Stringham, D. a. (2010). Improvisation and Composition in a High School Instrumental Music Curriculum (Doctoral Dissertation, University of Rochester)

7/29/2019 Stringham, D. a. (2010). Improvisation and Composition in a High School Instrumental Music Curriculum (Doctoral

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Improvisation and Composition

in a High School Instrumental Music Curriculum

by

David Andrew Stringham

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

of the

Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Philosophy

Supervised by

Professor Richard F. Grunow

Department of

Music EducationEastman School of Music

University of Rochester

Rochester, New York

2010


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Dedication

To my son, Vaughan Boyd Stringham:

Although my parenting experience is limited, seeing you inside the womb,

hearing your heartbeat for the first time, watching you enter the world, and beginning

to help raise you have been some of the most exciting and rewarding experiences of

my life.

I hope this study, and my future research, will help your generation become

more musical than mine. Most important, I hope you will always know that I love

you, and your mom, unconditionally.


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Curriculum Vitae

David Andrew Stringham was born in Amherst, New York on September 17,

1981. He attended the Eastman School of Music of the University of Rochester from

1999 to 2003, completing a Bachelor of Music in Music Education with Highest

Distinction. Mr. Stringham continued his studies at Eastman, receiving a Master of

Music in Music Education in 2007.

While completing the Master of Music, Mr. Stringham taught instrumental

music at Williamsville North High School in Williamsville, New York. He returned

to Eastman in Fall 2007 to begin doctoral studies in Music Education.

While in residence as a doctoral student, he served as a Graduate Teaching

Assistant for a variety of undergraduate and graduate courses, and he taught

instrumental music at Greece Apollo Middle School in Greece, New York. Mr.

Stringham is a composition evaluator for the New York State School Music

Association, and he presents his research at local, state, and national conferences. In

Fall 2010, Mr. Stringham joined the faculty in the School of Music at James Madison

University in Harrisonburg, VA, where he supervises student teachers and teaches

courses in instrumental methods, woodwind techniques, and music technology.


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Acknowledgments

This document would not have come to fruition without advice and assistance

from many persons. I am grateful to my committee members: Richard Grunow,

Christopher Azzara, and Robert Cole. They helped me grow as a musician, teacher,

researcher, and writer, and spent hours reading, editing, and discussing content in

these pages. The following faculty members in the Music Education Department at

Eastman have challenged and encouraged me throughout my studies: Susan

Conkling, John Fetter, Donna Brink Fox, and Ann Marie Stanley. I extend a special

note of thanks to Elizabeth Bock, Department Secretary. I also wish to acknowledge

the late William Fals-Stewart, who assisted in the early stages of formulating this

study. I am fortunate to have encountered outstanding faculty throughout the

University of Rochester. I hope to be as inspirational and helpful to my students as

these individuals have been to me.

I have interacted with many intelligent, curious, and kind colleagues during

my doctoral work. I am particularly grateful to Gregory Harduk and David Hart for

judging student performances. In addition to serving as a judge, Alden H. Snell II

moderated the focus group. Maria Mastroianni transcribed the focus group session. I

also express thanks to Stephen Shewan, Jo Lynn DeGolia, Wayne Moose, and

Maureen Reilly at Williamsville East High School, and to Linda Cimusz and Anna

Cieri at Williamsville Central School District Offices. Without their cooperation and

that of their students, this study would not have been possible.


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While professors, colleagues, and friends have been invaluable resources, I

would not have been prepared to take advantage of them without my family. My

parents, Rodney and Debra Stringham; my brothers, Stephen and Timothy Stringham;

my late grandfather, Edward Hensel, Sr.; my grandmother, Lola Hagen; and my aunt,

Patricia Rogers all gave time, love, patience, and financial support to facilitate my

early development as a musician and a person. Rita Rider, my "third grandmother,"

and my aunt, Carol Stringham, have provided encouragement throughout my studies.

My uncle, Edward Hensel, Jr., is an excellent role model and source of perspective

from another discipline in higher education. My father-in-law and mother-in-law,

Paul and Elizabeth Mroz, have also helped me throughout this degree in more ways

than I can count.

Most of all, I am thankful for my wife, Monica. You have supported me in

every way possible during my doctoral studies. You have selflessly made many

sacrifices to help me realize my goal of earning this degree. I hope that I will always

show you that far beyond any piece of paper or title, you are the most valuable

treasure I have in this life.


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Abstract

Common practice instrumental music pedagogy prioritizes performance from

music notation. Certainly a worthy pursuit, such an exclusive objective often neglects

other essential musical behaviors, such as singing, improvising, and composing.

Local, state, and national music education policymakers, as well as authorities in the

profession, agree that these behaviors are important. Nevertheless, singing,

improvising, and composing are rarely included in instrumental music curricula.

With the intent of improving music teaching and learning in secondary

instrumental music, the purpose of this mixed methods study was to describe music

achievement and personal perspectives of high school students who learned to

improvise and compose using a sequential music curriculum in a non-auditioned wind

and percussion ensemble. In this study, curriculum emphasized development of

individual musicianship and emerging behaviors for improvisation and composition

(i.e., singing, movement, and playing by ear to learn melodies, bass lines, tonal

patterns, rhythm patterns, and voice leading).

Quantitative measures revealed relationships between music aptitude and

music achievement. Three judges rated student performances. Overall, mean scores

were highest for singing, followed by mean scores for playing and writing music.

Stabilized music aptitude scores were predictive of performance achievement,

improvisation achievement, and composite music achievement; these aptitude scores

were a relatively weak predictor of composition achievement. Several statistically


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significant correlations emerged among musical tasks. Analysis of variance revealed

significant effects for gender and instrument group.

Student perspectives on improvisation and composition were examined in a

focus group comprising eight students who participated in the research. Students in

this focus group found the sequential nature of this curriculum helpful, and reported

success in learning to improvise and compose. Students generally agreed that

learning musical elements by ear was beneficial. Several participants indicated that

the processes of improvising and composing are related.

Recorded class meetings and fieldnotes were examined to describe teaching

and learning of improvisation and composition in this setting. Based on this

examination, it was evident that musicianship, understanding of music teaching and

learning, interaction, making connections, and a positive learning environment are

important when learning to improvise and compose. Singing, moving, performing,

improvising, composing, and analyzing were ongoing elements of the curriculum.

Quantitative and qualitative data presented in this study provide preliminary

evidence to suggest that teaching improvisation and composition in a non-auditioned

secondary wind and percussion ensemble is a practical, meaningful, and musical

objective.


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Table of Contents

Dedication ii

Curriculum Vitae iii

Acknowledgments iv

Abstract vi

Table of Contents viii

List of Tables x

List of Figures xiii

Chapter One Purpose of the Study 1

Chapter Two Related Literature 11

Chapter Three Method of Study 32

Chapter Four Quantitative Results 49

Chapter Five Qualitative Results 70

Chapter Six Summary and Conclusions 96

References 116

Appendix A Advanced Measures of Music 137Audiation Answer Sheet

Appendix B Developing Musicianship through 138Improvisation Unit for Amazing Grace

Appendix C Judges' Instructions and Rating Scales 155

Appendix D Student Improvisations and Compositions 210

Appendix E Moderator's Guide 219

Appendix F Focus Group Transcript 220


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Appendix G Student Survey 257

