Participatory GIS and the Riparian gyre: Putting trash in its place

I. Introduction (TMH/BLM)II. Mapping and Managing Trash (BLM/FL) 1500 words

a. Implicit(?) Locationi. Fixed and known

Solid Waste

Klingle, Matthew. Emerald City: An Environmental History of Seattle (New Haven: Yale University 2007)

In his work, Emerald City: An Environmental History of Seattle, Matthew Klingle states that history is inseparable from place. He states that despite Seattle’s environmental powerhouse position, it was less than fifteen years ago that the National Marine Fisheries Service declared Seattle and neighboring Portland to be the first urban area in the United States to become an Endangered Species Act listing. This meant that the Chinook salmon runs were stopped in order to protect the salmon. Since its founding, salmon has been Seattle and Seattle has been salmon but now they were becoming depleted and the ones that did survive couldn’t find streams to run in – over time lakes and rivers had become polluted by household trash, industrial pollution, and logging debris. Residents of Seattle were stunned since wild salmon were a part of their regional identity, Seattle still looked beautiful, how could this have happened with no one noticing? And who would they be without salmon? It was a wakeup call for Seattle’s mayor who now believes that “salmon became the fish that saved Seattle from itself”. Like many strategic plans which involve a region, it wasn’t without its vocal opponents, conflicts, or unseen repercussions. However, despite these challenges, it worked due to a concerted effort of stakeholders, businesses, residents, and community members. Klingle uses this example to introduce the “ethics of place”, the notion that human history is not always human and that what makes a community is often the sights, smells, and sounds of a place While Seattle was able to remake itself, the Salmon that exist today aren’t wild but domestic farm salmon that swims back to a holding block and Seattleites buy salmon in the same frozen food aisle as everyone else in the United States. “Seattle residents have betrayed both salmon and one another by failing to heed the historical consequences of their evolving ethic of place” (Klingle 2007 p.10)

Land fills

Mark Monmonier, Chapter 13 The Three R's of Gis-Based Site Selection: Representation, Resistance, and Ridicule, In: D.R. Fraser Taylor, Editor(s), Modern Cartography Series, Academic Press, 1998, Volume 3, Policy issues in modern Cartography, Pages 233-247Monmonier looks at case studies of solid waste facility site selection where GIS was used to keep the public at arm’s length from decision making and community opposition reaction.

Simone Leao, Ian Bishop, David Evans, Assessing the demand of solid waste disposal in urban region by urban dynamics modelling in a GIS environment, Resources,Conservation and Recycling, Volume 33, Issue 4, November 2001, Pages 289-313

“The twentieth century saw a dramatic increase in the production of urban solid waste, reflecting unprecedented global levels of economic activity. Despite some efforts to reduce and recover the waste, disposal in landfills is still the most usual destination. However, landfill has become more difficult to implement because of its increasing cost, community opposition to landfill siting, and more restrictive environmental regulations regarding the siting and operation of landfills. Moreover, disposal in landfill is the waste destination method with the largest demand for land, while land is a resource whose availability has been decreasing in urban systems. Shortage of land for landfills is a problem frequently cited in the literature as a physical constraint. Nonetheless, the shortage of land for waste disposal has not been fully studied and, in particular, quantified. This paper presents a method to quantify the relationship between the demand and supply of suitable land for waste disposal over time using a geographic information system and modelling techniques.” “Nowadays, there is a general agreement on the best practices for sustainable management of urban solid wastes, and there are isolated experiences throughout the world applying these principles. However, the goal of sustainable waste management seems far from being reached. Reduction of waste production is still more a hope than an achievement in most countries.” “Many operational models have been created over the last few decades to assist in developing more efficient solid waste management programs. One typical issue addressed by these models is the search for best configurations for waste management systems that involve the best combination of waste facilities (usually landfill, incineration, recycling and/or composting) or the best flow of waste through a certain group of facilities at a certain moment of time. The economic optimisation functions in these models include costs (operation and/or transportation) and revenues from the sale of energy, organic compost, and recycled materials.”

