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Composite Material
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Structural Composite Material
Submitted By Albert Halder
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Introduction A typical composite material is a system of materials composing of two or more
materials (mixed and bonded) on a macroscopic scale. For example, concrete is
made up of cement, sand, stones, and water. If the composition occurs on a
microscopic scale (molecular level), the new material is then called an alloy for
metals or a polymer for plastics.
Generally, a composite material is composed of reinforcement (fibers, particles,
flakes, and/or fillers) embedded in a matrix (polymers, metals, or seramics). The
matrix holds the reinforcement to form the desired shape while the
reinforcement improves the overall mechanical properties of the matrix. When
designed properly, the new combined material exhibits better strength than
would each individual material.
The numerous features of composite materials have led to the widespread
adoption and use through many different industries. It is because of these unique
features of composites that people benefit. Below are some of the most
important features of composites, and the benefits they provide
Composites are incredibly lightweight, especially in comparison to materials like
concrete, metal, and wood. Often a composite structure will weigh 1/4 that of a
steel structure with the same strength. That means, a car made from composites
can weigh 1/4 that of a car made from steel. This equates to serious fuel savings.
The advantages demonstrated by composites, in addition to high stiffness, high
strength, and low density, include corrosion resistance, long fatigue lives,
tailorable properties (including thermal expansion, critical to satellite structures),
and the ability to form complex shapes. (This advantage was demonstrated in the
ability to create “low observable,” or stealth, structures for military systems.) An
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example of recent OMC application is the next-generation U.S. tactical fighter
aircraft, the F-22. Over 24% of the F-22 structure is OMCs. The B-2 bomber,
shown in Fig. 2, is constructed using an even higher percentage of composites, as
are current helicopter and vertical lift designs. For example, the tiltrotor V-22
Osprey is over 41% composite materials. The upper-use temperature of PMCs has
also increased dramatically: early epoxies were considered useable (for extended
periods) up to 121°C (250°F).
Current generation polymers, such as bismaleimides, have increased that limit to
around 204°C (400°F), and the use of polyimide- matrix composites has extended
the range to 288°C (550°F). Once considered premium materials only to be used if
their high costs could be justified by increased performance, OMCs can now often
“buy their way onto” new applications. This is due not only to a dramatic drop in
materials costs, but also in advances in the ability to fabricate large, complex
parts requiring far less hand labor to manually assemble. A recent example of this
is the addition of large composite structures in the tail and landing gear pods on
the C-17 cargo aircraft. Clearly, the applications, technology, confidence, and
other considerations of high-performance OMCs have expanded dramatically
since the 1980s. Perhaps the most dramatic example of this is the growing use of
high-performance OMCs in the commodity market of infrastructure.
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COMPOSITE MATERIAL
Composite materials (also called composition materials or shortened to
composites) are materials made from two or more constituent materials with
significantly different physical or chemical properties, that when combined,
produce a material with characteristics different from the individual components.
The individual components remain separate and distinct within the finished
structure. The new material may be preferred for many reasons: common
examples include materials which are stronger, lighter or less expensive when
compared to traditional materials.
A composite material is made by combining two or more materials – often ones
that have very different properties. The two materials work together to give the
composite unique properties. However, within the composite you can easily tell
the different materials apart as they do notdissolve or blend into each other.
A composite material can be defined as a combination of two or more materials
that results in better properties than those of the individual components used
alone. In contrast to metallic alloys, each material retains its separate chemical,
physical, and mechanical properties.
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Fig: Composite Material
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Natural composites exist in both animals and plants. Wood is a composite – it is
made from long cellulose fibres (a polymer) held together by a much weaker
substance called lignin. Cellulose is also found in cotton, but without the lignin to
bind it together it is much weaker. The two weak substances – lignin and cellulose
– together form a much stronger one.
The bone in your body is also a composite. It is made from a hard but brittle
material called hydroxyapatite (which is mainly calcium phosphate) and a soft and
flexible material called collagen (which is a protein). Collagen is also found in hair
and finger nails. On its own it would not be much use in the skeleton but it can
combine with hydroxyapatite to give bone the properties that are needed to
support the body.
