associate professor of probabilistic design methods at the Faculty of Civil

Engineering and Geosciences of Delft University of Technology. He has actively involved in

research and education on safety and reliability since 1991. His research interests are in risk

analysis and optimization of systems, processes and structures. He teaches 4th and 5th year

courses at TU Delft and has supervised over 50 MSc students and 10 PhD students. He

conducts research on new methods and techniques in risk analysis. van Gelder has authored

and co-authored more than 290 journal papers, and several books in the field of risk and

safety. He is the project leader in several ongoing national and EU research projects, namely

iNteg-Risk (Large scale EU integrated project on integrated risk management in industrial

systems), SMARTEST (Smart Resilience Technology, Systems and Tools) and MATRIX (New

multi-hazard and multi-risk assessment methods for Europe). Van Gelder is a member of

Technical Programme Boards and a scientific committee member of annual international

conferences such as the ESREL and IPW (International Probabilistic Workshop) series. He is co-

editor and reviewer of several journals, i.e. RESS (Reliability Engineering and System Safety)

and AJSE (Arabian Journal of Science and Engineering). van Gelder is also a coordinator and

member of the curriculum committee of the Technical Module of the post-academic course on public safety at Delft Toptech.

PLENARY SPEAKER 2

PROF. DR. PRIYAN MENDIS

Professor of Department of Infrastructure, Engineering

Member of the Melbourne Energy Institute (MEI),

Built Environment Research Group,

The University of Melbourne.

Engineering Challenges in Safe and Sustainable Tall Buildings

BIOGRAPHY

Prof. Dr. Priyan Mendis has a distinguished and internationally recognized track record for

research in tall buildings, behaviour of concrete structures under extreme loading and

sustainability aspects of build environment as evidenced by publishing several books and book

chapters, more than 100 journal papers and 200 conference papers. He is a leading member

of the Melbourne Energy Institute (MEI) Built Environment research group and currently

leading the infrastructure node. He obtained his PhD from Monash University in 1987. He

worked as a Structural Engineer at Connell Wagner Ltd in Melbourne before joining the

University of Melbourne in 1991. He has been an expert consultant for design of high-rise

structures in Australia and overseas (Malaysia, Dubai etc), including tallest buildings in the

world. He is an expert in design of structures for dynamic effects such as wind and earthquakes

and also other effects such as blast and fire. He has also led the CTBUH (World Council of

Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat) sub-committee of use of high-performance

concrete in tall buildings and is a member of the Performance-based design and progressive

collapse committees. Prof. Mendis has also served as the Chair of ACI International Sub-

Committee on High-Strength Concrete between 1996 and 2001. He was the chairman of the

working group nominated to revise the Australian Concrete Standard, AS3600 to include High-

strength Concrete (HSC) up to 100 MPa and a key member of the AS3600 code committee for

more than 20 years. His current research includes sustainable infrastructure, protective technology of structures as well as disaster mitigation and management.

Table of Contents

Foreword, Committee, Reviewers and Speakers

Chapter 1: Environmental and Water Resources Engineering

Air Quality Profile in an Enclosed Car ParkN.I. Mohammed, N. Othman and K.B. Baharuddin 3

Comparison of Soil Water Retention Functions for Humid Tropical SoilsN.M. Babangida, M. Askari, K.W. Yusof and R.U.M. Muhammad 8

Courtyard as a Microclimatic Modifier Experimental Study on Actual SiteA. Abdulbasit, I. Norhati, S.S. Ahmad and W.M.N.W. Salleh 14

Determination of Adsorption Capacity of Agricultural-Based Carbon for Ni (II) Adsorptionfrom Aqueous SolutionT. Khan, M.H. Isa, M. Chaudhuri, R.U.M. Muhammad and M.O. Saeed 20

Effect of Low Pressure on Irrigation Uniformity of Solid Set Sprinkler Irrigation SystemM. Osman, S. Bin Hassan and K.W. Yusof 26

Effect of Rainfall and Groundwater Level on Sandy Beach ProfileA.K.A. Wahab, N. Othman, M.H. Jamal and S.R. Samat 32

Effects of Groundwater Withdrawal on the Interaction of Ex-Mining Pond, River, andAquiferR. May, I. Yusoff and W. Tahir 38

Electrochemical Disintegration of Activated Sludge Using Ti/RuO2 AnodeG.C. Heng and M.H. Isa 44

Environmental Screening Method for Dredging in Contaminated RiverN. Manap and N. Voulvoulis 50

Experimental Investigation on the Performance of Four Types of Solar Stills in MalaysiaA. Riahi, K.W. Yusof, M.H. Isa, B.S.M. Singh, A. Malakahmad and N.B. Sapari 56

Feasibility of Alum Sludge as Phosphate RemovalM.Z. Nazirul, C.K. Hua and L.M. Sidek 62

Floating Treatment Wetland as an Alternative for Water Quality Improvement: APreliminary StudyM.N. Nur Asmaliza, M.S. Lariyah, K.H. Kok, H.S. Humaira and B. Hidayah 68

Investigation of Modified Mangrove Bark on the Sorption of Oil in WaterA. Robabeh, N.B. Sapari, M.H. Isa and K.U. Orji 74

Kinetic Study of PAHs Degradation in Produced Water Using Ti/RuO2 AnodeA. Yaqub, M.H. Isa, S.R.b.M. Kutty and H. Ajab 80

Langat River Basin Hydrologic Model Using Integrated GIS and ArcSWAT InterfaceM.F. Ali, N.F.A. Rahman, K. Khalid and N.D. Liem 86

Modeling of Contaminant Transport and Groundwater Flow of Tamangapa Landfill inMakassar IndonesiaHajrah, A. Arsyad and A. Zubair 92

Optimization of Activated Sludge Physical Properties by Magnetic Field via ResponseSurface ModelingZ. Nur Syamimi, K. Muda, J. Sohaili and M. Sillanpää 98

POME Treatment Efficacy as Affected by Carrier Material Size in Micro-BioreactorSystemW.L. Liew, K. Muda, M.A. Kassim, K.Y. Lai, Z.Y. Si, Y.H. Thong and S.K. Loh 104

Possible Stabilization of Sludge from Groundwater Treatment Plant Using ElectrokineticMethodS.B.S. Osman and F. Iqbal 110

Post-Treatment of Anaerobically Digested Palm Oil Mill Effluent by Polymeric Flocculant-Assisted CoagulationA. Malakahmad, S.Y. Chuan and M. Eisakhani 116

b Structural, Environmental, Coastal and Offshore Engineering

Prediction of Suspended Sediments in a Hyper – Concentrated River Using NeuralNetworksR.U.M. Muhammad, A.S.A. Bakar, M.H. Isa and K.W. Yusof 122

Preliminary Investigation and Design Considerations for the Rehabilitation of Trash Screenat Jor Reservoir Low Level OutletL. Jansen, L.M. Sidek and P.Y. Julien 128