V.R. Sumathi, Usha Natesan, Chinmoy Sarkar, GIS-based approach for optimized siting of municipal solid waste landfill, Waste Management, Volume 28, Issue 11, November 2008, Pages 2146-2160“Sanitary landfill constitutes one of the primary methods of municipal solid waste disposal. Optimized siting decisions have gained considerable importance in order to ensure minimum damage to the various environmental sub-components as well as reduce the stigma associated with the residents living in its vicinity, thereby enhancing the overall sustainability associated with the life cycle of a landfill. This paper addresses the siting of a new landfill using a multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) and overlay analysis using a geographic information system (GIS). The proposed system can accommodate new information on the landfill site selection by updating its knowledge base. Several factors are considered in the siting process including geology, water supply resources, land use, sensitive sites, air quality and groundwater quality. Weightings were assigned to each criterion depending upon their relative importance and ratings in accordance with the relative magnitude of impact. The results from testing the system using different sites show the effectiveness of the system in the selection process.Siting decisions are governed by the pre-existing land use dynamics of the urban area as well as the nature of potential interactions of the landfill with the pre-existing environmental, geologic, hydrological, and socio-economic parameters of the area. In the domain of the science of solid waste management, identification of landfill sites for solid waste disposal remains a critical management issue wherein the selection should be based on a number of considerations.”

“In recent years, GIS has emerged as a very important tool for land use suitability analysis. GIS can recognize, correlate and analyze the spatial relationship between mapped phenomena, thereby enabling policy-makers to link disparate sources of information, perform sophisticated analysis, visualize trends, project outcomes and strategize long-term planning goals (Malczewski,2004). GIS has often been employed for the siting and placement of facilities (Church, 2002)The pioneering work in this field was initiated by Mcharg (1969) who enunciated the basic mapping ideas for site suitability analysis; especially those that involve delineating the best route connecting two points or identifying the best location for a specific function. His idea involved the preparation of thematic maps and superimposing them on top of one another to view the composite configuration so as to decide upon the most suitable location in relation to the pre-existing set of interacting factors. With the evolution of GIS and the subsequent developments in the field of location science, considerable focus was placed upon its potential application for optimized siting. The earliest application of GIS in this direction included the analysis conducted in the 1970s, especially those by (Kiefer and Robbins, 1973), (Durfee, 1974), (Voelker, 1976) and (Dobson, 1979). At about the same time, (Clark, 1970), (Helms and Clark, 1971) and (Esmaili, 1972) generated models to determine facility locations, capacities and expansion patterns. Several realistic solid waste management models were formulated by applying and refining various optimization techniques. Fuertes (1974) included social equity issues in choosing the site for the facilities. The landfill selection problems have often been tackled using MCDA.Some of the important applications of GIS for identifying potential waste disposal sites include the ones by (Muttiah et al., 1996), (Charnpratheep et al., 1997), (Kao, 1996), (Kao et al., 1997), (Lin and Kao, 1998), (Sarah and Susan, 2000), (Leao et al., 2001) and (Sadek et al., 2001).Along with the proliferation of GIS technology, ever since the 1950s, multiple criteria decision making methods (MCDM) have evolved as a major tool to assist decision makers with analyzing and solving multiple criteria decision problemsAn integrated approach incorporating the application of GIS and MCDA methods have been employed for the suitability analysis of landfills in an urban matrix ([Minor and Jacobs, 1994], [Kao and Lin, 1996], [Siddiqui et al., 1996], [Lin and Kao, 1998], [Allen et al., 2002] and [Kontos et al., 2005]).

Recycle centers/Waste Incinerators/ and other landfill alternatives

Gilpin R. Robinson Jr., Katherine E. Kapo, A GIS analysis of suitability for construction aggregate recycling sites using regional transportation network and population density features, Resources, Conservation and Recycling, Volume 42, Issue 4, November 2004, Pages 351-365,

This paper analyzes aggregate, or reclaimed asphalt pavement and cement concrete, operations in Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to develop spatial association models for the recycled aggregate industry with regional transportation network and population density features. According to the study, “Transportation corridors provide both sites of likely road construction where aggregate is used and an efficient means to move both materials and on-site processing equipment back and forth from various work sites to the recycling operations.”

Beno t Flahaut ; Marie-Alexandre Laurent ;Isabelle Thomas Locating a Community Recycling Center within a Residential Area: A Belgian Case Study The Professional Geographer, Volume 54, Issue 1 February 2002 , pages 67 – 82“This article demonstrates the operation of a simple optimal location-allocation technique for solving the problem of locating one or several community recycling center(s) within a residential area. The article attempts to measure both transportation and externality costs in comparable units, and to incorporate them into the model. A sensitivity analysis of the results at the level of the nuisance provides further insight into the operation of the model and the relative importance of the quantification of pollution in applied location-allocation problems.”