People have been making composites for many thousands of years. One early
example is mud bricks. Mud can be dried out into a brick shape to give a building
material. It is strong if you try to squash it (it has good compressive strength) but
it breaks quite easily if you try to bend it (it has poor tensile strength). Straw
seems very strong if you try to stretch it, but you can crumple it up easily. By
mixing mud and straw together it is possible to make bricks that are resistant to
both squeezing and tearing and make excellent building blocks.
Another ancient composite is concrete. Concrete is a mix of aggregate (small
stones or gravel), cement and sand. It has good compressive strength (it resists
squashing). In more recent times it has been found that adding metal rods or
wires to the concrete can increase its tensile (bending) strength. Concrete
containing such rods or wires is called reinforced concrete.
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.
Typical engineered composite materials include:
Composite building materials such as cements, concrete
Reinforced plastics such as fiber-reinforced polymer
Metal Composites
Ceramic Composites (composite ceramic and metal matrices)
Modern examples :
The first modern composite material was fibreglass. It is still widely used today for
boat hulls, sports equipment, building panels and many car bodies. The matrix is a
plastic and the reinforcement is glass that has been made into fine threads and
often woven into a sort of cloth.
On its own the glass is very strong but brittle and it will break if bent sharply. The
plastic matrix holds the glass fibres together and also protects them from damage
by sharing out the forces acting on them.
Some advanced composites are now made using carbon fibres instead of glass.
These materials are lighter and stronger than fibreglass but more expensive to
produce. They are used in aircraft structures and expensive sports equipment
such as golf clubs.
Carbon nanotubes have also been used successfully to make new composites.
These are even lighter and stronger than composites made with ordinary carbon
fibres but they are still extremely expensive. They do, however, offer possibilities
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for making lighter cars and aircraft (which will use less fuel than the heavier
vehicles we have now).
The new Airbus A380, the world’s largest passenger airliner, makes use of modern
composites in its design. More than 20 % of the A380 is made of composite
materials, mainly plastic reinforced with carbon fibres. The design is the first
large-scale use of glass-fibre-reinforced aluminium, a new composite that is 25 %
stronger than conventional airframe aluminium but 20 % lighter.
Why use composites?
The biggest advantage of modern composite materials is that they are light as
well as strong. By choosing an appropriate combination of matrix and
reinforcement material, a new material can be made that exactly meets the
requirements of a particular application. Composites also provide design flexibility
because many of them can be moulded into complex shapes. The downside is
often the cost. Although the resulting product is more efficient, the raw materials
are often expensive.
Composite materials are generally used for buildings, bridges and structures such
as boat hulls, swimming pool panels, race car bodies, shower stalls, bathtubs, and
storage tanks, imitation granite and cultured marble sinks and countertops. The
most advanced examples perform routinely on spacecraft in demanding
environments.
Composite materials are becoming more important in the construction of
aerospace structures. Aircraft parts made from composite materials, such as
fairings, spoilers, and flight controls, were developed during the 1960s for their
weight savings over aluminum parts. New generation large aircraft are designed
with all composite fuselage and wing structures, and the repair of these advanced
composite materials requires an in-depth knowledge of composite structures,
materials, and tooling. The primary advantages of composite materials are their
high strength, relatively low weight, and corrosion resistance.
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Making composites :
Most composites are made of just two materials. One is the matrix or binder. It
surrounds and binds together fibres or fragments of the other material, which is
called the reinforcement.
Manufacturing Methods for Composite Materials:
•Manual Lay-up or Spray-up
•Vacuum Bagging
•Autoclave Processing
•Filament Winding
•Pultrusion
•Matched Die Molding (SMC)
•Resin Transfer Molding
All of these methods are tailored for the specific materials that are being
processed. Polymer chemistryplays an important role in selecting the appropriate
resin for a given fabrication method.
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Composites Processing Summary:
•The processing usually involves a cycle (or multiple cycles) of applied
temperature, pressure, and vacuum.
•Elevated temperature is used to :
–Initiate and sustain chemical reaction in thermosetresins
–Melt thermoplastics
–Reduce viscosity
•Pressure is used to:
–Force the viscous resin-fiber material into a mold.