Response of Partially Covered Road Embankments and its Environmental ImpactK.W. Yusof, S.M.H. Shah, M.B. Zahiraniza and A.M. Hashim 133

Survival of Pseudomonas putida for Biodiesel Blend (B5) in Soil BioremediationN.M. Sunar, Q.A. Emparan, A.T.A. Karim, S.F.M. Noor and M. Maslan 139

The Art of Integrated GIS/AHP for Siting Landfill: A ReviewM.O. Saeed, H.A. Aziz and K.A.M. Azizli 144

The Effects of Feedstock Sources and Pyrolytic Temperature on Biochars SorptiveCharacteristicsS. Yavari, A. Malakahmad and N.B. Sapari 150

The Impact of Stormwater Runoff on Nutrient Removal in Sand ColumnsT. Husna, A.G. Aminuddin and Z. Nor Azazi 155

The Performance of Trapezoidal Glass Cover Solar still during Monsoon Period of TropicalEnvironmentN.B. Sapari, N.A. Mohd Ahmadan, A. Riahi and K.U. Orji 161

Treatment of Wastewater Using an Integrated Submerged Attached Growth SystemE.H. Ezechi, S.R.b.M. Kutty, M.H. Isa and A.F.A. Rahim 167

Volatile Fatty Acids Production through Degradation of Biomass by Anaerobic Digestion(Mesophilic and Thermophilic)A.F.A. Rahim, S.R.M. Kutty and E.H. Ezechi 172

Water Quality Assessment of Ex-Mining Lakes in Perak, Malaysia as Alternative Source ofWater SupplyK.U. Orji, N.B. Sapari, K.W. Yusof, A. Robabeh and E. Olisa 177

Determination of Soil Polluted with Kerosene Using Electromagnetic CellH. Al-Mattarneh, M. Dahim, R. Ismail and M.F. Nurudinn 183

Chapter 2: Coastal and Offshore Engineering

A Study on the Structural Failure Mechanism and Reserve Strength Ratio of TarponMonopodsL.H. Eik and M.S. Liew 191

A Study on Mooring Systems of an Offshore Floating Platform for Different ConfigurationsA. Yenduri, M.O. Ahmed and J.V. Kurian 197

Behaviour of Mooring Systems for Different Line PretensionsM.O. Ahmed, A. Yenduri and J.V. Kurian 204

Broadside Vessel Collision Forces for Conventional Riser-GuardD.K. Palaniandy, Z.I. Syed, M.S. Liew and S. Karuppanan 210

Computational Aspects of Submarine Slide Generated TsunamiV.N.P. Huan and I.S.H. Harahap 216

Development of Platform Selection Tool for Offshore Decommissioning in MalaysiaN.A.W.A. Zawawi, N.K. Lun and M.S. Liew 222

Dynamic Response of Free-Span Sub-Sea Pipelines under Vortex Induced VibrationsS. Charanvarma and A.P. Shashikala 228

Dynamic Responses of Classic Spar Platform: Short Crested Waves vs. Long CrestedWavesC.Y. Ng, J.V. Kurian and M.S. Liew 235

Effect of Anodes on Hydrodynamic Coefficients of Tubular Cylinders - Model TestsJ.V. Kurian, A.M. Al-Yacouby, A.A. Sebastian, M.S. Liew and V.G. Idichandy 241

Effects of Marine Growth on Hydrodynamic Coefficients of Rigid Tubular CylindersA.M. Al-Yacouby, J.V. Kurian, A.A. Sebastian, M.S. Liew and V.G. Idichandy 247

Finite Element Assessment of Difficult Pipelines at BendsZ. Mustaffa, T.M.B. Albarody and A.M. Roshdi 253

Applied Mechanics and Materials Vol. 567 c

Hydrodynamic Forces on Linear and Multi-Dimensional Arrays of Circular CylindersA.A. Sebastian, J.V. Kurian, A.M. Al-Yacouby, M.S. Liew and V.G. Idichandy 259

Investigation of Vortex Induced Vibration of Offshore Pipelines near SeabedF. Namazi-Saleh, J.V. Kurian and M.B. Zahiraniza 265

Multivariate Regression Analysis for Screening Process of Reliability AssessmentJ.V. Kurian, M.C. Voon, M.M.A. Wahab, N.A. Iskandar and M.S. Liew 271

Performance of Mangrove Forests in Coastal ProtectionA.M. Hashim and N. Khairuddin 277

Reliability Assessment Model for Aging Jacket Structures in Malaysian WatersJ.V. Kurian, S.S. Goh, M.M.A. Wahab and M.S. Liew 283

Resonant Motion of Liquid Confined between Floating StructuresN.V. Nasma Noor and A.P. Shashikala 289

Response of Monopod Platform under Extreme Wave in Malaysian WaterM.A.B. Jamaluddin, M.S. Liew and J.V. Kurian 295

Seabed Condition from Single Beam Echo Sounder from Penang Port, MalaysiaW.T. Yew, W.H. Lam, C. Soon and R. Aziz 301

System Reliability of Existing Jacket Platform in Malaysian Water (Failure Path andSystem Reliability Index)J.V. Kurian, M.M.A. Wahab, T.S. Kheang and M.S. Liew 307

Wave Attenuation of Interlocking Concrete Unit - V (ICU-V)A.M. Hashim, N.D.M. Noor and S.N.H. Abdullah 313

Wave Transmission over a Submerged Porous Breakwater an Experimental StudyH.M. Teh 319

Deformation Monitoring of Offshore Platform Using the Persistent ScattererInterferometry TechniqueA.N. Matori, A.S. Ab Latip, I.S.H. Harahap and D. Perissin 325

Chapter 3: Structures and Materials

A Novel Method for Monitoring Hydration Process of Cement Paste MaterialH. Al-Mattarneh, A. Alwadie, A. Malkawi and M.F. Nurudinn 333

An Experimental Study on the Effects of Biaxial Bending due to Eccentric Load on RCBeamN. Shafiq, M. Imran and I. Akbar 339

Analytical Prediction of the Mechanical Properties of High Performance PVA FiberReinforced ConcreteT. Ayub, N. Shafiq and M.F. Nurudinn 345

Behaviour of Oil Palm Shell Reinforced Concrete Beams Added with Kenaf FibresS.M. Syed Mohsin, S.J. Azimi and A. Namdar 351

Characterization of Stand Chopped Basalt Fiber Self – Compacting Reinforced Concrete(SCB-SCC)N. Shafiq, M.F. Nuruddin, A.F.M. Salih and A.E.A. Elshekh 356

Drying Shrinkage of Fly Ash-Based Self-Compacting Geopolymer ConcreteM.F. Nuruddin, F.A. Memon, N. Shafiq and S. Demie 362

Durability of Sugar Cane Bagasse Ash (SCBA) Concrete towards Chloride Ion PenetrationN. Shafiq, A.A. Elhsameed and M.F. Nurudinn 369