Caterina Valeo, Brian W. Baetz, and Ioannis K. TsanisLocation of Recycling Depots with GIS J. Urban Plng. and Devel. Volume 124, Issue 2, pp. 93-99 (June 1998)

“A location-allocation model contained within a geographic information systems (GIS) software package was used to design a recycling depot scheme for a community of 22,000 people. Considered a less expensive alternative to curbside recycling, the depot scheme would receive a variety of recyclable materials from the public on a voluntary basis. Depot sites were located using a model that maximized the coverage of a depot site, with constraints based on projected "recycler behavior." Shopping centers, municipal parking lots, and roadside sites were candidate locations for recycling depots in the two modeled cases. A GIS-based approach is shown to be useful for determining the number and location of material recycling depots for use within an integrated municipal solid waste management system.”Strategic planning of recycling options by multi-objective programming in a GIS environment Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy Springer Berlin / Heidelberg Volume 7, Number 4 / November, 2005

Sibel Alumur, Bahar Y. Kara, A new model for the hazardous waste location-routing problem, Computers & Operations Research, Volume 34, Issue 5, Hazardous Materials Transportation, May 2007, Pages 1406-1423,

“Hazardous waste management involves the collection, transportation, treatment and disposal of hazardous wastes. In this paper a new multiobjective location-routing model is proposed. Our model also includes some constraints, which were observed in the literature but were not incorporated into previous models. The aim of the proposed model is to answer the following questions: where to open treatment centers and with which technologies, where to open disposal centers, how to route different types of hazardous waste to which of the compatible treatment technologies, and how to route waste residues to disposal centers. The model has the objective of minimizing the total cost and the transportation risk. A large-scale implementation of the model in the Central Anatolian region of Turkey is presented.”

Commercial and Municipal Solid Waste Management

Julian P. Parfitt, Robin Flowerdew, Methodological problems in the generation of household waste statistics : An analysis of the United Kingdom's National Household Waste Analysis Programme, Applied Geography, Volume 17, Issue 3, July 1997, Pages 231-244

“The establishment of national targets designed to bring about more sustainable waste management in many developed countries has not generally been accompanied by the creation of reliable information systems for policy formulation and monitoring. In the first part of this paper the factors that complicate the collection of reliable household waste statistics are examined from both applied and theoretical perspectives. The second part presents a critique of the recent UK National Household Waste Analysis Programme (NHWAP). This was based on waste-collection-round samples selected by means of a geodemographie classification package (ACORN). NHWAP data are currently the only national data on household waste composition and the results have already been widely used by policy-makers at national and local levels. However, it is concluded that the NHWAP sample was too limited for there to be much confidence in the results. A national research programme based on household samples is required in order to understand the relationships between household waste arisings and socioeconomic, institutional, spatial and temporal variables.”

Marjorie J. Clarke, Juliana A. Maantay, Optimizing recycling in all of New York City's neighborhoods: Using GIS to develop the REAP index for improved recycling education, awareness, and participation, Resources, Conservation and Recycling, Volume 46, Issue 2, February 2006, Pages 128-148“New York City's recycling program began in 1988 with scattered pilot programs to collect a restricted number of recyclable categories. Over time, the program was made more uniform in its implementation, was expanded citywide, and targeted more types of recyclables. Although Department of Sanitation surveys have shown that residents in all areas of the city have understood the requirements of the recycling program, recycling diversion rates vary substantially throughout the city's neighborhoods, ranging from 9 to 31% per district, while city-wide the diversion rate averages only about 20%. This paper explores the possible reasons for the disparity of recycling participation rates amongst neighborhoods, using recycling data collected by the city and federal census information to characterize the city's neighborhoods and show variation in recycling participation rates, demographics, socio-economic indicators, and other metrics. Four variables were found to be strongly correlated with low diversion rates: percentage of persons below poverty level; percentage of households headed by a single female with children; percentage of adults without a high school diploma; and percentage of minority population. A weighted linear model is used to calculate a one-number descriptive measure, called the recycling education, awareness, and participation (REAP) index, which relates recycling behavior for each of New York City's 59 sanitation districts with demographic and socio-economic variables that might “predict” recycling rates. This REAP index can then be used to help inform decision- and policy-making about strategies for increasing recycling education, awareness, and participation, help target particular communities for assistance, and prioritize resources. The effects of rapid program changes and substandard residential recycling environments are also discussed as possible influences on recycling participation rates, as well as other attitudinal, physical, and knowledge-based factors that may be indirectly associated with low socio-economic status communities.”