Appendix H Documentation of EPRP Number 258

Appendix I Letter of Cooperation 259

Appendix J RSRB Exemption Letter 260


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List of Tables

Table 3.1 Comparison of Sample and National 38

Split Halves Reliability forAMMA

Table 3.2 Interjudge Reliability for Musical Tasks 39

Table 3.3 Interjudge Reliability for Summary Variables 40

Table 3.4 Judges Mean Ratings for Musical Tasks 41

Table 4.1 Comparison of Sample and National 50Scores forAMMA

Table 4.2 Means and Standard Deviations of 51

Musical Tasks

Table 4.3 Means and Standard Deviations of 52Summary Variables

Table 4.4 Summary of Linear Regression for the 53

Relationship Between Music Aptitudeand Performance Achievement

Table 4.5 Summary of Linear Regression for the 53Relationship Between Music Aptitude

and Improvisation Achievement


Relationship Between Music Aptitude

and Composition Achievement


Relationship Between Music Aptitude

and Composite Music Achievement

Table 4.8 Correlation Coefficients for Relationships 55

Between Vocal and Instrumental Tasks

Table 4.9 Correlation Coefficient for the Relationship 55

Between Overall Vocal Performance andOverall Instrumental Performance


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Table 4.10 Correlation Coefficients for Relationships Among 56

Vocal Improvisation, Instrumental Improvisation,and Composition

Table 4.11 Correlation Coefficient for the Relationship 56Between Improvisation and Composition

Table 4.12 Means and Standard Deviations for Performance 57

Achievement, Improvisation Achievement,Composition Achievement, and Composite

Achievement by Gender

Table 4.13 One-Way Analysis of Variance for Effect of 58

Gender on Performance Achievement,

Improvisation Achievement, Composition

Achievement, and Composite Music Achievement

Table 4.14 Means and Standard Deviations for Performance 59Achievement, Improvisation Achievement,

Composition Achievement, and Composite

Achievement by Grade Level


Grade Level on Performance Achievement,

Improvisation Achievement, CompositionAchievement, and Composite Music Achievement

Table 4.16 Means and Standard Deviations for Performance 60Achievement, Improvisation Achievement,

Composition Achievement, and Composite

Achievement by Experience Playing a

Harmonic Instrument


Experience Playing a Harmonic Instrument onPerformance Achievement, Improvisation

Achievement, Composition Achievement, and

Composite Music Achievement

Table 4.18 Means and Standard Deviations for Performance 62

Achievement, Improvisation Achievement,Composition Achievement, and Composite

Achievement by Instrument Group


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Instrument Group on Performance Achievement,Improvisation Achievement, Composition

Achievement, and Composite Music Achievement


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List of Figures

Figure 5.1 The tonal pattern TI FA SO. 85

Figure 5.2 Students sang the pattern TI RE FA 85

with the syllables TI FA SO.

Figure 5.3 Tonic Dominant Tonic voice leading 85in E-flat Major.

Figure 5.4 Opening melody ofEnglish Folk Song 87Suite, Movement III.


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CHAPTER ONEPurpose of the Study

Introduction

Common practice instrumental music pedagogy prioritizes performance from

music notation. Certainly a worthy pursuit, such an exclusive objective often neglects

other meaningful musical behaviors. For example, according to theNational

Standards for Music Education (Music Educators National Conference, 1994),

students should:

1. Sing, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music;

2. Perform on instruments, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music;

3. Improvise melodies, variations, and accompaniments;

4. Compose and arrange music within specified guidelines;

5. Read and notate music;

6. Listen to, analyze, and describe music;

7. Evaluate music and music performances;

8. Understand relationships between music, the other arts, and disciplines

outside the arts; and

9. Understand music in relation to history and culture.

State policy makers call for similar objectives to be part of a comprehensive

music education. In New York State, for example, students should develop skills (a)

creating, performing, and participating in the arts; (b) knowing and using arts

materials and resources; (c) responding to and analyzing works of art; and (d)

understanding the cultural dimensions and contributions of the arts (New York State

Department of Education, 2010).


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Associating music notation with appropriate motor skills, and performing with

characteristic tone qualitywhat Shewan (2009) describes as tonguing and

blowing remain the prevalent criteria for performance achievement on a music

instrument. At the same time, students are instructed to attend to rhythm, intonation,

tempo, and style to prepare music for a concert. Such directions have little meaning,

however, unless the student truly comprehends music being performed. Gordon

(2007) refers to this ability to comprehend music as audiation. Audiation is to music

what thought is to language.

Note reading and executive skills are often taught in the absence of singing,

moving, improvising, and composing. Context is lacking to promote development of

musical vocabulary, audiation skill, and comprehension. Unfortunately, the

aforementioned instruction is typical in many wind and percussion settings. Students

who perform from notation in such environments often "become button-pushers to

whom notation indicates only what fingers to put down rather than what sounds are

desired" (Schleuter, 1997, p. 48).

Many music educators agree that music is best learned through a process

analogous to that by which we learn language (Gordon, 2007; Grunow, 2005;

Reynolds, Long, & Valerio, 2007). The four vocabularies, language systems, or

components of listening, speaking, reading, and writing seem to be important for

developing comprehensive language skills (Healy, 1990; Shanahan, 2006; Smith,

1997). Gordon (2007) posits five analogous vocabularies for music: listening,

performing, audiating, reading, and writing. These vocabularies include behaviors


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associated with improvisation and composition, vital aspects of the music learning

process that are fundamental when learning to play a music instrument with

understanding. Azzara (2008) recommends the following skills for persons learning

to improvise: (a) learning by ear a variety of melodic, harmonic, rhythmic, and

expressive elements, (b) singing and moving, (c) learning to group musical elements

meaningfully, (d) interacting, (e) making comparisons, and (f) anticipating and

predicting musical events. Shewan (2002) also advocates learning repertoire by ear

and participating in aural analysis to develop readiness for composition.

Leaders in the profession (Azzara, 1993, 2008; Elliott, 1995; Gordon, 2007;

Grunow, 2005; McPherson, 1993, 1996; Reimer, 2003, 2009) agree that

improvisation and composition are integral components of a comprehensive music

education. Researchers and educators have suggested that improvisation and

composition are important to (a) teach and learn music, (b) develop musicianship, (c)

become musically literate, and (d) assess music achievement (Azzara, 1993, 2002;

Bitz, 1998; Gordon, 2007; Grunow, 2005; Liperote, 2006; McPherson, 1996; Music

Educators National Conference, 1994; Shewan, 2002; Snell, 2006; Stoltzfus, 2005;

Webster, 2003; Wiggins, 2003).

Improvisation and composition also have historical precedent as means of

musical expression in the classical tradition. Bach, Beethoven, and Mozart, for

example, were skilled improvisers, composers, and performers (Azzara, 2002; Levin,

1975, 2009). Hummel recommended free improvisation in general and in every

respectable form to all those for whom [music] is not merely a matter of


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entertainment and practical ability, but rather principally one of inspiration and

meaning in their art (Goertzen, 1996, p. 305).

Still, researchers suggest that creative activity is not prevalent in school music

settings (Brittin, 2005; Louk, 2002; Orman, 2002; Strand, 2006). Survey research

reveals that teachers consider improvisation and composition less important in

comparison with other curricular elements (Byo, 1997; Kirkland, 1996; Louk, 2002)

and more difficult to teach (Bell, 2003). In spite of calls for teachers to develop these

skills (National Association of Schools of Music, 2008), many teacher preparation

programs inadequately prepare music educators to improvise and compose, or to

teach improvisation and composition (Abrahams, 2000; Adderly, 1996; Louk, 2002).

Today, improvisation is common among popular musicians, folk musicians, jazz

musicians, and organists. Composition is not central to most musicians education.

Instrumental music teachers often use theoretical approaches when teaching

students to improvise and compose. For example, beginning jazz improvisers are

encouraged to select notes from particular scales (e.g., Baker, 1995; Haerle, 1975;

Levine, 1995; Nelson, 1966). Composition activities in beginning instrumental

method books involve rearranging a set of notes or selecting a note to fill in blanks in

musical phrases (e.g., Lautzenheiser, Lavender, Higgins, Rhodes, Menghini, &

Bierschenk, 2000; Pearson, 1993; D. Sheldon, Balmages, Loest, R. Sheldon, &

Collier, 2010). These activities often lack the context of singing, movement, and

improvisation, and are not grounded in musical thought. Grunow (2005) questions

the current penchant for pentatonic and blues-scale improvisation designed


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specifically to ensure that student mistakes are minimal. Though generally well

intentioned, such failsafe approaches do not allow students to fully express their

musical thoughts, since mistakes are not possible (p. 188).