Effect of Calcined Kaolin on the Mechanical Properties of High-Strength Concrete asCement Replacing MaterialM.F. Nurudinn, S.U. Khan and N. Shafiq 375

Effect of Chopped Basalt Fiber on the Fresh and Hardened Properties of Fly Ash HighStrength ConcreteN. Shafiq, M.F. Nuruddin, A.E.A. Elshekh and A.F.M. Salih 381

Effect of Flexural Static Load on the Strength of GFRP GratingsA. Izzuddin and I. Akbar 387

Effect of MIRHA and Fly Ash in Ductile Self-Compacting Concrete on Abrasion andImpact PerformanceM.F. Nuruddin, N.M. Azmee and K.Y. Chang 393

d Structural, Environmental, Coastal and Offshore Engineering

Effective Method of Repairing RC Beam Using Externally Bonded Steel PlateM.A. Alam, A.S.A. Jabbar, M.Z. Jumaat and K.N. Mustapha 399

Effects of Geopolymer Concrete Fly Ash Based on Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR)M.F. Nurudinn and A.R. Siti Nooriza 405

Flexural Behaviour of Concrete Beams Bonded with Wire Mesh-Epoxy CompositeI.M.I. Qeshta, P. Shafigh, M.Z. Jumaat, A.I. Abdulla, U.J. Alengaram and Z. Ibrahim 411

Interrelationship Analysis of Geopolymer Components Using Pearson CorrelationTechniqueA. Kusbiantoro, N. Rahman and N.F. Shahedan 417

Low Energy Compaction of Aggregate Packing MechanismY.G. Suliman, N. Madzlan, I. Kamaruddin and J.A. Olufemi 422

Mechanical Properties of Engineered Cementitious Composites MixtureB.S. Mohammed, M.H. Baharun, M.F. Nurudinn, O.P.D. Erikol and N.A. Murshed 428

Microwave Incinerated Rice Husk Ash (MIRHA) and Used Engine Oil (UEO): TowardsSustainable Concrete ProductionN.L. Mohd Kamal, S. Beddu, M.F. Nurudinn, N. Shafiq and Z.C. Muda 434

Numerical Investigation of the Response of Protective Barrier under Blast LoadingK.S. Ying, A.M. Remennikov and B. Uy 440

POFA: A Potential Partial Cement Replacement Material in Oil Palm Shell LightweightAggregate ConcreteK. Muthusamy and Z. Nur Azzimah 446

Precast Concrete Sheetpile for the Stabilization of Road Embankment on Soft GroundAdjacent to RiverN. Fadilah, C.Y. Ong and K.K. Choong 451

Precast Concrete Soldier Pile System with Corrugated Section Post for RiverbankProtectionN. Akmilah, C.Y. Ong and C.K. Keong 457

Prediction of Failure Loads of RC Dapped-End BeamsM. Aswin, Z.I. Syed, T. Wee and M.S. Liew 463

Prediction the Shear Strength for FRP Shear Strengthened RC Beams Based on OptimisedTruss ModelsH. Yin and T. Wee 469

Predictive Stress-Strain Models for High Strength Concrete Subjected to UniaxialCompressionN. Shafiq, T. Ayub and M.F. Nurudinn 476

Prospect of Adopting Kapok Fibre as Roof InsulationM.F. Nurudinn, N.H.A. Puad, K.A.M. Azizli, S.A. Farhan and A. Zainal 482

Rehabilitation of RC Structures Exposed to Salinity and Moisture Using CFRPH. Fazli and T. Wee 488

Shear Capacity of RC Beams with Web Openings Strengthened with Multi Layers of CFRPB.S. Mohammed and O. Alanni 494

Single-Degree-of-Freedom Based Pressure-Impulse Diagrams for Blast Damage AssessmentZ.I. Syed, M.S. Liew, M.H. Hasan and S. Venkatesan 499

Strength Development of Concrete Incorporating Metakaolin and PVA FibresS.U. Khan, M.F. Nurudinn and N. Shafiq 505

Strengthening Schemes for Flexure and Torsion Using FRP Laminates: A State of ArtReviewM. Imran, N. Shafiq and I. Akbar 511

Tension Stiffening Analysis for Cyclically Loaded RC BeamsA.A. Bin Shukri and M.Z. Jumaat 517

The Effect of MIRHA and Fly Ash on Mechanical Strength and Chloride Penetration Depthof DSCCM.F. Nurudinn, K.Y. Chang and N.M. Azmee 522

The Effect of Palm Oil Fuel Ash as a Cementreplacement Material on Self-CompactingConcreteB. Alsubari, P. Shafigh, M.Z. Jumaat and U.J. Alengaram 529

The Laminated Composite Thermosetting PipeT.M.B. Albarody and M.B. Zahiraniza 535

Applied Mechanics and Materials Vol. 567 e

The Utilization of Rice Husks Powder as an Antioxidant in Asphalt BinderM.H. Nahi, I.B. Kamaruddin and N. Madzlan 539

Unconfined Compressive Strength Performance of Cement Stabilized Peat with Rice HuskAsh as a PozzolanL.S. Wong 545

Chapter 4: Construction and Project Management

A Field Study of Mould Growth for Institute Higher Education Library Buildings inMalaysiaN.A.W. Suriani, N.I. Mohammed, M.K. Faris and N. Jamaludin 553

Challenges for Implementation of Building Information Modeling (BIM) in MalaysianConstruction IndustryS.S.S. Gardezi, N. Shafiq, M.F. Nurudinn, S.A. Farhan and U.A. Umar 559

Embodied Carbon of Buildings: Tools, Methods and StrategiesS.A. Farhan, N. Shafiq, K.A.M. Azizli, U.A. Umar and S.S.S. Gardezi 565

Evaluation of Multi Storey Structures in MalaysiaN.S. Potty and M.R.A. Hamid 571

Evaluation of Roofing Systems in Malaysia Based on MS 1553 BS 6399, EC1-1-4 and IS 875Wind CodesK. Seavhai and S.P. Narayanan 577

Implementation of Dam Safety Management Program in Malaysia: From Theory toPracticeM.S. Lariyah, B. Hidayah, S. Thiruchelvam, S.M. Rahsidi, A.R. Azwin Zailti and A. Zuraidah 583

Major Challenges to the Sustainable Operations of Construction Equipment in MalaysiaM. Waris, M.S. Liew, M.K. Faris and I. Arazi 589

Number of Bidders in Small and Medium Public Construction Procurement in MalaysiaM.A. Azman 595

Private Finance Initiatives (PFI): Getting it RightA.A. Umar, N.A.W.A. Zawawi, A.G. Otairu and I. Othman 601

Resource Management in Construction ProjectI. Othman, M. Napiah and N.S. Potty 607

Risk Ranking of Malaysian Public Private Partnership ProjectsH. Sarvari, A. Valipour, N. Yahaya and M.N. Norhazilan 613