–Compact a laminate
–Squeeze out voids
•Vacuum is used to help pull out trapped air or other gasses that may
be produced during the chemical reaction.
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Manual Lay-up Methods for Composites:
•Begin with a mold –Apply mold release agent
•Apply a thin layer of catalyzed resin to form a gel coat–Protects from blistering,
stains, weather, etc.
•Apply layer of fabric or mat reinforcing
•Pour, brush, or spray resin onto fiber reinforcement
•Use rollers to spread resin, flatten fibers, squeeze out trapped air
•Repeat for additional reinforcement layers
•Let cure
Fig: Conventional Hand Layup
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Reinforcement:
The reinforcing phase provides the strength and stiffness. In most cases, the
reinforcement is harder, stronger, and stiffer than the matrix. The reinforcement
is usually a fiber or a particulate. Particulate composites have dimensions that are
approximately equal in all directions. They may be spherical, platelets, or any
other regular or irregular geometry. Particulate composites tend to be much
weaker and less stiff than continuousfiber composites, but they are usually much
less expensive. Particulate reinforced composites usually contain less
reinforcement (up to 40 to 50 volume percent) due to processing difficulties and
brittleness.
A fiber has a length that is much greater than its diameter. The length-to-
diameter (l/d) ratio is known as the aspect ratio and can vary greatly. Continuous
fibers have long aspect ratios, while discontinuous fibers have short aspect ratios.
Continuous-fiber composites normally have a preferred orientation, while
discontinuous fibers generally have a random orientation. Examples of continuous
reinforcements include unidirectional, woven cloth, and helical winding (Fig.
1.1a), while examples of discontinuous reinforcements are chopped fibers and
random mat (Fig. 1.1b). Continuous-fiber composites are often made into
laminates by stacking single sheets of continuous fibers in different orientations
to obtain the desired strength and stiffness properties with fiber volumes as high
as 60 to 70 percent. Fibers produce high-strength composites because of their
small diameter; they contain far fewer defects (normally surface defects)
compared to the material produced in bulk. As a general rule, the smaller the
diameter of the fiber, the higher its strength, but often the cost increases as the
diameter becomes smaller. In addition, smaller-diameter high-strength fibers
have greater flexibility and are more amenable to fabrication processes such as
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weaving or forming over radii. Typical fibers include glass, aramid, and carbon,
which may be continuous or discontinuous.
The principal purpose of the reinforcement is to provide superior levels of
strength and stiffness to the composite. In a continuous fiber-reinforced
composite, the fibers provide virtually all of the strength and stiffness. Even in
particle reinforced composites, significant improvements are obtained. For
example, the addition of 20% SiC to 6061 aluminum provides an increase in
strength of over 50% and an increase in stiffness of over 40%. As mentioned
earlier, typical reinforcing materials (graphite, glass, SiC, alumina) may also
provide thermal and electrical conductivity, controlled thermal expansion, and
wear resistance in addition to structural properties.
Matrix :
The continuous phase is the matrix, which is a polymer, metal, or ceramic.
Polymers have low strength and stiffness, metals have intermediate strength and
stiffness but high ductility, and ceramics have high strength and stiffness but are
brittle. The matrix (continuous phase) performs several critical functions,
including maintaining the fibers in the proper orientation and spacing and
protecting them from abrasion and the environment. In polymer and metal matrix
composites that form a strong bond between the fiber and the matrix, the matrix
transmits loads from the matrix to the fibers through shear loading at the
interface. In ceramic matrix composites, the objective is often to increase the
toughness rather than the strength and stiffness; therefore, a low interfacial
strength bond is desirable.
The type and quantity of the reinforcement determine the final properties. Figure
1.2 shows that the highest strength and modulus are obtained with continuous-
fiber composites. There is a practical limit of about 70 volume percent
reinforcement that can be added to form a composite. At higher percentages,
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there is too little matrix to support the fibers effectively. The theoretical strength
of discontinuous-fiber composites can approach that of continuous-fiber
composites if their aspect ratios are great enough and they are aligned, but it is
difficult in practice to maintain good alignment with discontinuous fibers.
Discontinuous-fiber composites are normally somewhat random in alignment,
which dramatically reduces their strength and modulus. However, discontinuous-
fiber composites are generally much less costly than continuous-fiber composites.