The primary measure of reading achievement in language is not sounding out

written words correctly, or in the words of Healy, barking at print (1990, p. 26).

Instead, reading comprehension is demonstrated when an individual can give

meaning to written language, and express understanding by thinking, speaking, and

writing about what they have read (Fountas & Pinnell, 2008; Healy, 1990). Healy

warns against language instruction that overemphasize[s] letters and numerals and

underemphasize[s] the language and thinking skills necessary to make them

meaningful (1990, p. 223).

Just as language comprehension can be assessed through speaking and

writing, so too can music comprehension be assessed through improvising and

composing (Azzara, 2008; Grunow, 2005; Hickey, 2003; Kratus, 1994b; Reynolds, et

al., 2007; Wiggins, 2003). These behaviors reveal students' "understanding of how

music works (Kratus, 1994b, p. 130), what they comprehend musically (Grunow,

2005, p. 188), and their musical thinking and understanding (Wiggins, 2003, p.

141).

Need for the Study

Researchers have examined improvisation and composition achievement of

wind and percussion students (Azzara, 1993; McPherson, 1993, 1996; McPherson,


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Bailey, & Sinclair, 1997; Shewan, 2002; Snell, 2006; Stoltzfus, 2005). Through this

study, I hope to contribute to this emerging body of knowledge.

Setting

The setting for this study was a suburban high school northeast of Buffalo,

New York, the largest suburban school district in Western New York. Six elementary

schools, four middle schools, and three high schools provide services to 10,513

students in kindergarten through grade twelve. Music staff includes 47 music

teachers and a full-time Instructional Specialist for Fine and Performing Arts

(Williamsville Central School District, 2010). Students have opportunities to enroll in

multiple choirs, orchestras, bands, and jazz ensembles, in addition to courses in

improvisation and music theory.

The music department in this high school is recognized nationally as a model

program. Students and teachers are unique, making the setting ideal for this study.

Both wind and percussion teachers have more than 20 years of experience in public

school music education, and they have requisite musicianship skills to teach the

proposed curriculum. In the existing curriculum, students learn a musical vocabulary

(i.e., melodies, bass lines, tonal patterns, and rhythm patterns) by ear and by reading

on a consistent basis. Teachers prioritize development of audiation skills in

combination with technical facility. Every student composes an original work each

year. Improvisation classes and jazz ensembles provide opportunities for students to

improvise beyond rehearsals and lessons. Participants in this study were 66 students

in Concert Band, a non-auditioned ensemble for students in grades nine through


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twelve. In addition to forty-minute rehearsals each day, students received a forty-

minute small group lesson each week.

Improvisation and composition are meaningful elements of a comprehensive

music education, but rarely part of students instrumental music curricula. It is

unusual to find a high school instrumental program where composition,

improvisation, and development of individual musicianship are prioritized along with

ensemble performance. Findings that describe student improvisation and composition

achievement could provide further insight for music teaching and learning, thus

improving methods and techniques for instrumental music instruction. In this study, I

describe (a) high school students improvisation and composition achievement, (b)

student perspectives when learning to improvise and compose, and (c) relationships

among various musical behaviors.

To improve instrumental music instruction, it appears that (a) the music

education profession would benefit from a better understanding of how improvisation

and composition can contribute to a students comprehensive music education, and

(b) both pre-service and in-service teachers should develop improvisation and

composition skills, and teach these musical behaviors to their students. Through this

study, I hope to contribute to understanding high school students improvisation and

composition by describing student achievement and experiences in the context of a

non-auditioned high school concert band.


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Research Purpose and Questions

Purpose

With the intent of improving music teaching and learning in secondary

instrumental music, the purpose of this mixed methods study was to describe music

achievement and personal perspectives of high school students following eight weeks

of learning to improvise and compose using a sequential music curriculum in a non-

auditioned wind and percussion ensemble. It is rare to find an instrumental music

program in which improvisation and composition are central parts of the curriculum.

Perhaps more uncommon are instrumental music teachers who agree on criterion

measures for determining student achievement. To my knowledge, no published

norms exist for improvisation or composition achievement at the secondary level. In

this study, I offer a point of departure for future research.

I chose a mixed methods approach to investigate both quantitative trends from

a large group of students and qualitative data from a student focus group and field

observation. Quantitative measures revealed relationships between music aptitude

and music achievement (i.e., singing, instrumental performance, improvising, and

composing). Student perspectives on improvisation and composition were examined

in a focus group of eight students who participated in the research. I recorded class

meetings and took extensive fieldnotes to document teaching and learning of

improvisation and composition in this particular setting.


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Research Questions

The following research questions guided this study:

(a) What are performance, composition, and improvisation achievement levels

of high school instrumental music students following eight weeks of instruction using

a sequential music curriculum?

(b) What are the relationships between music aptitude and (1) performance

achievement, (2) improvisation achievement, (3) composition achievement, and (4)

composite music achievement?

(c) How do students describe singing, playing by ear, improvising, and

composing experiences as part of their instrumental music instruction?

(d) In this particular setting, how is improvisation and composition instruction

delivered in the context of ensemble rehearsals?

(e) How does qualitative data from focus group sessions and observations,

together with quantitative aptitude and achievement data, help explain improvisation

and composition experiences of high school instrumental music students?

Definition of Terms

Audiation: The ability to assimilate and comprehend in our minds music that may or

may not be physically present. Audiation is to music what thought is to language

(Gordon, 2007).

Music achievement: A student's accomplishment in music. Music achievement was

assessed in terms of improvisation, composition, and performance, using rating scales

with tonal, rhythm, expressive, improvisation, and composition dimensions.


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Improvisation achievement was assessed through singing and playing improvisations

based on skills included inDeveloping Musicianship through Improvisation (DMTI;

Azzara & Grunow, 2006, 2010a, 2010b). Composition achievement was also

assessed through compositions based on skills included inDMTI. Performance

achievement was assessed through singing, playing, and notating the melody and bass

line to Amazing Grace.

Music aptitude: A students potential to achieve in music. Music aptitude can be

measured using a variety of instruments designed for different age groups (e.g.,

Gordon, 1965, 1979, 1982, 1988, 1995). In this study, stabilized music aptitude was

measured with theAdvanced Measures of Music Audiation (AMMA; Gordon, 1989a;

see Appendix A).

Rating scale: Rating scales in this study employed continuous and additive

dimensions. In continuous dimensions (tonal and rhythm), each successive criterion

assumes achievement at the previous level(s); rating criteria are interdependent. In

additive dimensions (expressive, improvisation, composition), criteria are

independent, and do not assume achievement at the previous level(s). Rating scales

used in this study are in Appendix C.


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CHAPTER TWORelated Literature

In the following review of literature, I describe and summarize research

related to variables considered in this study. The review includes seven parts: (a)

music aptitude, (b) singing and vocalization in instrumental music, (c) improvisation

in instrumental music, (d) composition in instrumental music, (e) relationships

between gender and music achievement, (f) relationships between instrument group

and music achievement, and (g) relationships between improvisation and

composition.

Music Aptitude

Lorenz, Wundt, and Stumpf studied psychology of tone and music (Boring,

1929), serving to inspire development of many music aptitude tests (e.g., Bentley,

1966; Drake, 1954; Gaston, 1957; Kwalwasser, 1953; Kwalwasser & Dykema, 1930;

Lowery, 1926; Lundin, 1949; Madison, 1942; Ortman, n.d.; Schoen, 1925; Wing,

1958). Music aptitude tests measure a students potential to achieve in music (see

Definition of Terms, pp. 910). Most notable of the early tests is Seashore's

Measures of Musical Talent, published first in 1919 and updated in 1960 by Seashore,

Lewis, and Saetveit.