Service and Construction Sector of Malaysia: Causality Link (1991-2013)R.A. Khan, M.S. Liew and Z. Bin Ghazali 619

The Development of Building Information Modeling (BIM) DefinitionA.L. Aryani, J. Brahim and M.S. Fathi 625

The Effects of Orientations on the Room's Thermal Performance in the TropicsL.P. Chung, M.H. Ahmad, D.R. Ossen, M.B. Hamid and M. Baharvand 631

The Importance of Lightweight Concrete Technology Development for IBS Industry inMalaysia Based on Cost Comparison between Concrete Slab and Hollow Core Slab: A CaseStudy of LRT Car Park ProjectM.Z. Ramli, H.M. Mahayudin, G. Hayder, Z.M. Hafiz, M. Daud and A.M. Salleh 637

The Performance Measurement of Supply Chain Management (SCM) in MalaysianInfrastructure ProjectM.R.A. Wahab and H. Ahmad 642

Research on HGV Collisions with Concrete Bridge PiersT. Wee, H. Yin, M. Maharun, K. Saravanan, M.S. Liew, A.R. Salleh and T.C. Wong 648

Analytic Network Process Approach to Risk Allocation of EPC Projects Case Study: GasRefinery EPC Projects in IranA. Valipour, H. Sarvari, N. Yahaya, M.N. Norhazilan and S.M. Khoshnava 654

Chapter 5: Building, Highway, Geotechnical, TransportationEngineering and Geoinformatics

f Structural, Environmental, Coastal and Offshore Engineering

A Review on the Factors Influencing the Park-and-Ride Traffic Management MethodI.A. Memon, N. Madzlan, M.A.H. Talpur, M.R. Hakro and I.A. Chandio 663

Assessing UAV Landslide Mapping Using Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) for LandslideMapping ActivityM.R.M. Mokhtar, A.N. Matori, K.W. Yusof, A.M. Embong and M.I. Jamaludin 669

Assessment on Bearing Capacity of Two Clay Layers Soil Using COMSOLM. Md Nujid and M.R. Taha 675

Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundation's Prediction through Hybrid Artificial NeuralNetworksA. Marto, M. Hajihassani and E. Momeni 681

Comparison of Seismic Performance between Single and Double Unit Tunnel FormBuilding under In-Plane Lateral Cyclic LoadingS.A. Anuar and N.H.A. Hamid 687

Development Spectral Library of Vegetation Stress for Hydrocarbon SeepageM.I. Jamaludin, A.N. Matori, M.F. Kholik and M.M. Mokhtar 693

Distribution of Stress on Stone Column-Reinforced Soft Soil under Cylindrical StorageTankK. Deb and A.K. Das 699

Effect of Soil Depth on the Quantification of Soil Moisture Content Value Estimated fromNOAA Satellite ImagesA.A. Hassaballa, A.N. Matori and H.Z.M. Shafri 705

Erosion Assessment of Slope Failure Tragedies; A Case Study in MalaysiaM.F. Ali, M.A. Makatar, K. Khalid and N.F.A. Rahman 711

Flood Disaster Forecasting: A GIS-Based Group Analytic Hierarchy Process ApproachA.N. Matori and D.U. Lawal 717

Generation, Propagation, Run-Up and Impact of Landslide Triggered Tsunami: ALiterature ReviewI.S.H. Harahap and V.N.P. Huan 724

Human Error Causes in Slope Engineering PracticesS. Qasim, I.S.H. Harahap, S. Baharom and M. Imran 730

Measuring Driver’s Percent-Time-Spent-Following Using a Moving Video RecordingTechniqueN.I. Muttaka and O. Bin Chepuan 736

Modeling Pedestrian Behavior in Rail Transit TerminalA.R. Zanariah, M. Mustafa, Y. Ashaari and A.F.M. Sadullah 742

Statistical Analysis of Dynamic Bearing Capacity of Driven PileA. Arsyad, Suyadi and L. Samang 749

The Use of Bitumen Linear Viscoelastic Properties to Assess Rutting SensitivityS.E. Zoorob, I.B. Kamaruddin and N. Madzlan 755

Time-Space Geography: A Creditable Transport Accessibility Measure for Rural DwellersM.A.H. Talpur, N. Madzlan, A. Irfan, I.A. Chandio and S. Hussain 763

Application of Geographic Information System (GIS) and Analytic Network Process (ANP)for Sustainable Tourism Planning in Cameron Highlands, MalaysiaM. Aminu, A.N. Matori, K.W. Yusof and R.B. Zainol 769

CHAPTER 1:

Environmental and Water Resources Engineering

AIR QUALITY PROFILE IN AN ENCLOSED CAR PARK

Nurul Izma Mohammeda, Nurfadhilah Othmanb, Khairul Bariyah Baharuddinc

Department of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Bandar Seri Iskandar, 31750

Tronoh, Perak, MALAYSIA.

[email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Keywords: air pollution, emission, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide

Abstract

Complaints on poor air quality in an enclosed car park have been raised up among the public, which

might cause serious health effects to the drivers, passengers, and labours who are working at the

premises. Improper design of mechanical ventilation systems in a car park would result in a poor

indoor environment. The exhaust emission of motor vehicle contains a variety of potentially

harmful substances encompassing carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide,

hydrocarbons, and fine particulates. In Kuala Lumpur, there is a great demand but a short supply of

lands and building spaces. Thus, a large multi-storey underground car parks is a common solution

for both, the government and developers. Although the health effects of the motor vehicle emissions

and ambient air pollution are already known, but due to the nature of enclosed multi-storey car

parks, these health risks are predicted to be intensified. Thus, it is crucial to investigate and evaluate

the status of the air pollution in the enclosed car parks with emphasis on sulphur dioxide (SO2) and

nitrogen dioxides (NO2). Samples were collected in one of the famous shopping malls in Kuala

Lumpur using a GrayWolf Advanced Sense Direct Sense; Toxic Gas Test Meters from 8 am until 5

pm on weekdays and weekends. The results demonstrate that the concentrations of SO2 and NO2 on

weekends is higher than weekdays. Besides, the concentrations for both weekdays and weekends

have exceeded the standard limit set by the Malaysian Ambient Air Quality Guideline (MAAQG).

Introduction

In a metropolis such as Kuala Lumpur, there is a great demand but a short supply of lands and

building spaces. This results in very high prices and expensive rents for commercial, industrial, and

residential properties. Commercial and industrial buildings are almost invariably high-rise and

densely populated. The trapping of an affluent and industrious society includes a relatively large

vehicle population for the usable land area [1]. There is a huge demand for an off-street parking. A

large multi-storey underground car parks is a common solution for both the government and

developers [2]. However, a concern regarding the underground car parks is the health implications

to thee users and personnels manning the car parks. Although the health effects of the motor vehicle

emissions and ambient air pollution are already known, but due to the nature of enclosed multi-

storey car parks, these health risks are predicted to be intensified [2]. This has becoming a main

issue as there is a possibility of the augmented cumulitive effects and also due to the employees and

subcontractors working in security, maintenance, and other various services may be subjected to

work in these environments for a substantial period of time. The exhaust emission of the motor

vehicle contains a variety of potentially harmful substances including carbon monoxide, oxides of

nitrogen, sulphur dioxide, hydrocarbons, and fine particulates, which are discharged into the

atmosphere [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. Under poor ventilation conditions, the level of these contaminants will

raise, posing hazards to human health.