Eklund, JörgenSorting and disposing of waste at recycling centres – A users perspective Applied Ergonomics; May2010, Vol. 41 Issue 3, p355-361, 7pAbstract: This paper investigates Swedish recycling centres from the users'' perspective. The aim was to describe the characteristics and experiences of the users and their activities when sorting and disposing of waste, and to identify improvements for the users. The typical recycling centre user is a recently retired man, living in a house with a garden, having travelled 5km alone in his own car. The users requested longer opening hours and better information available at home and at the recycling centre. The major difficulty for the users is to understand which fraction their waste belongs to, and consequently into which container they should throw it. The most important sources of sorting information, in addition to experience from earlier visits, are signs and asking the personnel. Although the service at recycling centres is perceived positively by a majority of users, substantial improvements can still be made, and a number of such suggestions are given.

Jones, Nikoleta The influence of social capital on environmental policy instruments. Environmental Politics; Jul2009, Vol. 18 Issue 4, p595-611, 17p“The literature connecting social capital with natural resources management has increased significantly in the past decade. Several studies have indicated that higher levels of social capital may lead to improved environmental management by communities. In this context, a multidimensional concept of social capital is used and its connection with environmental policy implementation is explored. The social capital components investigated are: social and institutional trust, social norms and social networks. This provides a first attempt to investigate the interconnections between these social capital components and different types of environmental policy instruments. Furthermore, social capital is connected to the constraints imposed by different instruments and the way that they are perceived by citizens. “

ii. Local knowledge1. Not recorded outside urban areas

iii. Issues – Sue/Barb and Star City1. Ad hoc2. Not efficient3. Complex bureaucracy4. Local scale

iv. Traditional GIS (e.g. map, opt. location/optimal routes, network analysis)1. Optimal location2. Optimal routes3. Network analysis4. Modeling5. DSS

v. Scaleb. Transient Trashc.

i. Sources/inputs

Nonpoint Source Pollution U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. What is nonpoint source pollution? 2004Most nonpoint source pollution occurs as a result of runoff. When rain or melted snow moves over and through the ground, the water absorbs and assimilates any pollutants it comes into contact with[1]. Following a heavy rainstorm, for example, water will flow across a parking lot and pick up oil left by cars driving and parking on the asphalt. When you see a rainbow-colored sheen on water flowing across the surface of a road or parking lot, you are actually looking at nonpoint source pollution. This runoff then runs over the edge of the parking lot, and most likely, it eventually empties into a stream. The water flows downstream into a larger stream, and then to a lake, river, or ocean. The pollutants in this runoff can be quite harmful, and their sources numerous. We usually can’t point to one discreet location of nonpoint source pollution like we can with a discharge pipe from a factory

Unlawful dumps

BJ Jones The Geography of Open Dumps in Rural Appalachia (Thesis submitted to the Graduate College of Marshall University 2008)

“The dumping of waste into the environment has plagued the mountains of RuralAppalachia for decades. Tire, cars, appliances, and drug producing materials routinelyare illegally disposed of via open dumps. The purpose of this research is to reveal themotives of the damaging open dumpsites that damage the beauty of the AppalachianMountains. The states of Kentucky and West Virginia were analyzed through the use ofGIS and descriptive statistics. The distance to refuse centers and application of disposalfees are the leading factors that result to the use of open dumps.”

“The nature of the open dump makes it difficult to quantify its range of damage. Local and state governments provide very little funds for dump site and environmental cleanup projects. Funds and resources that could be used to cleanup, improve, or build new recreational facilities commonly diverted to other government programs. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in the Atchafalaya Basin Floodway System in Louisiana has a program that requires convicted “dumpers” to clean up the dumpsite in 24 hours. They found this to be more effective than just handing out fines, because it changes their outlook on dumping. Chad Pregracke, the founder and president of Living Lands and Waters, states that they “aid in the protection, preservation and restoration of the natural environment of the nation’s major rivers and their watersheds”(Rea 2005, 119). “Every river and open dump in Rural Appalachia contains an excessive amount of tires. People began to throw tires in open dumps and rivers when the “recapping,retreading, and reuse of tires, once a viable business utilizing millions of tires has essentially ceased” (Lassiter 2008). “