Therefore, continuous-fiber composites are used where higher strength and
stiffness are required (but at a higher cost), and discontinuous-fiber composites
are used where cost is the main driver and strength and stiffness are less
important.
The purpose of the matrix is to bind the reinforcements together by virtue of its
cohesive and adhesive characteristics, to transfer load to and between
reinforcements, and to protect the reinforcements from environments and
handling. The matrix also provides a solid form to the composite, which aids
handling during manufacture and is typically required in a finished part. This is
particularly necessary in discontinuously reinforced composites, because the
reinforcements are not of sufficient length to provide a handleable form. Because
the reinforcements are typically stronger and stiffer, the matrix is often the “weak
link” in the composite, from a structural perspective. As a continuous phase, the
matrix therefore controls the transverse properties, inter laminar strength, and
elevated-temperature strength of the composite. However, the matrix allows the
strength of the reinforcements to be used to their full potential by providing
effective load transfer from external forces to the reinforcement. The matrix
holds reinforcing fibers in the proper orientation and position so that they can
carry the intended loads and distributes the loads more or less evenly among the
reinforcements. Further, the matrix provides a vital inelastic response so that
stress concentrations are reduced dramatically and internal stresses are
redistributed from broken reinforcements. In organic matrices, this inelastic
response is often obtained by micro cracking; in metals, plastic deformation yields
the needed compliance. Debonding, often properly considered as an interfacial
phenomenon, is an important mechanism that adds to load redistribution and
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blunting of stress concentrations. A broad overview of important matrices is
provided subsequently.
Classification Of Composite Material:
● The First level is based on Matrix phase:
The matrix is the monolithic material into which the reinforcement is embedded,
and is completely continuous. This means that there is a path through the matrix
to any point in the material, unlike two materials sandwiched together. In
structural applications, the matrix is usually a lighter metal such as aluminum,
magnesium, or titanium, and provides a compliant support for the reinforcement.
In high temperature applications, cobalt and cobalt-nickel alloy matrices are
common.
The composite materials are commonly classified based on matrix constituent.
The major composite classes include Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs), Metal
Matrix Composites (MMCs) and Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs). The term
organic matrix composite is generally assumed to include two classes of
composites, namely Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) and carbon matrix
composites commonly referred to as carbon-carbon composites.
These three types of matrixes produce three common types of composites.
» Polymer matrix composites (PMCs), of which GRP is the best-known example,
use ceramic fibers in a plastic matrix.
» Metal-matrix composites (MMCs) typically use silicon carbide fibers embedded
in a matrix made from an alloy of aluminum and magnesium, but other matrix
materials such as titanium, copper, and iron are increasingly being used. Typical
applications of MMCs include bicycles, golf clubs, and missile guidance systems;
an MMC made from silicon-carbide fibers in a titanium matrix is currently being
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developed for use as the skin (fuselage material) of the US National Aerospace
Plane.
» Ceramic-matrix composites (CMCs) are the third major type and examples
include silicon carbide fibers fixed in a matrix made from a borosilicate glass. The
ceramic matrix makes them particularly suitable for use in lightweight, high-
temperature components, such as parts for airplane jet engines
● The second level of classification refers to the reinforcement form which
include:
-Particle Reinforced
-Fiber Reinforced
-Structural
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Structural Composites also classified into two sub group namely
» Laminates
» Sandwitch Panels
There are also more other Classification :
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Fibre Reinforced Composites:
Technologically, the most important composites are those in which the dispersed phase is in the form of a fiber . Design goals of fiber-reinforced composites often include hig strength and stiffness on a weight basis. These characteristics are expressed in terms of specific strength and specific modulus parameters, which correspond, respectively, to the ratios of tensile strength to specific gravity and modulus of elasticity to specific gravity. Fiber-reinforced composites with exceptionally high specific strengths and modulli have been produced that utilize low density fiber and matrix materials.