Applied Mechanics and Materials Vol. 567 (2014) pp 3-7© (2014) Trans Tech Publications, Switzerlanddoi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.567.3

The city of Kuala Lumpur has many underground car parks which are located in hotels,

shopping complexes, and private residential buildings. Although many studies have been carried out

to determine the state of the air pollution in the city, only a few have examined the level of air

pollutants in an enclosed car park [8]. Kuala Lumpur city centre is one of the national vertexes,

located in Kuala Lumpur. Every day, it caters high number of locals, tourists, and workers. As a

capital city, it is imperative to have a good image of a sustainable management in all aspects,

including the car parks. Emissions from mobile sources have been a major contributor of air

pollution in Malaysia, contributing to at least 70 % to 75 % of total air pollution [9, 10]. Thus, it is

crucial to investigate and evaluate the status of air pollution in enclosed car parks with emphasis on

nitrogen dioxides (NO2) and sulphur dioxide (SO2).

Materials and Methods

Study area. Kuala Lumpur is a capital city of Malaysia, where the KLCC; the tallest twin tower in

the world is located [11]. Every year, Kuala Lumpur is visited by thousands of visitors from all over

the world. In order to accommodate the demand for car park, two types of parking; indoor and open

parkings, have been built in many of the shopping malls in Kuala Lumpur. However, this research

was focusing only on an enclosed car park, in one of the famous shopping malls in Kuala Lumpur.

Air pollutants. The air pollutants that were considered in this research were nitrogen dioxide and

sulphur dioxide. The samples of the air pollution were collected for every one (1) minute interval

from 0800 hour to 1700 hour. The data collected was tabulated for an hourly average by using

Microsoft Excel. The sampling took place in the same location everyday so that the pattern of the

air pollutants concentration is comparable. The sampling result is focusing on weekdays and

weekends.

Measurement Methods of Air Pollutants. The air pollutants sample were collected by using a

GrayWolf Advanced Sense Direct Sense; Toxic Gas Test Meters, as shown in Fig. 1. It provides a

descriptive name for every files using a virtual keyboard. The air pollutants samples were recorded

as a snap-shot data captures, or as trend logs over time. It can also be documented by using a Data

Analysis and Generation software provided by GrayWolf.

Fig 1: GrayWolf Advanced Sense Direct Sense; Toxic Gas Test Meters

Data analysis. The samples of the air pollutants were analysed by using a time series model. Time series is a sequence of data points, measured typically at successive points in time spaced at uniform

time intervals. By using the time series model, the trend of NO2 and SO2 concentrations at the site

with the variation of time can be observed.

4 Structural, Environmental, Coastal and Offshore Engineering

Results and Discussions

Concentration of SO2. Fig. 2 represents the trend of SO2 concentration on weekday and weekend.

Fig. 2: SO2 Concentrations on Weekdays and Weekends

Fig. 2 demonstrates that SO2 concentration was higher during weekends than weekdays for

the entire day. SO2 concentration was recorded highest in the evening with 0.4 ppm for both times

of sampling. It also illustrates that the fluctuation pattern of SO2 among weekdays and weekends are

different. The lowest fluctuation concentration for weekdays was 0.1 ppm while for weekend it was

0.2 ppm. Based on Fig. 2, most of the SO2 concentrations for both sampling days exceeded the

standard limit of Malaysian Ambient Air Quality Guideline (MAAQG), which is 0.13 ppm (an

average time of 1 hour) and 0.04 ppm (an average time of 24 hour).

From Fig. 2, the fluctuation peak of SO2 concentrations during weekdays were recorded at

0900, 1200, and 1600. In Malaysia, most companies begin work and have lunch between 0800 to

0900 and 1200 to 1300, respectively. The end of working time varies but normally, it was

implemented at 1600 to 1700 every day. Thus, the daily routines of workers are parallel with the

findings in Fig. 2. SO2 is a highly reactive gas and is produced from the combustion of high sulfur

containing fuels [7]. Therefore, SO2 concentrations will be higher during the peak time where there

are a lot of vehicles movements.

During weekends, the peak fluctuation of SO2 concentration was recorded at 0900, 1100,

1300, 1400, 1500, and 1600 (Fig. 2) and the trend was different from the weekdays sampling

period. According to Fig. 2, SO2 concentration increased from 0800 to 1600 and began to decrease

after that. Based on the SO2 concentration in Fig. 2, it represents the trend of people coming to the

shopping mall.

MAAQG standard limit

Applied Mechanics and Materials Vol. 567 5

Concentration of NO2. Fig. 3 represents the trend of NO2 concentration on weekdays and

weekends.

Fig. 3: NO2 Concentration on Weekdays and Weekends

In Fig. 3, the concentration of NO2 was recored highest in the morning and started to

decrease until it reached 0 ppm at 1600 hour for weekdays sampling day. The highest reading of

NO2 recorded was 0.38 ppm. This value has exceeded the standard limit of Malaysian Ambient Air

Quality Guideline (MAAQG), which is 0.17 ppm (an average time of 1 hour) and 0.04 ppm (an

average time of 8 hour). Based on the study, a huge amount of vehicles were passing through the

road that is connected to the highway during the weekdays. This might be a factor for the high NO2

concentration documented.

During weekdays, the numbers of vehicles are higher during the peak hours (0800 to 0900,

1200 to 1300, and 1600 to 1700). However, the results in Fig. 3 illustrate that the highest

concentration was recorded in the morning despite of other peak hour times. This was most

probably due to the reaction of the NO2 and the UV light in the car park that produced secondary

pollutants, ozone, for the whole sampling day [12]. This result followed the trends of NO2 reported

by Ghazali et al., (2009).

On weekends, the recorded NO2 concentration showed a different pattern when compared to

the weekdays [Fig. 3]. The number of vehicles entering the car parks on weekends was not relying

on the peak time, which were high for most of the time and increasing since morning. These results

agree with the finding in Fig. 2. Due to the continuous emission of NO2 from vehicles, the

photochemical reaction of NO2 cannot be seen clearly. Thus, a study on the relationship between

NO2 and ozone in an enclosed area needs to be conducted in the future for a better understanding.