“The geographical isolation of dumpsites further complicates the enforcement process. Catching a violator is often done so by accident. Game wardens account for the majority of arrests made. They regularly patrol rural roads and encounter open dumps. Since open dumping defiles the scenic landscape and wildlife habitat, the Division of Natural Resources (DNR) has an interest in catching violators. West Virginia’s game warden program is not designed to reduce dumping on a large scale (West Virginia Division of Natural Resources 2003). According to Rote, game wardens roughly average one officer per country throughout most of the Appalachian states. So catching someone committing a crime is truly just being in the right place at the right time.”

SC Brown, V Romeo, SK Stuver A GIS Model for Predicting Occurrences of Illegal Dumping- 22nd Annual ESRI International Users Conference 2002 - gis.esri.com

Roadside disposal

Riverine [Different than riparian (organic trees etc) or effluent (liquids)]

Local Government and Enforcement Systems and GIS

Ireland’s National Litter Pollution Monitoring System http://www.litter.ie/monitoring_manual/

“Developed by the Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government and TES Consulting Engineers to enable local authorities to manage litter pollution in a systematic, structured manner. The information gathered provides essential data to facilitate decision making in relation to litter management at local, regional and national levels. Using a specially designed GIS application each local authorities functional area is mapped and then surveyed annually using Litter Pollution Surveys and Litter Quantification Surveys.”

River Litter

Venue Recycling in the U.S.A.: A Report on the Potential Recovery of Beverage Containers at Venues and Eventsprepared by: National Association for PET Container Resources (NAPCOR)www.napcor.com in cooperation with: The Association of Postconsumer Plastic Recyclers (APR)www.plasticsrecycling.org Funded by a Grant from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

In reference to the feasibility of venue recycling, “On the other hand, some NAPCOR category exclusions are based on the fact that the event boundaries are too broad and waste sheds too extensive to develop and apply a workable model. Examples of these types of events include boat races and water skiing competitions where the primary location may be a marina, or the event may include several marinas and much of the audience may be on the water in their own

boats. The waste shed is too spread out and the individual events too disparate to rely on one particular model for recycling. We have also excluded City, State and Federal Parks and Recreational Areas. While they may be sources of beverage containers for recycling, the Project Team felt that identifying responsible parties could be problematic, and dealing with regulations, specifically in the Federal arena, could be time-consuming with little result.

Litter

Mark Marais, Neil Armitage and Chris Wise The measurement and reduction of urban litter entering stormwater drainage systems: Paper 1 – Quantifying the problem using the City of Cape Town as a case study

“The wash-off of solid waste into the drainage systems of urban areas is not only unsightly; it seriously interferes with aquatic life in the receiving streams, rivers, lakes and oceans. Litter management in South Africa is currently, however, severely hindered by the lack of good quality data on the quantities and types of urban litter emanating from different types of land-use. This paper describes a monitoring programme that was implemented between 2000 and 2002 in nine subcatchments representing various land uses and demographic profiles located within the boundaries of the City of Cape Town. Measured quantities of urban litter, vegetation, and building debris are given for each of the nine subcatchments. These data are then used as input to a GIS-based model of the City of Cape Town in order to estimate the quantity of urban litter that is currently entering the drainage systems of that city. Much attention has been given to the problem of eradicating what the South African Minister for Environmental Affairs, Valli Moosa (Nedlac Executive Council, 2001), has termed South Africa’s new “national flower”, the ubiquitous plastic bag. Although highly visible, festooning fences and thorn trees, and clogging drainage systems and waterways, the plastic bag is only one of many items that contribute to the litter stream. It has, however, served to capture the imagination of the South African public and focus the attention of increasing numbers of South Africans on the problem of litter. One aspect of the litter problem (here defined as visible solid wastein the public domain) is its impact on urban stormwater runoff. While it may appear to be mainly of visual and aesthetic importance, litter also seriously interferes with aquatic life in the receivingstreams, rivers, lakes and oceans (Victoria Stormwater Committee, 1999). This makes it imperative that the amount of urban litter finding its way into the drainage catchments be severely reduced through proper catchment litter management strategies. Key to thesuccess of such strategies is the quantification of the scale of the problem. However, as Armitage et al. (1998) noted, there are currently few scientifically verified data available on the nature and quantities of the litter that finds its way into stormwater systems. This is despite the CSIR (1991) estimating in 1991 that 780 000t of waste a year was entering the drainage systems of South Africa representing a potential removal cost in excess of two billion Rand per annum (Armitage and Rooseboom, 2000a) A number of urban catchments representing a spread of land uses, income levels, densities and service levels were selected• Litter traps and nets were installed in the catch-pits andstormwater outlet pipes