These researchers had considerable influence on Gordon, the foremost

researcher of music aptitude in recent decades. Developed during an eight-year

period, theMusical Aptitude Profile (MAP; Gordon, 1965, 1988, 1995) was Gordons

first aptitude test. MAP comprises seven subtests, with norms for students in grades

four through twelve. Numerous research studies, conducted by Gordon and others


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established the objective validity ofMAP (Gordon, 1967a, 1967b, 1970; Lee, 1967;

Levendusky, 1979).

Today, Gordon remains the primary researcher and developer of music

aptitude tests. The following tests are designed to measure developmental music

aptitude of persons ages three to nine or ten:Audie (Gordon, 1989b), for three- and

four-year-old children; Primary Measures of Music Audiation (PMMA; Gordon,

1979), for students in kindergarten through third grade; andIntermediate Measures of

Music Audiation (IMMA; Gordon,1982), for students in first through sixth grades.

Advanced Measures of Music Audiation (AMMA; Gordon, 1989a), for students in

seventh grade through college and the aforementionedMAP (1965, 1988, 1995)

measure stabilized music aptitude of persons nine years of age and older. PMMA,

IMMA, andAMMA are also available for computer administration (Alvey, 2006,

2007; Forsythe, 1984). Gordon's aptitude tests have served as measures in a variety

of research studies cited elsewhere in this document (e.g., Azzara, 1993; Bloedel,

1996; Coveyduck, 1998; Davis, 1981; Dunlap, 1989; Liperote, 2004; MacKnight,

1975; Schleuter, 1978; Snell, 2006; Stolzfus, 2005; Webster, 1979; Zdzinski, 1992).

In recent years, several researchers have investigated music aptitude.

Schleuter (1974, 1977; S. Schleuter & L. Schleuter, 1978) developed an abbreviated

version ofMAP for use with college students. Vispoel and colleagues developed

computerized-adaptive tests (CATs) and self-adapted tests (SATs) to measure music

aptitude (Vispoel, 1992, 1993; Vispoel & Coffman, 1994; Vispoel, Wang, & Bleiler,

1997).


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According to Karma (1985, 1994), music aptitude should expand beyond

sound to include movement and poetry as essentially musical (1994, p. 29)

segments of a music teachers work. Holahan and Saunders led a research agenda

studying cognitive processing of tonal patterns (Holahan and Saunders, 1997;

Holahan, Saunders, & Goldberg, 2000; Saunders & Holahan, 1993). This research

has furthered the discussion; however, it has not, as yet, brought about substantial

change in music aptitude measurement.

Research on music aptitude reveals a rich history of test development and

refinement, which has facilitated creation of several reliable and valid measures of

music aptitude. WhileMAP (1965, 1988, 1995) is Gordon's most reliable and valid

music aptitude test, the lengthy time required to administer the test3 separate class

periodsoften discourages music teachers from using the test. AMMA, which can be

administered in approximately 20 minutes, may be a more usable test. While

previous researchers have examinedAMMAs reliability and validity for college

students (Gordon, 1989c, 1990, 1991), reliability for high school students (Gordon,

1989a), and reliability for middle school students (Gordon, 2004), no researchers

have examinedAMMA's validity for high school students.

Singing and Vocalization in Instrumental Music

Vocalizing Songs and Tonal Patterns with Solfge

MacKnight (1975) found that fourth-grade instrumental music students who

learned new pitches by singing with movable-DO solfge, and new rhythms by

chanting with function-based syllables, scored significantly higher in sightreading


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achievement and aural-visual discrimination than those who learned to associate tonal

notation with fingerings on their music instrument and rhythm notation with counting.

According to Grutzmacher (1987), fifth- and sixth-grade students who learned tonal

patterns by ear and with notation, in a context of harmonization and vocalization,

scored significantly higher on melodic sightreading achievement and aural

recognition of major and minor modes.

In a study with third-grade recorder students, McDonald (1987) determined

that singing songs and associated patterns by rote, on a neutral syllable and then with

solfge, prior to performing them from notation, led to significantly higher levels of

recorder performance achievement. Lee (1996) found that vocalizing tonal patterns

and solfge significantly improved articulation and phrasing achievement of fifth-

grade instrumentalists.

Other Vocalization Activities

Bloedel (1996) studied the effect of singing rote songs and resting tones on

music achievement of fifth-grade instrumental music students. Those who sang rote

songs and resting tones as part of their instrumental music instruction scored

significantly higher on a measure of musical expression. Structured scale singing

activities significantly improved performance achievement of fifth- and sixth-grade

band students in a study by Davis (1981). According to McGarry (1967), vocalizing

pitch letter names before playing has no significant effect on instrumental

performance achievement of junior high band students. Elliott (1974) reports that

beginning instrumental students who vocalized exercises on the syllable "la" prior to


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performance experienced a significant increase in sense of pitch when compared to

those who performed without vocalizing. In a study with sixth-grade instrumental

students, Coveyduck (1998) found that singing a song "using number or words if it

were a song with text" (p. 58) for three minutes during each lesson had no significant

effect on intonation. Similarly, Smith (1984) found that vocalizing on a neutral

syllable prior to performance had no significant effect on pitch deviation of college

wind players.

In a study of fifth-grade instrumental students, Dunlap (1989) found that

vocalizing melodies prior to instrumental performance had no significant effect on

aural skills, instrumental performance, and reading skills. Schlacks (1981) studied

effects of vocal and instrumental interval training on instrumental pitch accuracy.

Three experimental groups received (a) instrumental interval training, (b) vocal

interval training, or (c) vocal and instrumental interval training. Control group

subjects received no interval training. No significant difference in instrumental pitch

accuracy emerged among these groups. Bennett (1994) studied the effect of

humming on intonation accuracy of 95 high school students. Subjects who

participated in a four-session humming treatment, in which they hummed isolated

pitches from varying registers, showed no significant difference in intonation

accuracy from those who did not receive treatment.

It appears that singing and vocalization activities vary in effectiveness,

depending on the context in which they occur. Singing in a harmonic context (e.g.,

with movable-DO solfge, scale degree numbers, or resting tones) has a significant


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effect on students (a) sightreading achievement (Grutzmacher, 1987; MacKnight,

1975), (b) aural-visual discrimination (MacKnight, 1975), (c) performance

achievement (McDonald, 1987), (d) musical expression (Bloedel, 1996), and (e)

articulation and phrasing (Lee, 1996).

In contrast, singing and vocalization techniques devoid of harmonic context

seem to have no significant effect on students (a) performance achievement (Dunlap,

1989; McGarry, 1967), (b) intonation (Bennett, 1994; Coveyduck, 1998; Schlacks,

1981; Smith, 1984), or (c) aural and music reading skills (Dunlap, 1989).

Improvisation in Instrumental Music

Silverman (1963) studied the feasibility of Ensemble Improvisation (p. 1) in

the secondary instrumental music ensemble. Using a curriculum designed by Foss

and Duffalo, a group of college students and a group of high school students were

taught techniques to create group improvisations. Participants learned to improvise

melody, harmony, and counterpoint, and elements that Foss called Solo (pp. 1920)

and Follow-solo (pp. 1819). Several improvisations were recorded, transcribed,

and analyzed by the class. A panel of evaluators, consisting of university professors

and public school music teachers, assessed the recordings based on the following

criteria: (a) creativity, (b) heuristic function, (c) skills, (d) style, and (e) relationship

to large group performance. While the five criteria were met satisfactorily, the panel

suggested concurrent study of history and theory, and use of a wider variety of styles

and tonalities to enhance this improvisation experience. Silverman concluded that


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Ensemble Improvisation was beneficial to students musical skills, desire to learn

about music, and behavior in other musical groups.