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A fiber-reinforced composite (FRC) is a composite building material that consists of three components: (i) the fibers as the discontinuous or dispersed phase, (ii) the matrix as the continuous phase, and (iii) the fine interphase region, also known as the interface. This is a type of advanced composite group, which makes use of rice husk, rice hull, and plastic as ingredients. This technology involves a method of refining, blending, and compounding natural fibers from cellulosic waste streams to form a high-strength fiber composite material in a polymer matrix. The designated waste or base raw materials used in this instance are those of waste thermoplastics and various categories of cellulosic waste including rice husk and saw dust.
FRC is high-performance fiber composite achieved and made possible by
cross-linking cellulosic fiber molecules with resins in the FRC material matrix through a proprietary molecular re-engineering process, yielding a product of exceptional structural properties.
Through this feat of molecular re-engineering selected physical and structural properties of wood are successfully cloned and vested in the FRC product, in
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addition to other critical attributes to yield performance properties superior to contemporary wood.
This material, unlike other composites, can be recycled up to 20 times, allowing scrap FRC to be reused again and again.
The failure mechanisms in FRC materials include delamination, intralaminar matrix cracking, longitudinal matrix splitting, fiber/matrix debonding, fiber pull-out, and fiber fracture.
Fiber-reinforced composites are subclassified by fiber length.For short fiber,
the fibers are too short to produce a significant improvement in strength. Fibre Reinforced Composites are composed of fibres embedded in matrix
material. Such a composite is considered to be a discontinuous fibre or short fibre composite if its properties vary with fibre length. On the other hand, when the length of the fibre is such that any further increase in length does not further increase, the elastic modulus of the composite, the composite is considered to be continuous fibre reinforced. Fibres are small in diameter and when pushed axially, they bend easily although they have very good tensile properties. These fibres must be supported to keep individual fibres from bending and buckling.
Fig: Fiber Composite
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Application: There are also applications in the market, which utilize only waste materials. Its
most widespread use is in outdoor deck floors, but it is also used for railings, fences, landscaping timbers, cladding and siding, park benches, molding and trim, window and door frames, and indoor furniture. See for example the work of Waste for Life, which collaborates with garbage scavenging cooperatives to create fiber-reinforced building materials and domestic problems from the waste their members collect
Particle reinforced Composite:
Particle Reinforced Composites are composed of particles distributed or embedded in a matrobody. The particles may be flakes or in powder form Concrete and wood particle boards are examples of this category.
Composites refer to a material consisting of two or more individual constituents. The reinforcing constituent is embedded in a matrix to form the composite. One form of composites is particulate reinforced composites with concrete being a good example. The aggregate of coarse rock or gravel is embedded in a matrix of cement. The aggregate provides stiffness and strength while the cement acts as the binder to hold the structure together.
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There are many different forms of particulate composites. The particulates can be very small particles (< 0.25 microns), chopped fibers (such as glass), platelets, hollow spheres, or new materials such as bucky balls or carbon nano-tubes. In each case, the particulates provide desirable material properties and the matrix acts as binding medium necessary for structural applications.
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Particulate composites offer several advantages. They provide reinforcement to the matrix material thereby strengthening the material. The combination of reinforcement and matrix can provide for very specific material properties. For example, the inclusion of conductive reinforcements in a plastic can produce plastics that are somewhat conductive. Particulate composites can often use more traditional manufacturing methods such as injection molding which reduces cost.
Large-particle and Dispersion-Strenghened Composites are the two subclassification of particle–reinforced composites. The distinction between these is based upon reinforcement composites. The term “large” is used to indicate that particle-matrix interactions cannot be treated on the atomic or molecular level ; rather, continuum mechanics is used. For most of these composites, the particulate phase is harder and stiffer than the matrix. These reinforcing particles tend to restrain movement of the matrix phase in the vicinity of each particle. In essence, the matrix transfers some of the applied stress to the particles, which bear a fraction of the load. The degree of Reinforcement or improvement of mechanical behavior depends on strong bonding at the matrix-particle interface.
For dispersion-strengthened composites, particles are normally much smaller, with diameters between 0.01 and 0.1 µm (10 and 100nm). Particle-matrix interaction that lead to strengthening occur on the atomic or molecular level. The mechanism that lead to strengthening occur on the atomic or molecular level. The mechanism of strengthening is similar to that for precipitation hardening . Whereas the matrix bears the major portion of an applied load, the small dispersed particles hinder or impede the motion of dislocations. Thus, plastic deformation is restricted such that yield and tensile strengths, as well as hardness, improve.