Conclusions

The results conclude that the concentration of NO2 and SO2 exceeded the standard limit set by

MAAQGS. The concentrations of SO2 were higher at the peak times (morning, lunch hour, evening)

on weekdays and this is parallel with the workers daily routines. On weekends, the concentration of

SO2 represents the trend of people coming to the shopping mall. NO2 concentration was recorded

higher in the morning on weekdays and decreased through out the day due to the photochemical

reaction. However, due to the continuous emission of NO2 from vehicles on weekends, the

photochemical reaction of NO2 cannot be seen clearly. Thus, a study on the relationship between

NO2 and ozone in enclosed area needs to be conducted in the future for a better understanding.

MAAQG standard limit


References

[1] Department of Statistics, Malaysia. (2010). Basic Population Characteristic by Administrative

Districs.

[2] Burnett, J. & Chan, M.Y. (1997). Criteria for Air Quality in Enclosed Car Parks, Proc. Instn

Civ. Engrs, Transp., 123, 102- 110.

[3] Hough, A. M., & Derwent, R. G. (1990). Changes in the global concentration of tropospheric

ozone due to human activities. Nature, 344(6267), 645-648.

[4] Pani, B. (2007). Textbook of environmental chemistry. India. IK International Pvt Ltd.

[5] Ramli, N. A., Ghazali, N. A., & Yahaya, A. S. (2010). Diurnal fluctuations of ozone

concentrations and its precursors and prediction of ozone using multiple linear regressions.

Malaysian Journal of Environmental Management, 11(2), 57-69.

[6] USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency), (2013). [Online], [Accessed on 5

June 2013].

[7] USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency), (2006). Air quality criteria for ozone

and other photochemical oxidants, Vol. I. EPA-600/R-05/004bF, U. S. Environmental

Protection Agency, U. S. Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office, Research Triangle

Park, N. C.

[8] Yaziz, M.I. & Yen, A.W.P. (1986). A Study of the Air Quality in Underground Car Parks with

Emphasis on Carbon Monoxide and Airborne Lead. Pertanika, 9(2), 193 -199

[9] Afroz, R., Hassan, M. N., & Ibrahim, N. A. (2003). Review of air pollution and health impacts

in Malaysia. Environmental Research, 92(2), 71-77.

[10] Yahaya, N., Ali, A. and Ishak, F. (2006). Air Pollution Index (API) and the Effects on Human

Health: Case Study in Terengganu City, Terengganu, Malaysia. International Association for

People-Environmental Studies (IAPS) Conference, September 2006, Alexandria, Egypt.

[11] Tourism Malaysia portal. (2013). [Online], [Accessed on 5 June 2013].

[12] Ghazali, N. A., Ramli, N. A., Yahaya, A. S., Yusof, N. F., Sansuddin, N., & Madhoun, W. A.

(2009). Transformation of nitrogen dioxide into ozone and prediction of ozone concentrations

using multiple linear regression techniques. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 165,

475- 489.

[13] Bernstein, J. A., Alexis, N., Bacchus, H., Bernstein, I. L., Fritz, P., Horner, E. (2008). The

health effects of nonindustrial indoor air pollution. American Academy of Allergy, Asthma &

Immunology , 4.


Comparison of Soil Water Retention Functions for Humid Tropical Soils

Nuraddeen Muhammad Babangida1,a, Muhammad Askari2,b,*,

Khamaruzaman Wan Yusof1,c and Muhammad Raza-ul Mustafa1,d

1Department of Civil Engineering, University Teknologi Petronas (UTP), Malaysia.

2Institute of Environmental and Water Resources Management, University Teknologi Malaysia (UTM).

[email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

*Corresponding Author. Tel.: 07-5531536

Keywords: Soil water retention functions; Soil water retention curve; Humid tropical soils.

Abstract. The determination of soil hydraulic properties is of paramount importance as they are

needed in many models of water and solute transport in soils, however conventional methods are

quite difficult, expensive and sometimes cumbersome to use. Most studies of soil water retention

functions are for temperate soils and their soil water retention curve (SWRC) cannot be extrapolated

to tropical region, as such this study focused solemnly on SWRC of soils of tropical region

(Malaysia and Indonesia to be specific). The analytical models of Brooks & Corey, van Genuchten

and Kosugi were applied to model the SWRC for humid tropical soils, parameters of the three

models were optimised by fitting them to 191 soil samples, of 10 different classes (International

society of soil science classification) using VBA & MS excel solver add in. A comparison of the

fitting capabilities and model quality was made using the sum of square of errors (SSQE) between

observed and modelled values and, Akaike information criterion (AIC) respectively. The Kosugi

model was found to describe the SWRC of the tropical soil samples better than the other models, as

it has the lowest SSQE and AIC values.

Introduction

The numerical modelling of water and solute transport through the unsaturated (vadose) zone is

of significant importance at present, especially due to the growing number of pollutants percolating

through the vadose zone and ultimately ending up in the groundwater. While several laboratory and

field methods exist for measurement of hydraulic properties of soils (which are needed for studies

of groundwater movement), they mostly require precise, cumbersome and time consuming

procedures. In any numerical model that simulates transport in the vadose zone two important

properties have been identified, viz the soil water retention curve (SWRC) and unsaturated

hydraulic conductivity [1- 4].

The soil water retention curve is a hydraulic property of a given soil; it describes the relationship

between the soil’s matric potential (the words pore-water pressure, suction and matric potential are

interchangeably used throughout this study) and its moisture content. Probably the easiest way to

determine this property is by the use of either pedotransfer functions (PTF); which use soils readily

measurable hydraulic properties to predict the moisture content at any given suction, or by the use

of closed form analytical expressions. There are a number of analytical expressions used for

unimodal soils, these include those of Brooks and Corey [5] , van Genuchten [6] and Kosugi [7]

referred here in as B&C, VG and KG model respectively, and they are the subject of study.

Soils of the humid tropical region are known to exhibit different water characteristics from those

of temperate regions. Humid tropical soils are highly weathered, due to the high amounts of rainfall


which essentially leaches out the nutrients out of the soils, thus it lacks the amount of organic matter

and mineral riches that may be found in soils of other regions with lower amount of rainfall. An

analysis of databases of soils of temperate region and that of soils of the tropics reveals significant

differences in clay content, moisture content at the same pore water pressure, bulk density and

cation exchange capacity [8]. Significant differences between PTF developed for tropical and that

of the temperate soils have been reported [8-11]. It is thus apparent that fitting an analytical SWRC

function to certain soil will give a local result, just like conventional measurement techniques, only

that the function may be applicable to wider area depending on the range of soil data used for

developing the function. Consequently functions developed for soil of one region are not applicable

outside the location from which they were developed from [1, 8]. comparative study of performance

of 10 SWRC analytical functions applied to temperate soils reveals the van Genuchten (1980) as the

best model [12].

There is little study that uses tropical humid soils to determine their SWRC. Van den Berg [13]

was the first to predict a PTF for ferrasols and similar related soils using exclusively soil from the

tropical regions of South America, Africa and South East Asia, other studies like [9], [14] and [15]

followed suit. [8] Highlighted that there’s a large insufficient measurement of soil properties in the

topics. It is thus apparent that the study is lacking. Therefore the main objective of this study is to

develop and compare some analytical soil water retention functions for soils of the humid tropical

region.

Theory

The empirically derived, four parameter power function of B&C (Eq. 1) even though old, still

remains one of the most widely used expression in the field of unsaturated soil hydrology.

θ = θ + θ − θ . (1)

θ is volumetric water content, θs is saturated water content, also referred as porosity in some

cases, but in truth this is generally known to be less than porosity due to entrapped air in the voids.

It is typically between 5%-10% less than porosity [16]. θr is residual water content, hB is a

dimensionless number that represents the air entry value, λ is the pore-size distribution index, and, h

is suction.

Van Genuchten [6] proposes another empirically driven closed form equation (refer Eq.2) with

four independent parameters θs, θr, α and n. In van Genuchten equation, m may be taken as equal

to 1-1/n (as the VG retention model was a combination of an empirical power law and the Mualem

model) or as a free independent parameter.

θ = θ + θ − θ 1 + |αh| . (2)

α is the inverse of the air-entry value, parameter n is dimensionless parameter indicating the pore

size distribution index, m is dimensionless curve-shape parameter and as independent parameter, it

yields better results; this is well documented by [17]. However with limited data it is recommended

to use m as dependent variable [16].

Kosugi [7] came up with a theoretically derived model by assuming that the soil pore radius are

log-normally distributed, and is given by Eq. 3.

θ = θ + θ − θ . Q . (3)

Where σ is a dimensionless parameter which decides the effective saturation at the point of

inflection and hm is related to the capillary pressure at the inflection point.


Q is a complementary normal distribution function given by Eq.4

Q x = √ e dt . (4)

Methods

Data. The data for this study was obtained from two different studies. The first dataset was data

from Indonesia (Flores, Kotawaringan Barat, Samarinda, Katai and Dan Gorontalo regions)

extracted from [18] and constitutes the bulk of the data used in the study; totally there were 165 data

samples. The second set of the data, was extracted from analytical results of a detailed survey (of

Puchong farm of Universiti Pertanian Malaysia) in Selangor conducted by [19]. The extracted data

consist of 26 data sets, making a total of 191 data sets. All the data consist of soil moisture content,

measured at suction of approximately pF 0, pF 1, pF 2, pF 2.52 and pF 4.2 (pF is the 10-logarithmic

value of the water column in cm). The data was then classified into 10 different soil textures

according to the international society of soil science classification (ISSS).

Parameter Optimisation. The fitting parameters of the retention function were optimised using

visual basic application (VBA) for excel and solver add-in function. The excel solver add-in uses

the generalised reduced gradient method (GRGM) for solving non-linear problems. The method has

a reputation for robustness compared with other non-linear optimisation methods [20].

Variety of error functions are available for use in optimisation problems (as to define agreement

between the model and the observed value) a study of six error functions showed that the sum of

square of errors (SSQR) given by eq.5 provide better fit for most soil textural classes [21].

= ∑ − . (5)

Where N is number of observations; is observed value and is model value.

To evaluate the three models, the sum of square of errors (SSQE) (since it is to be used for

model evaluation in the optimisation stage) and the Akaike information criterion (AIC) given by

eq.6 for each model were computed. The AIC, is an index used to determine the most competitive

model amongst several others, lower values indicate better competency or rather, better model

quality [22].

AIC = M log 2π + log + 1 + P (6)

M is number of data points and, P is number of parameters to be optimised for the model in

question.

For any particular retention function the parameters were fitted against the five retention data

points. To prevent convergence to local minima, the parameters were initialised based on literature,

where satisfactory results were not obtained a trial and error was used for the range of the parameter

values until satisfactory result were obtained.

Results and Discussion

To clearly identify the model behaviour, a plot of SWRC (using average values of optimised

model parameters) for randomly selected samples is shown in Fig.1. Generally all the models

showed good fitting except at residual moisture content, this clearly indicates some of the

limitations of these models. For clayey soils the KG model shows good fit everywhere including

residual moisture content, the B&C and VG functions give fairly good fit too, except at high suction

where they tend to overestimate the moisture content.


Figure 1. Observed and model fitted SWRC of some randomly selected samples: (a; Puchong

sample and b; Indonesian sample)

In silty soils similar observation was made, only the KG function fits well at high suction. For

Sands however all three models seem to overestimate the residual moisture content. The KG also

underestimates the moisture content near inflexion for some soils in all the classes; this seems to be

the case mostly for samples having high moisture content at saturation level. The B&C indicated

better fitting around the inflexion point, since the B&C can describe very well, soils with distinct air

entry values probably due to the air entry value description parameter incorporated in the model

Base on average values of the fitting (with SSQE as measure of goodness of fit), the KG

indicates better fit among the models, as it recorded lowest values of SSQE, (see Table 1). In fact

the SSQE was nil (correct to 4 decimals) for over 60 % of the datasets, with highest value of only

0.0006 cm3 cm

-3 for silty clay loam. The KG model also has the lowest AIC values indicating best

model quality or suitability (as far the given data is concerned) amongst the three models.

Table 1. Average value of SSQE and AIC for the different soil samples

Clay

loam

Heavy

clay

Light

clay Loam Sand

Sandy

clay

Sandy

clay

loam

Sandy

loam

Silty

clay

Silty

clay

loam

VG SSQE 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 0.0007 0.0005 0.0003 0.0004 0.0006 0.0006 0.0014

AIC -5.85 -6.16 -5.87 -5.29 -5.84 -7.05 -6.46 -5.62 -5.67 -3.85

B&C SSQE 0.0006 0.0006 0.0008 0.0011 0.0012 0.0006 0.0006 0.0010 0.0008 0.0013

AIC -7.42 -7.40 -6.98 -6.10 -6.04 -7.51 -7.64 -6.48 -6.98 -5.76

KG SSQE 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0004 0.0004 0.0002 0.0002 0.0003 0.0002 0.0006

AIC -9.46 -9.61 -9.68 -8.52 -8.55 -10.48 -10.31 -8.91 -9.89 -7.50

The theoretically derived log normal KG function describes well, the soil pore structure as many

porous media are log normally distributed, in the case of humid tropical soils they have been quite

leached out by relatively excessive rainfall thus, have increased pores, this is why the KG function

gives better fitting.