Using Foss and Duffalos curriculum, Wilson (1971) also studied the effect of

improvisation on secondary instrumental music students achievement. In

comparison with a control group, students who engaged in improvisation showed

greater improvement in melodic and rhythmic aural skills, as well as sight-reading.

In a study of middle school students, Wig (1980) examined relationships

between ability to improvise, academic achievement, performance ability, and

instruction in music composition strategies. A researcher-designed measure was

given as a pre-test prior to a seven-week treatment, in which students learned music

composition strategies to manipulate pitch, intensity, and duration. Following the

treatment, the same researcher-designed measure was given as a post-test. Wig

reported significant gains in ability to improvise for sixth-graders, eighth-graders, and

the combined sample. According to Wig (1980, p. 1), "neither performing ability nor

academic achievement are factors related to ability to improvise music."

Azzara (1993) studied effects of music aptitude and an improvisation

curriculum on music achievement of fifth-grade instrumental students. Sixty-six

students from two schools were randomly assigned to experimental and control

groups. MAP was administered to all subjects as a measure of stabilized music

aptitude. Experimental group subjects received improvisation lessons as part of their

instrumental music instruction. Lessons included the following: "(a) learning selected

repertoire of songs by ear; (b) developing a vocabulary of tonal syllables and rhythm


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syllables; (c) improvising with their voices and with their instruments tonic,

dominant, and subdominant tonal patterns within the context of major tonality; and

(d) improvising with their voices and with their instruments macrobeat, microbeat,

division, elongation, and rest rhythm patterns within the context of duple meter (p.

335). Students also improvised tunes with similar tonal and rhythm content.

Subjects music achievement was assessed by four judges for tonal, rhythm, and

expressive performance of three etudes composed by the researcher.

Results revealed no significant differences in compositeMAP scores between

treatment groups or between students from different school settings. Experimental

group students, who received an improvisation curriculum as part of their instruction,

had significantly higher composite etude performance scores than those in the control

group (Azzara, 1993, p. 338).

In a study of 101 trumpet and clarinet students, ages 1218, McPherson

(1996) reported significant relationships between ability to improvise and ability to

sightread, play by ear, play from memory, and perform rehearsed music.

Improvisation skill correlated with the following self-reported experiences: (a) early

exposure to music, (b) playing from memory, (c) playing by ear, (d) improvising, (e)

composing, (f) singing, and (g) mentally rehearsing. McPherson also found these

correlations to be stronger among older students, suggesting that relationships among

these behaviors may intensify with age. Subsequent analysis revealed that ability to

improvise is influenced most by ability to play by ear (McPherson, Bailey, & Sinclair,

1997).


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Using a curriculum based on instructional materials developed by Azzara and

Grunow (2006, 2010a, 2010b), Snell (2006) studied junior high instrumental music

students improvisation achievement. Forty-five seventh- and eighth-grade students

were administeredMAP at the beginning of the study. Following instruction in a

series of eight small-group lessons, each student performed two tunes by ear and an

improvisation based on the melodic, harmonic, rhythmic, and expressive elements of

each tune. Six participants were interviewed at the study's conclusion. Student

achievement was generally higher on tunes performed by ear than on improvisations

for those tunes. Snell found acceptable levels of criterion-related validity between

MAP and student performances. Rating scales in Snells study also yielded

acceptable interjudge reliability. Students indicated that they enjoyed learning new

tunes and learning to improvise. While few students were enthusiastic about singing

as part of the study, five of the six considered it beneficial to improvisation. Snell

states that including improvisation in a middle school instrumental music curriculum

has potential to improve instrumental music pedagogy.

Bingham (2007) developed and tested an improvisation enrichment module

for use in beginning instrumental music ensembles. Seventy-two sixth-grade students

from two middle schools studied the curriculum in their band classes; data from 34

subjects were used in the study. Bingham's module included five tunes common to

beginning instrumental literature and one jazz standard. Each tune was presented in a

unit that included learning the melody, chord roots, melodic variations, arpeggios,

and "sweet tones (thirds, fifths, sevenths, and ninths)" (p. 61). Styles included bossa


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nova, folk-rock, calypso, jazz waltz, jazz swing, and soft rock. Using ten-point

Likert-type scales, judges rated student pre- and post-tests of playing melodies, and

post-tests of playing arpeggios and improvisations. Students experienced significant

gains in melodic performance while developing skill in performing arpeggios and

improvisations. Participating teachers opined that this material was useful, enjoyable,

and motivating to both teachers and students.

Researchers agree that improvisation instruction is beneficial to students'

musical development (Azzara, 1993; Bingham, 2007; Silverman, 1963; Snell, 2006;

Wilson, 1971). Improvisation instruction, delivered in an audiation-based context,

seems to improve music achievement of elementary instrumental students (Azzara,

1993). Snell (2006) offers evidence that similar instruction may benefit junior high

students. According to Bingham (2007), teaching improvisation in the context of

instrumental rehearsals is a practical undertaking. Wig (1980) reports that neither

academic achievement nor performing ability is related to improvisation achievement.

McPhersons research (1993, 1996) reinforces suggestions that improvisation is

related to playing by ear, playing from memory, and reading from notation.

McPherson, Bailey, and Sinclair (1997) report that improvisation ability is most

influenced by ability to play by ear.

Composition in Instrumental Music

Shewan (2002) describes a high school wind and percussion program in which

every student is required to compose an original piece each year. The study is based

on the premise that language develops by progressing through stages of listening,


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speaking, reading, and writing. Music development should occur in a similar manner:

If students were engaged in active listening, followed by improvisation, they would

ultimately read with more comprehension, and composition would be the obvious

next step in the development of a comprehensive musician (p. 1).

Shewan promotes several emerging behaviors for creativity in ensemble

rehearsals. Before students rehearse a composition or arrangement, they listen to

melodies and bass lines, played and sung by the teacher. Next, they learn to sing and

perform them by ear on instruments. Students also engage in aural analysis in

rehearsals (e.g., studying form, motivic development, and orchestration). Shewan

describes these techniques using examples from standard wind literature.

Student composition begins with teacher-guided group composition. Shewan

describes a fourteen-rehearsal sequence in which students composed a composition

performed on their year-end concert. Students compose chamber works in lesson

groups and progress to composing for jazz combo, jazz ensemble, wind ensemble, or

orchestra. Shewan provides many examples of student work in each of these genres,

while describing common problems and possible solutions.

In a study of 64 fourth-grade students, Stoltzfus (2005) examined effects of

audiation-based composition instruction on music achievement. Subjects in a

treatment group received audiation-based composition instruction as part of their

weekly lessons, while students in the control group engaged in supplemental music

reading activities in place of composition instruction. Curricula for both groups were

the same in all other aspects.


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Students in the treatment group scored significantly higher than those in the

control group in (a) composite singing and playing achievement, (b) singing

performance for each etude, (c) playing performance for one of three etudes, and (d)

playing performance for each etude for the tonal dimension. Selected students were

interviewed at the conclusion of the study. Interviews revealed that students in the

treatment group approached music reading as related to pattern recognition and

comprehension. Stoltzfus concludes that this study provides evidence to suggest that

audiation-based composition may promote music achievement (p. 103).

Riley (2006), in a study of middle school instrumental students, examined

effects of composition in middle school band on achievement, performance, and

attitude of students. Thirty-eight subjects were randomly assigned to an experimental

group (N=20) whose curriculum included composition, performance and listening, or

a control group (N=18) whose curriculum included performance and listening. Using

a pretest-posttest design, Riley found that students in both groups experienced

statistically significant gains in music achievement and performance; however,

differences between groups were not statistically significant. Since Riley does not

provide raw scores, it is difficult to ascertain the practical significance of these

differences. Experimental group students responded more positively to a researcher-

designed attitude survey than students in the control group. Riley suggests that since

groups did not differ significantly in achievement and performance gains, excluding

composition from a middle school instrumental music curriculum may not be


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beneficial to students. Including composition also seems to improve students

attitudes toward instrumental music instruction.