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Fig: Particulate composite
Application:
The most common particulate composite materials are reinforced plastics which are used in a variety of industries.
Automotive Glass reinforced plastics are used in many automotive applications including body panels, bumpers, dashboards, and intake manifolds. Brakes are made of particulate composite composed of carbon or ceramics particulates.
Consumer Products Many of the plastic components we use in daily life are reinforced in some
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way. Appliances, toys, electrical products, computer housings, cell phone casings, office furniture, helmets, etc. are made from particulate reinforced plastics.
Structural Composite:
A Structural Composite is normally composed of both homogeneous and composite materials, the properties of which depend not only on the properties of constituent materials but also on the geometrical design of the various structural elements. Laminar composites and sandwitch panels are two of the most common structural composites; only a relatively superficial examination is offered here for them.
Fig: Structural Composite
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A laminar composite is composed of two-dimensional sheets or panels that
have a preferred high-strength direction such as is found in wood and
continuous and aligned fiber-reinforced plastics. The layers are stacked and
subsequently cemented together such that the orientation of the high-
strength direction varies with each successive layer. For example, adjacent
wood sheets in plywood areallinged with the grain direction at right angles to
each other. Laminations may also be constructed using fabric material such as
cotton,paper,or woven glass fibers embedded in a plastic matrix. Thus a
laminar composite has relatively high strength in a number of directions in the
two-dimensional plane; however, the strength in any given direction is, of
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course, lower than it would be if all the fibers were oriented in that direction.
One example of a relatively complex laminated structure is the modern ski.
The response of a particulate composite can be either anisotropic or
orthotropic.
Such composites are used for many applications in which strength is not a
significant
component of the design. A schematic of several types of particulate
composites
is shown in Figure:
Fig: Schematic representation of Laminate composites
In materials science, Composite laminates are assemblies of layers of fibrous
composite materials which can be joined to provide required engineering
properties, including in-plane stiffness, bending stiffness, strength, and
coefficient of thermal expansion.
Laminate. A laminate is a stack of lamina, as illustrated in Figure 1.6, oriented
in a specific manner to achieve a desired result. Individual lamina are bonded
together by a curing procedure that depends on the material system used. The
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mechanical response of a laminate is different from that of the individual
lamina that form it.
The laminate’s response depends on the properties of each lamina, as well as
the order in which the lamina are stacked.
Fig: Schematic of a laminuted composite.
The individual layers consist of high-modulus, high-strength fibers in a
polymeric, metallic, or ceramic matrix material. Typical fibers used include
graphite, glass, boron, and silicon carbide, and some matrix materials are
epoxies, polyimides, aluminium, titanium, and alumina.
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Fig: Laminated Sheet
Layers of different materials may be used, resulting in a hybrid laminate. The
individual layers generally are orthotropic (that is, with principal properties in
orthogonal directions) or transversely isotropic (with isotropic properties in
the transverse plane) with the laminate then exhibiting anisotropic (with
variable direction of principal properties), orthotropic, or quasi-isotropic
properties. Quasi-isotropic laminates exhibit isotropic (that is, independent of
direction) inplane response but are not restricted to isotropic out-of-plane
(bending) response. Depending upon the stacking sequence of the individual
layers, the laminate may exhibit coupling between inplane and out-of-plane
response. An example of bending-stretching coupling is the presence of
curvature developing as a result of in-plane loading.
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Fig: Lamina and Laminate
Lamina. A lamina is a flat (or sometimes curved) arrangement of unidirectional
(or woven) fibers suspended in a matrix material. A lamina is generally
assumed to be orthotropic, and its thickness depends on the material from
which it is made.
For example, a graphite/epoxy (graphite fibers suspended in an epoxy matrix)
lamina may be on the order of 0.005 in (0.127 mm) thick. For the purpose of
analysis, a lamina is typically modeled as having one layer of fibers through the
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thickness. This is only a model and not a true representation of fiber
arrangement.