Log (Matric potential [cm H2O])

Mo

istu

re c

on

ten

t [c

m3 c

m-3

]

Observed

van Genuchten

Brooks & Corey

Kosugi

Heavy clay

(a) (b)

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 40

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1

Log (Matric potential [cm H2O])

Mo

istu

re c

on

ten

t [c

m3 c

m-3

]

Observed

van Genuchten

Brooks & Corey

Kosugi

Light clay

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 40

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1


Conclusion

The parameters of water retention models of B&C, VG and KG models have been obtained for

soil of tropical region. With only five data points (residual and saturated moisture contents

inclusive) the functions have proved to be very handy, successfully fitting the water retention curve

of the soils with some good results. Good plots of SWRC were obtained using average values of the

optimised parameters of each soil class, however the models were not so good in fitting the SWRC

to moisture content levels at very high suction. A comparison of the three models showed the KG

model as a better descriptor of SWRC of tropical soils.

It is again worth noting that the samples used are those of tropical region and that the superiority

of the lognormal distribution model of KG as demonstrated with tropical samples, may not be better

than the other models when used for temperate soils.

Acknowledgements

The First author gracefully acknowledges the financial support from UTP for Postgraduate

sponsorship. This study was partially supported by the Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia

through UTM Research University Grant (vot number: R.J130000.7722.4D049 &

R.J130000.7322.4B076).

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Courtyard As a Microclimatic Modifier

Experimental Study on Actual Site

Abdulbasit Almhafdy1,a , Norhati Ibrahim2,b, Sabarinah Sh Ahmad3,c,

Wan Mohd. Naim Wan Salleh4,d 1,2,3,4

Faculty of Architecture, Planning and Surveying, University Teknologi MARA

Shah Alam 40450, Selangor, Malaysia

[email protected],

[email protected],

[email protected],

[email protected]

Keywords: Experimental study, courtyard, design variants, microclimate performance

Abstract. An experimental study of two different forms of courtyards has been conducted in an

existing hospital building, in the tropics. The experiments involved three design variants, namely

form, size, and orientation. Three weather stations were used in three different courtyards, O- and

U-forms and the third one was located in the outdoor area as benchmark. The courtyard, as a

microclimatic modifier, has the ability to improve the thermal and the visual condition within the

semi-outdoor area. Therefore, four physical environments variables, namely air temperature,

humidity, solar intensity and wind were investigated and analyzed as these variables have not

previously been studied in a single experiment of courtyard. The aim of this paper is to measure and

examine the differences of thermal and visual performance in the courtyards during daytime. The

results showed that form, wind orientation and number of floors had a significant effect on the

microclimate and visual performance of the courtyard. Forms, orientation and number of floors are

the key design variants that show a significant effect in the U-form courtyard.

Introduction

Courtyard is often an enclosed area surrounded by a building or wall and open to the sky [1]. It

was originated from the ancient architecture of the Arabs and early Europe as well as other ancient

civilizations. The history of good courtyard design renders it difficult for the generation of new

ideas for courtyard design [2, 3].

Through the ages, this basic form of the courtyard has been modified to fulfill various

environmental aspects such as geography, site restriction, building orientation and function to create

new formal and modern form of courtyard such as U, L, T or Y [4]. Hence, courtyards can be semi-

closed (three or two sided), and the orientation of the semi-closed courtyard is crucial as it could

have significant effects as a microclimate modifier in some climate [5, 6].

Many studies have proven that courtyards are climate responsive [7]. Courtyard can be affected

by form [8], size[9] and orientation[10]. Thus, this experiment attempts to study the thermal and

visual performance of selected courtyards. The study was carried out through a comparative analysis

of thermal and visual performance in two types of the courtyard through on-site measurements of

the microclimate with varied parameters such as form, size and orientation,

Selection of courtyards

Malaysia has a tropical hot and humid climate. Serdang Hospital is a government-funded multi-specialty hospital located in the district of Sepang in the state of Selangor, Malaysia. It is situated in 101° 43' 12.07"E longitude and 2° 58' 37.38"N latitude. Out of 7 courtyards in Serdang hospital, 2 different forms are selected and investigated simultaneously during daytime along with another outdoor area as benchmark. The selection of the case study building was based on the following criteria:


Courtyards Configuration. Among all government hospitals in Malaysia, Serdang hospital is the

only one that has many different types of courtyards. (Fig. 1, and Table 1). However, in this

experiment, two different forms of courtyards were selected for this investigation.

Fig. 1. The O and U-forms of courtyards and the outdoor area in Serdang Hospital

Table 1 : Courtyard forms and design variants

Form Area (m²)

Configuration No. of floors Opening

side

O-form 381 Fully closed and has a square form

North : 3 South : 7 East : 5 West : 3

-

U-form 893 Three sided and has a rectangular form

North : 5 South : 0 East : 4 West : 3

South

Orientation and exposure. The following are further details of the fully enclosed and semi enclosed courtyards:

The O-form courtyard: Fig. 2, is a square shape and fully closed by walls. In this case, the significance will be on the size as well as the exposure rather than the orientation. As seen in Table 1, the courtyard is sided by 3 levels of floors from North & South, 5 levels from E and 7 levels from the South.

U-form courtyard: Fig. 3, is three sided, and the opening side is oriented to the South. The courtyard is a rectangle and has a different number of floors in the three sides as shown in Table 1.

The third weather station is located in the outdoor area (roof garden) within the hospital. This weather station is used as a benchmark.

Fig. 3. The U-form courtyard Fig. 2. The O-form courtyard


Accessibility and cooperation. The hospital management has allowed the data collection during working hours between 10.00h and 18.00h. AutoCAD drawings of the hospital were provided by the Engineering department.

Data collection

This experimental study was carried out to investigate the existing conditions of microclimate performance of various forms of courtyards by analysing the effects of form, size and orientation on the microclimate. Three sets of weather stations have been used in this experiment. These weather stations were calibrated one day before the actual experiment in order to ensure the accuracy of data.

A continuous measurement was undertaken at the three locations. A weather station is located in the O-form and U-form of courtyards each. The benchmark weather station was located in the outdoor area (roof garden) within the hospital, during working hours between 10:30h and 17.30h on Tuesday, 23rd October 2012. The data logger weather station named PortLog (Fig. 4) was placed within the central part of each courtyard. The parameters were measured at 15 minutes intervals and recorded continuously at 1.1m above the ground corresponding to the average height of the centre of gravity for adults. At the end of the measurement period, the logged data was exported to Microsoft Excel 2010 spreadsheet for analysis.

Fig. 4. Weather Station

Moreover, a visual observation was also conducted, by the experiment team and hospital staff,

during data collection as they could be used in the data analysis stage.

Findings

As mentioned before, two configurations of courtyards in term of form, size and orientation have been taken into consideration in order to observe the microclimate performance. Four physical factors are discussed in the following sections in order to analyze the most and least effected among the courtyards based in the actual condition. The net effect of the courtyard configuration design on thermal and visual performance would depend on the courtyard form, exposure and orientation.

Air temperature and humidity. The O-form is fully closed and has no natural ventilation at all

while the U-form is surrounded by 3 walls and opened to the south side that allowed more natural

ventilation. The results in Fig. 5 show that the O-form courtyard has more obvious effect on

increasing air temperature than the U-form.


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