Composition appears to be influenced strongly by a composers listening and

performing vocabularies (Bolden, 2009; Bunting, 1987; Carlin, 1997; Kennedy, 1999,

2002; Stauffer, 2002). Webster (1979) found a modest but statistically significant

correlation between composition and music achievement among high school students.

According to Shewan (2002), a high level of aural skills and experience improvising

predicts compositional ability. Students who excel in instrumental performance also

tend to compose at a higher level (Berkley, 2001; Shewan, 2002).

Researchers suggest that, like improvisation instruction, learning to compose

is beneficial to a student's musical development (Shewan, 2002; Stoltzfus, 2005;

Webster, 1979). Stoltzfus (2005) provides evidence that audiation-based composition

instruction improves music achievement of elementary instrumental music students.

Shewan (2002) reports that high school students experience success as composers

taught with an audiation-based curriculum. Among junior high students, Riley (2006)

reports no significant effect of composition instruction on music achievement;

however, it should be noted that many composition activities in Rileys study take a

theoretical approach, which may not involve audiation.

Relationships between Gender and Music Achievement

Gender and performance. In a study of 104 elementary instrumental

music students, Schleuter (1978) found that music achievement was not significantly

affected by gender differences. Zdzinski (1992) reports that among 113 middle


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school wind and brass students, there were no significant differences in performance

achievement based on gender. Male students, however, scored significantly higher

than female students on a measure of cognitive music achievement. According to

McPherson (1994), in a study of 101 middle- and high-school trumpet and clarinet

students, gender had little influence on types of errors made in sightreading. In

Barry's research (1992), gender did not have a significant effect on melodic accuracy,

rhythmic accuracy, or musicality of seventh- through tenth-grade brass and

woodwind students. Gender did, however, play a role in significant interactions in

the study, leading Barry to suggest further research to better explain relationships

between gender and music achievement.

Gender and improvisation. Webster (1979) found a significant correlation

between improvisation achievement and male gender among high school students.

Hassler and Feil (1986) report that among ten- to fifteen-year-old male subjects,

improvisation on a melody correlated with scores on Wings Standardized Tests of

Musical Intelligence (1958). In the same study, extemporaneous improvisation

correlated significantly with (a) scores on a standardized test of musical intelligence,

(b) visualization ability, and (c) verbal ability. McPherson found that female subjects

scored better on the researcher-designedTest of Ability to Improvise (1993), while

male students engaged in improvisation more frequently; however, gender was not a

predictor of improvisation ability. Wehr-Flowers (2006) reports that female students

are significantly less confident, have more anxiety, and report less self-efficacy in

approaching jazz improvisation. Other researchers report no significant relationship


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between gender and improvisation ability among junior-high and high school students

(Bash, 1983; Gorder, 1980; Hores, 1977), or college students (Madura, 1996). The

varied findings summarized here suggest need for further research.

Gender and composition. Hassler and Feil (1986) studied relationships

between creative ability and a number of variables. When comparing students of

male and female gender, they found no significant differences in relationships among

composition ability and other variables. Beyond instrumental music, several studies

report different strategies employed by male and female students, but do not report

differences in achievement (e.g., Bolden, 2009; Folkestad, Lindstrm, & Hargreaves,

1997).

Taken together, research findings related to gender and (a) performance, (b)

improvisation, and (c) composition neither confirm nor disconfirm clear relationships.

Relationships vary among populations, and with other personal variables. Clearly,

further research is required to better understand relationships between gender and

music achievement.

Relationships between Instrument Group and Music Achievement

Achievement comparisons by instrument group. In a study of college

freshmen, Stecklein and Aliferis (1957) report significant differences by instrument

group in a test of music achievement, measured by aural-visual discrimination skill.

According to Elliott (1974), beginning brass players exhibited higher levels of music

achievement than woodwind players, though the difference was not statistically

significant. MacKnight (1975), in a study of 90 fourth-grade instrumental music


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students, found no significant main effect of instrument group on music achievement.

McPherson (1993) reports that middle-school-aged clarinetists scored significantly

higher than trumpeters on a researcher-designedTest of Ability to Improvise. In later

research, McPherson (1994) reports that among 101 middle- and high-school trumpet

and clarinet students, instrument group had little effect on types of errors made while

sightreading. Among college undergraduates, May (2003) found no significant

differences in level of improvisation achievement based on instrument group.

Piano instruction and music achievement. Elliott (1974) reports that

beginning band students who received private piano instruction significantly

outperformed students without piano background, particularly in a subtest that

required participants to make connections between musical sounds and notation.

According to May and Elliott (1980), years of piano instruction may make a

significant contribution to development of aural skills in junior high school music

students. Schlacks (1981) reports that there was not a significant difference in pitch

accuracy for students with piano background. According to McPherson (1993),

learning another instrument, particularly piano, seems to influence improvisation skill

of high school trumpet and clarinet students. In a study of college undergraduates,

May (2003) reports that no significant differences in improvisation scores were

revealed based on piano experience.

Based on this literature, music achievement may vary with instrument group

(Elliott, 1974; MacKnight, 1975; McPherson, 1993, 1994; Stecklein & Aliferis, 1957)

and piano background (Elliott, 1974; May & Elliott, 1980; McPherson, 1993;


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Schlacks, 1981). Taken together, however, these studies do not reveal consistent

relationships between music achievement and (a) instrument group and (b) piano

background. Further research is needed to better understand these relationships.

Relationships between Improvisation and Composition

Four viewpoints surface in research literature regarding the relationship

between music improvisation and composition. Improvisation and composition can

be considered: (a) synonymous with one another in an integrated process, (b) as

separate, but related processes distinguished by time, (c) with improvisation as part of

the compositional process, or (d) as coexisting to varying degrees on a continuum.

In early research examining childrens musical creativity, composition and

improvisation were viewed as synonymous (Davies, 1986, 1992; Doig, 1941, 1942a,

1942b; Moorhead & Pond, 1941, 1942, 1944; Swanwick & Tillman, 1986). In these

studies, some student works were improvisational in nature, while others were

developed in a process akin to composition.

Several researchers regard composition and improvisation as temporally

distinct but related processes (Paynter, 2000; Reimer, 2003; Sarath, 1996; Sloboda,

1985; Webster, 2003). According to this view, improvisation occurs spontaneously

and in the moment. Composition, by comparison, allows opportunity for reflection,

experimentation, and revision before ideas are finalized.

Other researchers have described improvising as a precursor or part of the

exploratory stage of composition (Berkley, 2001; Bolden, 2009; Kennedy, 1999,

2002; Kratus, 1989, 1994a; Younker & Smith, 1996). The purposes for


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improvisation, and the extent to which students improvised, differed with age and

experience. Generally speaking, younger and less experienced composers seem to

compose using a process very similar to the act of improvisation (Kratus, 1989, p.

17), while older and more experienced persons use less time for exploration or

improvisation while composing.

The relationship between improvisation and composition is also viewed by

some on a continuum (Benson, 2003; Kaschub & Smith, 2009; Lehmann, Sloboda, &

Woody, 2007). Benson suggests that while improvisation is a part of both

composition and performance, it takes different forms in the two activities. Lehmann,

Sloboda, and Woody (2007) acknowledge the temporal difference between the

behaviors, but state, the distinction between improvisation and composition is not as

clear as one would think (p. 129), particularly when considering composers of the

past and present who also improvised. Kaschub and Smith (2009) suggest a

continuum of musical creativity that make[s] use of the principles of music and the

compositional capacities to varying degrees (p. 79).

Each of the first three views presented aboveimprovisation as inseparable

from composition, improvisation and composition as temporally distinct processes,

and improvisation as a part of the composition processfit some musical situations,

but are incompatible with others. It seems, then, that interactions between

improvisation and composition are best understood as differing not as much by type

as by degree. The continuum view encompasses not only situations in which one is

clearly improvising or composing, but also those in which the distinction seems to


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blur. Since such a view is so inclusive, is it worthwhile to determine different ways

in which improvisation and composition might intersect? Or is there, as Kaschub and

Smith (2009) suggest, no useful purpose served by deciding where improvisation

ends and composition begins (p. 79)?

Attempting to understand ways in which composition and improvisation

intersect at various points on a continuum may be valuable, in light of research

conducted by Burnard (1999, 2000a, 2000b). Twelve-year-old children experienced

the two behaviors as distinct forms distinguished by bodily intention, interrelated

forms, co-existing functionally in context, or as indistinguishable forms which are

inseparable in context and intention (1999, p. 171; 2000b, pp. 1415). Further,

Burnard reports that children did not experience improvising and composing along

one single continuum but rather along several concurrent multi-dimensional

continuums (2000a, p. 242).

Summary

This review of related literature summarized findings related to seven topics:

(a) music aptitude, (b) singing and vocalization in instrumental music, (c)

improvisation in instrumental music, (d) composition in instrumental music, (e)

relationships between gender and music achievement, (f) relationships between

instrument group and music achievement, and (g) relationships between

improvisation and composition. The present study was designed to fill gaps and

extend knowledge in several areas. Contributions that this study offered to the music

education profession are outlined below.


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It is clear that music aptitude testing has a rich history of instrument

development and refinement. This study furthers understanding of theAdvanced

Measures of Music Audiation (Gordon, 1989a), by examining reliability for high

school students and also objective validity for high school students, not yet examined

in previous research.

Since researchers suggest that singing and vocalization in instrumental music

are most effective in harmonic contexts, I studied students who sing in tonal, rhythm,

and stylistic contexts as part of improvisation and composition instruction.

Curriculum used in this study included function-based solfge and rhythm syllables.

Research findings suggest that (a) audiation-based instruction in improvisation

and composition is beneficial to music achievement (Azzara, 1993; Stoltzfus, 2005),

(b) improvisation is related to playing by ear, playing from memory, and reading

from notation (McPherson, 1993, 1996; McPherson, Bailey, & Sinclair, 1997), and

(c) students experience success when learning to improvise and compose using an

audiation-based approach (Azzara, 1993; Shewan, 2002; Snell, 2006; Stoltzfus,

2005). In the current study, I investigated improvisation and composition

achievement of high school students taught with a curriculum that provides

opportunities for students to play by ear, play from memory, read from notation,

improvise, compose, and develop audiation skill.

Gender, instrument group, and piano background may have an effect on music

achievement. In this study, I examined performance achievement, improvisation

achievement, composition achievement, and composite music achievement by gender


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and instrument group. To extend findings related to piano background, I also

examined differences in performance, improvisation, composition, and composite

music achievement among students with background playing a harmonic instrument.

Subjects in this study reported experience playing piano, guitar, and harmonium.

Burnards findings related to relationships between improvisation and

composition (1999, 2000a, 2000b) suggest that 12-year-old students have diverse

experiences of, and ascribe varied meanings to, improvisation and composition. This

research supports a continuum view of the relationship between these generative

processes, but also raises questions for future research. For example: (a) Do ways in

which children experience improvisation and composition change with age, and if so,

how? and (b) Do older students beginning to improvise and compose experience these

relationships in a manner similar to that of younger students? This study attempted to

fill this gap by gathering qualitative interview data, as well as observations of

teaching and learning, to understand ways in which high school instrumental students

experience and ascribe meaning to improvisation and composition.


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CHAPTER THREEMethod of Study

Research Setting and Subjects

The setting for this study was a suburban high school northeast of Buffalo,

New York, the largest suburban school district in Western New York. Six elementary

schools, four middle schools, and three high schools provide services to 10,513

students in kindergarten through grade twelve. Music staff includes 47 music

teachers and a full-time Instructional Specialist for Fine and Performing Arts

(Williamsville Central School District, 2010). Students have opportunities to enroll in

multiple choirs, orchestras, bands, and jazz ensembles, in addition to courses in

improvisation and music theory. The music department in this high school is

recognized nationally as a model program.

Participants in this study were 66 students in a non-auditioned concert band,

in grades 912. They met for 40 minutes each day, and each student received a 40-

minute group lesson every six school days.

Two music educators teach this concert band. One teaches the full ensemble

daily, and also teaches 15 of those students in rotating group lessons. This teacher

holds a bachelors degree in music education, a masters degree in horn performance,

and a doctorate in music education with an emphasis in composition. The second

teacher, who holds a bachelors degree in music education and a masters degree in

flute performance, is responsible for teaching group lessons to the remaining 53

students.


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Teaching techniques common in rehearsals and lessons include singing,

movement, playing by ear, aural analysis, improvisation, and performance from

notation (Shewan, 2002). Instruction emphasizes development of audiation skill

along with instrumental performance. All students in this program are required to

submit a composition each year. Compositions are performed at school concerts and

the annual Buffalo/Williamsville Poetry, Music, and Dance Celebration.

Compositions are also submitted to New York States composition evaluation

program. Student compositions from this school are often accepted for the New York

State Young Composers Honors Concert.

Research Design

Using a concurrent embedded mixed methods design (Creswell, 2008, 2009;

Creswell & Plano Clark, 2007; Creswell, Plano Clark, Gutmann, & Hanson, 2003), I

examined and described curriculum and instructional procedures, students aptitude

and achievement, and students attitudes toward and perceptions of improvisation and

composition instruction in a non-auditioned wind and percussion ensemble at the

secondary level. The design did not include control for all variables, randomization

of individual students into groups, or manipulation of independent variables.

In a concurrent embedded mixed methods design, one data set provides a

supportive, secondary role in a study based primarily on the other data type

(Creswell & Plano Clark, 2007, p. 67). In this study, I used quantitative data to

answer research questions (a) and (b), and embedded qualitative data to answer

research questions (c) and (d). I answered research question (e) by considering


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quantitative and qualitative findings together, analyzing both data sets concurrently

after treatment ended. To illustrate this design, Creswell and Plano Clark (2007)

suggest the following notation: QUAN(qual).

In Chapter Four, consistent with the design of this study, I present quantitative

results to answer two research questions: (a) What are performance, composition, and

improvisation achievement levels of high school instrumental music students

following eight weeks of instruction using a sequential music curriculum? and (b)

What are the relationships between music aptitude and (1) performance achievement,

(2) improvisation achievement, (3) composition achievement, and (4) composite

music achievement? I present qualitative results in Chapter Five to answer two

research questions: (c) How do students describe singing, playing by ear,

improvising, and composing experiences as part of their instrumental music

instruction? and (d) In this particular setting, how is improvisation and composition

instruction delivered in the context of ensemble rehearsals? In Chapter Six, I

consider quantitative and qualitative results to answer research question (e): How

does qualitative data from focus group sessions and observations, together with

quantitative aptitude and achievement data, help explain improvisation and

composition experiences of high school instrumental music students?

Research Subjects Review Board

Per requirements of the University of Rochester, I submitted protocol for this

study to the Committee on Investigations Involving Human Subjects. Protocol

included documentation of my EPRP number (see Appendix H) and a letter of


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cooperation from the participating school district (see Appendix I). An exemption

letter from the Research Subjects Review Board is included in Appendix J. To obtain

consent, I met with members of the Concert Band, read aloud the student assent form,

and answered questions from students about the study and their participation. Sixty-

eight prospective subjects received two copies of an assent form, and parent(s) or

guardian(s) of each prospective subject received two copies of a permission form.

Prospective subjects and their parent(s) or guardian(s) were invited to retain a copy of

each form for their records. Sixty-six of the 68 students in Concert Band returned

signed assent and permission forms. Only those subjects were allowed to participate

in recordings and focus group interviews. I retained original copies of each form and

stored them in my locked office.

Pilot Study

I conducted a pilot study in February 2010 to examine interjudge reliability

coefficients, means, and standard deviations associated with use of rating scales

designed for the study. Rating scales were piloted using data from 15 students in a

non-auditioned concert band at a suburban Western New York high school with

similar curricular objectives. Three judges rated vocal and instrumental

performances, vocal and instrumental improvisations, and notated compositions.

Interjudge reliability coefficients ranged from .736 to .744, suggesting that these

rating scales were appropriate for this study. Based on this pilot study, criteria in

some rating scale dimensions were modified. Use of similar rating scales in previous

research (e.g., Azzara, 1993; Snell, 2006; Stoltzfus, 2005) and publications (Azzara,


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2008; Azzara & Grunow, 2006, 2010a, 2010b), as well as discussions with

dissertation committee members, affirmed that these rating scales had appropriate

content and construct validity.

Procedures

Advanced Measures of Music Audiation (AMMA; Gordon, 1989a; see

Appendix A), a measure of stabilized music aptitude, was administered at the

beginning of the study. For the next eight weeks, subjects improvised and composed

music, based on the model inDeveloping Musicianship through Improvisation

(DMTI; Azzara & Grunow, 2006, 2010a, 2010b). Students learned to improvise and

compose music based on Amazing Grace while preparing a published arrangement

of Amazing Grace (Ticheli, 1994). Students began by singing and playing the

melody and bass line. Next, tonal patterns and rhythm patterns were introduced, first

with neutral syllables, then with function-based solfge and rhythm syllables.

Students then improvised spontaneous musical phrases, before learning Seven Skills

for Improvisation: (a) improvise rhythms using the bass line of harmonic

progressions, (b) learn voice leading for harmonic progressions, (c) learn harmonic

rhythm, (d) improvise rhythm patterns according to voice leading principles and

harmonic progressions, (e) improvise tonal patterns to harmonic progressions, (f)

improvise tonal and rhythm patterns to harmonic progressions, and (g) improvise

melodies by decorating and embellishing material from previous skills (Azzara &

Grunow, 2006, 2010a, 2010b).


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In this adaptation ofDMTI, students also notated the melody and bass line,

and composed music corresponding to the aforementioned skills. These activities

were reviewed periodically throughout the eight-week period. Instrumental teachers

guided the curriculum during the entire treatment period, teaching students to (a) sing,

play, and improvise melodies, bass lines, tonal patterns, and rhythm patterns, (b)

notate melodies, bass lines, tonal patterns, and rhythm patterns, and (c) compose

melodies, bass lines, tonal patterns, and rhythm patterns.

Data Sources, Collection, and Analysis

Data Sources

Music aptitude.Advanced Measures of Music Audiation (AMMA; Gordon,

1989a) was administered in a 20-minute period at the beginning of the study. The test

author reports thatAMMA is a reliable instrument for measuring stabilized music

aptitude (Gordon, 1989c, 1990, 1991). As Gordon suggests, only composite music

aptitude scores were used in data analysis (1997, p. 85). Tonal, rhythm, and

composite split-halves reliability coefficients for this administration appear in Table

3.1. In this study, split-halves reliability coefficients for the composite test exceeded

the generally accepted standard of .70. All coefficients were lower than those

obtained in the national sample. This difference is likely due to (a) the considerably

larger number of students and (b) heterogeneity of scores in the national sample.


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Table 3.1.Comparison of Sample and National Split Halves Reliability for AMMA_________________________________________________________________

Reliability

*Sample **NationalTonal 0.61 0.81

Rhythm 0.55 0.82

Composite 0.78 0.84

_________________________________________________________________*Sample N = 66

** National N = 872Note. Sample reliability corrected for length using Spearman-Brown ProphecyFormula.

Music achievement. At the end of the study, each participant performed

fifteen tasks: (a) Melody Sing, (b) Melody Play, (c) Melody Write, (d) Bass

Line Sing, (e) Bass Line Play, (f) Bass Line Write (g) Skill 1 Sing, (h) Skill 1

Play, (i) Skill 1 Write (j) Skill 5 Sing, (k) Skill 5 Play, (l) Skill 5 Write, (m)

Skill 7 Sing, (n) Skill 7 Play, and (o) Skill 7 Write. Judges rated tasks related to

the melody and bass line using three-dimension rating scales (tonal, rhythm, and

expressive), and tasks fromDMTI(Azzara & Grunow, 2006, 2010a, 2010b) using

four-dimension rating scales (harmonic, rhythm, expressive, and

improvisation/composition).

To facilitate analysis, I aggregated judges' scores for rating scale dimensions,

which created one score for each subject, on each of 15 musical tasks. In addition, I

created six summary variables for each subject: (a) Performance Achievement, (b)

Improvisation Achievement, (c) Composition Achievement, (d) Composite Music

Achievement, (e) Vocal Performance, and (f)Instrumental Performance. Prior to


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aggregating judges' scores, I established interjudge reliability using the process

described below, to ensure that combining judges' ratings was appropriate.

Establishing interjudge reliability. I examined interjudge reliability for

each dimension of each rating scale, to ensure that judges were consistently reliable.

Interjudge reliability coefficients for each musical task ranged from .70 to .97;

interjudge reliability coefficients for summary variables created for analysis ranged

from .91 to .97. All of these coefficients met or exceeded the generally accepted

standard of .70. Interjudge reliability coefficients for each musical task used in

creating summary variables appear in Table 3.2. Interjudge reliability coefficients for

six summary variables created for this analysis appear in Table 3.3.

Table 3.2.Interjudge Reliability for Musical Tasks_____________________________________________________________________

Variable Judge 1Judge 2 Judge 2Judge 3 Judge 1Judge 3

_____________________________________________________________________Melody Sing .92 .92 .91

Melody Play .88 .91 .87Melody Write .97 .93 .96Bass Line Sing .89 .93 .88

Bass Line Play .79 .82 .81

Bass Line Write .95 .94 .95

Skill 1 Sing .85 .87 .82Skill 1 Play .88 .86 .87

Skill 1 Write .90 .91 .92





_____________________________________________________________________


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Table 3.3.Interjudge Reliability for Summary Variables_____________________________________________________________________

Variable Judge 1Judge 2 Judge 2Judge 3 Judge 1Judge 3

_____________________________________________________________________Perf. Ach. .96 .97 .96

Improv. Ach. .93 .91 .92

Comp. Ach. .95 .95 .96

Composite Ach. .97 .97 .96Vocal Performance .95 .95 .92

Inst. Performance .92 .91 .91

_____________________________________________________________________

Prior to combining judges' scores, I also conducted paired-sample T-tests to

compare judges' mean ratings on each dimension of each scale. Judges mean ratings

for each of the 15 tasks appear in Table 3.4. While differences in judges' mean

ratings were statistically significant, they were of little practical significance overall.

Given that interjudge reliability was acceptable, and judges' mean ratings were

similar, it was deemed appropriate to create scores for each musical task, as well as

for the summary variables.

Performance achievement. Students sang, performed on their instruments,

and notated the melody and bass line for Amazing Grace. A recorded rhythm

section accompanied student performances (DMTI; Azzara & Grunow, 2006, 2010a,

2010b). Performance Achievement is based on the mean of judges' ratings on the

following musical tasks: Melody Sing, Melody Play, Melody Write, Bass Line

Sing, Bass Line Play, and Bass Line Write.


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Table 3.4.Judges Mean Ratings for Musical Tasks_____________________________________________________________________

Variable Judge 1 Judge 2 Judge 3

_______________________

Documents

Stringham, D. a. (2010). Improvisation and Composition in a High School Instrumental Music Curriculum (Doctoral Dissertation, University of Rochester)