Both unidirectional and woven lamina are schematically shown in Figure:
Hybrid Laminates :
Interply hybrid laminates
Intraply hybrid laminates
Interply-intraply laminates
Resin hybrid laminates
Composite laminates may be regarded as a type of plate[disambiguation needed] or thin-shell structure, and as such their stiffness properties may be found by integration of in-plane stress in the direction normal to the laminates surface. The broad majority of ply or lamina materials obey Hooke's law and hence all of their stresses and strains may be related by a system of linear equations. Laminates are assumed to deform by developing three strains of the mid-plane/surface and three changes in curvature.
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A sandwich-structured composite is a special class of composite materials that is fabricated by attaching two thin but stiff skins to a lightweight but thick core. The core material is normally low strength material, but its higher thickness provides the sandwich composite with high bending stiffness with overall low density.
Open- and closed-cell-structured foams like polyvinylchloride, polyurethane,
polyethylene or polystyrene foams, balsa wood, syntactic foams, and honeycombs are commonly used core materials. Open- and closed-cell metal foam can also be used as core materials.
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Fig: Sandwitch Panel Composite
Laminates of glass or carbon fiber-reinforced thermoplastics or mainly thermoset polymers (unsaturated polyesters, epoxies...) are widely used as skin materials. Sheet metal is also used as skin material in some cases.
The core is bonded to the skins with an adhesive or with metal components by
brazing together.
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A summary of the important developments in sandwich structures is given below.
230 BC Archimedes describes the laws of levers and a way to calculate
density. 25 BC Vitruvius reports about the efficient use of materials in Roman truss
roof structures. 1493 Leonardo da Vinci discovers the neutral axis and load-deflection
relations in three-point bending. 1570 Palladio presents truss beam constructions with diagonal beams to
prevent shear deformations. 1638 Galileo Galilei describes the efficiency of tubes versus solid rods. 1652 Wendelin Schildknecht reports about sandwich beam structures with
curved wooden beam reinforcements. 1726 Jacob Leupold documents tubular bridges with compression-loaded
roofs. 1786 Victor Louis uses iron sandwich beams in the galleries of the Palais-
Royal in Paris. 1802 Jean-Baptiste Rondelet analyses and documents the sandwich effect
in a beam with spacers. 1820 Alphonse Duleau discovers and publishes the moment of inertia for
sandwich constructions. 1830 Robert Stephenson builds the Planet locomotive using a sandwich
beam frame made of wood plated with iron
The 1940 de Havilland Mosquito was built with sandwich composites; a balsa-wood core with plywood skins.
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Types of sandwich structures:
Metal composite material (MCM) is a type of sandwich formed from two thin
skins of metal bonded to a plastic core in a continuous process under controlled
pressure, heat, and tension.
Recycled paper is also now being used over a closed-cell recycled kraft
honeycomb core, creating a lightweight, strong, and fully repulpable composite
board. This material is being used for applications including point-of-purchase
displays, bulkheads, recyclable office furniture, exhibition stands, and wall
dividers.
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Fig: Different Types Of Sandwitch Composite
To fix different panels, among other solutions, a transition zone is normally used,
which is a gradual reduction of the core height, until the two fiber skins are in
touch. In this place, the fixation can be made by means of bolts, rivets, or
adhesive.
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Properties of sandwich structures:
The strength of the composite material is dependent largely on two factors:
1. The outer skins: If the sandwich is supported on both sides, and then
stressed by means of a force in the middle of the beam, then the bending
moment will introduce shear forces in the material. The shear forces result in the
bottom skin in tension and the top skin in compression. The core material spaces
these two skins apart. The thicker the core material the stronger the composite.
This principle works in much the same way as an I-beam does.
2. The interface between the core and the skin: Because the shear stresses in
the composite material change rapidly between the core and the skin, the
adhesive layer also sees some degree of shear force. If the adhesive bond
between the two layers is too weak, the most probable result will be
delamination.
Application of sandwich structures:
Sandwich structures can be widely used in sandwich panels, this kinds of panels
can be in different types such as FRP sandwich panel, aluminum composite panel
etc. FRP polyester reinforced composite honeycomb panel (sandwich panel) is
made of polyester reinforced plastic, multi-axial high-strength glass fiber and PP
honeycomb panel in special antiskid tread pattern mold through the process of
constant temperature vacuum adsorption & agglutination and solidification.