• A monitoring programme was instituted to record the types and amounts of litter trapped• The data obtained from the monitoring were analysed to arrive at a litter profile for each of the study catchments• The litter profile was then considered in tandem with the land-use and socio-economic characteristics for each catchment. It has been found that the presence of only two pieces of litter can lead a person to conclude, “Everyone litters here” (Cialdini et al., 1990). In South Africa and other developing countries where litter collections are often infrequent except in the central business districts, the consequences of this perception are all too plainly apparent. Meanwhile, the general inadequacy of litter refuse services leads to a rapid and sustained accumulation of litter

Balas CE, Williams AT, Simmons EL, Ergin A. A statistical riverine litter propagation model. Mar Pollut Bull. 2001 Nov;42(11):1169-76.

“A statistical riverine litter propagation (RLP) model based on importance sampling Monte Carlo (ISMC) simulation was developed in order to predict the frequency distribution of certain litter types in river reaches. The model was preliminarily calibrated for plastic sheeting by a pilot study conducted on the River Taff, Wales (UK). Litter movement was predominantly controlled by reach characteristics, such as vegetation overhang and water-course obstructions. These affects were modeled in the simulations, by utilizing geometric distributions of river reaches in the time domain. The proposed model satisfactorily simulated the dosing experiments performed at the River Taff. It was concluded from the preliminary calibrations that, the RLP model can be efficiently utilized to portray litter propagation at any arbitrarily selected river site, provided that the stream flows and reach characteristics are calibrated by representative probability distributions of similar sections. Therefore, the RLP model can be considered as a new statistical technique that can predict litter propagation in river sections.”

R Catchlove and M Francey Hotspots – A Methodology For Identifying, Prioritising And Tackling Litter In Urban Environments [Maps specific location generators such as businesses by river]“Fundamental to reducing litter at its source is focussing on those areas that generate the greatest volume of litter– litter “hotspots”. So, what and where are hotspots? To date there has been no comprehensive approach that enables agencies to identify and prioritise litter hotspots, and more importantly apply this methodology to areas outside the boundary of one municipality. This paper presents a new approach to developing a systematic assessment of litter across the catchment, which can then form the basis for preventative strategies. This paper details the limitations of using planning zones (the residential, commercial, industrial distribution) and also the weakness of using catchment boundaries to determine hotspot boundaries. It also details the problems in verifying hotspots.” “Litter is a problem both from a social perspective but also from a cleanup perspective. Thedifferent jurisdictions and different priorities of agencies in addressing litter means that aconsistent approach across an entire region is difficult.”“Local knowledge and community complaints have traditionally been the way that councilshave identified and managed litter in a hotspot. The purpose of working on a methodology

was to remove some of the bias of local knowledge and raise the profile of alternativestrategies, as well as transfer knowledge between councils on how to categorise a hotspot.”

Environmental Protection Agency Types and Origins of Floatable Debris for the document: Assessing and Monitoring Floatable Debris, published in August 2002. The reference number is: EPA-842-B-02-002

“Floatable debris comes from many sources, including the ocean, land, and atmosphere. Floatables can be washed into the ocean by heavy rainfall, carried out to sea by rivers and streams, picked up off a beach by waves and tidal action, or deposited in streams or oceans from the atmosphere (i.e., balloons). Floating debris also can travel long distances over the ocean, and when these items get into the ocean they can cause problems over a large area. The most buoyant types of floatable debris are plastics and some types of rubber. Paper, wood, and cloth items initially float but tend to sink once they become saturated with water. Glass, metal, and some types of rubber sink unless air is trapped in pockets of the material.”Beachgoers and Other Nonpoint Sources: Every year thousands of people visit U.S. beaches. Many of these beachgoers leave behind materials that become floatable debris—food packaging and beverage containers, cigarette butts, and toys like plastic shovels, pails, and frisbees. This trash can be blown into the ocean, picked up by waves, or washed into the water when it rains. Trash or materials that have blown directly into the tributaries, streams, and rivers from yards, recreational areas, and other nonpoint sources are also sources of floatable debris.

Nonpoint sources of marine pollution include agriculture, forestry, construction, urban runoff, atmospheric fallout, ground water seepage, oil and other chemical spills and disposal, solid waste disposal and its leachates, subsurface disposal of sewage and other wastes, and mining operations (Caribbean Islands Directorate, 1989).

Ships and Other Vessels:Boats of all types are also sources of floatable debris. Fishing vessels are sources of fishing nets, lines, lures, rope, bait boxes, strapping bands, light sticks, salt bags, galley wastes, household trash, plastic bags and sheeting, beverage yokes, and other types of materials accidentally lost at sea. Other types of vessels that are sources of floatable debris include recreational boats; military and other government vessels; merchant marine vessels (e.g., ocean-going and domestic cargo vessels, ocean and domestic tugs and barges, ocean liners, ferries, and small charter boats)

Illegal Dumping or Littering: Littering and illegal dumping of waste are both sources of floatable debris. The land-based debris can blow or wash into water bodies. People who litter are a significant source of floatable debris. Litter sometimes directly becomes floatables when it is discarded in the ocean or on the beach. In addition to the obvious problem of debris in coastal recreation waters, litter discarded hundreds of miles inland also can become floatable debris when it gets into streams, rivers, estuaries, and the ocean. Littering and illegal dumping can also occur from vessels and oil and gas exploration and production platforms.

USING GIS REMOTE SENSING AND WATER QUALITY MODELING TO ESTIMATE ANIMAL WASTE POLLUTION POTENTIALI. Chaubey1, P. Srivastava2, L. Han3, S . N. Addy4, and X. Yin5

“Watersheds having a dense population of poultry production facilities frequently receive relatively high rates of poultry litter application. This often leads to surface and ground water pollution problems. The Stateof Alabama recently adopted an animal waste disposal regulation that requires farmers to adapt a waste management practice considering rate of application and watershed and land use characteristics. The objective of this study was to develop an animal waste pollution potential index (AWPPI) that can be used by farmers and regulators to rank areas based on susceptibility to nonpoint source (NPS) pollution from land application of poultry litter. This study was conducted in a watershed with an area of 56 mi2. The AWPPI was developed as a function of manure application rate, nutrient availability rate, anddelivery ratio. The watershed data required for this method were derived from 7.5 minutes USGS digital elevation models. High resolution infrared aerialphotos were used to derive information about number and location of poultry houses in thewatershed. Two indices, N-based and P-based AWPPI, were evaluated in this study. No significant difference was found between the two indices. The AWPPI was found to be significantly correlated to poultry house density in a watershed and ratio of litter application area to watershed area. This method presents a simple approach to identify areas having higher susceptibility to NPS pollution andwhere best management practices may need to be implemented to reduce NPS pollution from animal.”

Wagstaff, Mark C.; Wilson, Beth E. The Evaluation of Litter Behavior Modification in a River Environment. Journal of Environmental Education, v20 n1 p39-44 Fall 1988“Behavior modification techniques were evaluated by observing litter collection behavior of commercial rafting groups. The number of litter pieces retrieved by treatment and control groups was significantly different. Results support the idea that verbal appeal and role modeling can be effective litter control techniques.”

Daoji L, Daler D (2004). Ocean pollution from land based sources, Ambio, 33: 107-113.

ii. More complex1. Identify2. Location3. Recording4. Communication

iii. PGISIII. Riperian Debris (TMH, BLM) 1000 words

a. Issuesb. Location and Mapping

IV. PGIS & Social Networking 1500 wordsa. Local Knowledgeb. LBS – locationc. Cell/PDA/Mobiled. Media Caputree. Participatoryf. Reporting

i. Twitter, Facebook, etcii. To whom?

V. Mapping Trash (FL) 1000 wordsa. Website, flickr, downloads, pins, formsb. Geobrowsersc. SDSS

i. Targeting cleanupii. Efficiencies to the system

d. Prototypee. Time

VI. Discussion (TMH) 1000a. Expert GISb. Agencies, community, volunteerc. Ubiquitous cellphoned. empowerment, enablemente. Own the problem and the solutionf. Predictiong. Representation of clean ups h. Good/bad

VII. Conclusion 300 wordsa. Hunters

VIII. Bibliography (FL, BLM)

Terminology