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Theory:
Sandwich theory describes the behaviour of a beam, plate, or shell which consists of three layers - two facesheets and one core. The most commonly used sandwich theory is linear and is an extension of first order beam theory. Linear sandwich theory is of importance for the design and analysis of sandwich panels, which are of use in building construction, vehicle construction, airplane construction and
refrigeration engineering.
Honeycomb Usage:
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Materials
Summary—Advantages and Di
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A detailed chemical composition analysis and properties of composite
materials are outlined here. It is also resistant at high temperature. The
environmental impact and future research trend of the existing composite
material use for oilfield applications are presented as guideline. The researchers
should now think how to develop an environment-friendly, sustainable composite
material. The indication of sustainable composite material research is also an
important issue for future research area.
Strong developmental activities focusing primarily on products & processes
need to be pursued in India. Towards such an objective, a multi-agency approach
involving the
industry,Government,academia,researchlaboratory,certification/standardization
and user agencies would be required for a quantum jump in composite
technology in the country.
Thus, the key thrust areas may be summarized as hereunder :
• Short & long term R&D
• Application development
• Fabrication & testing support
• Availability & pricing of raw materials
• Manpower training
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• Technical support services for materials & process selection, process
optimization & design, product quality improvement etc.
• Standardization
Adoptation of automated technologies (such as RTM, pultrusion) along with
proper technical/training support would help achieving the improved quality &
quantity of composite products. The biggest advantage of composite processing is
that unlike with metals, it is not capital intensive and a smaller volume production
can be justified.
"The future is in Structural composites" is the realization of many decades
of high-technology progress toward different materials and parts assembled and
combined as monolithic units that would provide a combination of versatility,
strength and other properties beyond the possibilities of conventional materials
like metal, wood or concrete.
Assessing the importance of structural composites as an advanced
performance material the Advanced Composites Mission programme was
launched by the Department of Science & Technology (DST), Govt. of India. The
Mission-mode activities are being implemented by the Technology Information,
Forecasting & Assessment Council (TIFAC), an autonomous organization under
DST.
The Advanced Structural Composites Mission aims to improve upon the
laboratory-industry linkages towards application development &
commercialization. The Mission has been successful in launching 26 projects
across the country in active collaboration with the industry and national
laboratories.
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The Mission has been catalytic in bridging the knowledge gaps and bringing
together the industries & the users. Such an objective oriented, demand driven
and time bound programme on composite technology with the involvement of
stake holders would go a long way in developing innovative structural composite
applications meeting international quality and wider acceptance thus contributing
to the growth of knowledge-based business in India.
An efficient mechanism such as the Advanced Structural Composites
Mission can help in synergising the users & industry thus reaching the products to
the market with a shorter gestation period.
In India, the indigenous achievements are very scattered compared to the
large geographical area. There is an urgent need to launch very directed,
concerted & planned efforts for developing & demonstrating novel composite
products. This would call for an improved awareness, technology adaptation,
technology sourcing & subsequent transfer etc. all at one place.
While the national centres of excellence in India possess very rich expertise
in Structural composite technology, the knowledge flow to the industry has not
come up to the desired level. It is high time to bring the technology sourcing
avenues and industries together on one platform for technology development,
transfer & subsequent commercialization.
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Reference:
Callister’s Material Science and Engineering
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Chapter 7: Advanced Composite Material – FAA
Composite Materials for Aerospace Structures By Dr. Douglas S.
Cairns, Lysle A. Wood Distinguished Professor
Ashby, M. F. “Technology in the 1990s: Advanced Materials and
Predictive
Design,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London,
A3222. Reinhart, T. J., ed. Engineered Materials Handbook Volume 1,
Composites
LAMINATED COMPOSITE PLATES By David Roylance
Composite Material - Dr. M. Medraj Mech. Eng. Dept. - Concordia
University
THE ADVANTAGES OF COMPOSITE MATERIAL IN MARINE
RENEWABLE ENERGY STRUCTURES By M Mohan, Gurit, UK
Composite materials – RSC Advancing the Chemical Sciences
Structured composite - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia