Spanish Program for Cultural Cooperation Conference

Stonework Heritage in Micronesia November 14-15, 2007 Guam Hilton Hotel, Tumon Guam Spanish Program for Cultural Cooperat ion with the collaboration of the Guam Preservat ion Trust and the Historic Resources Division, Guam Department of Parks and Recreation

Stonework Heritage in Micronesia

Index of Presentations 1. Conference Opening Remarks 1 By Jose R. Rodriguez 2. Conference Rationale 3 By Carlos Madrid 3. Stone Conservation of Spanish Structures in a Tropical Setting 6 By Marie Bernadita Moronilla-Reyes 4. Uses of Lime in Historic Buildings: Construction and Conservation 41 By Michael Manalo 5. Mamposteria Architecture in the Northern Mariana Islands: 48 A Preliminary Overview By Scott Russell 6. Hagåtña: Seat of Government of the Spanish Mariana Islands 75 1668-1898 By Marjorie G. Driver 7. The Restoration and Development of Intramuros in Manila 85 By Jaime C. Laya 8. Revitalizing Historic Inalahan 122 By Judith S. Flores 9. Preservation for Our Souls: Lessons from University of Guam 131 Students at Historic Inalahan By Anne Perez Hattori 10. The Resurrection of Nuestra Senora de la Soledad 144 By Richard K. Olmo

11. The Use of Primary Sources in the Study of House Construction 185 and Social Realities in Guam, 1884 – 1898 By Carlos Madrid 12. Considering Sturctures: Conference Summary 202 By Rosanna P. Barcinas

13. Bridging the Gap: Reflecting Chamorro in Historic Structures 210

By Kelly Marsh and Dirk Spennemann

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Stonework Heritage in Micronesia Conference Opening Remarks, Nov. 14-15, 2007

By José R. Rodríguez

Ladies and gentlemen, thank you for being here today at the opening of the International Conference on Stonework Heritage in Micronesia. For those of you who are from Guam, and for those of you who are from abroad, whether from the Northern Marianas, Ponhpei, the Philippines or Spain, welcome to the Micronesian Room of the Guam Hilton Hotel. As a result of the Protocol of Valladolid, signed in 1999 by Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Palau and the Federated States of Micronesia and Spain, the ties between our countries were renewed, and there was an agreement to promote and increase our cultural relations. I want to mention here the significant role played by Dr. Katherine Aguon (of Guam) and Dr. Rufino Mauricio (of the Federated States of Micronesia) in the signature of the Protocol. In 2001, these islands were included under the scope of the Spanish Program for Cultural Cooperation.

The Spanish Program for Cultural Cooperation is a grant program between the Ministry of Culture of Spain and the Philippines, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Republic of Palau and the Federated States of Micronesia. It was designed to foster closer ties between our countries through the collaborative works of scholars in the Humanities and the Social Sciences.

While preparing for this conference, we had the enormous advantage of partnering with the Guam Preservation Trust, headed by its Chief Program Officer Joseph Quinata, Program Officers Rosanna Barcinas and Ruby Santos. They have played major roles in this project. I want to express our gratitude to the Historic Resources Division, of the Department of Parks and Recreation office – I still have to learn how to say “Parks and Rec”- that joined the team as soon as Patrick Lujan knew about it. The conference would not be the same without such partnership. I had the privilege of meeting Rosanna when she visited Manila to participate in another conference about the application of plaster or paletada in Spanish colonial buildings. I must say that the collaboration of the Guam Preservation Trust has been instrumental. The Trust has

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continuously assisted in the preparation of the conference in ways that would take too long to enumerate, from the identification of the speakers, to the technical assistance during the preparation. I am sure that for those of you who are familiar with the activities of the Guam Preservation Trust, there is nothing new in what I am saying. For us, this is the first time that we had a project together and I am glad to say that we look forward to repeating the experience. Thank you so much, Mr. Quinata, for having your office participate in the conference, and for the wonderful dinner in which we were welcomed last night at the Capuchin’s friary. It is a sweet and sour feeling to know that a two-day conference does not give enough time to discuss all the issues and to give room for all the speakers. This means that there is a growing demand for dialogue and exchange on cultural and historic preservation issues. To all of you, thank you for coming. Bienvenidos, welcome to the conference and let’s start with the discussions, in the hope that gatherings like this will be continued in the future. Thank you very much.

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Conference Rationale By Carlos Madrid Spanish Program for Cultural Cooperation, Academic Coordinator The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines Stonework as “a structure or part built of stone.” And “the shaping, preparation, or setting of stone.” The same source defines “heritage” as the “property that descends to an heir” or “something transmitted by or acquired from a predecessor.” We refer as Stonework Heritage as the heritage of structures made of stone. Our conference aligns with the principles of UNESCO for cultural heritage. UNESCO considers that “it can best protect cultural diversity through actions involving sites that bear witness to multiple cultural identities, are representative of minority cultural heritages, are of founding significance, or are in imminent danger of destruction”. Development that endangers natural and cultural environment is not sustainable. The Universal Declaration of Cultural Diversity has two major goals: first, to ensure respect for cultural identities with the participation of all peoples in a democratic framework and, second, to contribute to the emergence of a favourable climate for the creativity of all. In other words, it’s a matter of making culture a factor of development. Current development creates new challenges and different kinds of risks throughout the world. Both tangible and intangible heritage is endangered, subjected to renovated pressures exercised from economic, political or military priorities. To prevent and protect those heritages, UNESCO hosted the Convention on Biological Diversity (2000), the Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001) and the Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage (2003). Cultural heritage represents one of the most significant aspects of the identity of a nation and its material manifestation across times and periods. The physical presence of a historic structure is a visible testimony of the past that contributes to the maintenance of the collective conscience of the community.

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The Micronesian region is significantly rich and diverse in cultural heritage. By incorporating it into a collective appreciation, we are better prepared to move forward for the new challenges of the future. In a world where cultural tourism is growing in importance the historic heritage of Micronesia represents an economic venue for sustained development. Hence, community involvement and awareness of historic heritage has played a growing role in recent years. In order to contribute to those dynamics, and in the light of the cultural and historic relations between Spain, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, Federated States of Micronesia and Palau, the Spanish Program for Cultural Cooperation, with the collaboration and partnership of the Guam Preservation Trust, along with the Historic Resources Division of the Department of Parks and Recreation Office; hosts this International Conference on Stonework Heritage in Micronesia. The conference invited experts and individuals from the Micronesian Region, the Philippines, and Spain to present papers on historic stonework heritage and tackle issues such as the challenges in its conservation, restoration techniques, contemporary tourist potential, and appreciation among the community. The publication of the papers will increase the corpus of bibliographic materials that may serve as a reference in the coming future. In this International Conference on Stonework Heritage, organizers, presenters and participants belong to different disciplines: Archaeology, History, and Architecture. Each of us has different approaches towards cultural heritage: recovery, restoration, protection, and revitalization. These disciplines are simply different sides of one and the same coin. We are here because we belong to the same group, whose professional activity is oriented to foster a better understanding of cultural heritage in its different manifestations. We envision a situation in which gatherings like this that we are about to celebrate, shall not be an exception. This conference aligns with Article 7 of UNESCO’s Universal Declaration of Cultural Diversity, adopted on November 2, 2001, Article 7 – Cultural heritage as the wellspring of creativity

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Creation draws on the roots of cultural tradition, but flourishes in contact with other cultures. For this reason, heritage in all its forms must be preserved, enhanced and handed on to future generations as a record of human experience and aspirations, so as to foster creativity in all its diversity and to inspire genuine dialogue among cultures.

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Stone Conservation of Spanish Colonial Structures in a Tropical Setting

By Maria Bernardita Maronil la-Reyes

Chemist Conservator, UST Center for the Conservation of Cultural Property and Environment in the Tropics University of Santo Tomas, Espana, Manila, Philippines

Stone conservation of Spanish colonial structures in a tropical setting is a very challenging task. Deterioration of many types of stone is accelerated in a hot and humid climate. Seismic activity caused by earthquakes and volcanic eruptions aggravates this problem. The earth movements result in cracks and fractures in the structures, which become deterioration sites for growth of vegetation or for birds and rodents to settle in. Frequent flooding makes this situation even more complex. The tradition of building with stone was introduced by Spain to the Philippines. Prior to Spain’s colonization in 1565, indigenous Filipino architecture used wood and thatch. This local technique was adopted until a fire razed Manila in 1583. A decree was issued four years later to build mainly with stone.1 Spanish colonial structures are basically made of limestone and adobe (volcanic tuff) incorporated with red bricks. The architectural forms and styles vary from municipal, religious and domestic buildings to military forts, watch towers and lighthouses. (Figs. 1 & 2)2 A typical “earthquake baroque” church would have a rectangular single-nave architecture with bell towers, buttresses, pinnacles and crenellations. These features make them appear massive like fortresses and “baroque” for their decorative value of florid embellishments.3 Wooden poles, sheathed with stone curtain walls, were frequently used as the main structural members.4 Walls are one to two meters thick made of rough stones, pebbles, and gravel mixed with mortar then surfaced with hewn stone blocks, or layer upon layer of bricks and mortar. Molasses and crushed seashells were mixed into the lime mixture to ensure the binding strength of the mortar, although some claim that egg-whites and egg-shells were also part of the formula.5 Sometimes, mashed puso-puso leaves, previously soaked and cut, were added for water repellency.6 Lime/sand plaster was used on the surface as protection against weathering. Stucco or plaster was also used for aesthetic reasons - unifying an otherwise heterogeneous surface. During the American occupation in the early 1900’s, the competition of bricks and other manufactured products like cement encroached upon the general use of traditional stones.7 These stones still find a market today but mainly as cladding material for modern construction. To date, the Spanish colonial structures which have survived the vicissitudes of time and the effects of weathering over the past centuries are still visible and functional. The more predominant structures in the Philippines are Catholic stone churches. At least 29 churches have been declared national cultural treasures. Four are included in UNESCO’s list of world heritage sites.

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Ledesma Mansion, Iloilo

Fort San Pedro, Cebu

Colonial

Figure 1: Spanish Colonial Structures Made of Coralline Limestone (Volcanic Tuff)

Bohol

Fort San Pedro, Cebu

Mausoleum, San Joaquin, Iloilo

Miag-ao Church Wall, Iloilo

St. Andrew Church, Candaba Pampanga

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Stone Conservation Defined Stone conservation is an intervention to stabilize the condition

of stone and to prevent, retard or arrest its deterioration.

Before any intervention can be undertaken the following

requisites are necessary: 1) understanding the nature of stone

and related materials, plus the environment in which they are

located, 2) assessment of the condition of stone - the causes

of the deterioration problems and their extent, and 3)

knowledge of and experience in the different treatment options.

Conservation of Stone Built Heritage

The conservation of stone built structures is a bigger concern

than that of dealing with stone materials alone. It involves the

conservation of the entire historic fabric of the structure

including architectural and decorative features. It takes into

consideration the interests of different stakeholders, viz: the

custodians or the caretakers of the built heritage (government

and non-government organizations), the owners of the property

or the local people, the visitors or tourists, the benefactors of

the project and the conservators.

This highly specialized operation is usually assigned to a

restoration architect, in collaboration with a stone specialist.

While conservation is to stabilize the condition of stone,

restoration is an attempt to bring back deteriorated stone and

structure to its original, form, shape and condition. The

architect consults other allied professionals as early as the

planning stage - thus making it necessarily a multidisciplinary

task, involving also engineers, geologists, scientists, etc.

(Fig.3 Stone Conservation: A Multidisciplinary Task).1

Among his objectives are: to understand the building, its

materials and its values, to preserve and reveal aesthetic and

historic values of the structure, to respect the original materials,

and to see to it that additions are distinct from the original

architectural composition and bear a contemporary stamp.2

Contributions of all periods to the building of a monument are

to be respected and replacement of missing parts must

integrate harmoniously with the whole.3 Structural

modifications must be carefully studied before any intervention

is done as this may lead to irreparable loss or damage to the

building. Necessary measures for the security, protection and

survival of the cultural property -in case of a disaster- are also

to be given attention.

Principles of Conservation

The three (3) generally accepted principles of conservation

are: minimalism, reversibility (or, nowadays, retreatability) and

compatible stability. Minimalism means the least intervention

necessary. It suggests that the better intervention is the one

with the least changes in the characteristics of the original.

Reversibility is the ability to undo what has been done. A good

example is the use of materials that can be removed in case it

is decided later to distinguish the original from additions.

However, this may seem unrealistic when dealing with

consolidation. A consolidant applied onto a pulverizing stone

would be quite impossible to remove from the stone once it has

penetrated and has been integrated with it. This is where

retreatability comes in. Compatible stability refers to the use of

materials compatible with and never stronger than the original.

Stronger materials like cement or modern concrete will always

cause stress and strain on the weaker, deteriorating stone.

Cement plaster will detach eventually, bringing with it some of

the original stone.

Conservation in the New Century 4 In the new century, conservation is slowly evolving from a

neutral act to a critical act - a matter of interpretation.

Apparently, this act is dictated by contemporary values and

beliefs, and, in the process “transforms heritage”. But this is

not something to be construed as negative. Heritage, to be

relevant, must pursue its connections to the present, but,

through controlled change. The question to ask is “how much

change is desirable or even ethical?”

of stone and to prevent, retard or arrest its deterio

Before any intervention can be undertaken the following

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Fig. 4: Genetic Scheme of Rocks (Lazzarini)

Dilemma in Conservation

Options will always vary regarding which technique to

apply or which products to use in conservation. Removal of

moss alone on a stone surface seems to be a neutral act but

applying a herbicide is another story. There have always been

opposing views on whether to remove the plaster for aesthetics

or retain it for protection; whether to plaster and repaint or just

apply plaster without repainting; whether to consolidate with

resins and other chemical products or plainly use lime or

replace materials.

Evaluation of the importance of elements in the structure

and the decision as to what may be destroyed will have to be

agreed upon by the different stakeholders. To remove the

positive alteration (patina) from a stone surface, for example, is

a result of taste and prejudices. Decisions can vary among

persons, cultures and with time.5 It cannot be left to the

decision of one individual in charge of the work. The availability

of resources will also have to be considered. Resources do not

only pertain to financial or manpower requirements but also to

the materials needed, possible alternatives, etc.

Understanding the Nature of Stone Understanding of the nature of stone as a building material

is the key to assessment and successful treatment. It is

important to be familiar not only with the properties of the

original stone, but also with those of the altered stone, and

similar stones that could be used as replacements. Knowledge

of the properties of related materials like cement, mortars and

plasters is also crucial.

Stones for building structures are cut, shaped or polished

rocks. Rocks form an integral part of the earth’s crust. A rock

may be defined as being made up of a mineral or an

aggregation of minerals. A rock may either be sedimentary,

metamorphic or igneous – depending on the genesis of its

formation. (Fig. 4)6 Beneath the earth’s crust is the mantle,

and beneath the mantle, the nucleus. The earth’s crust is partly

penetrated by light silicates of the upper mantle or “SiAl”

(Silica/ Alumina). SiAl extends approximately 30 kilometers

under the continents. It is compositionally heterogeneous

granite rock. SiAl changes to SiMa, made of heavier, darker

silicates in the lower mantle. It occupies the depth range of 30

–60 kilometers. Its average composition is that of basalt. The

TYPE OF ROCK POROSITY

Soft Limestone (Coralline) 4.0 - 42%

Hard Limestone 0.8 – 27%

Sandstones 0.5 – 42%

Marble 0.1 – 10%

Granite 0.05 – 2.8%

Basalt 0.1 - 10%

1. Igneous Rocks: lavas 2. Recent Sedimentary Rocks 3. Contact Metamorphosed Rocks 4. Igneous Rocks: Plutonites 5. Sediments 6. Ancient Sedimentary Rocks 7. Regional Metamorphosed Rocks 8. Sea (Sedimentary Basin)

Table 1: Different Porosities of Stones (Rossi-Doria)

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nucleus or core of the earth is a concentration of heavy

masses of compounds of iron and of nickel. Types of Rock

Sedimentary rocks account for 75% of the sub-aerial and

underwater surfaces of the earth’s crust. They are the type

most often used in building construction. They may originate

from mud (clays), sand (sandstones), chalk (limestone) or

pyroclastic (tuff) materials formed by compaction or

cementation of sediments. They have different porosities, upon

which their stability is dependent. (Table 1: Different Porosities

of Stones)7 Of the remaining surface of the earth’s crust,

igneous rocks account for 5%, metamorphic rocks such as

marble, account for 4% and ice ~ 16%.

Igneous or plutonic rocks are formed when the hot fluid

magma inside the earth’s crust cools. Magma may be

considered mixed solutions of various melted and gaseous

compounds, mostly silicates. The principal components, apart

from silica, are oxides of aluminum and iron, calcium and

magnesium, potassium and sodium. The secondary

components are oxides of titanium and zinc, magnesium and

barium, chromium and phosphorous. Granite, a type of

igneous rock, is found in many historic local structures. It is

commonly known in the Philippines as “piedra china” because

the granite used in the country came from China.8 Apparently,

it was used as ballast for ships coming in to Manila Bay and

later exchanged with goods from local traders. However, those

used for the San Agustin Church in Intramuros were purchased

from Canton in 1780’s.9

Metamorphic rocks are found in different parts of the

earth’s crust. Quantitatively, they belong to the most important

type of rock. They are formed when rocks change from their

original structure by the action of extreme pressure, heat or the

various combinations of these factors. Limestone, which is a

sedimentary rock, can metamorphose into marble. Both are

compositionally calcium carbonate.

The common rock sources for stone building materials are

argillites (clays), limestone, sandstone, slate, marble, granite

and basalt

Limestone: Coralline and Non-coralline10

Limestone is a sedimentary rock which is either oolithic, or

calcite cemented calcareous stone formed of shell fragments,

particularly non-crystalline in nature. It has no cleavage lines,

is uniform in structure and composition, and may however

show a bedded stratification.

In the Philippines, limestone is widely distributed

throughout all the islands. It was used as construction material

in the 16th century and, later, as raw material for cement

manufacture. Coralline limestone is usually quarried from

sedimentary basins. It is soft and porous. Tertiary sedimentary

basins of coral stones are found in Luzon Central Valley,

Cagayan Valley, Southeast Luzon, Iloilo, Visayan Sea,

Cotabato, Davao, Agusan, Palawan and Sulu Sea. The

limestone cliffs of El Nido in Palawan are massive rocks

formed some 250 million years ago from thick layers of coral

deposits.

Dolomitic limestone, which are rich in magnesium, are

abundant in Cebu (largest deposits found in Fuente, Carmen),

in Calatagan and Sta. Maria, Batangas, in Negros Occidental

and Oriental, in Northern Leyte and in Davao Oriental.

Non-coralline limestone are quarried from marble-like

formations. They are harder and can be polished. They are

found in Mindoro, Sierra Madre, Buruanga Peninsula,

Romblon, Palawan, and Zamboanga. Coralline limestones, as

reef formations 150 to 400 meters thick, are found in

Southeastern Luzon, Central Visayas and North, East and

Southern Mindanao.

The most available and important limestone in the vicinity

of Manila is found near Montalban, about 30 kilometers from

Manila, and in a semi-mountainous country about 7 kilometers

north of Binangonan, Rizal, and about 20 kilometers from

Manila.11 The limestone in both places are hard and crystalline,

and the deposits are uniform in chemical composition –almost

pure calcite. They were used as raw materials for the

manufacture of cement and sand-lime brick.

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Adobe (Volcanic Tuff)12

Adobe (volcanic tuff or unbaked mudbrick) is a rock that

was once loose pyroclastic material. It could have been fine

volcanic ash or coarse cinders but when cemented together it

is called tuff. As a building material, it is naturally quarried as

clay stone. There is another type of clay, known as “mud-

brick”, which is molded and sun-baked. Red bricks are clay

materials fired or baked at high temperatures. The red color is

due to the iron content.

In the Philippines, the main supply of adobe comes from

Luzon. They are especially abundant in west central Luzon,

extending almost unbrokenly from near Lingayen Gulf to the

seacoast of Batangas, practically blanketing or covering all of

the massive rocks of the region. In Bulacan province it is

quarried almost continuously throughout the year. Adobe

quarried in Quezon City belongs to the Diliman Tuff, member

of the Guadalupe Formation, and to the Taal Tuff. Large

quantities of this stone have been quarried near the Guadalupe

area, along the Pasig River.13 It was used in the construction of

many churches, buildings, walls and fortresses of Intramuros,

Manila.14 It is described as very workable since it is so soft that

it can be quarried with an axe, but that it hardens rapidly on

exposure. The Mount Mayamot quarry is currently active and

the tuff quarried from it is known as Guadalupe tuff. It is similar

in nature to some of the volcanic tuffs used in historic

construction and to that of an important petroglyph site nearby

Angono.15 Other sources of adobe are Aklan, Antique, Ilocos

Sur, Laguna, Samar and Surigao. Volcanic tuff can also be

found in the Agusan-Pulangui region, interior from Cagayan,

Misamis.

Tuffs vary considerably in texture, color, density and

chemical composition. The harder varieties are preferred for

construction, though much of the softer material is used locally

because it is cheaper. The coarse grained and hard varieties

are quarried throughout all the year in the vicinity of

Meycauayan, Bulacan. The fine-grained and soft varieties are

quarried at Santa Mesa, Rizal, and at Tayawanak, Cavite.

A microscopic examination done by Alvin J. Cox in 1915,

showed the tuff in the vicinity of Manila as andesitic (darker in

color) with a cementing material -which is probably in greater

part volcanic ash- and is largely composed of oxide of iron.16 It

might also be mentioned that a certain amount of pumice is

nearly almost always to be found in this tuff. Pumice is volcanic

glass, which has an abrasive quality. Incidentally, a study by

Paterno and Charola (2000) mentions that Guadalupe tuff,

used extensively in modern construction in Manila (as cladding

material), has similar properties to those used in historic

construction in Manila. The tuff is composed of a glassy matrix

(60%) with clasts (30%) of pumice and some basalt. The

dominant minerals are feldspars with negligible clay content.17

Adobe (siliceous) vs. Coralline Limestone (carbonaceous) In the Philippines, colonial stone structures are usually

made either of adobe or of coralline stone. Both are

sedimentary rocks. (Table 2: Chemical Compositions of

Stones)18 Corals shaped into stones which have not yet

petrified are simply corals or coral stones. (Fig. 5: Sample

Textures of Building Stones) Local adobe (volcanic tuff or tufa)

is argillaceous –meaning of clay materials. It is also siliceous –

since sheet silicate is a component of clay. Clays are formed

by atmospheric weathering of several rock types. They have a

suctioning effect for moisture because of their fine particles.19

They are very plastic when wet and can be dispersed

completely when more water is added.

Coralline stone is a type of limestone. It is petrified corals.

It is calcareous because it has calcium. It is also carbonaceous

because it is a carbonate of calcium. It is chemically calcium

carbonate. It is very sensitive to acidic environment.

During in-situ analysis, a simple way to determine whether

a stone is adobe or coralline is by using 10% hydrochloric acid

(muriatic acid). Effervescence on the stone surface, after

placing a drop or two of the acid, is indicative of limestone. The

carbonates of limestone react with the acid and carbon dioxide

gas is released in the form of bubbles. What is left is the

calcium skeleton, the rest are pores.

Cement

While adobe is clay (siliceous) and coralline limestone is

calcareous (has calcium), cement is burnt clay and limestone.

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This is to say that raw materials used in the manufacture of

Portland cement come from these two types of deposits. Clay

easily pulverizes upon exposure to water while coralline

limestones develop increased porosity due to release of

carbon dioxide when exposed to acidic environment. When

calcium carbonate (limestone) and silicates (clay) are mixed

and fired (or calcined) at a very high temperature of 1200 to

1400 degrees centigrade, all the oxides and carbonates are

released in the air. It results in the fusion of calcium with the

silicates and aluminates of clays. The clinker formed is

composed of calcium silicates and calcium aluminates.

Gypsum is added as retardant. The clinker is ground into a

greenish grey powder called Portland cement. It was named so

because its color is similar to that of Portland stone, a common

building stone in the UK. There are different types of Portland

cements. Portland -with low alkali/ sulfate content- is the one

recommended to be added to lime plaster to increase the

binding capacity.20 (Table 3:Types of Portland Cement)21 Portland Cement vs. Pozzolan Cement

There are different types of cement. Those which harden

or set in water are called hydraulic cements. Portland and

Pozzolan cements are of this type. Pozzolan cement is

modified Portland through addition of vitrified materials such as

powdered tiles or pottery. This diluted powder makes it less

expensive than pure Portland cement. It has a longer curing

time, but once it sets, usually after 40 days, it develops

superior strength.

Natural pozzolan is a type of earth material of glassy

volcanic origin. It can produce hydraulic reaction with slaked

lime. It was discovered during the Hellenistic Period (around

the 4th century B.C.) in the city of Pozzuoli, near Naples from

which its name was derived.22 (Table 4: Hydraulic Cements)23

Hydraulic Mortars

Hydraulic mortars set or harden upon reaction with water.

Portland cement is one example. It reacts with water and

hardens upon drying. The components responsible for

reacting with water are calcium silicate and calcium

aluminates. Lime (the source of calcium) mixed with pozzolanic

Fig. 5: Textures of Building Stones

CORAL STONE

CORALLINE LIMESTONE

NON-CORALLINE LIMESTONE

ADOBE (Volcanic Tuff)

GRANITE

Bocolod Cathedral Walls

Intramuros Walls, Manila

Flooring, Manila Cathedral

Sta. Lucia Church Wall, Caysasay, Taal, ,Batangas

Pavement, Intramuros Manila

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Table 2: Chemical Compositions of Stones (Montoto)

materials (the source of silicates and aluminates) form a

hydraulic mortar. Other similar materials (like clay limestone)

show the same properties. (Table 5: Cement Mortars)24

Modern Concrete

Modern concrete is a mixture of cement, sand and gravel.

It is hard, brittle, can withstand compressive stress but is weak

against tensile strength. This weakness is overcome by

reinforcing concrete with steel, a high tensile strength material.

Reinforced concrete was introduced in the second half of the

19th century in France. Pre-stressed concrete, which uses steel

cables, appeared 100 years later.25 Steel has almost the same

expansion coefficient as concrete and cement adheres very

well to its surface. The basic environment of cement makes

corrosion rate of steel very slow. Relevance of Cement Quarries to Conservation

Since quarries and cement plants indicate possible

sources of clay (silica and alumina) and limestone, their

location becomes relevant specifically when replacement of

highly deteriorated stones is being considered as a ‘loss

compensation method’. The raw materials in cement

manufacture -and not cement itself- are considered for use in

restoration. Cement is too compact and strong for powdery

adobe or porous limestone.

Lime

Apart from cement, hydraulic mortar and modern concrete,

other binding materials used in construction are lime and

gypsum. Sand or aggregates of sandstone, pozzolanic

materials and ash brick are used as fillers for these binders. In

conservation, the usual proportion of binder to filler is 1:3. Lime

is usually mixed with a little cement to improve its hydraulic

property.26

Lime is the result of burnt limestone. It is locally known as

“apog”. Quicklime is calcium oxide. It is produced by heating

limestone in kilns at a high temperature of 700 – 900 degrees

centigrade. It results to de-carbonation or release of carbon

dioxide. Apart from heat, dissolution of carbonates could also

result from reaction of limestone with acids. This is the reason

why deterioration of limestone is accelerated in a hot humid

country such as the Philippines. Humidity accelerates acid

Table 3: Types of Portland Cement (ASTM)

TYPE USE

Type 1 Ordinary Portland General construction

Type 2 Moderate Heat Portland Acidic environment

Type 3 Rapid Hardening Rush works

Type 4 Low Heat Portland Dams

Type 5 Sulfate Resisting Portland

Sewage disposal plants

Table 4: Types of Hydraulic Cements

• PORTLAND - 1824 by J. Aspdin

• POZZOLAN -Volcanic tuff + sand = superior strength mortar

-in Pozzuoli near Rome -Artificial Pozzolan is powdered tiles or pottery

• HIGH ALUMINA

• SPECIAL CEMENTS

Siliceous Carbonated

Granite Siliceous sandstone

Marble Limestone Dolomite

SiO2 77.8 83.0 0.1 0.4 1.1

Al2O3 11.8 4.3 0.1 0.0 0.5

Fe2O3 1.6 2.5 0.2 0.0 0.3

CaO 0.4 1.7 54.5 54.4 34.9

MgO 0.1 3.4 0.7 0.0 16.9

Na2O 2.9 0.9 0.0 0.0 0.1

K2O 4.6 2.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Esbert et al 1997

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attack on stones, leaving them porous where the carbonates

are dissolved.

The use of lime plasters dates back to the Neolithic

period.27 In the historic period, it appeared in the Mycenean

and Minoic Civilization (Knossos palace 1700 B.C.).28 In Egypt,

it was used quite late, in 300 B.C. (Ptolemaic period). This

could be due to the fact that lime is prepared at much higher

temperature compared to Plaster of Paris. Quicklime vs. Slaked lime

Slaked lime is quicklime in water. It is calcium hydroxide or

hydrated calcium oxide. It develops heat upon contact with

water so it must be prepared with great attention. For a good

product, the right amount of water must be used. If water is

excessive, a soft greasy mass is obtained (lime paste). Upon

contact with air, it dries progressively until the hydroxide is

converted back to hard carbonate.

In conservation it is advisable to slake lime before use.

Slaking lime can take months or even years. A long slaking

improves plasticity of the lime putty.29 (Table 8)30

Lime Mortar

Sand is the typical filler for lime. Sand must be washed

clean to remove salts, clay or organic materials which slow

down the already slow hardening process. Typical formulations

are 1:2 lime/sand or 1:3 lime/ sand with the right amount or

water to make a paste. It is important to note that lime mortars

show good workability if the addition of water is rather

generous. Conversely, the mechanical properties of the

hardened mortars are improved if the amount of water is

reduced. Proper balance between workability and strength

must always be achieved. This requires a lot of experience.

Even with less water, workability could be achieved through

the use of fluidizers.31 (Tables 6 & 7) 32

Lime mortars have similar properties to those used in

ancient calcareous masonry. However, they harden very

slowly and may not harden at all in damp conditions as drying

and the presence of air are required for hardening.33 Due to

this limitation, lime-pozzolan or lime-cement mixtures are

preferred to effect faster hardening. The usual formulation is 1:

4: 3 where 1 is cement, 4 is lime, and 3 is sand.34

Table 5: CEMENT MORTAR (Torraca)

Defects Of Portland Cement Mortars when Used In Stone Conservation

• High compressive strength and elasticity modulus

• Large thermal expansion coefficient • High amount of soluble salts • High density and thermal conductivity • Low porosity with very small pores

Table 6: LIME MORTAR (Torraca)

Defects of Lime Mortars When Used in Stone Conservation

• Slow and difficult setting; May not harden in damp climates

• High Deformability • High porosity consisting of very large pores

Table 7: LIME-CEMENT MORTAR (Torraca)

Lime-cement Mortar as Alternative to Pure Lime Mortar In Stone Conservation

• Small amount of low alkali, low sulphate cement + Slaked lime (1:4)

• Cement diluted with calcium carbonate or pulverized limestone

Table 8: LIME MORTAR (Ashurst)

Procedures for Obtaining Optimum Performance from Lime Mortars

(non-hydrated)

1. Slake quicklime on site to form a soft putty. Stir continuously during slaking. Keep under water at least 1 week. Sieve to remove lumps. OR:

Soak Hydrated Lime Powder in enough water to form a soft putty. Leave at least 16 hrs.

2. Mix putty with desired aggregates in desired proportion (e.g. 1:3) Mechanically or by hand to form ”coarse stuff”.

3. Store enough “course Stuff” in plastic bins under wet sacks. Make an airtight LID. Every extra week of storage is beneficial.

4. Remove enough “course stuff” for the days work. Beat, ram and mix until a good workable mix is obtained. Try not to add water, but if you must, keep to a minimum.

5. Add “pozzolanic” setting aids, if needed. At this stage, mix very thoroughly.

6. Protect finished work from rain, heat and local draughts.

15

Gypsum

If limestone is carbonated calcium, gypsum is sulfated

calcium. It is chemically calcium sulfate with two molecules of

water (CaSO4.2H2O). As a mortar or plaster, gypsum is slightly

soluble in water. Being so, it is not normally used on exposed

surfaces in damp climates.

It was used in Egypt both as mortar among blocks of

stones (pyramids) and as plaster as early as the 3rd millennium

B.C. When heated at 130 degrees centigrade, part of its water

content evaporates and it becomes "Plaster of Paris" or

“escayola". Plaster of Paris (CaSO4.1/2 H2O) sets rapidly

when mixed with water. Upon drying, it is converted back to

gypsum.

Most of the black encrustations on façades of coralline

limestone could be attributed to gypsum. The sulfates originate

from the surrounding polluted air or from nearby salts from the

sea. The black color is due to entrapped carbon particulates

from car exhausts and other industrial plant emissions.

Assess ing of the Condit ion of Stone The condition of stone refers to the superficial, material

and structural state of the built heritage including a description

of previous interventions such as stone replacement, metal

insertions, plastic repair, synthetic applications, etc. Historic

stone structures can be considered in good condition when

they are stable and well maintained. They may appear

unsightly - with surface dirt, accretions, soiling and graffiti - but

they may not necessarily be in bad condition. On the contrary,

they may appear intact but may actually be decaying

underneath. Deteriorating structures are those which have

become weak or unstable due to interrelated factors.

Degradation is the advanced state of deterioration with more

visible signs of loss of material and/or with disintegration.

Assessment and Examination

A detailed evaluation of the condition of stone requires a

systematic and comprehensive study. It entails assessment of

the built structure in general, and examination of the stone

materials in particular. As already stated, it is not just the job of

the restoration architect or the stone conservator. It is a

multidisciplinary task. Conservation scientists like chemists

undertake research studies on chemical reactions taking place

in the stone that cause crystallization, decay or erosion, etc.;

petrographers focus on the morphology of the stones and

minerals; geologists and physicists are concerned with sonic

and vibration measurements; biologists are concerned with the

growth of vegetation like moss and microorganisms;

conservation architects/ engineers deal with structure related

damages, etc.

Requisites of a Systematic Assessment

As mentioned before, knowledge of the nature and

composition of stone materials is prime and foremost before

making an assessment. It is also important to understand how

the environment and setting affect the individual stones and the

structure. The other important requisites are: a) knowledge of

the provenance of stones and how they were prepared, b)

knowledge of typical stone conservation problems, their

causes, and effects, c) knowledge of options for their

conservation, restoration, repair and maintenance, d)

knowledge of old construction methods, and e) training and/or

experience in old construction methods or previous restoration.

Assessment Procedure

The actual assessment can be undertaken referring to the

following steps as a guide: 1) Identify all internal and external

factors causing stress, strain, alterations, etc, 2) determine

whether deterioration process is active, whether structural fault

is static or still moving, and to what extent, 3) determine

original materials used: from the locality or from elsewhere, 4)

consider generally accepted principles, taking note of the

availability of materials. Provide material alternatives and

conservation/ repair options, and 5) determine future use of the

structure.

Documentation

Apart from a written record of the state of conservation of

stone materials and the built structure, a graphic representation

is a must. This is executed by mapping stone and masonry

morphologies over the drawing of the façade, walls etc. or over

photo images. It aims to a) provide a visual description of their

16

actual condition, e.g., deposits on the surface, material loss,

structural damage, etc., b) indicate constituent materials such

as limestone, adobe, marble, etc., and c) specify areas with

previous surface applications or intervention, e.g., remains of

polychromy, artificial patina, graffiti/ paint applications, stone

replacements/ insertions, cement fillings, synthetic fillings,

former surface treatment, metal insertions, (includes

consolidants or protective coatings). It serves as a good

reference in monitoring the state of conservation of a heritage

structure through periods of time, and as a means of studying

the processes, cycles or patterns of change or transformation.

Moreover, it aids in preparing conservation plans.

Tests and Analyses

There are standard test methods available for the different

test procedures for different stone properties and conservation

products. However, more often than not, they yield different

results (Henriques,1992).35 In view of this, standardization of

test methods has been developed by different groups such as

RILEM 25 PEM and 59 TPM, and the Italian Commissione

NORMAL (Alessandrini and Pasetti 1991).36 There is a good

review of literature which deals with the testing of products and

provides an outline of testing methods from the mid-19th

century to the present (Tabasso and Simon 2006).37 It

discusses weaknesses in some current methodologies. Why Undertake Tests

Tests and analyses are performed to a) identify the types

of stone and determine their properties, b) identify the

deterioration products present and analyze how they were

formed, c) determine the conservation problems, their causes,

effects and extent of damage, d) test and experiment on

compatible materials and products to use (herbicides,

consolidants and protectants) and suitable mortar- plaster

formulations, e) come up with possible treatment options based

on test results and their interpretation, and f) make

recommendations for the appropriate conservation intervention

–easy to apply, workable and cost effective. It will be helpful to

have knowledge of old construction methods and traditional

materials.

Table 9: Characterization of Stone (Montoto)

What to identify in Stones

A. ROCK-FORMING COMPONENTS

PROPERTIES ROLE TECHNIQUE

Texture “Rock architecture”

Pores/fissures Paths for: water, pollutants, salts

Fluorescent microscopy, SEM

Grain interlocking

mechanical strength, rock cohesion

Polarizing microscopy, SEM

Anisotropy

Physical properties, direction dependent

NDT (Non Destructive Test)

Mineralogy Chemical composition, reactivity

Polarizing microscopy, SEM + EDAX

B. STONE COMPONENTS

Stress concentration AE/MS

Rock foundation

Building Mechanical instability

Masonry (salt crystallization)

Thermal stresses (thermal fatigue)

Internal fractures

Mechanical instability, water paths

Ultrasonics

Internal zones of weathering

Degree of deterioration Tomography

Mechanic

To know state stability- instability, fissure development

Stress-strain curve

Compressive strength

Mechanical behavior

Destructive tests

Tensile strength Deformability

Elastic modulus

Fissure propagation

To predict failure/ collapse

NDT

17

Stone Characterization

Studies on the chemical, physical and mechanical

characterization of stone deterioration will depend on a) on the

rock formations from which they originate (petrology,

mineralogy, microscopy, chemistry, colorimetry), b) their actual

position within the structure (architecture and engineering –

bedding etc.), c) the location on which the structure stands

(geology, soil analysis, seismology) and d) the environment

which surrounds it (whether polluted, near coasts or quarry

sites, etc, and the human activity in the area). Tests and

analyses have to be performed on site and in the laboratory.

The methods of study must be non-invasive as much as

possible.

A table for stone characterization is provided herewith

indicating what to identify in stones (Montoto, 2001).38 It

enumerates the different properties of stone, the role of the

properties identified and the techniques of analyzing or testing

samples. (Table 9: Characterization of Stone Properties)39

Interpretation of Results

Results of tests will have to be interpreted and their

relevance explained. Otherwise, they will be of no use to a

wider audience. For example, if the humidity level inside the

room is higher than the humidity outside the building, what will

it imply? It means that the source of humidity is from inside and

that there might be a leaking pipe somewhere. Another

example is the result of a mortar sample taken from a stone

wall yielding high iron content. Oxidized Iron is associated with

rust and can indicate that the metal reinforcements within the

stone wall might be absorbing moisture from some source.

Conservation Problems (Table 10) The most predominant conservation problem of Spanish

colonial structures in a tropical setting is stone decay and the

growth of vegetation on the surface. Cracks and fissures are

apparent. Salt deposits and stains of varying colors and

compositions are also very noticeable.

More particular to adobe is pulverization and dissolution of

stone. Upon exposure to rain, the weak binding capacity of

adobe makes it lose its integrity and simply crumble away. It is

composed of glassy materials and the binding clay.

Incidentally, the percentage of clay in Philippine adobe is

negligible making it a very weak building material. 40

Structures made of coralline limestone also pulverize but,

unlike adobe, develop voids when attacked by acidic rain. The

carbonates are released as carbon dioxide and the skeleton

remaining is calcium. This phenomenon is described as

alveolar erosion.

Causes

Conservation problems of stones and stone built

structures can be attributed to intrinsic and extrinsic causes.

Intrinsic problems are those originally present in the stone at

the time the structure was built, viz: substandard materials,

wrong bedding of stone layering, architectural and/ or

engineering defects, etc. Extrinsic problems are those caused

by external factors, viz: a) weathering, b) biological attacks

(microorganisms, insects, rodents and growth of vegetation), c)

chemical transformations (pollution, water infiltration, rising

damp), d) physical damage (losses, cracks and fissures), e)

structural defects ( walls- leaning, bulging, settling and

fracturing; joints – open, fractured, decaying or powdery;

opening of natural vents; expansion of rusting iron, etc), f)

human-related activities (vandalism, terrorism, war) and g)

natural disasters (fire, earthquakes, typhoons etc).

Effects: Stone Alterations (Fig. 6)

Typical stone alterations are: 1) powdering or

pulverization, 2) increased porosity (alveolar erosion), 3)

dissolution, 4) salt crystallization or efflorescence, 5) black/

brown/ white/ green encrustations, 6) external depositions and

droppings, 7) internal depositions (stalactites and stalagmites),

8) scaling, spalling 9) splitting, 10) fissures, cracks and

fracture, 11) discoloration, etc. The type of stone and its quality

are relevant to the type of problems which develop. Poor

quality adobe stones easily dissolve in the rain especially if not

protected by a plaster. A good reference for the weathering

forms on stone monuments in the form of a photo atlas has

been prepared by Fitzer and can be accessed at the internet.41

18

TABLE 10: CONSERVATION PROBLEMS, CAUSES and SOLUTIONS

PROBLEMS

General Specific

Possible CAUSES Solutions

(treatment options/ repair)

A. Surface Accumulations

(positive alterations)

• Dust, dirt, grime • Soiling, accretions • Bird droppings,

graffiti, patina • Removable Stains

• Pollution • Lack of maintenance • Vandalism

• Cleaning • Maintenance

B. Biodeterioration • Cracking, fissures • Bacterial growths • Moss, algae, lichens • Superior Plants • Insects, pests, tunneling

• Weakening of structure due to roots • Humidity, rising damp • Metabolism products of biological

agents • Rodent, insects settling

• Cleaning: cut, brush • Water Spraying, etc • Biocides and herbicides • Maintenance

C. Chemical Transformations

(negative alterations)

• Pulverization • Alveolar erosion • Increased porosity • Salt crystallization • Encrustations • Chromatic alteration:

fading /discoloration • Staining (iron oxide,

copper salts)

• Soluble salt re-crystallization/ • Dissolution • Hydration/ de-hydration • Rising damp • Condensation/ evaporation • Release of carbonates • Acid rain, flooding, pollution:

particulates

• Desalination • Electro osmosis, siphons • Thermal Insulation • Roof drains, • Add width to roof • Trenches/ canals • Damp course • Consolidation • Protective treatments

D. Physical Alterations

• Cracks and fissures • Splitting, scaling, pitting • Stains, losses • Mechanical abrasion • Salt /frost bursting,

• Vibrations/ movements • Fluctuations in relative humidity &

temperature • Thermal expansion • Plasticity due to stress • Wind • Natural disasters

• Plastic repair: • Pointing • Grouting • Plastering • Consolidation • Protection

E. Structure related Damages

WALLS

• Leaning • Bulging • Settling • Fracturing

JOINTS • Open • Deeply weathered • Very powdery • Decaying around the

joints

• Settlement of ground • Removal of ties • Collapse of restraining arches,

vaults or buttresses • Inappropriate alteration • Wash out of core filling

• Stronger mortar than stones • Poor adhesion between mortar and

stones • Unsuitable mortar used in earlier

repair

• Take down and rebuild sections

• Introduce grout • Introduce underpinning • Introduce ties and stitches • • • Rake out, hand grout, tamp

and rake • Rake out and point only • Cut out and re-point • Rake or cut out, plug and point • Use water repellant (rarely)

19

Fig. 6: STONE CONSERVATION PROBLEMS in a TROPICAL SETTING

SURFACE AC CUM ULAT IONS

G r af f i t i B lack S t a i n D i r t G r e en S ta in

BIOD ETER IORA TIO N

Biodeter iorat ion

Biodeter iorat ion

Moss L ich e ns W o ody P la nt C l i mbi n g P l an t

Frac tu re

CHEM ICAL TRA NSFOR MAT ION S

P i t t i n g Ex f o l i a t io n Sa l t E f f l or esce nc e R is i n g D a mp

PHYSICAL ALTER ATIONS

Sca l i n g D ef ac e me nt P ulv er iza t i o n D iss o l u t io n

STRUCTU RE RELATED DA MAGE S

C r ack L oss F rac tu re Fr ac t ur e

20

Table 11: THE MOST IMPORTANT SOLUBLE SALTS IN WALLS (Andreas Arnold)

Carbonates

Calcite CaCO3 Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2

Magnesite MgCO3 Nesquehonite MgCO3 · 3H2O

Hydromagnesite Mg[OH(CO3)2]2 · 4H2O Lansfordite MgCO3 · 5H2O

Natrite Na2CO3 · 10H2O Thermonatrite Na2CO3 · H2O

Nahcolite NaHCO3 Trona Na3H(CO3)2 · 2H2O

Kalicinite KHCO3

Sulphates

Gypsum CaSO2 · 2H2O Bassanite CaSO4 · 1/2 H2O

Epsomite MgSO4 · 7H2O Hexahydrite MgSO4 · 6H2O

Kieserite MgSO4 · H2O Darapskite Na3(SO4)(NO3) · H2O

Mirabilite Na2SO4 · 10H2O Thenardite Na2SO4

Arcanite K2SO4 Astrakanite Na2Mg(SO4)2 · 4H2O

Picromerite K2Mg(SO4)2 · 6H2O Syngenite K2Ca(SO4)2 · H2O

Gorgeyite K2Ca5(SO4)6 ·H2O Glaserite K3Na(SO4)2

Boussingaultite (NH4)2Mg(SO4)2 · 6H2O Thaumasite Ca3Si(OH)6(CO3)(SO4)·12H2O

Ettringite Ca6Al2(SO4)3(OH)12·26H2O

Chlorides

Bischofite MgCl2 · 6H2O Antarticite CaCl2 · 6H2O

Tachyhydrite CaMg2Cl6 · 12H2O Halite NaCl

Sylvine KCl

Nitrates

Nitrocalcite Ca(NO3)2 · 4H2O Nitromagnesite Mg(NO3)2 · 6H2O

Nitronatrite NaNO3 Nitrokalite KNO3

Oxalates

Whewellite Ca(C2O4) · H2O Weddellite Ca(C2O4) · 2H2O

21

Fig. 7: Capillary Rise vs. Diameter of Pores (Massari)

Fig. 8: Capillary Rise vs. Fineness of Particles (Massari) F

Structure Related Damages: Walls and Joints

Structure related damages refer to stone walls - whether

leaning, bulging, settling or fracturing’ and to joints - if open

and fractured, etc.42 Unstable walls usually result from

settlement of ground, removal of ties, collapse of restraining

arches, vaults or buttresses, inappropriate previous repairs,

and by washout of core fillings.43 Open and damaged joints are

often caused by the use of mortars stronger than the stone,

poor adhesion between mortar and stones, and unsuitable

mortar used in earlier repair.

Water and Soluble Salts: Major Causes of Stone Decay

The action of water is considered one of the greatest

threats to stonework. It causes de-stabilization of the chemical

and physical characteristics of the porous stone. Once water

has penetrated the stone and is absorbed, reaction starts to

take place. Water transports dissolved salts and produces

damaging deterioration. It also disturbs the natural moisture

content of the stone. Moreover, it provides a suitable condition

for plants to grow and activates pollution. Incidentally, the

behavior of water in porous building materials, as presented by

Pender - through a chronological literature review --, would be

a good reference (2004).44 It discusses why materials attract

moisture in relation to porosity, permeability and capillarity.

Types of Humidity

The types of humidity can be classified according to the

system by which it penetrates the stone: a) capillary rise, b)

hygroscopicity, c) condensation and d) infiltration of water.45

Capillary rise is a phenomenon where humidity from

underground e.g. water table, leaks, sewage, or water supply

system, is suctioned upwards by the stone walls. The smaller

the diameter of the capillaries (pores), the higher the rise of

water within the stone walls – this is balanced by the rate of

evaporation from the wall. (Fig. 7)46 Similarly, the finer the

stone components of the walls, the higher the capillary rise.

(Figs.8, 9)47 The usual height it reaches is considered the

deterioration site. It is where the water starts to evaporate and

where dissolved salts re-crystallize.

Smaller the diameter, the higher the rise

gravel sand fine sand very fine sand silt clay The finer the particles, the higher the rise

Porous In Between Non Porous

Fig.9: Capillary Rise vs. the Type of Stones (Massari)

22

Hygroscopicity is the ability to attract water. Even if a wall

is not directly connected to the water source from

underground, pressure equalization will always attract humidity

into a capillary.48 By the physico-chemical process of

adsorption, water molecules will first tend to adhere to the pore

surface, then to the liquid film over that surface.49 Once the

surface of the stone pores is moistened by the liquid film,

capillarity rise takes effect and moves faster. Also, some salts

e.g. sodium chloride (NaCl) are hygroscopic.

Condensation is the transformation of water vapor to liquid

state upon cooling. When the humidity in a warm room

increases, it tends to condense on the interior wall, if it is

cooler outside the wall. Too many visitors of tombs and crypts,

for example, can bring about increased humidity through their

perspiration, breathing, etc.50 This is likely to be followed by

condensation on the stone surface. It is important to monitor

humidity and temperature levels especially when dealing with

stone walls with mural paintings.

Soluble Salts (Table 11: Soluble Salts in Building Stones)51

The cycle of hydration/ de-hydration, dissolution and re-

crystallization of salt involves: 1) moisture infiltration from the

ground (rising damp), from rain hitting the roof and walls, from

leaking pipes, etc. 2) transport and percolation of moisture

within the structure and dissolving salts in the process, and 3)

evaporation of the moisture with the dissolved salts towards

the surface as the temperature rises and re-crystallizing the

salts near and/ or on the stone surface. This cycle is

aggravated in an acidic environment by the presence of

gaseous pollutants. It is important to note that the removal of

salt efflorescence on the surface will not stabilize the condition

of stone, but will help the salts being introduced once again

into the wall at the next wet cycle. The source of the problem

must be identified, that is, the source of humidity, and must be

eliminated or minimized. Types of Soluble Salts

The types of salts present as deterioration products help

gauge the extent of the conservation problem. The higher the

content of soluble salts in porous stone, the faster the

deterioration. Sodium sulfate salts can increase in volume as

much as ten times upon re-crystallization. Their affinity to water

is quite large compared to that of calcium. The more sodium

salts present in the pores of the stone, the faster the tendency

of stone to disintegrate. Sodium sulfate and sodium carbonate

converts to natrite and mirabilite, -the typical salts which hint

advanced state of deterioration. Other salts such as sulfates

(e.g.calcium sulfate) and chlorides (e.g. sodium chloride), are

also indicators.

Conservat ion Treatment Opt ions As mentioned earlier, the conservation of stone built

heritage is a complex endeavor. It is a highly specialized field

involving the expertise of multi-disciplines. It tackles direct

conservation and preventive measures of preserving the

structure through documentation, pollution control,

maintenance, disaster planning –among others. It also takes

into consideration the interests of the different stake holders

and the intangible value which the structure represents.

Conservation treatment of actual stones is yet another

difficult task. It requires specialized training on applications of

theories of conservation and of relevant developments in

science and technology. It implies a basic knowledge of the

properties of stone, related materials and traditional methods

of construction. A scientific examination of the condition of

stone is most crucial (diagnosis). Familiarity and experience

with the different treatment procedures is imperative.

Five Basic Steps

Stone conservation treatment procedures generally cover

five basic steps: 1) cleaning, 2) chemical stabilization of

deteriorating stone, 3) physical stabilization of the individual

stone and the structure, including mechanical stabilization, 4)

aesthetic unity (optional) and, 5) protection of stone from the

harsh environment.

23

Cleaning

Cleaning is the removal of surface accumulations not

originally present on the surface of the stone or the plaster. Its

aim is to improve the appearance of the building, to reveal the

real condition of the underlying stone and to remove harmful

materials.52 It can be carried out mechanically, chemically, by

air or water pressure, by poultice or by laser. The latter has

gained importance in the recent years. Some dirt and soiling

are just superficial. Others are deep rooted. Others have

developed through the years to become part of the stone such

as natural patina, but this is not dirt. Removing them may be

removing part of history. A listing of the different cleaning

techniques is provided in table form. (Table 12)53, 54

Types of Elements to Clean

The three types of elements to clean are: a) those just

sitting on the surface (positive alterations), b) those coming out

to the surface (salts), and c) those which form or grow on the

surface and penetrate into the stone (plants). Positive

alterations are those which do not alter the stone properties,

viz: dust, soiling, grime, certain accretions, graffiti and other

markings stamped or written on the surface. Negative

alterations are those which have negative effects so as to

cause a decline in the characteristics of stone e.g., salts

developing on the surface. Microorganisms, lower plants and

higher vegetation are also negative alterations. They are

examples of biodeteriorgens which can be killed with biocides

or herbicides. Their presence loosens the stone subsurface.

Pulling them out is dangerous because part of the stone will be

carried away as well as mortar joints. Cutting them, without

following the application of a herbicide, might encourage more

growth.

Trial Cleaning

Before any cleaning is undertaken, it is important to

undertake trial cleaning on test areas done on wet and dry

surface. Assessment of trial areas should include a) potential

damage to the stone texture, b) color changes, c) probable

appearance of façade after cleaning, and e) an estimate of the

periodic re-cleaning operations and the effects on the

building.55

Biological Cleaning: Plant Removal

Plants grow on damp walls, along mortar joints and where

organic matter accumulates. They cause chemical and

physical damage to stone. This is due to their metabolism

products and the effects of their growth. Their characteristics

depend on their life cycle, penetration capacity through the root

system, degree of extension and lignification.56 Their root

system can spread throughout the stone and their stems can

grow several meters long -making them difficult to handle.57

Moss and algae can be removed mechanically by hand

brushing and then spraying with a solution of hydrogen

peroxide.58 The roots can stay alive and regenerate as soon as

the climatic conditions become favorable. Higher plants can be

cut but the remaining parts and roots within the stone structure

cannot be removed. Doing so will harm the stone. Herbicides

will have to be applied. They can prevent growth and kill the

vegetation. The negative effect is that they can endanger the

stone and the environment. Herbicide Administration

Herbicide administration will require survey, lab

experiment and determination of the doses to recommend.59 It

must be noted that plants are more resistant to herbicides in

the natural environment than in the lab. Further, most of the

herbicides are acidic and are not to be used for limestone.

Studies have shown that neutralizing acidic herbicides with

alkalines will not affect their efficacy.60

Choosing a Herbicide

In choosing a herbicide, it is best to look for one with the

following characteristics: low toxicity, environment friendly,

wide range of action, no interference with the stone, minimum

side effects, easy to use, low price and high efficiency.61 The

efficacy will depend on the type of stone, the type of plant, and

the method of application.62

Application of a biocide or herbicide will depend on the

type of plants to remove. Elimination of herbaceous plants can

be done by aspiration of the whole plant (Caneva,1991).

Woody plants will have to be cut but the rest growing partially

within the stone will have to be left as is. Total removal will

cause serious damage. Nonetheless, some plants may play a

24

Fig.10: Man and Stone Deterioration

INDUCED DETERIORATION: Some plants can interfere with the foundation of the structure. The root system may reach lengths up to 8 meters; will penetrate the concrete, develop fissures, where water will start to seep in. Effects are detrimental to the structure and commuters. This is dangerous!

CEMENT ON ADOBE: Cement is too strong and compact for weak adobe. It leads to defacement. Damp from the ground, rain, leaking pipes, etc. penetrates the walls, dissolves the salts, which re-crystallize on the surface when water is changed to vapor as temperature increases. Air or vapor pressure from within the walls pushes the cement plaster but cannot “breathe”. Stone is decayed underneath. Even incompatible paint prevents water in the wall, absorbed from the ground, from escaping towards the surface. Use materials compatible with, never stronger than the original stone.

FINDING THE SOURCE OF HUMIDITY: Even with routine maintenance, regeneration and re-infestation of microorganisms, moss and algae will be unavoidable in a tropical country -as long as there will be moisture trapped within the walls. It is important to identify the source of the problem such as leaking pipes or defective downspouts before even attempting to clean or repaint.

25

Table 12: Different Types of Cleaning Methods

CLEANING METHODS [British Standard (BS 8221-18 2000)] General Specific Remarks

Hand Cleaning Brushes Hand held abrasive blocks Plastic mesh and non abrasive hand scourers

To remove softened or loosely attached dry matter For flat surfaces and sound surfaces Use for terra cotta, glass and faience

Water Cleaning Ordinary water Nebulous water and fine water sprays Pulse Cleaning; Hot water

All potential water entry points should be sealed with sheet tapes

Pressure Operated Cleaning

Water and air pressure Pressure Washing(Low, M, H) Steam Cleaning Abrasive Cleaning (Dry air and Wet air); Micro abrasives

Abrasives: Calcium carbonate, aluminum oxide, sodium bicarbonate, silicon carbide, glass beads, crushed glass

Chemical Cleaning General (biocides, water repellants) Pre-wetting and rinsing; Pack and Poultice Clay

Must be rinsed, neutralized and rinsed again Sepiolite, paper pulp, methyl cellulose

Mechanical Cleaning Scalpel Cleaning Tooling

Paint removal; sensitive and labor intensive only for valuable surfaces For heavy dirt encrustations use sharp chisels and mallets

Laser Cleaning Damages from incorrect use results in mineralogical, color and other surface changes

Biocides Must be applied to weathered protected surfaces; kill 1st existing growth and re-apply after cleaning. Lichens should be pre wetted; Dead growth should be removed by scraping and brushing

A Comparison of Cleaning Methods (BRE Digest 111.1972, p 21) Method Speed Cost Advantages Disadvantages

Water spray Slow Low No risk of damage to masonry except under frost conditions. No danger to public or operatives. Quiet.

Limestone may develop brown, patchy stains. Water penetration may damage interior finishes, hidden timber and ferrous metals. Some risk of drain blockage. Possible nuisance from spray and saturation of surrounding ground. Often requires supplementing with an abrasive method or high pressure water lance.

Dry grit-blasting

Fast High No water to cause staining or internal damage. Can be used in any season.

Risk of damage to surface being cleaned and to adjacent surfaces, including glass. Cannot be used on soft stone. Possible noise and dust nuisance; Risk of drain blocking. Injurious dust from siliceous materials. For best results need to be followed by vigorous water washing.

Steam cleaning

Slow Medium No damage to masonry except under frost cond.

As “water spray” but with less risk of staining. Not easy to obtain uniformly clean appearance.

Wet grit-blasting

Fast High Less water than with water spray method. Less visible dust than with dry grit-blasting.

Similar to dry grit-blasting but greater risk of drain blockage. Some risk of staining limestone. Can result in mottled finish if operatives are unskilled.

Mechanical cleaning

Fast High No water to cause staining/internal damage. Used in any season.

Considerable risk of damage to surface, especially mouldings. Injurious dust from siliceous materials. Hand rubbing may be necessary for acceptable finish.

Hydrofluoric acid preparations

Medium Low Will not damage unglazed masonry or painted surface. Quiet.

Needs extreme care in handling - can cause serious skin burns, and instant damage to unprotected glazing and polished surfaces. Scaffold pole ends need to be plugged and boards carefully rinsed.

Caustic alkalis

Fast Low Rapid cleaning of some types of limestone with minimum use of water.

Needs extreme care in use; can cause serious skin burns and damage to glazing, aluminum, galvanized surfaces and paint. Incorrect use can cause damage to masonry.

26

useful role as static reinforcement for the structure.63 If the

stems are sufficiently thick, they will have to be injected with a

biocide into the stem instead of the whole plant being

aspiratied (Caneva, 1991; Almeida et al).64

Plants Dangerous to Stones

The plant species that can cause severe damage to stone

are the larger ones, particularly, the ivy, Hedera helix

subp.canariensis. It grows rapidly while its aerial roots have

special searching effects (Ashurst and Ashurst,1988).65 The ivy

also has a root system that can reach lengths up to 8 meters,

and which may interfere with the foundations of the structure.66

Another dangerous species of climbing plants is Rubis

ulmifotius. It has strong woody roots which may reach up to 2

meters. The honeysuckle, Lonicera estrusca, is another plant

with roots which can grow up to 8 meters (Cutler and

Richardson, 1984).67 Incidentally, it is sad to notice that similar

climbing plants are planted at the concrete posts of the mass

transportation system of a certain city. (Fig.10). The

detrimental effects are not immediate but will eventually be felt,

not only by the structure, but by the commuters. Regeneration of Plants after Treatment

Different species have different sensitivities to the same

herbicide. Some annual plants can take four days to die.68

Woody plants can take 5 to 20 days and still others can take

30 to 40 days. Others learn to adapt to very dry condition

because they have a special type of metabolism that allows

them to conserve water, making them resistant to treatment.69

Even after an effective treatment has been applied, newly

germinated plants are likely to appear again as seedlings of

the same species. This recurs as soon as the climate becomes

favorable ~ usually 8 months after treatment. 70 The cycle of

regeneration and re-infestation of plants even after treatment is

unavoidable in a tropical setting. It is best to have long term

planning for weed control to avoid wastage of money, time and

effort.

Chemical Stabilization

Chemical stabilization is the attempt to prevent or stop

chemical reactions resulting in the modification of the

composition of stone. It is important to identify the cause/s of

reactions and determine ways to control them. Incidentally,

chemical transformations also weaken the physical stability of

stone.

As discussed earlier, the action of water and the presence

of soluble salts are apparently the major causes of the decline

in the chemical properties of porous stones in the tropics. They

are aggravated by the presence of gaseous pollutants,

secretions of biodeteriogens, the effects of biocides and

herbicides, vegetation, and the cycle of wetting and drying.

Water can come from underground and seep through the stone

capillaries as rising damp. It can come from the rain and

infiltrate the roof and outer walls specifically through cracks

and open joints. It can come from leaking pipes and

downspouts and circulate within the walls through the stone

pores. It can also come from human perspiration and other

sources of humidity buildup inside a room.

Practical Techniques to Minimize the Action of Water on Stones

Rising damp can be prevented by installing a damp course

or by building trenches or ventilated areas around the exterior

walls. Water coming from the roof or leaking pipes and

downspouts can be prevented by adding width to roof, apart

from regularly checking the roof drains and downspouts for

leaks, etc.

Stone structures contaminated by soluble salts can be

made to undergo desalination. Simple cleaning of the surface

is not sufficient to eliminate these harmful compounds. They

must be removed especially if the stone is to be subsequently

consolidated and/or rendered with a protective coating.

Desalination can be done by applying poultice on the surface.

It usually consists of clay, wood or paper pulp, a combination

of these two, or lime-poor mortar.71 For this to be successful,

however, it is important that the source of soluble salts is

eliminated or at least reduced.

Physical Stabilization

Physical and mechanical stabilization is the action taken to

correct alterations affecting the physical properties of stone. It

is to compensate for loss in physical strength due to the

presence of fissures and cracks, weakening (pulverization) and

loss of material, the effects of vegetation, vibrations and

27

Fig. 11: Ashurst’s TECHNIQUES of PLASTIC REPAIR (John Ashurst)

28

Fig. 12: Ashurst ‘s TECHNIQUES of GROUTING and STITCHING (John Ashurst)

X

29

movements, etc. More than the damage to individual stones,

structure related damages such as the fracture on walls,

opening of joints etc. are to be given priority.

If the chemist conservator specializes on the study of

chemical reactions affecting the stones, the architect restorer

specializes on ways to correct structural damages affecting the

stones. They are to collaborate in the following: 1)

consolidation of loose, pulverizing and incoherent components,

2) filling (plastic repair) of cracks and fissures, 3) replacement

of severely damaged load bearing stones, and 4) adding

similar materials to gaps, missing portions and losses. The

choice of treatment is critical and no single treatment is

applicable in all cases. Caution must be taken in considering

the use of materials foreign to stone. Prior to these treatments,

the architect and engineers must first address the problems

pertaining to damaged walls and joints, and problems with

foundations.

Loss Compensation Methods

Stone replacement, addition and filling (plastic repair) are

loss compensation methods. They are similar to treatment

procedures in dentistry. A severely damaged tooth can be

extracted and replaced with similar tooth. Wide gaps between

teeth can also be added with the same. If the cavities are

reparable, filling can be the alternative. Replacements and

fillers have to match the original stone in terms of properties.

Artificial stones can also be considered. Aesthetic unity is

optional because some prefer to distinguish additions from the

original.72

Choice of Loss Compensation Methods

Loss compensation methods must meet the following

criteria: a) reversible, b) must, as much as possible, not

require removal of original materials for its application

(sometimes this is unavoidable), c) use inert materials, d) must

not introduce soluble salts, highly alkaline or acidic materials,

or mechanical stress to the substrate, e) have lesser strength

than the original stone, f) meet health and safety standards

such as building safety codes, g) cost effective, h) meet

aesthetic requirements and i) have desirable working

properties.

Consolidation

Consolidation is carried out by applying a product that can

penetrate the stone to unite the incoherent with the coherent

material. The technique of application can be by brushing on

the stone surface, by spray, pipette, or by immersion, and

drawn into stone by capillary.73 Consolidation is not just to fill in

the hollows. Its aim is to restore the internal cohesion of

eroded or weakened stone to enable it to resist weathering

anew. Consolidants must have sufficient penetrating capacity

(fluidity) to enter deeply within the stone in order to reach and

“bind” together the disintegrating material. The depth of

penetration will depend, not only on the fluidity of the

consolidant, but also on the porosity of the stone and the mode

of application. If the penetration is not sufficient, there will be a

tendency to form a dividing plane along which alteration can

proceed preferentially. Diluting a product may initially exhibit

excellent penetration but evaporation of the solvent towards

the surface tends to form only a thin superficial consolidated

layer. It is important to check that the product does not react in

any way with the stone or alter its appearance in color and in

texture. It must, in theory, be reversible although in reality it is

quite impossible to attain such quality. Once a product has

penetrated the stone, even if it comes with a solvent, it cannot

be removed without damaging the stone. This is where

retreatability becomes important.

Types of Consolidants

Consolidants can be divided into two groups: inorganic

and organic. Inorganic consolidants were used extensively

during the 19th century.74 The side effects are whitening within

the voids and pores caused by precipitation of salt or by

chemical reaction with stone.75 This technique produces a new

phase which binds the deteriorated particles of stone together,

e.g. silica phase to consolidate sandstone; calcium and barium

carbonates to consolidate calcareous stones.76 Nowadays

there has been a revival of inorganic treatments: the Lime

Method, barium hydroxide and oxalates.

Organic consolidants on the other hand, were first

developed in the 1960’s. But these do not seem to be feasible

for use in a tropical setting. There are reports that some stone

30

structures in temperate countries consolidated with organic

polymers failed after several years.77 Water gradually eroded

the consolidated surface, and proceeded into the untreated

stone.78 There are also “mixed” consolidants – the silanes

which have had some success, especially on sandstones.

Before attempting to use anything synthetic on an

important historical structure, it will be good to consider other

options. Even a careful study or experimentation of the product

in situ or in a laboratory cannot assure that the product will

work.79 Mistakes can be costly as chemicals are expensive

and the stone may be irreversibly damaged. A list of

consolidants is provided in a separate table. (Table 13)80

Filling (Plastic Repair): Pointing and Grouting

Plastic repair is a system for local damages in which a

filler is introduced into stone to compensate for loss in strength

and material. It prevents accumulation of harmful elements into

the voids in stone. It uses a pliable material which hardens in

place while adhering itself to stone and filling the voids. (Fig.

11)81

Plastic fillings are composed of a binder and filler (matrix

or aggregates) plus color components and special additives.

They are used where cracks, fissures or hollows are present. It

is a requirement to do plastic repair before attempting any

consolidation treatment. Besides the common mortar or grout

(liquid mortar), epoxy resins can be used as they possess

great adhesive properties. However, they are very susceptible

to oxidation, and therefore should only be used to fill in deep

cracks or hollows. A more stable resin such as acrylic resins

can be subsequently applied to provide protection. These two

resins can also be used in conjunction with an aggregate to

produce a type of mortar with good adhesive and elastic

properties.

Pure cement fillers must be avoided as these can contain

alkaline compounds and sulfates capable of forming soluble

salts within the stone. Besides, cement is generally less porous

and “stronger” than porous building stones, creating new

problems due to the incompatibility of the two materials. Problems with Compact and Non porous Fills

Outdoor fills must possess properties similar to those of

the original stone. This is to allow equivalent exchange of

water across the stone compensation interface (area with fill)

and to react with the environment in a compatible manner.82 If

the interface is harder

than the original stone, the stone will be eroded. Water and

soluble salts can accumulate around said fill leading to

damage. Further damage can result from fluctuations in

temperature and relative humidity. The reason is that two

different materials react differently to climate changes leading

to mechanical stress and strain on the stone.

The “Sacrificial” Fill

Since it is difficult to achieve an exact match to the original

stone, the fill should be somewhat more porous, more

permeable, and slightly weaker than the stone. It becomes the

“sacrificial” fill attracting moisture and salts and thus causing

erosion of the fill instead of the original stone.83 As regards

stones with large protruding loss, replacement or “piecing in”

must be considered because they will be difficult to fill.

Replacements and Additions

Replacement is a system of compensation in which a

piece of stone is fitted to the area of loss in the original stone.84

It is made of a newly carved stone or some similar modeled

material.85 Its use is justified when damage to stone affects its

load bearing function. Retrofitting is an operation using

innovative and tested techniques specifically developed for

adobe structures and designed to observe minimal

intervention.86

Replacement can be “in kind”- made of exactly the same

stone; “near kind” -similar stone; or an “imitation.87 Sometimes,

a perfect match can be salvaged from an inconspicuous part of

the building. Supporting rods or polymeric composites are used

to dowel pieces together. (Fig. 12)88 They are attached to the

original stone, previously planed for the break edges. Typical

adhesives are epoxy, polyester or mortar, and clamped so the

joint may set. The problem with epoxy and polyester resins is

that they weather poorly and darken upon oxidation due to

light.89 Inserts or replacements must be finished using the

same profile and texture as the original stone. Patching can be

31

Table 13: CONSOLIDANTS and PROTECTANTS (Cassar)

INORGANIC CONSOLIDANTS

Alkali metal silicates

Na2SiO3 K2SiO3

• React with water and CO2 • Form silica gel that functions as the consolidant • Also form salts to the surface producing efflorescence

Fluosilicates

MgSiF6 ZnSiF6

Al2(SiF6)3 PbSiF6

• Only on stones with CaCO3 because of the by-product silicate oxide in water which acts as the consolidant

• Reaction directly happens between the stone and the reagent which should be avoided

Barium Hydroxide Ba(OH)2 • Used in conjunction with urea to form BaCO3 • Restores cohesion, strengthens, consolidates the stone • Developed for the treatment of small objects

ORGANIC CONSOLIDANTS

Silanes Alkyl, alkoxy silanes

• Diluted with alcoholic solvents which favors their extremely small dimensions and thus easily penetrates materials

• React with atmospheric humidity polymerize w/in the material to form large molecules

Silicic Esters Alkyl alkoxy silanes • Silane which reacts with atmospheric humidity, forms silica gel as binder • Have advantage of forming an alcoholic residue which does not react with

the material and can evaporate

Siloxanes Polymers of organic Si compounds

• Partially polymerized before being applied • Larger molecules hence less volatile than silanes but also less penetrative • Used primarily as protectives

Epoxy Resins • Used as structural adhesives, less commonly as consolidants • Poor penetration, irreversible and difficult to clean • Cause inc. in fragility and yellowing of the material in the presence of UV

Acrylic Resins • thermoplastic forming weak electrostatic bonds between the single chains • Unable to absorb pressure so they are generally used as protectives • Possess a high molecular weight so penetration is difficult

ORGANIC PROTECTANTS

Siliconates

Methyl siliconates of sodium, Potassium,

propyl siliconates of potassium.

• Water-soluble • Present certain problems, such as their slow rate of polymerization (at

least 24 hours) making it possible to be removed by rain water during this period

• Limited durability of the treatment and the poor strength especially for the methyl siliconates.

Silicone resins CH3, C2H5, C3H7, C4H9

• Completely polymerized molecules; do not form any new links after being applied.

• Dissolved in an organic solvent such as white spirit • Transported by means of the solvent into the superficial pores and

capillaries of the material. • On evaporation of the solvent, the resin is deposited within the surface

layer where it exerts a hydrophobic effect.

Perfluoropolyethers

Permeable to gas, colorless,

transparent, stable to heat, light and

chemicals

• Possess all the qualities necessary to act as stone protectants • Insoluble in common organic solvents, but soluble in fluorocarbons,

making the treatment durable but also reversible

Waxes • Used to provide surface protection to non-porous calcareous stones • Tend however to make the stone appear darker and give the surface a

slightly shiny appearance Acrylic resins • Tend to provide good water repellancy, especially when used in

conjunction with silicon resins.

32

done using a cementious grout. Incidentally, painted wood was

once used to reconstruct or fill large losses when stone

replacement was uneconomical.90

Guide for a Good Replacement

The replacement must integrate harmoniously with the

whole but must be distinguishable from the original so that

restoration does not falsify the artistic and historic evidence.91

Additions are to be undertaken only if they do not detract from

interesting parts of the building, its traditional setting, balance

of its composition and its relationship with its surroundings.92

Aesthetic Unity Aesthetic unity is the optional part of treatment. It is

basically cosmetic improvement. It is an attempt to improve the

appearance of the stone surface after conservation and

restoration. In the absence of aesthetic balance manifested by

chromatic alteration, formation of patina, fading color, change in

texture, etc, efforts can be made so that alterations may not be

unsightly. Replacements and additions, although distinguished

from the original, must unite harmoniously with the built

structure. Even in adaptive re-use of a historic building,

aesthetic unity must be considered.

Protection of Stones

Surface protection can be achieved by way of surface

coatings or plasters. It is an important phase - specifically for

stone buildings which have been cleaned and/or consolidated.

Protectants are considered “sacrificial layers” too because

they, instead of the underlying stone, are the ones attacked by

the harsh environment, at least for a reasonable period of time.

Paintwork can be considered as protective of the material

they cover; but they must be compatible with the stone. They

must be hydrophobic but permeable to gas (water vapor).

When air bubbles form on a painted surface, it indicates that

moisture is trapped beneath and the air (water vapor)

produced inside is trying to escape. (Fig. 12) This is the reason

why the paint starts to peel off.

Some stone buildings require protective coatings to carry

out its function without being visible. In this respect, a number

of clear organic products have been produced. These include

waxes, siliconates, silicone resins, acrylic resins,

perfluoropolyethers, siloxanes and polyurethanes (the latter

usually as anti-graffiti coatings). A list of these products is

provided herewith in table form (Table 13).93

Organic Protective Coatings

Even in a temperate environment, protective treatments

with synthetic products (organic) do not always protect the

stone and may actually accelerate the deterioration process.94

In an article, Varas reported that the Royal Palace in Madrid

(completed in 1734), made of granite and limestone, was

applied with a protective coating sometime in the 1970’s. 95 It

was cleaned in 2002 using water-jet pressure but only to reveal

more stains and deterioration of the stones.96

Protective coatings have the tendency to modify their

composition over time due to decaying process underneath

and possible reactions with additives in cleaning

interventions.97 They prevent entry of rainwater and

atmospheric pollutants into the wall but also prevent water from

escaping. Some allow the passage of water in the vapor

phase. Protectants may work well in the beginning but the

entry of water through mortar joints or leakage from pipes and

downspouts trap water inside the barrier. As already stated,

this condition favors the formation of salts which grow in size

by a repeated process of crystallization-dissolution, hydration-

dehydration due to wetting and drying. 98 Water with dissolved

salts tends to emerge through fissures and joints. This leads to

flaking, breakdown of the protective coating, and the formation

of salt efflorescence on the surface and sub-surface. When the

coatings have disappeared, percolating water tends to

accumulate and produce stains on the stones. Brown stains

can be the result of oxidation of iron anchorages used in the

original structure.

Caution should therefore be made before attempting to

use anything synthetic on an important historical structure.

Science cannot duplicate the “natural” tropical environment nor

solve the stone problems totally. Even a careful study or

experimentation of the product in situ or in a laboratory cannot

assure that the product will work.99

33

Inorganic Protective Layers

There are three general classifications of inorganic

system: lime-based plasters, natural cement and modern

cement coatings. They are still chosen over organic polymers

mainly because of their strength, stability, durability, and

availability.100 The disadvantages of cement mixes include

excessive hardness; introduction of soluble salts, poor

permeability by salts and moisture, shrinkage, introduction of

large amounts of moisture to the stone during use; and a

generally cool, opaque appearance.101

Traditional Techniques of Plastering

Nothing can be more natural than applying the original

technique in protecting a historical stone structure – the use of

pure lime plaster (palitada) with egg white as binder and

crushed corals and other carbonaceous materials as fillers.102

It was used in the olden times because cement was not yet

invented and lime was abundant. But to use eggs now would

be impractical. It is a very tedious job just to separate the white

from the yolk alone. Moreover, it is expensive in terms of

manpower and the material cost. The high shrinkage of egg

white is another subject for study. The use of eggs also leads

to microbiological attack.

To use a plaster (lime only) or mortar (lime/sand)

compatible with and not stronger than the original stone is an

option to take. It is workable in a tropical environment and in a

setting where budget for conservation is nil. Torraca suggests

that adding a little Portland cement to act as binder to lime/

sand mortar can be effective.103 Otherwise, strong rainfall and

wind would easily remove pure lime plaster. The reasons given

are presented in table form. (see Table 7) The proportion

suggested is 1:4:3 where 1 is cement, 4 is lime and 3 is sand

or crushed stones. This is just a guiding formula which can be

tested in situ and the components adjusted accordingly. River

sand has to be washed well. Portland cement -low in alkalines

and sulfates must be used. White cement is preferable.

Hydraulic lime can also be used; or lime with pozzolanic

additives, instead of cement. Regular maintenance is

important.

To Plaster or Not to Plaster

In stone conservation, to plaster or not to plaster is not a

matter of choice -in a tropical setting at least. To expose the

bare stone – originally plastered- is contrary to the principles of

conservation. The plaster, as stated earlier, serves as

sacrificial layer to be exposed to weathering, in lieu, of the

stone beneath. However, there are cultural workers who prefer

to de-plaster the surface of interior and exterior walls,

specifically of churches, for “aesthetic reasons”. Apparently,

the underlying bricks would reveal a better appearance of the

red colored stones than the white lime plaster.

Because of this situation –where original stones are

exposed, this writer experimented on inorganic paints at the

San Agustin Conservation laboratory in Intramuros, Manila.

The objective was to come up with a thin protective film

simulating/ resembling the exposed stones -in texture and

color. This is to comply with the aesthetic considerations which

brought about the decision to remove the plaster. One

experiment was intended for coralline limestone; the other for

adobe, and another for bricks. Lime was added with a little

cement, mixed with crushed coralline stones (or adobe or

bricks) in different proportions. It was pigmented with colored

marble dust or colored chalk to get the matching color in the

dry form. Methyl cellulose paste was mixed to the desired

consistency. Water was added in varying quantities to each

mixture to achieve the desired consistency as a paint mixture.

Each mixture was tested on several parts of the de-plastered

stone wall using a paint brush for application. They were left for

several weeks exposed to typhoons and the heat of the sun.

As of this date, the results are still promising.

Conserva tion In terven t ion:

A P rac tica l App roach To date, numerous requests for technical assistance on

stone conservation are continuously being received by this

writer. They are usually from custodians of stone built church

heritage in the Philippines. Other queries are from local

architects and contractors. The main problem is the lack of

conservation specialist available. Second is limited funding.

34

Third is non allotment of budget for a stone specialist. The

immediate concern is how to get started with the conservation

and restoration project.

To respond to this situation, this writer has developed a

summary of the different steps applicable in a tropical setting. It

is a result of her replies, candid but practical, of queries

perennially posed to her. Admittedly, it is not the ideal formula

but it can serve as practical guide to those with little or no

background in this field.

As mentioned earlier, colonial stone structures are all

exhibiting decay and growth of vegetation. This is due to water

ingression into stone. The hot humid climate and abundant

rainfall accompanied by flooding -throughout the year- is the

hazard. The proposed practical intervention could not be

discussed any better than by first citing a typical request letter

with the answer (Fig. 13), and second, by putting in table form

the step by step procedure as a guide (Table 14).

Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation The conservation of Spanish colonial structures in a

tropical setting is an enormous and complex task. If it were a

stone object in a museum or an outdoor stone sculpture, it

would have been a simpler job.

Spanish colonial would connote ~150-year old stones to

treat. Ageing of stone is a natural process, but in a hot humid

climate, it is not the case. It is described as “accelerated

ageing” which is actually deterioration. In a country like the

Philippine archiepelago, situated in an earthquake belt, the

phenomenon is even worse. It is called “accelerated

deterioration”.

The common building stones used in Spanish colonial

structures are coralline limestone and adobe (volcanic tuff).

Both are porous sedimentary stones. They can be infiltrated by

water (rain), can retain water, and can absorb water (from

ground). Coralline limestones are calcareous stones formed

from sediments of corals. They are highly reactive to acids -

releasing carbon dioxide upon contact. The adobe or volcanic

tuffs are siliceous stones made of clay. They are easily washed

away by strong rain. Unlike red brick clays, they are naturally

quarried.

Other materials related to stone are lime, gypsum and

Portland cement. They are used as plasters or mortars. Lime

plaster can be mixed with a little cement or pozzolanic

additives to improve its binding capacity. Otherwise, it would

easily be washed out by strong rain. On the other hand,

cement is too strong and compact for the porous stones. It can

be diluted with lime, sand and pozzolanic materials. Low

sulfate and low sodium cements are recommended for use

when mixed with lime.

The main cause of stone problems in a tropical setting is

the action of water followed by the formation of salts. Water will

always find its way into the stone –from the ground, from the

walls, from the roofs and from leaks into its internal structure.

Water will percolate within walls and dissolve soluble salts. The

salts will increase in size upon re-crystallization near the

surface. Re-crystallization occurs during evaporation as

temperature increases. Evaporation (breathing of stone) can

be impeded by cement plaster or an impermeable synthetic

coating on the surface. In this situation, the stones cannot

“breathe”. As a consequence, dissolved salts re-crystallize

inside the walls instead of on the surface. Either way, stone is

deteriorated. This cycle is repeated as long as there is the

action of water occurring and the presence of soluble salts.

Some surface coatings claim to allow stones to “breathe”,

being permeable to gas (water vapor) but impermeable to

water (liquid). However, when there is too much water or

humidity within the stone walls and/or when salts are present,

their efficacy fails. Humidity or dampness in the stone walls

can be traced in areas where microorganisms and plants grow

profusely. When vegetation cannot be controlled, cracks start

to develop. This is “natural” condition of stone structures in a

tropical country. The stones always act as humid substrates

conducive for microorganisms and plants to grow. To remove

them with herbicides is costly and if not correctly chosen, these

can damage the stones. Plants will always regenerate and re-

infest as soon as the condition is favorable.

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Fig. 13: Typical Request letter Regarding Conservation of Spanish Colonial Stone Churches

Dear Ms. Reyes, Please find the Proposed Adobe Stone Work Restoration submitted by Architect Somebody as part of the restoration project for our cathedral. Please help us in evaluating the said proposal. We will appreciate it very much if you could submit to us your written evaluation as soon as possible. God bless you! Monsignor Rector of the Cathedral

Dear Monsignor, I believe first and foremost, we need to have a copy of the original plans of your cathedral. Please request this from the Diocesan Archives (architectural, electrical, mechanical, etc.) and previous restoration plans and report if any. We need to identify all sources of dampness as they cause adobe to deteriorate; • Said plans will help locate gutters, duct works, drain, downspouts, even common

conduits and non-used conduits (air con ducts, refrigeration piping, HVAC drains might be passing walls causing seepage;

• Leaks, roof defects, cracks, etc must also be identified. Adobe stones, plasters, mouldings, etc with visible signs of deterioration will need to be identified and the surface area of damage quantified for costing purposes. We need to do sampling on identified area of damage for laboratory analysis; • I need to interpret the lab results to assess extent of deterioration and make

recommendations; • We also need to have lab analysis of adobe replacements to check if compatible

with the original; • I suspect cement plaster was used only on certain wall areas. I need to do

sampling beneath these areas. To cut on cost of mouldings which would need restoration, we could request restorers to take photos and submit quotation based on their inspection and volume of work involved. We must not forget the effects of rising damp from the ground. We need to re-direct humidity rising to adobe stones. There are options in this regard which I could discuss more in detail. Finally, I heard that adobe stones of your cathedral could still be procured from the original quarry site in the nearby province of somewhere. Please check this out. Hope this helps.

Maita Reyes Chemist Conservator

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Table 14: STONE CONSERVATION: A PRACTICAL APPROACH

Step-by-Step Procedure

Description Remarks

A. Research 1) Building type; year of establishment; architect; engineer

2) Location; vicinity map -near the river, seas etc.;

3) Orientation 4) Geology and topography; quarries in the

vicinity; fault zone, etc. 5) Climate type

• This is necessary before going to the site • Bureau of Mines for the Local mineral deposits • PAG-ASA for the climate parameter

B. Site Inspection 1) Photo documentation 2) Sampling 3) In-situ preliminary analyses (T, %RH,

magnifier, compass, tool kit) 4) Listing of a. all structural defects b. all visible stone alterations 5) Listing of all other building materials used 6) Environmental survey 7) Interview with local residents

• Photo documentation: façade, the interior details, the different types of stones, different types of deterioration, vegetation, the surroundings, distribution of cracks,

• Samples of stone, mortar, plaster, cladding, soil • In-situ test: T %RH, UV, Compass, muriatic acid • Structural defects: • Stone alterations: • Other building materials used: glass, iron, steel,

copper, aluminum, narra, mahogany, molave, vigan tiles, piedra china, PVC, Resins

• Environmental survey :traffic, trains, machinery, industrial plant (vibrations) Rivers, lakes, or seas Quarries and mine sites Interview re: Flooding, local available materials

C. Lab Test and Analyses

1) Chemical and mineralogical type/s of stone (sound and deteriorated stone)

2) Biological agents (photo identification) 3) Soil analysis 4) Air analysis 5) Seismic/ vibration graphs

• Bureau of Mines: microscopic, porosity, tensile, compressive strength

• Nat’l Museum: Botany and Zoology • Bureau of Soils • DOH; DOLE; Occupational Health and Safety

D. Experimentation 1) Cement/ lime/ filler formulations: 2) Herbicides and micro biocides

• Portland and Pozzolan; Marble Dust Fillers; Washed sand; Unwashed sands

Consider Shrinkage Color Matching • Check effect of herbicide on the stone; culture • Survey: suppliers available

E. In-situ Trials and Testing

1) Cement/ lime/ filler formulations: 2) Herbicides and micro biocides

• Portland and Pozzolan; Marble dust fillers; • Washed sand; unwashed sands

Test Shrinkage Color Matching • Test with samples from Suppliers

F. Interpretation of 1) Consult a Restoration Architect • Results are useless if their significance could not

37

Results/ 2) Consult a Stone Conservation Scientist

be determined • Ex.1: High iron content in mortar, the conservation

scientist would consider the presence of reinforced concrete underlying.

• Ex.2: The presence of gypsum taken from a limestone facade; the lab analyst would just say it is present, to the conservation scientist, it could indicate that air pollutants could be the source of sulfates which crystallize on the facade, The black color could be due to trapped carbon particulates from exhaust of cars.

G. Conclusions 1) Identification of materials, deterioration products, thriving biological agents

2) Causes and extent of deterioration 3) Compatible materials and appropriate

chemical

• This shall be based on lab test results, experiment, research, or interview and/ or site inspection, environmental survey corroborated by lab tests and experimentation

H. Recommendations 1) Repair options 2) Stone treatment 3) Alternative methods and materials 4) Schedule of work

Based on: • Research • Site observations • Interview with local residents • Results of lab tests • Experiments and in site trials

I. Costs Estimates/ Options

1) Preparations 2) Materials 3) Labor

J. Preparations 1) Paper Works: documentation, contracts, permits

2) Site : clearing, coordination with local in charge

3) Materials: canvass, purchase, fabricate a. Construction paraphernalia b. Tools and supplies c. Chemicals, cleaning agents, consolidants d. Binders and fillers

4) Prepare the building: a) preliminary cleaning- grime, dust dirt b) removal of previous repairs

K. Structural Repairs 1) Walls 2) Joints

L. Treatment of Stone 1) Cleaning 2) Chemical Stability 3) Physical/ Mechanical Stability 4) Aesthetic Unity 5) Protection

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The best way to deal with the problem of humidity is by

identifying its source/s and preventing them from entering the

stone. Roof drains, downspouts can be checked for leaks.

Damp courses can be installed. Trenches can be built around

the walls so that rising damp may be retarded. Water

repellants can be applied on the stone surface to minimize the

effects of water infiltration. But the choice of products to use is

crucial. They may inhibit water from entering but may prevent

humidity within the walls from getting out. The usual products

available are synthetic materials like acrylic resins. They are

organic chemical products which are foreign to inorganic stone.

Consolidants and protective coatings have similar properties.

They are not only expensive but are risky to use. Their effects

are damaging and irreversible. Practically synthetic resins

eventually cause conservation problems.104

In view of the aforementioned, it is advisable to use

inorganic materials like lime and natural cement in a tropical

environment. They have proven to be safe, easy to apply, and

cost effective. Understanding the rationale behind traditional

techniques and imitating the precision and patience of the

artisans is advantageous. Modern technology which promises

“easy to use -better performance” techniques and products will

have to be carefully weighed before being even considered for

use. Theoretical principles and practical achievements will

have some gap somewhere.

Many conservation methods applied in the past, no matter

how well researched and studied, seem to fail even in a

temperate zone.105 It could not be any worse in a tropical

setting. It is safer and cheaper to adhere to more classical

methods and materials. Nonetheless, no conservation

treatment can be started without understanding the nature of

stone and related materials plus their environment, without

assessing the condition of individual stones and the stone built

structure, and without knowing and having experience in the

different treatment options.

There are many other concerns in stone conservation

which make it complex, viz: the interest of all stakeholders,

limitations set by legislation, financial constraints, varying

opinions as to which elements are important - the historical,

cultural, religious values, contradicting views on functionality

and preservation of the building, disagreements on techniques

and products, the failure to come up with a continuous

maintenance effort after treatment, etc.

In addressing all these, the ideal approach to stone

conservation and restoration of the built structure is to bring

together allied professionals to study, analyze and come up

with the most applicable conservation schemes. But this is not

the reality. Budget is always limited, especially for the planning

and diagnostic aspects.

Because of this reality, this writer has learned to see in

and through the eyes of the different allied professionals viz:

historian, architect, engineer, geologist, chemist, biologist,

mason, etc. The diversity of topics covered in this paper attests

to this. The stone conservator is left with no choice but to

develop a practical approach to address the situation, no

matter how complicated it may seem. Based on research,

lecture notes from her expert Professors and from experience,

the writer is able to prepare a practical conservation guide. It is

a summary of the step-by-step procedure on how to approach

conservation intervention. It is intended for cultural workers

with little background on the field, that is, for those involved in

historic structures in a tropical setting.

Through the years, the stone conservator learns to feel

with the stones and see what lies beneath them, the story

behind each and every historic structure. They are a part of our

culture. They are deteriorating. They will be conserved and

restored. This is the objective of this paper.

oOo

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REFERENCES

1 John ASHURST, Lecture Notes, ICCROM Stone Conservation Course, Venice, April 23 – June 21, 1985. 2 Venice Charter (1964), Art.8: “International Charter for the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments and Sites”, at http://www.icomos.org/venice_charter.html#historic. 3 Venice Charter. Art.11, 12 4 Timothy WHALEN, Conservation in the New Century. The Getty Conservation Institute Newsletter, Vol. 15, Nov 1, 2000. p.4. 5 Salvador Muñoz VIÑAS, “Contemporary Theory of Conservation”, in Reviews in Conservation, London (International Institute for the Conservation of Historic and Artistic Work) No. 3. 2002. p 25. 6 Lorenzo LAZZARINI, Lecture Notes, ICCROM Stone Conservation Course, Venice, April 23 – June 21, 1985. 7 Paola ROSSI-DORIA, Lecture Notes, ICCROM Stone Conservation Course, Venice, April 23 – June 21, 1985. 8 Pedro GALENDE and Regalado Trota-JOSE. San Agustin Art and History,1571 -2000. Manila, 2000. pp 48-49. 9 Ibid. 10 BUREAU OF MINES, PHILIPPINES. Geology and Mineral Resources of the Philippines. Vol. 2. March 1986. p. 293. Manila,1986. 11 COX, J. p.393 12BUREAU OF MINES. 13 COX, J. p. 393 14 Ibid. 15 PATERNO. p. 156 16 COX, J. p.393. 17 PATERNO, p.156 18 Modesto MONTOTO Physical and Mechanical Properties (of Stone) Lecture Notes. ICCROM 14th International Course on theTechnology of Stone Conservation. Venice, Italy. 2001 19 Robyn Jiske PENDER, “The Behavior of Water in Porous Building Materials and Structures”, in Reviews in Conservation, London (International Institute for the Conservation of Historic and Artistic Work) 2004, Vol. 5, p. 50. 20 Giorgio TORRACA, Porous Building Materials: Materials Science for Architectural Conservation. ICCROM, Rome (Multigrafica Editrice) 1982, p. 71. 21AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING MATERIALS, Committee C-1. 1960. ASTM Standards on Cement (with related information) 1916 Race St. Philadelphia 3, Pa. p.1. 22TORRACA. p 71 23 Ibid. 24 Ibid., p. 80 25 Ibid., p.78 26 Ibid., p.80

27 Ibid., p.65 28 Ibid., p.67 29 ASHURST 30 ASHURST 31 TORRACA, p. 70 32 Ibid. 33 Ibid. 34 Ibid., p. 80 35 C.A. PRICE. Stone Conservation. An Overview of Current Research. Los Angeles (The Getty Conservation Institute) 1996, p. 26. 36 Ibid. 37 Marisa Laurenzi TABASSO and Stefan SIMON, “Testing Methods and Criteria for the Selection/Evaluation of Products for the conservation of Porous Building Materials”, in Reviews in Conservation. IIC, No.7,2006. pp 67-79. 38 MONTOTO. 39 Ibid. 40 PATERNO. p.156 41 FITZNER, B.& HEINRICHS, K. (2004): Photo atlas of weathering forms on stone monuments. Retrieved Nov. 2, 2007. http://www.stone.rwth-aachen.de 42 ASHURST. 43 Ibid. 44 Ibid. 45 Ippolito MASSARI, Lecture Notes, ICCROM Stone Conservation Course, Venice, April 23 – June 21, 1985, 46 Ibid. 47 Ibid. 48 PENDER, p 50. 49 Ibid., p.50 50 MASSARI 51 Andreas ARNOLD, Lecture Notes. ICCROM 14th International Course on the Technology of Stone Conservation. Venice, Italy. 2001 52 C.A. PRICE, Stone Conservation. An Overview of Current Research. The Getty Conservation Institute, LA, 1996. p.14. 53 JoAnn CASSAR, Sergio VANNUCCI and Gennaro TAMPONE.1985."The Treatment of a Typical Soft Limestone with Different Consolidants: a Comparative Study", in Bollettino Ingegnieri della Toscana, 11, 3 –11. 54 BRITISH STANDARD (BS 8221-18 2000), Code of Practice for Cleaning and Surface Repair of Buildings. Part 1: Cleaning of Natural Stones, Bricks, Terra Cotta and Concrete. 55 Ibid. 56 T.M. MOUGA and M.T. ALMEIDA, “Neutralization of Herbicides: The Effects on Wall Vegetation” in The international Conference on Biodeterioration and Biodegradation, Vol. 40, No. 2 – 4, p.144. 57 Ibid, p. 143

40

58 CASSAR 59 MOUGA. p. 144 60 MOUGA. p. 141 61 MOUGA, p. 142 62 Ibid. 63 Roberto NARDI, “Consolidation of a Mudbrick Wall Using Simple Techniques and Materials”, in ICOM Committee for Conservation, Sydney, Australia, 6 -11 Sept. 1987, Los Angeles (The Getty Conservation Institute) 1987, p. 503. 64 MOUGA. p. 147 65 Ibid. p 143. 66 Ibid. 67 Ibid., p 143. 68 Ibid., p 144 69 Ibid., p. 146 70 Ibid., p. 147 71 CASSAR 72 John GRISWOLD and Sari Uricheck. Loss Compensation Methods for Stone. (JAIC 37) 1998, p. 93. 73 PRICE. p. 17 74 James R. CLIFTON, Stone Consolidating Materials: A Status Report, (1998), Retrieved May 12, 2000 at http://palimpsest.stanford.edu/byauth/clifton/stone/. 2000. 75 Ibid. 76 Ibid. 77 TORRACA 78 CLIFTON. p. 6 79 VARAS. p.121. 80 CASSAR 81 ASHURST 82 GRISWOLD, p. 91 83 GRISWOLD, p. 91 84 GRISWOLD, p. 92 85 Ibid., p.91 86 E. Leroy TOLLES, et al., Seismic Stabilization of Historic Adobe Structures: Final Report of the Getty Seismic Adobe Project,The Getty Conservation Institute. USA: The J. Paul Getty Trust. 87 Ibid. 88 ASHURST 89 GRISWOLD. p. 92 90 Ibid., p. 93 91 PRICE, CA. p 17 92 Venice Charter. Art. 14 93 CASSAR 94 Maria Jose VARAS et al., ”The Influence of Past Protective Treatments on the Deterioration of Historic Stone Facades: A Case Study” in Studies in Conservation, London

(International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Work) 2007, Vol. 52, p. 121. 95 Ibid. 96 Ibid., p. 119 97 Ibid., p. 124 98 Ibid., p. 120 99 Ibid. 100 GRISWOLD. p. 94 101 Ibid., p. 95 102 Regalado Trota-JOSE. An Introduction to Palitada and Other Surfaces on Fil-Hispanic Churches. Seminar Workshop on the Significance of Churh Palitada. May 17 -18, 2007, Intramuros. Manila, 2007. 103 Giorgio TORRACA. Porous Building Materials: Materials Science for Architectural Conservation. ICCROM, Rome (Multigrafica Editrice) 1982, p.80 104 Giorgio TORRACA, “The Application of Science and Technology to Conservation Practice”, in Science Technology and European Cultural Heritage.Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford. p. 227 105 VARAS, p.119

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Uses of Lime in Historic Buildings: Construction and Conservation Lime-sand mortars as used in the context of Philippine construction during the Spanish Period By Michael Manalo Lime-based building materials were inarguably the most indispensable for construction during the Spanish colonial period in the Philippines. It’s varied uses ranged from the structural to the protective and decorative. In this study, we use “mortar” (“mortero”) as it appears in archival construction documents from 19th century Philippines. It’s equivalent in the Mexican architectural lexicon would be “mezcla” or “mixture”. “Mortar,” we now define as “a plastic mix of lime or cement, or a combination of both, with sand and water, used as a binder in masonry.”1 Being such, it is a material which can be trowelled and hardens in place. Speaking from a strictly 19th century Philippine (or “Spanish colonial”) point of view, we should not confuse “mortar” with its application, in the English language, in bedding and jointing. “Mortar” during this period was simply a lime-sand mix, much like another Spanish construction term, “argamasa” which is used in making “lechadas” or (“hormigones”) which are used to fill in wall cavities, as well as mortar joints and plastering, this latter otherwise known in Philippine parlance as “palitada.” Mortars are composed mainly of two basic materials mixed with water: Lime

“The lime to be used for the mixtures in this project should be of the ordinary type from this province and it should be perfectly slaked and without any other substance mixed with it.”2

The lime is obtained from either limestone or from seashells. In the case of limestone (which may either be from an inland source or from the coast –

1 CHING, Francis D.K., op. cit., p. 19. 2 PNA, Proyecto de la Casa Administración de los Ylocos en Vigan: Pliego de condiciones facultativas, Vigan, Filipinas, 1873. “La cal empleada en la confección de mezclas de esta obra será de la ordinaria de la provincia debiendo estar perfectamente calcinada y apagada sin tener cantos ni caliches ni sustancia estraña alguna.”

42

coral stones) it should have a calcium carbonate (CaCO3) content of 95% or more, and, in burning the lime, the temperature should be 900 degrees centigrade to be able to produce calcium oxide. The stones are broken into small pieces, in the case of the Philippines, roughly 5 cm. from side to side at the most, before it can be burnt. This cooking would be done in two manners: the traditional Philippine manner and the western manner. The first one uses an open fire which is composed of layers of wood, hay, dry bamboo and cow dung. The fire was allowed to burn for roughly 18 hours. The second is the technique introduced by the Spanish in which ovens (“hornos”) are already employed to make cooking more effective. After the cooking, the stones are moistened to produce a powder called “quicklime”, although the normal procedure for many building projects was to place the burnt lime in chambers or vats where it disintegrated into powder as it lay in water. In many Spanish documents and treatises on architecture and construction, a popular phrase appears “entre mas podrida esta major,” meaning the more time the lime spent under water, the better it’s qualities for construction became. The reason for keeping the lime in water was to keep it from hardening when exposed to the air. This is then the lime that is mixed with sand to make the mortar. The next figure illustrates the cycle of lime, where it begins in the form of stone and ends in the exact same chemical composition as the stone in the beginning.

43

f ig. 145 ciclo de la cal; fuente: Editorial de los oficios: Guia práctica de la cal y el estuco Sand

“The sand should come from the river, siliceous and homogeneous. It should be cleaned of mud and other alien substances and for this it should be cleaned as necessary.”3

Sand is an important part of the mix and should be, as is logical, sourced from the locality, but never near the sea, as it is most probable that this would have a high salt content and will ultimately ruin the whole construction as salt will travel through the material and crystallize near the surface, breaking the physical composition of the material. Sand is crucial, given that, in many cases,

3 Ibidem. “La arena será del río de grano siliceo regular y homogéneo, debiendo estar limpia de arcilla y sustancias estrañas por lo cual se lavará si fuese necesario

44

it composes 50% of the mixture. The size of the granules used differed, depending on how the mixture was to be used, and much like modern construction, the coarse sand was used for rough civil works while fine sand was used to make the mix for plastering. In Philippine colonial construction in the 19th century, it was the norm to use two types of mortars:

Ordinary mortar: composed of one part lime and two parts sand which was mixed in wooden boards, as water was added until mix was deemed fit for use. Hydraulic mortar: composed of one part sand, four-tenths lime and three tenths fine brick powder. It was mixed in the same manner as ordinary mortar.

These basic mixtures were then used in building construction such as making the “hormigon” which is comprised of “50 parts mortar and 85 parts siliceous rock chipped to five centimeter-wide pieces.” It follows that ordinary mortar was used for the ordinary “hormigon” while hydraulic mortar was used for the hydraulic type, such as those used in making the azoteas or flat roofs. Lime-sand mortar is a material of great flexibility, as can be seen in the great variety of buildings constructed using this material as a binder or protective/decorative coating. One such example of this characteristic of lime-sand mortars is its use in brick buildings, as exemplified by the colonial houses of the heritage city of Vigan in northern Philippines. It can be observed that the rows of bricks are placed on a thick bedding of mortar, which, in many of the houses, has the same thickness as the bricks themselves. In an area with high seismic activity, the elasticity that this system of construction gives to the structure has insured is survival in a 200-year period. In fact, many of the earthquakes from the past thirty years have left little scars on these buildings, despite its weighty appearance and its age. This shows the effectiveness of these mortar joints as they act as a cushion that absorbs the pressure exerted by the movement of the brick and tiles during an earthquake – something that a rigid binding material cannot achieve. “Palitada” What is locally referred to as “palitada” can be loosely translated into English as “plaster” or “render”, and in Spanish as “revoque” (Spain) and “aplanado” (Mexico). The word itself originated from the Spanish “paleta”, or “trowel” in English, one of the main tools used in plastering. This is used as a covering for

45

walls, primarily to protect the building materials that are not very resistant to exposure to weather and the elements, using a lime-sand mixture. Secondly, it is used to even out the imperfections on the wall surface, which can then be finished with the necessary detailing. Traditionally, plastered walls had a three-coat process: the “retundido”, the “revoque” (thick layer) and the “enlucido” (fine layer for finishing). The retundido is also referred to as the enfoscado which is used to cover up uneven areas of the wall construction. More often than not, it is also the base for the revoque. In turn, many of the Pliegos de Condiciones Facultativas found in the Philippine National archives show that many times the revoque and enlucido are treated almost synonymously. The enlucido then becomes merely a coat of paint, although in construction manuals, this layer does have a thickness that should not go beyond 3 mm. In total, all three layers of palitada will have a maximum thickness of between two and three centimeters and will be using ordinary mortar. It has always been said that plastering or palitada is a necessity in the construction of colonial buildings, and among the many reasons for its application, three would best sum up its importance:

Protection of building materials which offer low resistance to being exposed to the elements. Given that lime-sand palitada in itself a porous material, it does not make the surface completely impermeable, allowing for the easy evaporation of humidity contained within the wall. The decorative character of palitada gives it a clean and appealing appearance.

Moreover, the palitada is a “sacrificial layer” applied onto the surface of a building as it absorbs the impact of much of the problems which occur in this area of the structure, though if well made, lime-sand plastering can last hundreds of years, as evidenced by many constructions from antiquity which still conserve its plastering intact up to the colors. Though its more practical purpose maintains its importance as the first line of defense of the building materials that it conceals from problems caused by humidity and physical abrasion.

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Design, historic coloration, and the palitada In a more aesthetic sense, the palitada is also called by the Mexican architectural historian Juan Benito Artigas as the “Skin of Architecture” (“piel de la arquitectura”) and emphasizes on its qualities as a canvas on which the decoration of a building is laid out – all that will characterize the prevailing tastes of the period. After all, the palitada is a form of finishing, and as this construction term suggests, without such treatments, a building is rendered incomplete – unfinished. One very obvious application of the latter statement can be seen in the many brick buildings constructed in the Philippines wherein the plastering is used for final detailing. The simplest application of this detailing could be appreciated in the work on cornices, as bricks are laid out in a manner that brick courses jut out one over the other to give the necessary form and backing. The mortar is then trowelled onto the surface and subsequently a cutout form made of wood would then be used to scrape the excess mortar and give the cornice its final form. Should the brick or stonework had carvings, which were then accentuated by the blank areas in a contrasting color formed by the palitada. There are also some exceptional cases wherein the palitada was used to create decoration in relief. This is much akin to the practice of yesseria in Spain and Latin America in which gesso is moulded and given its final form. In the Philippines, though, the sculpture in low relief is executed in the same lime-sand mix as the rest of the wall using a moulded stucco technique. Also in the realm of interiors, it was also a common practice to have palitad, which is finished with a coat of decorative painting, which was common practice in structures built of brick or stone from the ground all the way to the trusses. It was unthinkable to have an unfinished wall, which is why interiors were, in many cases, lavishly decorated with paint and plaster. This was done in two ways: the first with the two to three-coat render, and the other by directly painting onto the surface of the building material of the wall, or, in some cases, the ceiling, this latter simply having the last coat – the enlucido. Conclusion Palitada is a word that is commonplace in today’s construction parlance in the Philippines, and to this day it has exactly the same meaning as it had since the period of Spanish domination of the islands. What has changed, though, are the materials: as technology progressed, Filipino craftsmen embraced building solutions that would speed up the work – which is somewhat of a worldwide

47

phenomenon. Even the renowned Filipino sculptor Isabelo Tampinco declared that when they shifted to making pre-cast concrete mouldings and ornaments, they effectively killed the painstaking art of carving on the round. What is needed in the conservation of historic structures from the Spanish colonial period is a deep knowledge of construction methods and materials used during that era. Lime was an indispensable component of colonial structures before the advent and mass-usage of Portland cement. As the properties of lime have been hailed by many treatises for construction and architecture due to its versatility as a building material, in the modern age, these have sadly been overlooked, even in the conservation of historic structures, where the use of pure Portland cement is prevalent due to its easy handling. It is hoped that through the dissemination of knowledge on the uses of lime in historic buildings, more professionals working in the conservation field will have a better understanding of how vital this material is not only in its construction, but also in safeguarding its preservation for generations to come.

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Mampostería Architecture in the Northern Mariana Islands: A Preliminary Overview By Scott Russell Assistant Executive Director/Program Officer Northern Mariana Islands Council for the Humanities Introduction Spanish stonework architecture of the mampostería type was introduced in the Mariana Islands following the establishment of a Jesuit mission on Guam in 1668. Although initially limited to important buildings and structures of the Spanish colonial administration, by the latter decades of the nineteenth century, mampostería had been adopted by indigenous Chamorros as a preferred construction method particularly for their residences. Most mampostería architecture was constructed on Guam which served as the seat of the Spanish colonial administration from 1668 to 1898. Smaller numbers and types of mampostería buildings and structures were built in the Northern Mariana Islands of Rota, Tinian and Saipan which then were sparsely-populated outliers of the main Guam colony.1 This article focuses on examples of mampostería architecture in Northern Mariana Islands since in comparison to similar architectural sites on Guam they have received little previous attention.2 An Overview of Mampostería Construction Techniques and Types The mampostería (masonry) construction technique involved stacking stones (in the case of the Marianas, coralline limestone) to form thick walls which were held together by a mortar made from a mixture of slaked lime, sand and water.3 Internal and external surfaces were plastered with a lime mortar and then whitewashed. In rare cases, normally restricted to important colonial architecture, exterior surfaces of walls were faced with flat cut stone. Roofs of mampostería buildings were formed of timber superstructures which were covered by thatch or terracotta roofing tiles. By the late nineteenth century, roofs were also covered with galvanized iron or zinc sheets. Spanish authorities oversaw the construction of a variety of mampostería buildings and structures including forts, troop barracks, churches, schools, administrative buildings, residences, bell towers, bridges and ovens (Table 1). Many of these were built utilizing Chamorro labor.

  49  

Late in the Spanish administration, well-to-do Chamorro families also were constructing residences of mampostería. They first erected a timber frame, normally of the very durable ifet tree.4 The support columns were then surrounded by an approximately 80 centimeter-thick mampostería wall built to a height ranging from one to two meters. The ground floor of a typical mampostería residence was referred to as the bodega and was used as a storage area. This level possessed a floor of compacted soil or ifet planks. Outside access to the bodega was by a ground level opening sometimes equipped with a timber door. The bodega could also be accessed from the second floor by a wooden stairway. The walls of the second floor, while sometimes constructed of mampostería, were more typically made of wooden laths plastered over with clay or mortar. This second floor served as the main living area. Its floor was constructed of joists and planking of ifet. The main living area was normally accessed by a stone stairway, in some cases quite massive. Windows typically had no glass but were closed by sliding wooden shutters (Safford 1905:26). Chamorro mampostería residences in the Northern Mariana Islands were almost exclusively roofed with thatch5 although by the early German period a few of the larger homes had roofs covered with imported ceramic tiles or sheet metal (Fritz 2001:24-25). Larger residences might also have a roofed porch. To the rear of the main residence was a separate cook house connected by the batalan6, a raised walkway sometimes of compacted earth paved with stone but more commonly in Chamorro residences built of timber posts and planks (Safford 1902:26; Fritz 2001:24). While Spanish officials on Guam employed professional stone masons from time to time, mampostería construction in the outlying Northern Mariana Islands typically was overseen by a few local craftsmen who possessed the basic skills necessary to complete the work.7 Labor for house construction was normally provided by members of the extended family who were fed during the course of construction. While a modest wood and thatch residence might only involve a few days of labor, mampostería construction required considerably time to complete. As a result, these residences were restricted to well-to-do families who could afford

 50  

to feed workers for an extended period, to acquire the needed materials, and to pay for the services of a local mason. Public mampostería buildings, including churches, were built with community labor overseen by a priest or village mayor. Mampostería buildings were desirable primarily because they stood up much better to the strong winds generated by frequent tropical storms than did those of wood and thatch. This advantage was offset by poor interior lighting and ventilation resulting from the small windows that were typical of mampostería construction (Marche 1982:23). These buildings also served as symbols of status and wealth in both the Spanish and Chamorro communities.8 Table 1. Mampostería Building and Structure Types, by Island ____________________________________________________________________ Type Guam Saipan Tinian Rota ____________________________________________________________________ Rel igious Church xxx xxx xxx xxx Convento xxx xxx xxx Bell Tower xxx Devotional Chapel xxx xxx Secular Palace xxx Casa Real xxx xxx xxx School xxx Hospital xxx Jail xxx Private Residence xxx xxx xxx Bridge xxx Oven xxx xxx xxx _____________________________________________________________________ Examples of Mampostería Architecture in the Northern Mariana Islands

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Methodology The following summary of mampostería architecture in the Northern Mariana Islands, specifically on Saipan, Tinian and Rota was gleaned from a review of readily available English-language sources. Particularly useful were the several volumes of Spanish government reports translated and annotated by Marjorie Driver and Omaira Brunal-Perry and the historical volumes published by the CNMI Division of Historic Preservation (HPO). The site files of the HPO were also consulted along with its photographic database.9 A systematic examination of Spanish primary source documents, which was beyond the scope of this project, undoubtedly will reveal considerably more information on specific buildings and structures that once existed in the Northern Mariana Islands. This paper is limited to a preliminary overview of these architectural resources. Saipan Saipan’s indigenous population violently resisted the efforts of the Jesuit mission and no permanent Spanish presence could be established until the island was subjugated by Spanish forces in 1695 (Russell 1998:311). At this time, Saipan’s Chamorro residents were forced to abandon their traditional villages and hamlets and resettle into two mission villages situated along the western coast of the island – Fatiguan and Anaguam (Hezel:2000:25). These villages, each of which had a wood and thatch church, remained occupied until circa 1730 when their residents were moved to Guam (Hezel 2000:25). Following the closure of the mission villages, Saipan remained unoccupied until the early decades of the nineteenth century at which time immigrants from the central Carolines were granted permission to establish a village at a place the Carolinians called Arabwal.10 By the late 1850s, a few Chamorro families began settling on Saipan in a barrio adjacent to the Carolinian village. This settlement came to be called San Isidro de Garapan. In 1889, Carolinians from Tinian moved to Tanapag, roughly five kilometers north of Garapan, thus establishing the island’s second settlement (Driver and Brunal-Perry 1998:96). According to Governor Olive, in the late 1880s San Isidro de Garapan had three barrios, two occupied by Carolinians and one by Chamorro immigrants from Guam known as radicados.11 The village had 145 houses, all of wood and thatch. Government buildings included a wood and thatch casa real12 and a tribunal.13 In between the Chamorro and Carolinian barrios was a Catholic church which was a camarín structure roofed with coconut leaves.14 This was apparently built to replace an older mampostería church, built sometime in early 1860s, that had

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fallen into disrepair. Also present was the convento that served as the priest’s residence.15 The priest’s residence was said to have been constructed from materials salvaged from a beached sailing ship (Olive 1984:42). Little is known about Tanapag Village at the time of its initial establishment, but it likely comprised of one or two streets lined with wood and thatch residences of Carolinian design and a simple camarín style church. It was connected to the main settlement of Garapan by an unpaved footpath. By the early 1890s, however, an influx of Chamorro settlers necessitated the construction of more substantial buildings, including mampostería churches in Garapan and Tanapag villages. Prosperous Chamorro families also built a few mampostería residences in Garapan. Tanapag, which was a Carolinian settlement, had no stone architecture with the exception of the church. Documented examples of mampostería construction on Saipan include: Virgen de Carmen Church (first building). Sometime after 1865, a church of mampostería was constructed in Garapan and dedicated to the Virgen de Carmen. This church was heavily damaged by a typhoon that struck Saipan in September 1868. A post typhoon report noted that “the stone walls of the church [had] collapsed, leaving the front and back walls of sacristy cracked, though still standing” (Driver and Brunal-Perry 1998:37). It was rebuilt by don Jose Paras Cruz the following year (Driver and Burnal-Perry 1998:39). Twenty years later, Olive observed that although this church was masonry, it was “poorly constructed and crumbling: the townspeople, however, have volunteered to repair it” (Olive 1984:42). Virgen de Carmen Church (second building). A mampostería church “of average size and roofed with galvanized iron” was completed in Garapan on May 14, 1893 under the direction of Father Tomas Cueva, the parish priest (Driver 2000:19). The new church, also dedicated to the Virgen del Carmen, replaced a camarín style building constructed of wood and thatch. The new church was damaged by an earthquake in 1902 and subsequently renovated by the German administration. Renovation work included replacing the building’s wooden roof supports with iron columns. It remained in use until 1944 when it was requisitioned by the Japanese military and used as a storage structure in the months before the battle for Saipan (Russell 1984:86). It was

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heavily damaged by artillery fire in June 1944 and its ruins bulldozed to make way for American military construction the following month. Convento. A modest mampostería residence was constructed immediately north of the Virgen de Carmen Church. It appears in a photograph taken in 1902 (see Spennemann 2007:279). The building has a porch and a tile roof. It served as the priest’s residence and was undoubtedly renovated over the years. Its date of construction is unknown. Virgen de los Remedios Church. In 1894, a mampostería church was constructed in Tanapag Village under the direction of Father Cornelio García del Carmen. It was “ a beautiful church, roofed in galvanized iron, dedicated to Nuestra Señora la Virgen de los Remedios, the patroness of the pueblo” (Driver 2000:21). The church was built by the residents of Tanapag with assistance from parishioners from Garapan, This church was utilized until its destruction in World War II. Ada Residence. This impressive mampostería residence was constructed in Garapan Village in the 1890s by influential Chamorro businessman Pedro Ada. It had an ornate entrance featuring carved wood elements and was roofed in sheet metal. This residence was destroyed during the World War II battle for Saipan. Diaz Residence. This was a two-story mampostería residence situated in Garapan Village owned by a well-to-do Chamorro named Vicente Diaz. It served as the residence of Governor Blanco during his short residence on Saipan in 1899. The flag raising ceremony marking the acquisition of the Northern Marianas by Germany on November 17, 1899 was held outside of this residence. Georg Fritz, the German District Officer who administered the German Marianas from 1899 to 1907, resided in this house for several months after his initial arrival on the island. It also served as the temporary seat of the administration until the completion of the permanent building next to the church (Spennemann 2007:155). This building was presumably destroyed during the World War II battle for Saipan.

Blanco Residence. This was a two-story mampostería residence situated in Garapan Village owned by the Blanco family. It was destroyed during the World War II battle for Saipan.

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Miscellaneous Residences. There were a number of smaller mampostería residences constructed in Garapan Village during the late Spanish and early German period. These are known from photographs. Ovens. Spoehr reports that Spanish style masonry ovens were introduced on Saipan during the Spanish period (Spoehr 2000:34). These were dome-shaped ovens, called hotno16 by the Chamorros, were used to bake bread and breadfruit (see Safford 1902:35). They were undoubtedly associated with some of the mampostería residences in Garapan, although the author is aware of no photographic documentation from the Northern Mariana Islands. It is likely that all hotno were lost with the destruction of Garapan Village during World War II. Tinian Like their neighbors on Saipan, the people of Tinian were openly hostile to mission efforts. It wasn’t until 1695 that Spanish forces finally succeeded in suppressing Chamorro resistance on Tinian. Soon after, its indigenous residents were resettled into mission villages in southern Guam (Hezel 2000:10-11). With the exception of periodic hunting expeditions from Guam, Tinian remained unoccupied until the 1860s when the island was leased to George Johnson, an American businessman who brought in several hundred Carolinian agricultural workers to produce copra. A village was established along the southwestern shore of the island. It was christened San Luis de Medina, after the Jesuit priest who was killed on Saipan in 1670. It possessed a single street with 30 cane and thatch residences for the 235 Carolinians who resided there (Olive 1984:37). In 1889, the village was abandoned when its residents moved en mass to Saipan where they settled at Tanapag. Tinian would remain unoccupied for the remainder of the Spanish period. Documented mampostería buildings on Tinian include: Masonry Chapel. A small masonry chapel was constructed by Johnston for use by the Carolinian agricultural workers (Calvo 1877: n.p.). In the 1880s, Olive described this church as being small and “constructed from the remains of one of the monuments, called de los antigos that used to stand on that spot.” The wall of this chapel appears in several of the photographs taken by the Belgin naturalist Antoine-Alfred Marche during his visit to the island in 1888 (Marche 1982:33-35). This chapel was abandoned following the transfer of the

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residents of Medina Village to Saipan in 1889. It was likely destroyed by the Japanese to make way for modern development in Tinian Town in the 1930s. Casa Real. Olive provided a description of the casa real that was present in Medina Village in the 1880s: “At its head [the village’s sole street] is the casa real constructed of masonry and also thatched with coconut fronds. This house is little better than the one on Rota” (Olive 1984:38). It was probably occupied by the sole Chamorro resident of the village who served as the teniente or deputy magistrate. No photographs of this building are known to exist. Rota Rota differs from Saipan and Tinian in the fact that it maintained a continuous Chamorro population for the entire span of Spanish occupation. Never openly hostile to the Jesuit missionaries, Rota’s relatively small population was brought under effective Spanish control by the early 1680s. Soon after, the island’s residents were forced to abandon traditional villages and hamlets and resettled into a mission village at Sosa (Russell 2002:33). This settlement subsequently came to be called “Songsong” after the Chamorro word for village. Olive provided a description of Songsong as it appeared in the late 1880s: All the inhabitants live in a village located on the isthmus and bearing the name of the island. It has eighty-nine houses, some of masonry, others of cane and thatch, situated on the four streets running parallel to both beaches and along two cross streets” (Olive 1984:36). Olive also noted that the village possessed a masonry church and casa real. Documented examples of mampostería construction on Rota include: San Francisco de Borja Catholic Church (first building). The first masonry church on Rota is believed to date to the mid-1700s. It was “of hewn stone, although of little architectural beauty …” (Driver 2000:16). It was demolished in 1891 to make way for a new, larger church. San Francisco de Borja Catholic Church (second building). This spacious church was constructed in 1891 by community labor under the direction of the parish priest Crisogono Ortin del Corazon de Jesus (Driver 2000:16). As was the case with its predecessor, the new church was dedicated to San Francisco de Borja. It was of mampostería construction with a thatch roof. It undoubtedly was repaired from time to time over the years. As some

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point, possibly during the early German administration, the church’s thatch roof was replaced by galvanized iron. This church was utilized by the Rota community until approximately 1936 when the Japanese administration moved Chamorros out of Songsong and resettled them at a new village at Tatatchog. The church was then utilized by the Japanese as a social hall. It was destroyed by American bombing attacks in World War II. Convento. A new parish house was constructed between 1889 and 1890 by Father Ortin (Driver 2000:16). It was said to have been built of “strong materials and roofed with thatch” (Driver 2000:16). It was situated just to the east of the church. Unspecified improvements to this building were made by Father Mariano Alegre de la Viren del Perpetuo Socorro who served as the priest on Rota from 1894 to 1899 (Driver 2000:16). This building was damaged during World War II but was repaired and used until the 1990s. It is extant but unoccupied. Casa Real. This mampostería building was said to have been constructed in the early Spanish mission period (circa 1669-1690). It possessed a bodega and had solid mampostería walls. It was roofed in thatch. Access to the second floor was by a stone stairway. Governor Olive, writing in the 1880s, had the following to say about this building: “The casa real, pompously called palacio, where the alcalde lives, is small and shabby, built of masonry and thatched with coconut fronds (1984:36). At the time of the German occupation in 1899, this building was known as “El Palacio Antiguo” or “the ancient palace” (Spennemann 2008:105). Ruins of this building are extant. Miscellaneous private residences. Olive noted the presence of masonry houses in Songsong in the 1880s. These residences were not described in detail but from photographs taken at the beginning of the 20th century, they were modest buildings roofed with thatch. German Administrative Building. District Officer Georg Fritz ordered the construction of a masonry building in Songsong to serve as the seat of the seat of German colonial administration in Rota. It consisted of a mampostería foundation and wooden plank walls. It was roofed with galvanized iron sheets. Additional information about this building is undoubtedly contained in German colonial records. It is known from the photographic record (see Spennemann 2007:27).

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Catholic Devotional Shrine. A small Catholic devotional shrine, located on the road to the Sabana, was built during the German administration (circa 1911) by a German Capuchin priest. It is the sole example of mampostería architecture constructed on Rota outside of Songsong Village. Modern renovations have included covering its external and internal walls with a Portland cement plaster. It is extant. Summary As this overview documents, mampostería architecture was constructed on Saipan, Tinian and Rota. Functional types included churches, convents, casa real, residences and ovens. Unlike Guam, however, no fortifications, bell towers, schools, hospitals or bridges were constructed in these outlying islands. Areas of occurrence are limited, with the exception of the devotional shrine on Rota, to the mission villages of Songsong, San Luis de Medina, San Isidro de Garapan and Tanapag. No mampostería architecture on Saipan and Tinian predates the 1860s which is in keeping with the islands’ settlement histories. Only Rota, the sole island north of Guam to be occupied continuously during the entire span of Spanish colonization, had mampostería architecture built prior to the nineteenth century. These included a church and a casa real, both likely dating to the eighteenth century. Fierce fighting during World War II and the subsequent construction of extensive military facilities by U.S. forces in 1944-45 destroyed all mampostería buildings and structures on the islands of Saipan and Tinian. Rota, which was spared the total destruction of an invasion, possesses the only extant examples of mampostería architecture in the Northern Mariana Islands. These include a casa real, possibly built in the eighteenth century, a well-preserved convent built in 1891, and a small devotional shrine built circa 1911. Although initially introduced by the Spanish, mampostería was eventually adopted by Chamorros as a preferred construction technique. Buildings and structures of mampostería continued to be constructed on Saipan, Tinian and Rota during the German administration (1899 to 1914) and many of these durable buildings were in use until they were destroyed during World War II.

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Spanish building forms, although not constructed of traditional mampostería materials, would continue into the post-World War II era, at least on Saipan. Here, the island’s main church, Mt. Carmel, built in Susupe in 1949, resembled earlier Spanish mampostería design with its long, rectangular shape and massive façade. Also continuing earlier Spanish architectural forms were a few bodega style concrete houses built by prominent families near the new church, and concrete and brick hotno to replace those ovens destroyed by the war. These forms, which continued into the 1950s, have since been replaced by more modern architectural designs. The few extant examples of mampostería architecture are irreplaceable links to the islands’ long association with Spain. In 1999, the CNMI signed the Valladolid Declaration with the Kingdom of Spain which called for the preservation of Spanish architecture in the Northern Mariana Islands. The author hopes that this preliminary overview will serve to encourage more detailed studies to better document this significant but very fragile class of historic resource. Notes 1. No mampostería buildings or structures have been documented on Aguiguan (Goat Island) or the small, volcanic islands to the north of Saipan. 2. This paper summarizes a presentation I gave at the International Conference on Stonework Heritage in Micronesia held on Guam November 14-15, 2007 sponsored by the Spanish Program for Cultural Cooperation, the Guam Preservation Trust and the Historic Resources Division, Department of Parks and Recreation. I would like to thank conference organizers for inviting me to participate. 3. According to one observer “[t]he source of both the stone and the mortar used for building is chiefly coral rock. Coral fresh from the reef is not used, as it contains salt, with a tendency to remain soft and sticky. Coral hummocks for building are taken from the reef and allowed to weather for a long time, and the best of lime is burnt from coral rock and limestone of the ancient reefs composing the greater portion of the island” (Safford 1905:126). 4. Ifit (also ifel) (Intsia bijuga), is famous for its exceeding hardness and durability, qualities making it a valued building material.

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5. Although swamp grass (karisso) was widely used on Guam, thatch for roofing on Saipan, Tinian and Rota was almost exclusively of coconut fronds. 6. Batalan is a Philippine term relating to residential architecture that, depending on the language, refers to a porch, veranda, kitchen or washroom. It likely was adopted into Chamorro following Spanish colonization. In Chamorro, the term refers to a raised walkway that connects the main residence with the cookhouse and, in some cases, the lavatory. 7. Safford, who had the opportunity to observe the construction of a mampostería residence during his stay on Guam, made the following observation: “[a]s a rule, the masonry work on the island, chiefly stone walls and the basements of houses, is substantial but crude. In squaring the stones and in laying them horizontal, the mason frequently depends upon his eye, though he may have both square and level at home. The result is, as may well be imagined, that frequently the corners of the buildings supposed to be square are by no means right angles, and the stone steps and terraces intended to be horizontal are far from it” (Safford 1902: 126). 8. Chamorros were no strangers to stone architecture. Their megalithic latte residences were constructed for hundreds of years before the arrival of Europeans. As one archaeologist noted “by building in stone, a very durable material, high ranking [Chamorro] families reinforced their own enduring social position. Also by elevating their houses above the ground and over the households of lower ranking individuals, families … employed a symbolic gesture with nearly universal representation in Oceania, for relative height and elevation reflect subordinate-superordinate relations involving deference and authority” (Michael Graves quoted in Russell 1998:145). The adoption of mampostería residences may be seen as a continuation of this symbolic gesture employing imported construction techniques and architectural forms. 9. Particularly useful to this study was the Georg Fritz Photographic Collection which is accessible at the CNMI Division of Historic Preservation and the Micronesian Area Research Center, University of Guam. 10. Arabwal is the Carolinian term for a beach morning glory that grows in sandy areas (Ipomoea pes-caprae). The settlement at Arabwal was founded in 1839.

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11. Radicados may be translated to mean “settlers.” 12. Casa Real is a government residence or office building (Olive 1984:128). 13. Tribunal is a town hall, municipal building, courthouse and jail (Olive 1984:139). 14. The camarín was a barn-like structure with two lateral and two end walls, and a pitched roof. It was built of wood and thatch (Olive 1984:127). 15. Convento in the Philippines and the Mariana Islands is a term that commonly refers to the residence of the parish priest, usually built adjacent to the church (Olive 1984:129). 16. The Chamorro word hotno originates from horno, the Spanish term for oven. References Cited Driver, Marjorie (translator and editor) 2000 The Augustinian Recollect Friars in the Mariana Islands 1769 to 1908 Micronesian Area Research Center, University of Guam Driver, Marjorie and Omaira Brunal-Perry (translators and editors) 1998 Chronicle of the Mariana Islands. Micronesian Area Research Center, University of Guam Johnston, Ana Calvo de 1877 Letter dated March 27, 1877 to Spanish Governor on Guam. Philippine National Archives (bundle unknown) Translated by J. Stephen Athens. Fritz, Georg 2001 The Chamorro: A History and Ethnography of the Mariana Islands CNMI Division of Historic Preservation, Saipan. Hezel, Francis X. 2000 From Conquest to Colonization: Spain in the Mariana Islands 1690 to 1740

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CNMI Division of Historic Preservation, Saipan. Marche, Antoine-Alfred 1982 The Mariana Islands Translated by Sylvia E. Cheng Micronesian Area Research Center, University of Guam Olive, Francisco y Garcia 1984 The Mariana Islands: Random Notes Concerning Them Translated and annotated by Marjorie Driver Micronesian Area Research Center, University of Guam Russell, Scott 1984 From Arabwal to Ashes: A Brief History of Garapan Village, 1818 to 1945

Isla Program for Social Studies, CNMI Department of Education, Saipan. Russell, Scott 1998 Tiempon I Manmofo’na: Ancient Chamorro Culture and History of the Northern Mariana Islands CNMI Division of Historic Preservation, Saipan Russell, Scott 2002 The Island of Rota: An Archaeological and Historical Overview CNMI Division of Historic Preservation, Saipan Safford, William E. 1902 A Year on the Island of Guam: An Account of the First American Administration H.L. McQueen, Washington, D.C. Safford, William E. 1905 The Useful Plants of the Island of Guam Government Printing Office, Washington Spennemann, Dirk HR 2007 Edge of Empire: The German Colonial Period in the Northern Mariana Islands Heritage Futures International, Albury, Australia

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Spennemann, Dirk HR (translator and editor) 2008 Luta I Tiempon Aleman: Rota seen through German Eyes 1899-1914 Heritage Futures International Albury, Australia Spoehr, Alexander 2000 Saipan: The Ethnology of a War-Devastated Island Originally published by the Chicago Natural History Museum

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Photographs

Workers  erect  the  wooden  frame  of  a  traditional  Chamorro  residence  (Fritz  Collection).

A  massive  stone  stairway  typical  of  mampostería    architecture  (Fritz  Collection).  

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A  wooden  batalan  linking  a  Chamorro  residence  with  the  kitchen.    Similar  batalan  were  used  in  mampostería  architecture  (Fritz  Collection).  

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Virgen  del  Carmen  Church,  Garapan,  1899  (Fritz  Collection).    

The  Garapan  convento  pictured  at  left.    At  right  is  the    renovated  Virgen  del  Carmen  following  the  1902    earthquake  (Fritz  Collection).  

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Virgen  de  los  Remedios  Church,  Tapapag,  circa  1900  (Spennemann).      

The  Ada  residence,  circa  1905  (Fritz  Collection).  

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Details  of  the  Ada  residence,  circa  1905  (Fritz  Collection).  

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Flag  raising  ceremony  on  November  17,  1899  in  front  of  the  Diaz  residence,  Garapan.  

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The  Diaz  residence  with  troop  barracks  for  Filipino  troops.    The  Diaz  residence      was  occupied  by  Spanish  Governor  Eugenio  Blanco  for  several  months  in  1899.    It  was  also  used  by  German  District  Officer  Georg  Fritz  following  the  German  takeover.  

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The  Blanco  family  in  front  of  their  Garapan  residence,  circa  the  early  1930s    (CNMI  Division  of  Historic  Preservation)      

Unidentified  mampostería    residence  in  Garapan,  circa  1905  (Fritz  Collection).    

Unidentified  mampostería    residence  in  Garpana,  circa  1905  (Fritz  Collection).  

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Carolinian  women  dance  next  to  the  masonry  chapel  in  Medina  Village,  Tinian,  1888    (Marche  Collection).  

San  Francisco  de  Borja  Church,  Songsong,  circa  1900  (Fritz  Collection).  

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The  Rota  convento  has  it  appeared  in  2004  (photo  by  author).  

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 Casa  Real,  Songsong,  circa  1900  (Fritz  Collection).  

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The  ruins  of  the  Casa  Real,  Songsong,  2004  (photo  by  author).    

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Hagåtña: Seat of Government of the Spanish Mariana Islands 1668-1898 By Marjorie G. Driver The Place Where the Priests Landed The story of the Spanish settlement in the Marianas begins with the San Diego, arriving, as it did, from Acapulco on the eve of the feast of Saint Anthony, June 16,1668. To the surprise of the islanders, since ships usually took on water and provisioned off the southern coast at Umata-Jati (today, Cetti Bay) this ship anchored off Hagåtña, near the little island of Alupang. 1668 Nueva Costa de San Antonio Aboard ship, Brother Marcelo Ansaldo, a Jesuit traveling on to the Philippines, sketched the shoreline from Alupang Island to Adelup Point, marking the place where the priests landed. He labeled the map "La nueva costa de San Antonio" (The New Coast of San Antonio) and reported that the village was located there, "across from a stream of fresh water." In time, Hagåtña colonial district of San Antonio developed on the north side of the stream of fresh water, the original bed of the Hagåtña River. A Camarin on the ocean side of the river Here, in a camarin, a shed-like barracks building, on a narrow strip of land between the beach and the Hagåtña River, Father San Vitores established the fist seat of Spanish authority in the Marianas. But within three years of his arrival, native discontent had become such a threat that the small group of missionaries and thirty-two soldiers constructed a stockade. For the first time, the religious and the military had separate quarters, but the fortification was still on the narrow strip of land on the ocean side of the Hagåtña River. The death of Fr. San Vitores in 1672 weakened the leadership of the Jesuits, since they were forced to depend on the military for their personal safety and that of the mission. This now required an experienced military commander. 1681 Presidio de las Islas Marianas, Saravia, First Royal Governor In 1681, what had been a Jesuit mission protected by a military outpost officially became the Presidio de las Islas Marianas, a change of administrative status that coincided with the arrival from Spain of the first royally appointed

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governor, Antonio de Saravia (1681-83). 1683 Fort Guadalupe, on the inland plateau side of river During his first two years, 1681-82, Governor Saravia built a stone fort, Santa Maria de Guadalupe, with quarters inside for the governor. Now, for the first time in fourteen years, the seat of Spanish authority in the Marianas was on the plateau side of the Hagåtña River, and the fort was the first official seat of government and residence of the Governor of the Presidio of the Mariana Islands. It marked the emergence of the governorship as the primary office in the archipelago and was the precursor of the Palacio in later years. Governor Saravia died in 1683. His successor, Damian de Esplana (1683-96), arrived on the first supply ship to reach the Marianas directly from the Philippines. This historic event inaugurated a shorter alternate supply route that alleviated the colony's complete dependence on the galleons arriving from Acapulco. 1684 Uprising Within a year, Saravia's new fort had its defenses tested when the last major uprising on Guam broke out on a Sunday morning in June 1684, a few weeks after the galleon had passed. The attack came as the missionaries and troops were heading for mass and by the time peace was restored, more than twenty people had been killed, including five missionaries, and Governor Esplana himself had been left for dead. 1684 Umatac Palacio: Shipping interests Esplana survived the attempt on his life, but spent most of his long tenure as governor in Umatac, the port where the galleons from Acapulco and the supply ships from Cavite called, and where he could oversee the unloading of the Presidio's situado, the silver subsidy from Acapulco, the supplies arriving from Manila, and his own extensive private business interests. Protected by a contingent of soldiers, he may have felt safer there in the large governor's residence, the Palacio that he constructed on the shores of the bay. King Carlos II signed a royal decree, dated 30 March 1686, that designated the "pueblo of San Ygnacio de Agaña, which is where the governor lives and where the Presidio is located," be granted the status of Ciudad (City). At the same time the village of Umatac was honored with the title Villa, meaning a village that enjoyed special privileges.

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Meanwhile, Captain Joseph Quiroga, the commandant of the Presidio, remained in Hagåtña at Fort Guadalupe until it was destroyed by a powerful typhoon in November 1693. 1693 Typhoon and the destruction of Fort Guadalupe After Fort Guadalupe was destroyed by the typhoon and the surging tidal seas, the presidial compound was moved inland toward the cliff that runs behind Hagåtña. During the next dozen years or so, three short-term governors followed Esplana and probably lived in or near the newly established garrison compound. With the appointment of Governor Manuel Arguelles (1706-09), mamposteria buildings were constructed, including a church with three naves and an adequate two-story home for the governor and his family. The building known as the Casa de Retiro may have been constructed around this time. It was the residence for out-going governors during the period of their residencia, the judicial procedure that took place before they left the island for the Philippines. The building survived into the mid- to- late 1800s as the Tienda and as the office of the Administrador de Hacienda. The Palacio in Umatac continued as the focal point of Governor Jose Antonio Pimentel's eleven-year administration (1709-20) and that of his successor Luis Antonio Sanchez de Tagle (1720-25), both of whom were involved in profitable business ventures associated with the Acapulco galleons and the Cavite supply ships. 1720 The vulnerabil ity of Merizo Bay But, in 1720, an event with far-reaching implications took place in Merizo Bay, where the annual Cavite supply ship awaited favorable seasonal wind changes for its return trip to the Philippines. The San Andres lay at anchor when the English privateer Clipperton sailed into the bay and attacked it. This action exposed the vulnerability of Merizo Bay as a safe layover anchorage. 1730s Apra Harbor's development and the English privateers By 1730 the activities of English privateers in the Pacific posed ever-increasing threats to Spanish ships plying the Manila-Acapulco run, especially on their return voyage via the Marianas when they carried large shipments of silver, including the situados (subsidies) for the Presidios in the Marianas and the Philippines. The next two governors were naval officers, sent to investigate safer

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anchorages in the Marianas. The ship that brought the governor in 1734 was the first to anchor at Apra and her pilots the first to sound and map the harbor. Three years later, Fort San Luis was built near the beach at Sumay on the Orote Peninsula. When the development of a defensive and protective military posture at Apra Harbor became the focal responsibility of the island's governors, their presence in the Hagåtña-Apra area was imperative, and this required proper and adequate living quarters in Hagåtña, the capital city. 1744 The Palacio in Hagåtña In 1744, during the administration of Governor Fernandez de Cardenas (1740-46), a new Palacio was constructed in Hagåtña, in the location of today's Spanish ruins in the Plaza de España. This building was the seat of government for 142 years, surviving earthquakes, devastating typhoons, and the administrations of thirty governors. Although the building was not always well maintained, its longevity speaks well for the skilled Presidio workmen who built it, the materials selected, and the solid foundation on which it stood. 1751, 1756 Governor Olavide's new forts During the next twenty years Spain re-fortified and strengthened her defenses in the Marianas against her European enemies, especially the British. Since little had been done to protect the island and the capital city after the destruction of Saravia's Fort Guadalupe in 1693, Governor Henrique Olavide (1749-56) constructed a new fort, San Fernando, in the same location in 1751. A few years later, in 1756, he built Fort Santo Angel on the large rock formation at the north entrance to Umatac Bay.

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1766 Shipping via the Cape of Good Hope 1769 Jesuits expelled. Recollects arrive As threats to Spain's Pacific lifeline intensified, ships touching at Guam from Acapulco and Cavite became less frequent, and when the alternate route from Manila to Cadiz via the Cape of Good Hope became a reality in 1766, the isolation of the Marianas increased. Three years later, the Jesuit missionaries who had served the islanders since the time of Father San Vitores were expelled and replaced by Augustinian Recollect friars. A powerful earthquake in 1779 damaged the old colonial buildings in Hagåtña, including the church, the Palacio, and the Colegio. The church and the Palacio were repaired, but the Colegio was so badly damaged that it was rebuilt,

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apparently, in the same location. This new Colegio building was not replaced until 1896,117 years later. 1794 War in Europe: Governor Manuel Muro When Manuel Muro (1794-1802) assumed the governorship in the summer of 1794 he faced extreme difficulties. A prolonged drought caused a serious food shortage; a devastating fire struck Hagåtña; and a terrible epidemic caused many deaths. Muro arrived from Spain with his young bride, dona Maria Agueda del Camino, and perhaps in an effort to please her and make the aging Palacio a more comfortable home, he added doors to the main entrance, rebuilt three rooms and added several new ones. Behind the Palacio he constructed a handsome 72 feet high masonry watchtower, the Atalaya, that overlooked the Presidio compound and the boat landing. Around the back of the Palacio, he constructed a mamposteria wall about 142 feet long and more than 9 feet high and, within the walls, a mamposteria gallinero (chicken house) roofed with tiles. Also behind the Palacio and also of mamposteria, a corral nearly 5,000 feet in circumference enclosed the Presidio's livestock. Ruins of these walls may be seen today in the Plaza area. In 1799 Governor Muro demolished old Fort San Fernando near the beach and constructed Fort San Rafael in the same location. Governor Saravia's Fort Guadalupe and its two successors protected the City of Agana (now spelled Hagåtña), the seat of authority in the Spanish Marianas, for nearly two hundred years. 1802 Muro's Palacio The Palacio, as renovated by Muro, was an impressive two-storey mamposteria building situated in a pleasant part of the city, behind a large grove of breadfruit trees. In front, the road leading to the landing place crossed the newly built (and still standing) bridge, with its carved plaque of San Antonio de Padua over the keystone. According to Haswell, a visitor in 1802, the mansion was constructed in the old Spanish style with stores on the first floor. The living quarters were on the second, with twenty-foot high ceilings and a reception chamber nearly 100 feet long and forty feet wide, well ornamented with lamps, paintings, etc. At each end of the reception area were private apartments and across the front ran a wide balcony that reached from one end of the house to the other.

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The Cuartel, the guardroom and barracks, built in 1734, could house a large number of men. It was to the west of the Palacio; the church, a squat barn-like building with a low bell-tower was to the north, the officers' homes, on the main street nearby, were roomy, airy, and two stories high, the bodegas (lower apartments) being used to keep cattle. Muro's legacy Spanish Hagåtña What remains of "Spanish Agaña" is largely the legacy of Manuel Muro: Fort Santa Agueda, at Apugan, named in honor of his wife; the handsome ruined archways of the Almacen, with it war-battered plaque; the Tolai Acho, the little stone bridge honoring San Antonio; the high walls with inverted archways behind the Azotea; and the range of low walls with the tile-embedded pillar capitals that runs behind the ruins in the Plaza de España Turn of the 1800s Outsiders and Whalers With the turn of the nineteenth century, outside forces continued to press the Spanish Marianas. 1829 A local uprising It fell to Governor Jose Medinilla (1812-22) to deal with the growing presence of whaling ships and their disruptive crews, as they and other foreigners sought residence and business opportunities in the Mariana Islands. In 1829, during his second term, Medinilla was faced with a popular uprising whose objective was to assassinate the governor and everyone else in the Palacio. Some of the malcontents requested that foreigners be permitted to sell goods without restrictions; others demanded the freedom to work or not to work on public projects. All weapons were removed from the homes of the suspects and, to protect the Palacio, a parapet was constructed on the Azotea and mounted with three stone-throwing mortars. Among the rebelling native sons were members of the most influential and educated families. They intended to capture Fort Santa Cruz and the brigantine in Apra Harbor; the powder magazine on the hillside behind the Palacio, near present-day Government House; the government Almacenes (warehouses), and the kegs of rum in the Palacio's bodegas. All the Spanish defenders and sympathizers were to be killed. The aftermath: Punishment and exile At the height of the insurrection, in the middle of the night, fifteen ingleses

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(Anglos) were rounded up, shackled, and sent to the deserted island of Aguiguan on two Carolinians buncas (canoes). The sergeants guarding them were instructed to throw them overboard if they attempted to escape. Eighty-nine local residents and several Filipinos were captured and held in the city. Among the worst rabble-rousers, sixteen were sent to Rota in chains; thirty-four were shipped to Tinian on an English whaler, the rest were held in irons, stocks, and shackles in the barracks, the jail, and in the bodgeas of the Palacio. As of 5 August 1829, seventy-eight rebels had been arrested and sixteen exiled. At a later unknown date, Governor Medinilla absolved them, and they most likely returned to Guam. Captain Vil lalobos: Island defenses - Danger of internal revolt Within a few months of the Hagåtña revolt, Governor General Ricafort sent Captain of the Artillery Ramon de Villalobos to the Marianas to report on the island's defenses. Perhaps with the 1829 disturbance in mind, Governor Villalobos (1831-35) warned that Spain should be aware of the danger of internal revolt in Guam, whether perpetrated by natives or foreigners, including large numbers of disorderly whalers. A governor must guard against violations of the law and inflict prudent and rigorous punishment when they occurred. Weapons must not be permitted at Umatac, and subversive individuals must be isolated, as was done with those exiled to Aguiguan, Rota, and Tinian. As far as the city's defenses were concerned, Villalobos expanded on Medinilla's attempt to protect the seat of government by installing a parapet and guns on the Palacio's Azotea. As an artillery officer familiar with military strategies, he dug a moat seven feet deep and constructed a semi-circular fortification with several cannons in front of the Palacio. 1855 Felipe de la Corte When Felipe de la Corte (1855-66) took over the governorship in 1855, he came with a special mandate: to carry out a detailed study of the economic potential of the island. Spain was eager to make the islands self-supporting and rid itself of a burden it could no longer easily sustain. Perhaps the only governor of the Spanish nobility, he was well educated, a competent engineer and lawyer who had spent years in the Philippines. Before the end of his assignment, he completed what is the most thorough and comprehensive study of the Mariana Islands during the Spanish Administration. His Memoria descriptive e historica de las Islas Marianas, compiled and written in the Palacio from the records in the

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government archives there, is a testimonial to the extensive nature of the data kept by Spanish administrators. 1855 Epidemic: Prisoners as manpower The smallpox epidemic that broke out on Guam in 1855, early in Governor de la Corte's administration, claimed the lives of more than 4,000 people, about half the population. In 1856, faced with a lack of able-bodied workers, the governor requested that two companies of presidiarios be sent from Manila, but it was somewhat later that 100 arrived to assist the Presidio, especially with farming and public works projects. In 1860 a penal institution was established under the jurisdiction of the Presidio de la Marianas. It was abolished in 1892. 1871 Governor Ibanez: State of the Palacio - a thatch roof In Hagåtña, by now a Philippine provincial capital city, the Palacio was more than 100 years old, as were other government buildings deteriorating around the plaza. When Governor Luis Ibanez y Garcia (1871-73) arrived in Hagåtña, he found the roof of the Palacio in extremely poor condition. A typhoon in 1872 so damaged it that Ibanez found it necessary to construct a thatched covering over the tile roof to make it habitable. During his short tenure, the energetic governor carried out several construction projects: A substantial wooden bridge was constructed over the Hagåtña River between the barrios of San Nicolas and San Antonio; a pantalan, or wharf, was built at Punta Piti; the upstairs of the Almacen was converted into a hospital; a new building, the Tribunal, was constructed across from the Palacio as a townhall and jail. He also began to demolish old Fort San Rafael, know as the Castillo, built near the beach by Governor Muro in 1799. The materials were to be used to construct the addition on the north side of the Cuartel, the Pabellones, a structure that was to be used as living quarters for officers of the Presidio, and later for officers of the penal institution. 1873 Old tiles from Umatac It took another typhoon in September 1873 and a new governor, Eduardo Beaumont, to finally take action. In Hagåtña, the typhoon destroyed Ibanez's makeshift thatch roof covering. In Umatac, the old Palacio built around 1684 was nearly two hundred years old and had suffered such severe typhoon damage that Governor Beaumont had the old tiles salvaged and brought to Hagåtña to be utilized on the roof of the Palacio.

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1875-80 Governor Bravo and the Deportados Between 1870 and 1877 large numbers of political exiles were sent to the Marianas. More than 700 eventually were sent to Guam and Saipan, some to Rota, as well. The various groups of deportados inflicted great hardship on the completely unprepared populace, local people and colonial administrators. For a detailed account of this period, please refer to Carlos Madrid's excellent account in his recently published Beyond Distances. Governance, Politics and Deportation in the Mariana Islands from 1870 to 1877. 1884 The assassination of Governor Pazos: Native discontent Several years later, when Governor Angel de Pazos arrived in early 1884, although there were two new buildings around the Plaza, a municipal building called the Tribunal and the Escuela de Ninas, a girls' school, both built in the l870s, the much older buildings were decrepit and showing their age. The colony's capital had fallen into disrepair and decay, perhaps adding to the uneasiness of the community. Among the local populace, the underlying discontent first manifested in the uprising of 1829 once again erupted in violence. This time, a Chamorro guard, Juan de Salas, as part of a conspiracy, shot and killed Governor Pazos as he returned home from his evening walk. After only three months in office, Spain's representative was assassinated in the very building that had been the seat of Spanish authority for almost one hundred and fifty years. 1884 Governor Olive: The demolition of the 1744 Palacio The new governor, Colonel Francisco Olive y Garcia (1784-87), arrived in November and was appalled at the sad state of neglect of the colony. He arrived on a military transport with additional troops and an engineer commissioned to inspect all public buildings and report on needed repairs. It was not long before it was determined that Spain's image must be enhanced and the concerns of the people more closely addressed. The old 1744 Palacio, the symbol and seat of Spanish government in the Marianas, had to be replaced. Its timbers were rotted, the roof construction was defective, and during the rainy season the leaks were such that the building was almost uninhabitable.

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1888 Governor Solano: The new Palacio The demolition of the 142 year-old Palacio was completed after the arrival of Governor Enrique Solano in July 1887. The new building, designed by don Enrique Soto, a Spanish Army engineer and architect, stood on the same

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foundation as the old Palacio. On 25 February 1888, the cornerstone for the new building was blessed by the pastor of the Hagåtña parish church, Fr. Aniceto Ibanez del Carmen. By Christmas 1889, for the first time since 1744, the capital city of Agaiia had a new building to symbolize Spanish authority in the Mariana Islands and a new residence and office for its governing representative. 1891 Governor Santos: Palacio's roof problems The building was brand new but problems with the Palacio's roof persisted. The pitch of the new roof was flatter, adjusted to the positioning of sheets of zinc roofing that had been ordered from Manila, but had not arrived. Consequently, the tiles from the old building and those salvaged from the Umatac ruins were remounted on the new structure. By 1891, Governor Luis Santos (1891-92) complained to his superiors that there were so many leaks that one could hardly live there, and the constant dripping of water down the walls was washing away sand and lime, leaving the coral blocks of the mamposteria walls exposed. Just two years old, Santos warned Manila that if repairs were not made immediately, a good building would soon be destroyed. 1898 The End of the Spanish Administration As the century wound down and the Spanish-American War ended Spain's presence in Guam, the new Palacio, the seat of government and Spanish authority in the islands for more than two centuries, was barely ten years old, though roofed with some seventeenth century tiles from Umatac. By February 1899, no Spanish flags flew over Hagåtña and no Spanish coat of arms graced the entrance to the Palacio. Spanish Guam was no longer Today, the ruins in the Plaza de España are reminders of Guam's Hispanic heritage, and the beautifully mounted old Spanish coat of arms at the inside entrance to Government House evokes the historical role of the Palacio in the Spanish Marianas.

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The Restoration and Development of Intramuros in Manila By Jaime C. Laya, Ph.D. Background Intramuros is the Walled City of Manila. For almost 400 years until its de-struction in 1945, it was the seat of power -- political, religious and mili-tary. The country’s oldest universities and colleges were located there, as were homes of the powerful and the wealthy. Built beginning in the late 1500s, its fortifications (or “muralla”) were enlarged, strengthened and otherwise improved over the ensuing 250 years, particularly after the British Occupation of the Philippines in 1762-64, during the Seven Years’ War. By the 19th century, powerful artillery had rendered the ancient de-fenses useless and work on the fortifications ceased. Soon after the Philippines became a colony of the United States in 1898, much of the muralla along the Pasig River was pulled down to make way for ware-houses. Openings were cut in the walls to ease traffic. The top of the walls became a promenade. Famed American architect and urban planner Daniel H. Burnham prepared a master plan for Manila in 1904; the moat became the Sunken Garden, a major feature of Manila’s civic center and parks network. The Walled City, including about a third of the still extant walls, was de-stroyed in February 1945, at the close of World War II, torched by the Japanese and shelled by the returning Americans. San Agustín Church survived, but everything else was lost. The Americans bulldozed away all the ruins except those of the churches and two major government build-ings (Ayuntamiento and Intendencia, respectively the city hall and central finance offices of the Spanish Regime), leaving Intramuros featureless land for years. Only the Augustinians and the Colegio de San Juan de Letrán stayed among the religious orders and schools. In time, the Ca-thedral, the Intendencia and part of Fort Santiago were reconstructed more or less to their old external appearance, but modern multi-story buildings and warehouses rose along with them. Unfortunately, the Inten-dencia burned down in 1979 and became a ruin once again. The muralla was largely ignored until 1966 when President Ferdinand E. Marcos, on suggestion of First Lady Imelda Romualdez Marcos, issued Ex-

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ecutive Order No. 18 creating the Intramuros Restoration Committee. The Committee refurbished the principal gates and a destroyed section of the wall near Puerta Isabel II. On initiative again of Mrs. Marcos, a second effort at restoration took place in 1978. The major services of the Armed Forces of the Philippines – GHQ, army, navy, air force, marines, and police – were called to help. An area was assigned to each service and working under the direction of Mrs. Helen Espino, wife of the AFP Chief of Staff and the ladies of the service chiefs, the AFP Team uncovered buried structures and sections of the moat from under piles of earth and parking lots. In both instances, the National Historical Institute guided the work. Systematic and continuing restoration and development began with the issuance of Presidential Decree No. 1616 “Creating the ‘Intramuros Ad-ministration’ for purposes of restoring and administering the development of Intramuros,” signed into law by President Marcos on April 10, 1979. This paper describes mainly work done from 1979 to 1986, when the present author was Action Officer of the Intramuros Administration. By that time, IA’s initial goals had been attained. Most of the fortifications had been restored, an “old town” area (Plaza San Luis) had been built and was operational, a collection of colonial period art had been formed and a house-museum (Casa Manila) opened, festivals and events were ongoing, income-producing activities initiated, and most importantly for the long term, urban development plans and policies, and building regulations were in place. The Case for Preservation, Restoration and Development During the American Regime, Intramuros fortifications gave Manila a unique character and beauty. Grand public buildings – Post Office, Metro-politan Theater, Manila City Hall, Legislative Building, and Finance Building – lined a wide boulevard along the Sunken Garden and the muralla of In-tramuros. The area was to Manila as the Mall is to Washington D.C., the Ringstrasse to Vienna, the Jardin des Tuileries and Champs Elysées to Paris. Aesthetics were forgotten in the post-war struggle for survival. Part of the Sunken Garden was treated as idle land and became grassland, bus terminal, even a smoking garbage dump. More openings were cut through the walls and sections dismantled for building stone. Until the 1960s when the inhabitants were resettled, Intramuros was a giant squatter col-ony. Public opinion was divided, whether or not Intramuros and its fortifi-

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cations should be restored, whether the money would be better spent elsewhere. Intramuros was a symbol of foreign domination, having been the seat of Spanish colonial power. On the other hand, Spaniards (including the relig-ious whose abuses helped fuel the Philippine Revolution) brought eco-nomically useful plants; agricultural technology including the plow; a sys-tem of government and law; printing and writing using the Roman alpha-bet; and in general, the arts, culture and belief systems of the West. Structures, including the muralla, were built by Filipino labor and enriched with Filipino creativity. Native leaders, scientists, artists, and revolution-ary heroes were educated in Intramuros schools. Thousands suffered im-prisonment, torture and death in Fort Santiago during the Philippine Revo-lution and during the Japanese Occupation. Thousands more perished in the destruction of Intramuros in 1945. Intramuros is hallowed ground. Not least, recovering something of Manila’s pre-war beauty, thereby rais-ing civic pride, would be a worthy end in itself. A visit to Intramuros illustrates social and political history and such sub-jects as art; civil, domestic and military architecture; social and economic history; religion. Spanish Regime structures are Filipino-Hispanic. They have Spanish elements certainly, but are distinctively Philippine, suited to the climate and using local material. Intramuros is part of Philippine his-tory and its restoration not only evokes an era of the Philippines’ past, but also helps revive lost skills and crafts. In the world of globalization, culture and tangible cultural heritage are among the elements that make a country distinctive. Without these, cities all over the world would be poor imitations of Western cities, with fast food outlets, malls, cars and traffic, billboards. From a purely economic standpoint, tangible cultural heritage can be a tourist draw. Many countries have beaches and tropical weather, but a country’s people and culture are unique and can become destinations in their own right. As an attraction, Intramuros is exceptional. The muralla silhouetted against the sunset is an icon long associated with Manila. More visitors inevitably mean more restaurants, hotels, souvenir and handicraft shops, and more jobs. Colonial period structures and fortifications are carefully preserved in many countries, highlights of their tourism programs. The United States and Canada preserve the architectural heritage of British, French and

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Spanish rule. Spanish Mission Churches in California, Texas and New Mex-ico are carefully preserved and maintained, attracting steady streams of visitors. The old sections of numerous cities – Mexico City, Havana, New Orleans, Singapore – are protected and continue to be centers of urban life. The city of St. Augustine in Florida, the oldest in the United States, capi-talizes on its Spanish colonial past. People visit the 17th century Castillo de San Marcos and a historic district with some three dozen small build-ings (mainly late 19th to early 20th century houses) and about the same number of reconstructions built in the mid-1960s. Some are museums with costumed guides and with blacksmiths, candle makers, and other traditional trades people at work, others are shops. The city attracts some two million people each year, enticed to spend an extra day or two beyond a beach holiday at Fort Lauderdale or Miami, or a visit to Disney World or Cape Canaveral. The same is true for Malacca, Singapore, Jakarta, Macao, and elsewhere in Asia. In Nanjing, China, Ming and Qing Dynasty buildings in the square and streets adjoining the Temple to Confucius have been refurbished, re-stored or reconstructed. It is now a lively district, with handicraft and souvenir shops, restaurants, cafes, and other retail establishments. A visit to the place is a main feature of a Nanjing tour, a prime destination of local visitors (including young children and students) and foreign tour-ists alike. A decision was made long ago to grant Intramuros special distinction as a historical district. Commonwealth Act No. 171 was enacted in 1936 “adopting the Spanish colonial type of architecture on all buildings to be constructed, altered or repaired in the District of Intramuros.” This was reiterated after War by Republic Act No. 597, passed in 1951 making Fort Santiago a national monument, directing the restoration of the walls, and reiterating that new construction conform to “the Spanish style of architecture of the proper period.” Interpretation and enforcement of the laws were not consistent and In-tramuros architecture was already modernizing even prior to its destruc-tion in 1945. In the post-war rebuilding, even more and taller buildings were constructed with little or no Hispanic feel. A fresh effort was made with the creation of the Intramuros Administration in 1979. The Intramuros Administration

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Certain parcels of government real estate had been transferred to the Land Bank of the Philippines to help finance the land reform program, in-cluding the site on Plaza de Roma (formerly Plaza Mayor and Plaza McKin-ley) that was occupied by the palace of Spanish Governors General and that had been vacant since the big 1863 earthquake destroyed the pal-ace. The Land Bank decided to build an office condominium thereon and began digging on the foundations in 1978. Objections were raised that the large building would overwhelm the nearby Cathedral, but construction was already up to the second floor when the matter reached President Marcos’ attention. He ordered con-struction suspended, but it was finally decided that work had gone too far and that it would be too costly to change plans in midstream. Work re-sumed and the present tall and bulky Palacio del Gobernador Condomin-ium is the result. The incident led to the issuance of P.D. No. 1616 creating the Intramuros Administration (“IA” or “Administration”), later amended with the issu-ance of P.D. No. 1748 (December 10, 1980), herewith included as Annex “A”. The Administration was charged with: (a) the restoration and main-tenance of the Intramuros fortifications and other government property within Intramuros, including public places and (b) the zoning and orderly development of the Walled City as a historical district, including approval of building and construction plans. Landowners were encouraged to build within established guidelines and owners of existing buildings were en-couraged to improve at least the façades. The new office was given the authority, among others: (a) to grant in-centives to investments made within Intramuros, including tourism and manufacturing or commercial operations compatible with the district’s historical character, (b) to grant real property tax discounts and incen-tives, financial assistance and grants to property owners wishing to reno-vate existing property to conform with approved architectural standards, (c) to operate museums, art galleries, theaters, and other cultural or edu-cational facilities, (d) construct, lease, sell and operate shopping and commercial facilities, (e) operate guided tours and offer related tourism services. To fulfill its functions, IA was given the authority to expropriate property, to receive donations and to utilize its income. Donations made to IA were exempted from donors’ tax and were fully deductible by the donors for income tax purposes.

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The Decree in effect excluded Intramuros from the authority of the City of Manila insofar as building plan approvals and certain public services were concerned. Its Charter accordingly made the Administration the only national government agency with a wide range of powers covering construction of both public and private structures within the territory of a local government. The Administration was placed within the Ministry of Human Settlements (headed by Mrs. Marcos who was Minister) and decision making was vested in a Board of Administrators that consisted of the Minister of Hu-man Settlements as Chairman and as members, the Mayor of the City of Manila, the Executive Director of the National Historical Institute, the IA Administrator, and other persons designated by the President of the Philippines. The Ministry of Human Settlements was dissolved in 1986 and IA is currently under the Department of Tourism. No Administrator was appointed, but the present author, then Minister of the Budget, was concurrently named IA Action Officer. There were seven (7) divisions in the initial organization: Urban Planning, Walls and Fortifi-cations, Museum, Festivals and Events, Research and Publications, Busi-ness, and Administrative. Technical Committees were created, among others for the review of proposed private building plans, inter-agency co-ordination and the building of a cultural-commercial complex (Plaza San Luis). Planning and Design In 1949, the Philippine and Spanish government had agreed to exchange expert advisers in various fields, including the mutual promotion of tour-ism. Among other things, it was agreed that Spanish tourism and heri-tage preservation experts would help prepare an Intramuros development plan. A Mission was dispatched to Manila and the Plan de Ordenación Turística de Intramuros de Manila was submitted in October 1973. The plan made detailed recommendations on the nature and type of allowable construction within the Walled City. Intramuros would be divided into zones including a historical-monumental zone; cultural and recreational zone; low, medium and high buildability zones; and a hotel zone. Each zone would have prescribed land use and building specifications. A wide and shallow reflecting pool was to be built against the muralla reminiscent of the old moat. An outdoor amphitheater would be built on the Parián revellín.

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The plan was approved in principle by President Marcos under Letter of Instructions No. 733 issued in August 1978. However, changing condi-tions had made certain elements of the original plan impractical and the Administration had to take these into account. An updated plan was submitted and was approved by the President in December 1979. The more detailed implementing document, “Rules and Regulations Governing the Development of Intramuros,” was approved on April 27, 1981, signed by Mrs. Marcos as Chairperson of the Intramuros Administration. The drafting of P.D. No. 1616 had taken into account experience here and abroad, completed studies including the Spanish Plan, and suggestions of historians, antiquarians, property owners, and other interested parties. P.D. No. 1616 accordingly anticipated and provided for a number of major undertakings: (a) the restoration of the fortifications; (b) the regulation of land use and of new construction, (c) the creation of an “old town” area with recreated buildings, intended as a commercial and museum complex, (d) the establishment of museums on the arts of the Spanish colonial period, (e) revitalizing cultural life in public spaces, and (f) the ini-tiation of income producing activities. Much preparatory work had to be done before actual restoration work could begin. Exposed structures and ruins had to be surveyed and docu-mented. Archaeological work was necessary to identify buried structures and establish their condition. Soil tests were needed to ensure the stabil-ity of any restored structures. Water, drainage and electrical systems had to be designed. Archival and library research was needed to help identify and visualize the original appearance of each component of the fortifications. Stone and other material had to be sourced and workmen trained. A database of existing buildings and of land ownership needed to be compiled. The rules and regulations setting out development guide-lines applicable to private landowners, including zoning, architectural standards, and construction, had to be prepared. The re-entry of squat-ters had to be contained. Quickly completed projects were therefore started to keep public interest alive. The plazas were restored and cultural events were organized. Gate chambers were made into small museums, showing colonial period art-work, furniture, architectural details, and other objects from the collec-tions intended for the planned museums. A military exhibit was mounted inside an intact powder magazine at Baluarte de San Andrés.

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Research and Publications A great deal of time would have been saved had as-built drawings been available, but there was no staff, funds or time to do archival work in Spain or Mexico. However, Fr. Luis Merino, O.S.A., a Spanish priest-historian who had extensively studied primary documents in Spain and the Philippines, guided the research and generously allowed full access to his library that included copies of archival documents. Having spent must of his life in Intramuros, Fr. Merino bequeathed many documents to IA when he passed away in 1986. The staff relied heavily on microfilms and photocopies of plans in Spanish archives and on books like Maria Lourdes Díaz-Trechuelo Spinola, Ar-quitectura Española en Filipinas (1565-1800) (Sevilla: Escuela de Estudios Hispano-Americanos de Sevilla, 1959); Pedro Ortiz Armengol, Intramuros de Manila (Madrid: Ediciónes de Cultura Hispánica, 1958); and Emma Blair and Alexander James Robertson, editors, The Philippine Islands 1493-1898 (Cleveland, Ohio: Arthur H. Clark & Co., 1903-09; reprinted Manila: Cacho Hermanos, Inc., 1973). Díaz-Trechuelo traced the history of the Intramuros fortifications with maps and architectural plans at the Archivo General de Indias, Archivo de Simancas, Museo Naval, and other Spanish sources. Ortiz Armengol (who later became Spanish Ambassador to the Philippines) wrote on the history of Intramuros and its major institutions, illustrated with details from a “bird’s eye” view of the Walled City and its suburbs as they were in the 1730s. Commissioned by Don Fernando Valdés Tamón (Gobernador y Capitán General from 1729 to 1739) and dedicated to King Felipe V, the topographic view was drawn by Antonio Fernández de Roxas and showed minute details of the fortifications, each building in Intramuros and Bi-nondo, and even nipa huts in the villages across the moat. An exact copy of the map was published in 1984 (Madrid: Ortiz Molina). The National Library, the Records Management and Archives Office (RMAO), the López Library and Museum, the University of Santo Tomas Library and Archives, the U.S. Library of Congress, the U.S. National Ar-chives, and other sources yielded useful material. It was a pleasant sur-prise to discover a trove of 19th century homes’ architectural plans at RMAO, which was excellent reference for the “old town” project and for property owners and their architects. The material collected was gath-ered into the IA Library, named the Fr. Luis Merino, O.S.A. Library.

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A publications program was initiated to educate the general public and to call attention to the project. Titles published included guides to Intra-muros and Casa Manila; a compilation of photographs and excerpts from old accounts of the Walled City by J.C. Laya and E.B. Gatbonton, Intra-muros of Memory (1983); monographs on colonial period arts and culture, e.g., Venerated Virgins of Intramuros by C.G. Manabat, Philippine Religious Imagery in Ivory by E.B. Gatbonton, Damian Domingo by S. Ongpin, Sanc-tuary Silver by M. Tinio, Jr.; and books of general interest -- an unpub-lished 1905 manuscript on seditious plays of the time by Arthur Stanley Riggs, The Filipino Drama (1981) and an unpublished biography of na-tional hero José Rizal by the hero’s grand niece Asunción López-Rizal Ban-tug, Lolo José (1982). Important specialized studies were also published: Luis Merino, O.S.A., El Cabildo Secular: Aspectos Fundacionales y Administrativos (1983) on the governance of the City of Manila from the 16th to the 19th century and E.B. Gatbonton, Bastión de San Diego (1983). The latter is a model of its kind that presents the Baluarte’s history using archival records, plans and other primary sources; describes the archaeological excavations per-formed and conclusions reached, accompanied by detailed drawings, documentation methodology; photographs, and restoration work done. Development Approach One alternative was to see to the faithful recreation of Intramuros like what was done in Warsaw. The Nazis had deliberately destroyed Warsaw and after the war, Poland recreated the old town to the last tile. It was not feasible to follow this model due to cost, the possibility of prolonged litigation and the doubtful advisability of such a government land devel-opment project. The risks and complexities involved led to an approach that combined government land acquisition and building, and regulation of private building. More than half of Intramuros land was privately owned, much of it vacant. Modern buildings had already been erected all over, including four univer-sities, a high school, a bank, a newspaper plant, and the Ministry of Labor on tall buildings along the muralla on the east and south. Tall buildings similarly crowded the north side of Intramuros, both within and outside the walls. It was possible to recover some of the Walled City’s old ap-pearance only on the side facing Manila Bay, along the former Paseo de Maria Cristina (now Bonifacio Drive). The location also suggested the idea

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of a light and sound show highlighting the muralla and the towers and domes of San Agustín and the Cathedral. There were just a few properties bordering the fortifications between Baluarte de San Diego on the south end and Fort Santiago on the north. It was still possible to envision a row of restored buildings immediately behind the muralla even as there were taller and modern buildings behind. Going north from San Diego and the site of the Beaterio de la Compañia were a warehouse and the Ministry of Public Works soil-testing laboratory. Beyond them past Puerta de Sta. Lucía, were the ruins of a 1930s build-ing that had been built on the site of the Augustinian Casa Procuración (Provincial House), followed by more warehouses over the ruins of the Ateneo de Manila and the Jesuit San Ignacio Church and convent. The ru-ins of the Archbishop’s Palace were next and further on were more gov-ernment property (including the already built Palacio del Gobernador Con-dominium). San Diego was already under IA control. The Monetary Board approved the Central Bank purchase of the Beaterio site. The façades of buildings originally in the area have since been recreated by the Department of Tourism. The company that owned the 1930s building agreed to rebuild to its original 19th century appearance. Though of concrete rather than wood, the resulting ECJ Building is an ideal for others to follow. The Min-istry of Human Settlements bought the old site of the Ateneo de Manila, intending to build a condominium using the school’s 19th century façade. The Administration bought the ruins of San Ignacio Church and convent across the street, then the office of Allied Warehouse, for a planned mu-seum of colonial art. The Archdiocese of Manila constructed an office building on the site of the Archbishop’s Palace to approved specifications. The approach has succeeded in recovering some of the old panorama from the former Paseo de Maria Cristina. Private construction in other areas of Intramuros has meant case-to-case discussions with private owners and their architects. The scale and pro-portions of buildings are sometimes off and many buildings are clones of the three story Casa Manila building, but through the Administration’s ef-forts, the old ambience of Intramuros has gradually emerged. The Plazas Refurbishing the old public areas inside the Walled City was an obvious early project, being highly visible, easy to do and quickly completed. At-

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tention was given to Plaza de Roma in front of the Cathedral, Plaza Sam-palucan and Plaza España along busy streets, and the less conspicuous Plaza de Sto. Tomás and Plaza Willard (named after an American Justice). Plaza de Roma used to have trees, clipped shrubbery, fountains and pools, and was surrounded by a wrought iron fence. At its center was a life-size bronze statue (originally gilded) of King Carlos IV, erected in gratitude for brining smallpox vaccine to the country. By 1979, much of the plaza had been cemented and the old features removed. The statue of Carlos IV had been replaced by a modern metal sculpture honoring the martyr priests (Fr. Gomez, Burgos and Zamora) whose execution had helped spark the Philippine Revolution. Commissioned from famous sculptor Solomon Saprid, it was erected in 1972 on the centenary of the heroes’ execution. Carlos IV was left standing on a Fort Santiago sidewalk. The restoration of the Plaza meant displacing a monument to revolution-ary heroes with that of a Spanish King, obviously a delicate matter. The solution was to transfer the modern statue to a more prominent location, on the busy and wide avenue fronting what is now the National Gallery of Art. The new installation symbolically incorporated granite blocks taken from the ruins of the old Palace of the Spanish Governors General. As ex-pected, the event appeared in newspaper front pages, but the more prominent site and more impressive design of the relocated monument calmed public agitation. Even the sculptor was pleased. A small plaza called Plaza Sampalucan (literally, where sampaloc or tama-rind trees grow) was bare land that someone had already fenced off. The Administration reclaimed the place and made it into a small park planted with sampaloc trees. Regretfully, the already grown trees were cut down some fifteen years later, in 1995, to provide a more spacious setting for a new monument in honor of the Intramuros war dead. Plaza de Sto. Tomás, in pre-war years a neat little palm-lined precinct, was a muddy parking lot. So was Plaza Willard. Both were made attrac-tive pocket parks. Plaza España, which had already been spruced up a nearby company, received piedra china paving. A monument to King Fe-lipe II was erected there, unveiled in 2000 by Queen Sofia of Spain. It turned out that old-style iron street lamps were still being manufac-tured in Spain. Lampposts of design identical or similar to those appear-ing in old photographs were ordered and installed in the Plazas and other

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appropriate locations. All the plazas were almost completely redone by the Administration’s first anniversary. On a related matter, it was decided to follow the old practice of mounting ceramic tiles on the ground floor walls of buildings at street corners, spell-ing out street names one tile per letter. A ceramics factory heretofore manufacturing mainly bathroom tiles accepted a special order. Within six months, all suitable corners were graced with street names like those of yesteryear. The “Old Town” – Plaza San Luis The development of an “old town” was part of the plan from the begin-ning. The idea was to create a place with the ambiance of old Manila – not necessarily of Intramuros – but alive with restaurants, cafes, shops, and a museum. (Only religious and official events enlivened Intramuros in the old days.) With San Agustín Church as the only old building in Intra-muros, it was logical to locate the old town project facing the church atrium. Buildings of modern design already occupied two sides of the atrium, but the feel of old Manila could still be recovered with a row of “old” houses perpendicular to the church façade. The desired property was empty space where churchgoers parked. The owner, a Chinese gentleman named Mr. Soriano, agreed to sell at a fair price, realizing that the block behind, which he also owned, would rise in value once the development was complete. The property consisted of seven (7) lots and the decision was made to build one house per lot, with different façades drawn from Filipino-Hispanic architecture of the 17th to the 19th centuries. Inner courts were linked and a little theater (the “Teatrillo“) and a parking basement built beneath. The complex was named Barrio (later “Plaza”) San Luis after one of the four barrios into which Intramuros was originally divided. The three-story structure erected at the corner of Gral. Luna and Real Streets was based on a photograph of a house that stood on Calle Jabon-eros in the San Nicolas business district across the Pasig River. The fa-çade of the middle house was that of a house that used to be just a few blocks away. The exterior of the third house was that of the 1890s Vicente Cuyugan house in Ermita. The Cuyugan house no longer exists, but its architectural drawings survive at the RMAO. Around the corner on Real Street is a neo-classic house that is part of a boutique hotel. Its fa-

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çade reproduced an illustration in an 1825 manuscript in the library of Madrid’s Palacio Real published by Justa Moreno Garbayo, Fiestas en Ma-nila, Año 1825 (Madrid: Editorial Patrimonio Nacional, 1977). The façades and architectural detailing of the other structures are after surviving co-lonial period homes in Manila, Vigan and elsewhere. Ground floors were designed for handicraft and antique shops, and cafes. The two upper floors of the corner house were for the Casa Manila Mu-seum. The second floors of the two adjoining houses were leased to a restaurant (“Los Hidalgos”). An attic became a nightclub (“Los Gatos”). The Restoration of the Fortifications Roughly trapezoid-shaped, Intramuros occupied about 64 hectares and was protected by some 4.5 kilometers of fortifications – curtain wall, baluarte, baluartillo, revellín, reducto, and moats (Annex “B” reproduces an 1850 map). Manila Bay was on the west, the Pasig River on the north, and an open area to the east and south, part of which later became the Jardín Botanico. The fortifications have been described as among the world’s largest surviving medieval (more accurately, baroque) military in-stallations. Everything – material used; location in relation to each other; height and slope of walls; width, direction and angles of openings; the parapets, ramps and other elements – was precisely designed to repel any invader. Fort Santiago was a triangular complex at the mouth of the Pasig River and strong baluarte or bastions were built at strategic locations. Baluarte de Sto. Domingo or “de los Almacenes” (demolished in 1903) was up-stream from Fort Santiago; Baluarte de San Gabriel was where the wall turned south; Baluarte de Dilao (or “de San Lorenzo”) was midway to Baluarte de San Andrés (or “de San Nicolás”) that was where the wall turned west; Baluarte de San Diego was where the wall reached the sea and turned north; and the smaller Baluarte de la Plana (or Baluarte or Lu-neta “de Sta. Ysabel”) was midway to Fort Santiago. Curtain walls, in places 22 meters high and 8 meters thick, connected the baluarte. There were Gates on all sides. Puerta de los Almacenes and Puerta de Santo Domingo (both on the part of the walls demolished in 1903) and Puerta Isabel II opened onto the river; Puerta del Parián leading to the Parián trading area, the Puente de España and the Binondo busi-ness district faced east, Puerta Real faced south, and Puerta de Sta. Lucía and Puerta del Postigo faced the sea. Parián and Real were each behind a

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revellín. Smaller gates led to the Pasig River at Fort Santiago (Postigo de la Ntra. Sra. de la Soledad) and to the Revellín de los Recoletos (Postigo de Recoletos, now sealed). Little bulwarks (baluartillo) strengthened the long curtain wall on the west. The 1730s Fernández de Roxas map shows five baluartillo between San Diego and Fort Santiago – named San Eugenio, San José, Sta. Ysabel, San Juan, and San Francisco. Later, a baluarte was built on the founda-tions of Baluartillo de Sta. Ysabel, but the other four survive. Between the landside baluarte were revellín – large outworks shaped like angled half-moons – Revellín del Parián, Revellín de Dilao (or “de los Recoletos”), and Revellín de la Puerta Real. Reducto or fortín (small U-shaped structures with a stone building within and reached through a baluartillo) were added after the 1762-64 British Occupation. Reducto named San Pedro and San Miguel were connected by wooden bridges to Baluartillo de San Eugenio and San Francisco, respectively. An inner moat reached the very foot of baluarte and curtain walls and an outer moat was beyond the revellín. A wide road, La Calzada, bordered the outer moat. Beyond it was flat empty space (the glacis) that pro-vided clear firing lines to an approaching enemy. There had been villages along the moat prior to 1762. British troops used these villages’ stone houses and churches as staging point in the Intramuros assault, and breached the south-facing wall near Baluarte de San Diego. After the British left, a large area was cleared and the inhabitants resettled, leaving open the area where Liwasang Bonifacio, Taft Avenue, Padre Burgos Drive, Mehan Garden, Rizal Park, the Manila City Hall and the other nearby public buildings now are. While restoration was still at the planning and design phase, relatively simple projects were undertaken, both to have some visible progress and to train workers for the more complex work to follow. Weeds, shrubs and small trees that were eating at the walls were eradicated with herbicide; they used to be pulled out by the roots, causing further damage. The moat and bridges at Fort Santiago, Real and Parián were completed. Baluarte de San Diego was stabilized. Stone blocks on parapets and exte-rior faces of baluarte and wall had eroded, loosened, fallen, or been blasted off by wartime artillery. Parts of the muralla had also been im-properly repaired, e.g., cement had been plastered and scored to simulate

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stone blocks, cylindrical land boundary markers (mojón) had been used to fill some gaps. These were all redone. Excavation, Documentation, Materials and Technical Training The muralla had been reworked and altered throughout the 350-odd years of the Spanish Regime. The British had easily captured Intramuros in 1762, and defenses were extensively strengthened after they left in 1764. Among others, Puerta Real was relocated behind a new revellín. A wider, thicker and higher revellín was built over the former small rectangu-lar outwork at Parián. Reducto were built to strengthen the sea-facing wall. To help interpret the ruins and stones uncovered in the excavation and to guide the restoration, it was necessary to establish what was built and when and how the structures looked at various times in the past. Extant plans in the Spanish archives (as described and illustrated by Díaz-Trechuelo) appear to be only those that were submitted to and approved by the King. These were not necessarily followed in actual construction. The printing of the Díaz-Trechuelo and Ortiz Armengol books, too, was not the best. Available plans and drawings, therefore, were useful guides but restoration work had to rely heavily or archaeological findings and pre-1945 photographs. From the beginning, the intention was to observe the standards and guidelines of the International Charter for the Conservation and Preserva-tion of Monuments and Sites (the “Venice Charter”) of 1964 that estab-lished general principles covering restoration, excavations and documen-tation, cross referenced to international principles of excavation adopted by UNESCO in 1956. National Museum staff supervised archaeological work on the fortifica-tions. Work was carefully documented, a task that involved photograph-ing, measuring, drawing, numbering, storing, and reassembling stones. Particular care was taken to preserve worked objects like moldings and carvings. Technicians also helped devise solutions for waterproofing chambers, installing lights and plumbing, eradicating foliage from the walls, preserving woodwork. New stone and mortar had to match the old ones not only for appear-ance’s sake but more importantly, also to ensure that the effects of rain and the capillary action of ground water were properly controlled and did no damage. The National Museum helped formulate mortar suitable for each area, which were some proportion of lime, sand and a little cement.

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The fortifications were of soft and porous adobe stone (volcanic tuff) quarried upstream of the Pasig in Makati, an area that is now completely built up. Stone of similar characteristics was found in Balagtas, Norzaga-ray and Sta. Maria in Bulacan, 40-50 kilometers north of Manila. Then producing stones the size of a loaf of bread, the quarries had to be recon-figured to yield blocks that were maybe thirty or forty times larger. Crews of workmen had to be trained to quarry, to shape and to lay in place the huge stones needed for the walls. Coordination with other government agencies was a must. To protect both the newly restored fortifications and the structures within the Walled City, drainage was improved with the help of the Ministry of Public Works. Representations were also made to stop repairing streets and solving flooding by adding fresh overlay of asphalt or concrete on top of old layers, which meant rising street levels and sinking muralla. There was a bus terminal on the moat of Baluarte de Dilao to be relocated by the Ministry of Transport and Communication. Treasure hunters wanted to dig at Fort Santiago and elsewhere, requiring police vigilance. The restoration work done in the first years of the Intramuros Administra-tion (1979-86) is described below, beginning with Fort Santiago at the mouth of the Pasig River and proceeding in a clockwise circuit along the perimeter of the Walled City. Fort Santiago The Fort was destroyed during World War II but one building had been partly restored and made the Rizal Shrine. The grounds were landscaped with a modern fountain. Entry to the Fort used to be through an impressive Gate with a central wood bas-relief of Santiago Matamoros – St. James the Greater on a rear-ing horse, with Moors underfoot. The Gate and the building behind it were casualties of the Battle of Manila. Only a truncated ruin was left, leaving the large Plaza Moriones (formerly “de Armas” or ”de la Fuerza”) without a focal point. The Administration decided to restore the Gate, partly fi-nanced by a donation from Gen. Carlos P. Romulo. In the absence of any as-built plans, the reconstruction of the missing upper half and the repro-duction of the large central wood bas-relief were based on a study of the surviving stonework and old photographs. The bridge across the moat was restored and the moat, which could no longer be connected to the river, became a closed pool.

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The Reducto de San Miguel, entered through the Baluartillo de San Fran-cisco, was largely intact. It had lost its roof, which was easily restored. The Reducto was made into a memorial chapel where the remains of the civilian dead found during excavation work were placed. The simple iron fence separating Plaza Moriones from the rest of Intra-muros had disappeared, but the Vicente Madrigal family donated an elabo-rate 19th century European wrought iron fence that used to be in their old Paco district home. The fence closed off Plaza Moriones once again. The Office of the President ordered excavations at Fort Santiago on at least two occasions, to look for Japanese treasure. The first was con-ducted about 1982 under President Ferdinand E. Marcos and the second about 1987 under President Corazon C. Aquino. Neither effort was re-portedly successful, but the digging succeeded in exposing the inner courts or “plazas baxas” at the Plataforma de Sta. Bárbara, the fort’s strongest part. Puerta Isabel II The 1903 demolition along the Pasig River left only about 150 meters of curtain wall, containing large vaulted chambers and Puerta Isabel II. The War left the Gate and various chambers mostly intact, but caused a twenty-meter gap in the wall near San Gabriel. The 1966 restoration made the gap into the Terraza de la Reina. The National Historical Insti-tute restored some chambers in 1975. IA completed the restoration of the chambers and the deck. The Puerta Isabel II chambers housed the IA office and temporary exhibits in the first years of its existence. The chambers are currently leased to bars and eateries. One hopes that their kitchens, plumbing and utilities are causing no damage. San Gabriel- Parián -Dilao In 1945, American forces had directed heavy artillery fire on Intramuros from Quezon Bridge on the northeast, beyond Puerta del Parián. The mu-ralla from San Gabriel all the way to Dilao was badly damaged, with the Parián revellín and gate taking direct hits. The curtain wall towards Dilao was pulverized to ground level and the Dilao itself was little more than a pile of earth. Later builders of nearby buildings helped themselves to much of the surviving stone. The moat area was high with World War II debris and accumulated garbage. A large paved area was a bus terminal.

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The Parián gate façade had been repaired in the 1966 restoration and the premises were subsequently occupied by a police station and the Ministry of Public Works motor pool. The AFP Team arranged for their relocation and uncovered two stone bridges, one between the Gate and its revellín and the other leading out from the revellín. Work on Parián-Dilao was on a grand scale. Close to 60,000 tons of earth, rubble and garbage were hauled away. Some 300 meters of curtain wall, the stone bridges and the wooden drawbridges across the moat, were re-stored. The revellín and its low protective wall (falsabraga) were exca-vated, revealing the 17th century structure beneath the larger post-British invasion construction. The whole was restored (and the old structure re-buried after being strengthened), taking into account the plans, archaeo-logical findings and old photographs. A 1960s stone staircase leading up the wall was replaced by a historically accurate ramp. The earthwork in the revellín was graded in accordance with the original plans and the area recovered its appearance as a military fortification. The moat could not be reinstated, but earth was leveled to about the former water level, thus showing the muralla to almost its full height. The street behind was also lowered to show the original height of the wall on its inner side. With a reflecting pool, the place would have been at least as impressive as the Imperial Palace walls and moat in Tokyo. No detailed plans of the heavily damaged Baluarte de Dilao were found and its walls, parapets and platform were restored using archaeological findings and old photographs. The baluarte all had picturesque garita at their points. These were small stone or brick sentry posts with room enough to shelter one or two sol-diers from the sun and rain. The original garita at San Andrés was still in place, but the others had lost theirs. The missing ones were rebuilt, though the brick garita at Dilao (reconstructed from a photograph) turned out to be disproportionately large and had to be done over. San Andrés -Puerta Real- San Diego Baluarte de San Andrés was in relatively good shape and work involved mainly the conservation of the ruins, reconstruction of the platform and repair of the parapets. Only re-tiling of the roof was needed at a still in-tact almacén de pólvora (gunpowder magazine) within the baluarte.

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Aurora Garden (the former Revellín de Dilao), occupied by tennis courts in pre-war years, survived the war with relatively little damage. It now houses a bonsai garden society. Illegally parked vehicles are towed and impounded in the moat area behnd. After 1986, someone else took over San Andrés and “restored” it to its present questionable form. Among others, the ramp from the street makes a sharp turn by a rebuilt cuerpo de guardia building. Bringing up anything like cannon would not have been easy. A large moat-level open-ing was also made at the baluarte’s neck, said as being for cargo. The 1730s Fernández de Roxas map shows no such opening, which leads di-rectly to a ramp that goes straight up to the platform. Such construction would have gravely weakened San Andrés and would have been unsuitable for cargo. To reach the street, any incoming cargo would need to be hauled up one ramp and down another, past a bottleneck at the top. It would have been Intramuros’ largest opening, far larger than Puerta de los Almacenes that was the gate for cargo, being on the Pasig River, by the customs house and the royal warehouses. It is just as well that the open-ing is now concealed from view by a banana grove. After 1764, Puerta Real was relocated about a hundred meters to the west, behind its own Revellín de la Puerta Real (or “de Bagumbayan”). The revellín was the pre-war Manila aquarium and was rehabilitated by the Zonta Club in the 1970s. The AFP Team excavated the aquarium parking lot and uncovered the revellín’s curving stone bridge. IA removed miscel-laneous additions, waterproofed the deck, finished a pool under the bridge, and replaced cobblestones on the passages and large piedra china paving on the main bridge to the Gate. Baluarte San Diego is an interesting puzzle. The small round Fort Ntra. Sra. de Guía was built there in the late 1500s. Over the next 250 or so years, it had been repaired, partly torn down, renovated, enlarged, strengthened, and reshaped into its present appearance. An 1850 en-graving illustrates a smoking foundry (fundición) there. In 1904, the Americans covered everything up with sand and erected temporary mili-tary buildings on top. Sometime after the War, a miniature Statue of Lib-erty was erected near the baluarte’s tip, though it was gone when the AFP Team started work. The AFP Team, IA and the National Museum uncovered three concentric circular walls. It seems that these were part of a rain water system and

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the outermost may have belonged to the original round fort. A Japanese cannon was also fund half-buried -- bolted in place, aimed at the Rizal Monument and still with live ammunition. After conserving and stabilizing the visible structures, IA carefully restored the baluarte’s south-facing outside wall and parapets that had been extensively damaged during World War II. The Seaside Muralla – San Diego to Fort Santiago The west side of the fortifications was untouched by the war, but Puerta de Sta. Lucía was demolished soon after, evidently to speed the removal of the ruined city’s bulldozed rubble. An extension of Calle Real took up the old opening and about half of the chambers on both sides. IA re-stored the gate, carefully shaping and laying adobe blocks with keystone arches, vaults and domes. The stone bridge to the seashore beneath the asphalt was fully restored. At Reducto de San Pedro, IA rebuilt the stairs, ramps and parapets and retiled the roof. Work on Baluartillo de San Eugenio (named thus in the Fernández de Roxas map but called San José in other sources) consisted of cleaning and re-pointing adobe grouting, removing the deck’s concrete slab (possibly part of No. One Victoria Street, Gen. Douglas MacArthur’s Philippine Commonwealth headquarters). The wooden bridge to the Re-ducto was restored. Calle Anda had been extended through Baluarte de la Plana to ease the movement of cargo trucks and container vans. Closing the street and patching the gap with stone and brick was easy enough. The closure of the Anda and Real extensions, as well as the arching over of three other openings in the walls, effectively stopped large vehicles from entering In-tramuros. Puerta del Postigo was unharmed by war and had been refur-bished in 1966. IA excavated and restored the stone bridge leading out to the seashore. Baluarte de Sto. Domingo – A Major New Project Baluarte de Sto. Domingo along the Pasig River, demolished more than a hundred years ago, is being restored with a Japanese Government Grant. The project was conceptualized by Sen. Richard J. Gordon, who continues to take an active interest in Intramuros. The Sunken Garden

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Most of the former moat has been mostly a golf course since the 1920s. While P.D. No. 1616 gives the Intramuros Administration authority over the Sunken Garden, its jurisdiction has been exercised in practice only over the stone structures. The Philippine Tourism Authority has been in charge of the facility, named Club Intramuros, for several decades now. The golf clubhouse, its parking lot and other facilities are on the moat area adjacent to Fort Santiago’s outside wall. Its fairways, greens and water hazards occupy almost all of the Sunken Garden. The water haz-ards are half a dozen small ponds and beautifully evoke the moat of olden times. However, other features obscure and endanger the restorations. Till the early 1980s, the golf course was roughly at the level of the moat, which was just above sea level. Intramuros’ drains emptied into the moat and the city had been flood-free. When the moat was filled in the early 20th century, the Sunken Garden was still lower than the inner city and the old equilibrium was maintained. The golf course was therefore soggy and even flooded in heavy rain and when it was renovated in the 1980s, the golf course’s ground level was raised, blocking the drains and reversing water flow. Instead of city water draining to the moat, moat water began draining into the city. San Agustín was flooded for the first time in living memory. To eliminate city flooding, street levels were raised to redirect flood water elsewhere, i.e., back to the golf course. The golf course’s level was thereupon raised fur-ther, not only worsening the flooding inside Intramuros, but also reducing the visible height of the walls’ exterior face. Parts of the muralla, in their outer or inner faces or both, are consequently even lower than many sub-urban fences. One can only hope that the escalation ceases. IA had successfully arranged the relocation of most of the bus terminal near Baluarte de Dilao and had hauled away massive quantities of earth from the Parián moat. The golf course has since expanded and soil has been hauled back to create elevated golf greens all the way to Parián. A large drainage outlet at San Andres was blocked, causing flooding at Recoletos. Earth has also been dumped directly against the Baluarte de Dilao, which is therefore half-buried. Unsightly stores, too, are practically on top of the restored Parián falsabraga. Puerta del Postigo and its bridge are almost hidden from Bonifacio Drive by elevated golf greens and hummocks. The nearby Baluartillo de San Juan is practically invisible, concealed by a massive concrete bridge

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across A. Soriano Street (formerly Aduana) built for golfers and their carts. Green plastic nets have been mounted on tall metal poles treble the height of the walls, to snare wayward balls and to protect passersby, nearby buildings and mercifully the stonework, from golf ball hits. The golf course is floodlit at night, allowing golfers to enjoy their game well into the evening. The muralla is unlit and obscured by the glare. A low bougainvillea hedge used to keep intruders out. It has been re-placed by a tall wrought iron fence with thin columns like those that sur-rounded pre-war villas. The domestic-looking fence is regretfully out-of-period, out-of-scale and inconsistent with the mighty fortifications. Vines and shrubbery block the view from the avenues that parallel the muralla, although for the same reason, golfers walk from tee to green in a delight-ful sylvan setting. With all the improvements, golfers have an all-weather and all-hours golf course at the heart of the bustling city. For now, the authorities seem to have decided that golf attracts more tourists than does tangible cultural heritage. Museums Museums were planned, one to exhibit furniture and furnishings and to illustrate the lifestyle of an upper class 19th century family and another to present the art of the colonial period, which was mostly religious in char-acter -- santo (religious images) for both church and home worship. Col-lections were formed for the two museums over a five or six year period, but even before the museums could be built, selected objects were al-ready exhibited where possible: Puerta Isabel II (santo, furniture and other objects), the powder magazine at Baluarte de San Andrés (cannon and other military equipment) and Puerta Real (church silver). Casa Manila The decorative arts and lifestyle museum is Casa Manila within Plaza San Luis. It is a house-museum, inspired by similar institutions abroad, e.g., the Frick Collection in New York and in particular the Willet Holthuysen Museum of Amsterdam. The latter is a rich man’s home built in the 17th century and willed to the city, fully furnished, at the end of the 19th cen-tury. Casa Manila is the product of the combined talent and imagination of ar-chitects, antiquarians and aficionados. It is on the two upper floors of the

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three-story corner house at Plaza San Luis, built partly using stone, woodwork and decorative elements from demolished homes. It was painted using the bright colors common in late 19th century Manila. Build-ings with more than two floors, with shops on the ground floor, were more characteristic of the Binondo and San Nicolas business districts, but the museum eminently succeeds in fulfilling its raison d’etre, which is to display colonial period furniture and furnishings in an evocative setting. The museum’s interior was designed with a story line -- the original house was built in the early 19th century, renovated by an 1880s owner, and was lived in till the 1920s. Noteworthy among the museum’s contents are a neo-gothic altar and household saints in the family chapel, a Vene-tian chandelier and an ersatz (wooden) fireplace that came from a late 19th century home; bric a brac and European furniture that were de rigueur in homes of the wealthy, a gigantic mirrored wardrobe that had been brought to a suburb in the 1930s from the owners’ old Intramuros home, the portrait of Governor General Ramón Blanco’s daughter dressed as Minerva painted by the 19th century prize winning artist Juan Luna. The museum collection also has jewelry, textiles (embroidered piña clothes), silver, and other household objects. Objects not exhibited at Casa Manila have been lent to the San Agustín Museum, the National Museum and the National Historical Institute for museums and shrines outside Manila, including those in Taal, Batangas and Malolos, Bulacan. Museum of Colonial Art The IA collection of the colonial arts was formed over a period of four or five years, from both purchases and donations. It is now one of the best collections of Philippine colonial period santo, silver, paintings, jewelry, and like objects. The plan was to rebuild the late 19th century San Ignacio Church and convent as a colonial arts museum. The site has been ac-quired and architectural drawings completed, but construction has yet to begin. In the meantime, many pieces have been lent to the San Agustín Museum, including important pieces of furniture and a magnificent gilded retablo that was at the 18th century chapel of the Colegio de San José Recoletos in Cebu City. The retablo was partly donated by the Antonio Bantug family. Festivals and Events

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Cultural events were designed to help bring life back to Intramuros, even as Plaza San Luis and other property development activities were still un-realized. A series of Saturday evening concerts began at the newly land-scaped Puerta Real revellín and garden. Held during the dry season (No-vember to April), the performances proved to be a success. The series was discontinued after 1986, but events continued to be held at San Di-ego, Parián and other places. Puerta Real and other suitable locations in Intramuros have also been used for state entertainments and for wedding receptions, filming and other private events. Religious pageantry was an important part of life in old Intramuros. Dur-ing Holy Week, pious thousands went on Visita Iglesia to seven churches, walking from one to the next. Churches also had lavish processions with large images on carrozas (floats) retelling the public life and passion of Christ. Feast days of the venerated saints of the various churches and religious orders were also celebrated with processions. By 1979, how-ever, there were only parish activities at San Agustín Church. On IA’s initiative, Intramuros processions were revived as religious and cultural activities. A procession was held in December 1979 in honor of the Immaculate Conception, the patroness of the Philippines. Mrs. Marcos was Hermana Mayor. A Holy Wednesday procession was started but was discontinued, since there are numerous Holy Week activities elsewhere. The Marian procession, however, still attracts great commitment. The Cofradía de la Inmaculada Concepción was organized and in December 2007 will sponsor the 29th procession of the unbroken series, with more than 90 images and thousands of devotees expected. Then Secretary of Tourism (now Senator) Richard J. Gordon gave high priority to Intramuros as a visitor destination. Under his leadership, the Department installed an indoor sound and light show and organized exhib-its and presentations from the provinces, under its “WOW Philippines” program. Events continue to be held in the Clamshell Pavilion, a tent at the site of the old Ateneo. Business Activities The curtain wall between Puerta del Parián and Baluarte de Dilao had been pulverized in 1945. The original had bricked-up vaulted chambers. It was rebuilt with the vaulted chambers modified to provide for small shops ca-tering to the needs of the students of two large universities across the street. The reconstruction, called Tiendas del Parián, provided for the

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necessary electricity, air conditioning, water, and plumbing connections. A kiosk was also built on vacant government property on busy A. Soriano Street, and rented out to food concessionaires. For several years now, the chambers of Puerta Isabel II have been occu-pied by bars and restaurants. The almacén de pólvora at Baluarte de San Andrés was briefly a disco; its restored platform almost became a kind of permanent flea market were it not for adverse public opinion. Grants and Other Activities P.D. No. 1616 authorizes the Administration to give grants to qualified recipients and to undertake projects outside of Intramuros. Since 1945, San Agustín Church had no roof and GI sheets had been laid directly on top of the stone vault over the nave. IA gave a grant to help construct a proper tile roof. Technical assistance and funding from IA helped restore the late 19th century Cavite home of revolutionary General Baldomero Aguinaldo, which had been donated to government by his descendants, the family of former Prime Minister Cesar Virata. Also noteworthy are: (a) archaeological excavations conducted by IA and the National Museum at the Ayuntamiento site, that yielded artifacts of the 17th and 18th vintage and that shed light on early construction tech-niques, e.g., large upended pots buried to reduce the damp; and (b) a recommendation approved by President Marcos authorizing the restora-tion of the Ayuntamiento and Intendencia for the National Treasury and the National Archives, respectively. The main reception room and princi-pal staircase of the Intendencia have been recreated. Acknowledgments The restoration and development of Intramuros received attention and support from President Ferdinand E. Marcos and the First Lady Imelda Romualdez Marcos who was the Chairperson of the Intramuros Admini-stration Board. The drafting of P.D. No. 1616 and the conceptualization, planning, research, restoration, museum development and other work, was done by a team headed by the present author, who was Action Offi-cer until 1986. Work was a team effort and responsibilities shifted from time to time. From the creation of the Administration in 1979 and until 1983, Es-peranza B. Gatbonton was in charge of general management, headed the research and publications division and had overall responsibility for fortifi-

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cations work. Restoration plans of all the baluarte were complete by the time E.B. Gatbonton left the Administration. Rosary L. Benitez then took over general management. Restoration work on the muralla required various skills and depending on the complexity of the project, a project team could include a Project Offi-cer, Project Architect, Researcher, Archaeologist, Structural Engineer, Construction Supervisor, Draftsman, and Inspector. Maximum activity in the restoration of the fortifications took place in 1979-86. While still with IA, Esperanza B. Gatbonton was Project Officer and Researcher for all fortifications work. Arch. Felix N. Imperial, Jr. headed the fortifications and restoration division. He worked with Arch. Augusto Rustia, Arch. Rene Luis Mata, Arch. Roland Manio, and Engr. Jo-seph Reyes, who played key roles in the major restoration projects. Danilo Panganiban was Construction Supervisor for all projects and was in charge of workmen training. Other senior members of project teams included the following: Fort San-tiago – Architect Oscar Villaruz; Puerta Isabel II – Juan Cera, Jr.; Puerta del Parián – Dr. Eusebio Dizon, Tedoro Eribal, Jr.; Baluarte de Dilao – E. Dizon, Engr. Gregorio Origenes, Gregorio Licaros III; Baluarte de San Andrés – Arch. Wilhelmina de las Alas and E. Dizon; O. Villaruz; Baluarte de San Di-ego – Engr. Emilio Morales, Armando Buenaventura, Miguel Acción, Erne-sto Maloles, Helen Hosillos, Geoffrey Garcia; Reducto de San Pedro and Baluartillo de San Eugenio – O. Villaruz; Puerta de Sta. Lucia – Walter Sta-matelaky. Arch. Ramón Ma. Zaragoza was involved at a later stage in the restoration of Dilao and San Andrés. Arch. Carlos da Silva and Arch. F.N. Imperial, Jr., while with the National Historical Institute, assisted in the 1966 and 1978 restorations. Arch. José Ramón Faustmann designed the Plaza San Luis complex, the Casa Manila Museum and the proposed colonial arts museum at San Igna-cio. Arch. W.A. de las Alas restored Plaza de Roma and other public squares and was project manager of Plaza San Luis, construction of which was by F.F. Cruz, Jr., Inc. Arch. Cristina V. Turalba, R.L. Benitez and Asteya M. Santiago were in charge of urban planning; Fr. Luis Merino, O.S.A. was consultant for research; Arch. J. R. Faustmann and Arch. R. Ma. Zaragoza reviewed building plans and recommended on the issuance of permits; Martín I. Tinio, Jr., Davíd Baradas, Concepción Cortez, and Ar-turo de Santos (with E.B. Gatbonton and C.A. Escudero) formed the mu-

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seum collections and worked on the exhibits and interior design of Casa Manila. Frances Arespacochaga took looked after the museum and its col-lections. Conrado A. Escudero has been in charge of the Marian Procession since 1979; Zenas Reyes Lozada produced Puerta Real Evenings and saw to good relations with the media; Remberto Lozada took on the difficult and often rough job of rules enforcement, particularly traffic and squatter control; Marcia E. Sandovál helped in landscaping; Dominador Torres and Alfredo Xerés-Burgos took care of business activities; and Lourdes Evan-gelista, Natividád Agawin and Lina Armeña, who were on part time as-signment from the Ministry of the Budget, kept administrative matters running smoothly. The National Museum gave full assistance, particularly its Office in Charge Alfredo Evangelista, Assistant Director Jesús Peralta, Laboratory head Engr. Orlando Abinión, and technical staff members Dr. Eusebio Dizon and Arch. Oscar Villaruz. The Records Management and Archives Office, through its Director Rosalina Concepción and researchers Miguel Guerrero and Telesforo Peralta, provided a wealth of information that guided the work. Conclusion The restoration and development of the Walled City as a historical district is the responsibility of the Intramuros Administration, an agency under the Department of Tourism. The fortifications, Fort Santiago and the Ma-nila Cathedral have been restored. San Agustín Church, the only building that survived the destruction of Intramuros in 1945, retains its religious function and is carefully protected as a cultural and historical monument inscribed on the UNESCO list of world heritage sites. Plaza San Luis has been built as a cultural-commercial development appropriate for Intra-muros’ unique place in Philippine history. The old moat provides welcome greenery at the heart of populous Manila. The district is zoned and new construction is carefully regulated. Intramuros is a special place that calls to mind close to 400 years of Phil-ippine history. It teaches lessons not only on political and social history, but also on the artistry and industry of their ancestors, on civil engineer-ing, architecture and military history. Adapted to modern life, the old city continues to occupy a central place at the heart of Manila’s cultural, spiri-tual, and tourist and economic life.

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This paper was prepared for the International Conference on “Stonework Heritage in Micronesia,” sponsored by the Agencia Española de Cooper-ación Internacional in collaboration with the Guam Preservation Trust and the Historic Resources Division, Department of Parks and Recreation, held in Hagåtña, Guam, November 14-15, 2007. Jaime C. Laya, Ph.D., is Chairman of Philtrust Bank and is Independent Di-rector of various corporations and foundations. He was responsible for the formation of the Intramuros Administration and was its Action Officer from 1979 to 1986, concurrently with other government responsibilities, successively as Minister of the Budget; Governor of the Central Bank of the Philippines; and Minister of Education, Culture and Sports. In 1996-2001, he served as Chairman of the National Commission for Culture and the Arts On leaving full time government service in 1986, Dr. Laya founded and until his retirement in 2004 was Chairman and Senior Partner of Laya Mananghaya & Co., which by then had become one of the Philippines’ largest accounting and management consulting firms and member firm of KPMG International. Annex A Presidential Decree No. 1616 Creating the “Intramuros Admini-stration” for Purposes of Restoring and Administering the De-velopment of Intramuros (as Amended by Presidential Decree No. 1748)

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Section 1. Creation of the Intramuros Administration. There is hereby created an agency to be known as the Intramuros Administration, under the direct control and supervision of the Ministry of Human Settlements. The Administration shall be responsible for the orderly restoration and development of Intramuros as a monument to the Hispanic period of Phil-ippine history. As such, it shall ensure that the general appearance of In-tramuros shall conform with the Philippine-Spanish architecture of the Six-teenth to the Nineteenth Century. Section 2. Organization of the Administration. The Administration shall be directed by a Board of Administrators, consisting of the Minister of Human Settlements as Chairman, and as Members, the Mayor of the City of Manila, the Executive Director of the National Historical Institute, the Administrator, and such persons as the President may designate. Its Ex-ecutive Officer shall be an Administrator, who shall have the same qualifi-cations, privileges and rank of a Deputy Minister. The Administration shall be organized and staffed in accordance with applicable budget and com-pensation laws: Provided, That it shall be authorized to engage the serv-ices of architectural, historical, tourism, and other consultants necessary for its work: Provided, Further, That the President may designate Heads of Ministries of the national government to serve on the Board in an ex-officio capacity; Provided, Finally, That the members of the Board shall receive per diems for each Board Meeting actually attended by them, at rates and subject to such maximum monthly amount as may be approved under P.D. No. 985. The Board of Administrators shall be responsible for the policies and ac-tivities of the Administration. The Administrator shall report to the Board and shall be delegated such authority as the Board may decide. There shall be an Architectural Committee and such other Committees as may be created by the Board of Administrators, to advise the Administra-tion on the architectural or other policy. Section 3. Functions and Powers. The Administration shall have the following functions and powers:

(a) Formulate, coordinate and/or execute policies on the implementa-tion of all programs, projects and activities of the government af-fecting or relating to Intramuros;

(b) Enter into contracts with any private persons or entity or any government agency, either domestic or foreign, whenever neces-

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sary for the effective discharge of its functions and responsibilities under such terms and conditions as it may deem proper and rea-sonable;

(c) Acquire through sale, expropriation or other means, hold real and personal property as it may deem necessary or convenient in the successful prosecution of its work, and lease, mortgage, sell, alien-ate, or otherwise dispose of such personal and real property;

(d)Receive, take and hold by bequest, device, donation, gift, purchase, or lease, from foreign or domestic sources, either absolutely or in trust for any of its purposes, any asset, grant or property, real or personal subject to such limitations as are provided in existing laws and regulations; to convey such assets, grant or property, invest and reinvest the same and deal with and expand its assets and in-come in such manner as will best promote its objectives;

(e) Initiate, plan, undertake and supervise the restoration, upkeep and maintenance of the Intramuros Walls, including the ravelins, moat, Sunken Garden and public places or areas, plazas, streets and other government-owned or managed properties situated within Intra-muros;

(f) Prepare, adopt, revise and enforce such rules and regulations, im-plementing guidelines and standards as are necessary for the effec-tive regulation of the land use and development activities in Intra-muros of both the government and private entities and for the im-plementation of the Intramuros Plan, including, but not limited to development rules and regulations pertaining to the following:

1. Land use allocation, use of buildings, their height, dimensions, architectural style and designs and other specifications of the building construction to be undertaken therein;

2. Traffic management, street usage and other related matters; 3. Size and character of display signs, advertising billboards, and

other external signs and advertisements in buildings, in open spaces, lots or roads;

4. Supervision and control of all activities involving archaeologi-cal diggings, excavations and exploration within Intramuros including the use, disposition, registration and maintenance of archaeological findings and discoveries;

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(g) Expropriate properties within Intramuros; (h) Sponsor, conduct, or otherwise assist and support festivals and cul-

tural activities in Intramuros, and charge and collect admission fees to the restored Gates and other attractions operated by the Ad-ministration;

(i) Give grants, contributions and donations for the restoration, repair or maintenance of historic structures in Intramuros, including San Agustin Church, and of structures outside of Intramuros which are of similar nature and character as those which existed in Intra-muros, for the conduct of historical, architectural, archaeological and other research, and for other purposes in furtherance of its ob-jectives;

(j) Prescribe and collect reasonable amounts to be charged as filing fees, inspection fees, permit fees, and other administrative or serv-ice fees necessary for the effective enforcement of its laws and regulatory measures, to be used and disbursed by it in the manner determined by it to promote its objectives;

(k) Exercise all powers necessary or incidental to the attainment of the objectives of this Decree.

Section 4. Transfer of Administration and Properties. The ownership of the properties of national government agencies located within Intramuros shall, upon agreement with the agencies concerned, be transferred to the Administration. The properties of government corporations, on the other hand, shall, subject to mutually acceptable terms and conditions, be sold to the Administration. In the case of government financial institutions, sale to the Administration of their properties shall also include acquired assets within Intramuros. The Administration of Fort Santiago, the Sunken Garden, the Municipal Golf Links, including concessions within the Sunken Garden and elsewhere on public land and other public properties in Intramuros, are hereby trans-ferred to the Administration, without prejudice to the operation of the Municipal Golf Links by the City of Manila or other organization as may be approved. All proposed transactions affecting private properties within Intramuros shall be registered with the Administration. The Administration shall, in the case of sale, have the right of first refusal.

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Section 5. Operation of Facilities. The Administration may operate mu-seums, art galleries, theaters, and other cultural/educational facilities that are incidental and suitable to the attainment of its objectives: Provided, That the Administration may operate such facilities, either directly or through existing institutions such as the National Museum, the Cultural Center of the Philippines, the National Library, and other agencies of the Government. Section 6. Commercial Activities. The Administration may directly, or in association with public or private enterprises, construct, lease, sell and otherwise operate, shopping and commercial facilities in Intramuros. It may likewise operate guided tours and other related tourism services. Section 7. Locational Clearance, Construction and other Permits. All lo-cational clearances and construction permits for the development of lands, introduction of improvements, and the use, change of use, con-struction, repair, alteration or reconstruction of buildings within Intra-muros and other forms of permits such as for excavations or archaeologi-cal diggings shall be issued by the Administration on the basis of the ap-proved Intramuros Development Plan, its architectural development stan-dards and other implementing rules and regulations. The Administration may seek the assistance of Manila and Metro Manila offices insofar as the minimum standards of safety of buildings, electrical, plumbing and drain-age requirements are concerned. No structure, including stone walls, fences, light or other fixtures, steps and paving shall be erected, altered, restored, moved or demolished within Intramuros without the Administration’s Certificate of Appropriate-ness as to external architectural features and its congruity with the his-toric district, including style, general design and arrangement, types of windows, doors, light and other fixtures and signs, material and location of advertisements and bill posters. The provisions of P.D. No. 1096, otherwise known as the National Building Code and other related laws which are not inconsistent with this Decree and the rules and regulations promulgated by the Administration shall have a suppletory effect to this law and to the development control regu-lations promulgated by the Administration. Section 8. Building Modifications. The Administration shall, after a transi-tory period fixed by it and approved by the President (Prime Minister), re-quire in its rules and regulations the owners of existing buildings and

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structures within Intramuros to modify their architectural structure and design in order to conform to the design and architectural standards adopted by the Administration: Provided, That subject to the availability of funds, the Administration may utilize its funds to undertake the modifi-cation of existing buildings, whether publicly or privately owned, with or without the requirement of reimbursement by the owner, depending on mutually acceptable terms and conditions, so as to modify their external appearance to comply with approved structure and designs, and, Pro-vided, Further, That no changes in the façade or external appearance of any existing buildings and structures in Intramuros, including ruins, shall be made without the approval of the Administration. Owners, lessees or other persons with any interest in the property who voluntarily undertake at their own expense the modifications of buildings and structures in Intramuros to conform to the architectural design stan-dards of the Administration shall qualify to apply for the incentives, finan-cial assistance and grants to be provided for in a program of incentives of the Administration. Section 9. Maintenance of Roads and other Utilities and Services. The budgetary allocation for the maintenance of national and local roads and the provision and maintenance of other public utilities and services such as water and electricity within Intramuros shall be released to the Admini-stration, which shall undertake such services directly or by arrangement with the appropriate Ministry, the City of Manila, or with private parties capable to undertaking the work, subject to applicable government rules and regulations. Section 10. Traffic Management. The Administration shall control the nature, volume and schedule of traffic, parking and the access of private and public vehicles into Intramuros. For this purpose, the Administration shall prepare the appropriate traffic plan and the implementing rules and regulations thereto. Furthermore, review and approval of public transpor-tation routes going through Intramuros shall be subject to the concur-rence of the Administration. Section 11. Construction Work. Construction and other civil works may be undertaken directly by the Administration or with the assistance of the Ministry of Public Works, Transportation and Communication, the City of Manila, or by private contractors, subject to applicable government rules and regulations.

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Section 12. Real Property Tax Discount. The Administration, in consulta-tion with the Minister of Finance, may extend discounts on real property assessments situated within Intramuros, so as to encourage the private sector to engage in the construction of duly approved facilities: Provided, That such incentives shall apply only to new construction and to im-provements of existing building that conform to the Administration’s ar-chitectural specifications. Section 13. Investment Incentives. The Administration, in consultation with the Minister of Industry or the Minister of Tourism as the case may be and subject to the approval of the President (Prime Minister), may ex-tend investment incentives and other forms of [encouragement] to indus-tries and enterprises established in Intramuros in accordance with the In-tramuros Development Plan: Provided, That the industries to be allowed to operate in Intramuros shall be limited to those that are consistent and compatible with the historical character of Intramuros and shall further-more not be the source of air, noise, water, or other types of pollution. Section 14. Appropriations. The appropriations pertaining to Intramuros which are in the budgets of the National Historical Institute and the Na-tional Parks Development Committee, are hereby transferred to the Ad-ministration. The Minister of Human Settlements may fund additional op-erating and capital expenditures out of the appropriations provided for the Ministry of Human Settlements in Batas Pambansa Blg. 1. Section 15. Revolving Fund. The Administration is authorized to estab-lish a Revolving Fund into which shall accrue revenues from operating and commercial transactions undertaken by the Administration. Such reve-nues shall be automatically appropriated to cover expenses incurred in such commercial operations, subject to pertinent budget, compensation, accounting, and audit law and regulations. Section 16. Domestic and Foreign Loans. The Administration is author-ized to borrow funds from domestic or foreign sources, subject to appli-cable laws and regulations and the approval of the Minister of Finance. Section 17. Grants, Contributions and Donations.

(a) The Administration is authorized to accept and receive grants, contributions and donations from domestic and foreign sources, government or private. These may be obligated and disbursed or used in such manner as the Administration may, in the exer-cise of sound discretion, deem best to promote and accelerate

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the restoration program or enhance the maintenance of histori-cal structures and facilities in Intramuros, or contribute to their development and preservation, or otherwise attain the objec-tives of the Administration.

(b) All grants and donations to the Administration shall be exempt from donors and all other taxes that are or may be imposed by the government in case of donations and shall be fully deducti-ble for income tax purposes. All monetary contributions and the equivalent monetary value of works of art, antiques, manu-scripts, books, or other articles of cultural, historical or scientific significance donated to the Administration shall be tax exempt and deductible from the taxable income of the donor.

(c) Donations mortis causa of art objects, antiques, treasures and relics, historical houses or parts thereof or similar properties made to the Administration shall be excluded in the determina-tion of the net estate of the donor. Furthermore, the full value of the donation shall be credited for purposes of paying estate taxes due from the estate of the decedent: Provided, That the value of the donation shall be subject to the joint approval of the Administration and the Bureau of Internal Revenue.

Section 18. Eminent Domain. The Administration shall be exempt from the payment of documentary stamp tax, registration fees and other taxes, dues and fees incidental to the issuance of title to it of property acquired through sale or expropriation. Should expropriation proceedings be resorted to, the Administration shall likewise be exempt from all court fees. Said expropriation proceedings may be maintained by and in the name of the Administration and it may proceed in the manner provided by law. Section 19. Effectivity of Decisions of the Administration. Any decision, order or ruling by the Administration in any application, complaint or issue filed or brought before it shall become final and executory after the lapse of fifteen (15) days from its receipt by the affected party. It is appeal-able only to the President of the Philippines whose decision shall be final. Section 20. Rule Making Functions. The Administration shall promulgate such rules and regulations as may be necessary to implement this Decree and to enforce the policies, orders and resolutions of the Administration. These rules and regulations shall be signed and promulgated by the Board

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and shall take effect fifteen (15) days after its promulgation once in at least two newspapers of general circulation. Section 21. Visitorial Powers. The Administration, through its authorized officers or representative shall have the power to conduct an ocular in-spection of any ongoing construction or existing building or structure to determine whether the development or activity conforms to the use, standards and specifications prescribed by the government. Any violation of such specifications provided for in its rules and regulations shall be dealt with in the Section dealing with penalties. Section 22. Authority to Organize Inter-Agency Committees. The Ad-ministration or its designated representative is hereby authorized to or-ganize and convene an inter-agency committee or committees with rep-resentatives coming from the appropriate government agencies an pri-vate entities to serve as consultative or recommendatory bodies on such matters as the Administration may deem necessary to be referred to it. Section 23. Deputization of Officials. The Administration may deputize any official or agency of the government to perform any of its specific functions or activities. Section 24. Penalties.

(a) Any person or establishment who violates any provision of this Decree, or any policy, order, decision, ruling or regulation of the Administration shall be subject to a penalty to be imposed by the appropriate court ranging from a fine of One Thousand Pe-sos (P1,000.00) to Fifty Thousand Pesos (P50,000.00) or im-prisonment of not exceeding six years or both at the discretion of the court. This shall be without prejudice to any administra-tive fines and penalties that the Administration may prescribe in its rules and regulations, including the revocation or cancellation of locational or construction permit and the suspension of con-struction and/or the demolition of illegal construction.

(b) The Administration is hereby authorized to impose a fine not ex-ceeding Thirty Thousand pesos (P30,000.00) for violation of this Decree or any of the policies, orders, rules and regulations promulgated by it or any of the terms and conditions provided for in the permit or license granted by it. It may furthermore, after due notice has been given, consider any violation as a con-

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tinuing one and subject to a daily penalty for as long as the ille-gal act or condition exists.

(c) The Administration may, furthermore, in the enforcement of its decisions and in the exercise of its regulatory functions, secure the assistance of or deputize the appropriate enforcing officials, such as the building official of the City of Manila and other local police officers. It may, when the need arises, establish its own enforcement arm or demolition team to strengthen its enforce-ment powers.

Section 25. Effects of Laws, Decrees and Ordinances. All existing laws, decrees, Acts, Letters of Instruction, Executive Orders, city and metro-politan Ordinances and/or portions thereof which are inconsistent or in conflict with this Act and the approved Development Plan of Intramuros including its implementing rules and regulations shall be considered modi-fied accordingly. In the case of future laws, they must expressly provide for the repeal or amendment of the charter or of specified provisions of the charter of the Administration or its rules and regulations. Section 26. Separability Clause. If, for any reason, any section or provi-sion of this Decree is declared to be unconstitutional or invalid, other sec-tions or provision thereof which are not affected thereby shall continue in full force and effect. Section 27. Effectivity. This Decree shall take effect immediately. Done in the City of Manila, this 10th day of April, in the year of Our Lord, nineteen hundred and seventy-nine.

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Revitalizing Historic Inalahan By Judith S. Flores, PhD This paper provides a brief history of the ancient village of Inarajan, Guam; and notes significant historic structures and period elements of the vernacular architecture. Challenges and issues of revitalizing the district are related with respect to community participation in the proposed development for cultural tourism. Introduction My home is in Inarajan Village. I grew up there in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Houses were so close together that one could hear their neighbors’ conversation. The street was our playground, where children played ball and ka’diding (a form of hopscotch). We greeted our elders with a respectful manginge (sniffing of the elder’s hand to receive their blessing), and we quickly obeyed if Auntie or Uncle sent us on an errand. We had a basketball court built by volunteer labor, and the whole village turned out to cheer our basketball players during games. Boys grew up knowing how to use a machete to harvest the abundance from the jungle; and girls were proud to clean their family homes and polish their ifil wood floors with the coconut skuiyi until it shined. It was a long drive to Hagåtña, so we entertained ourselves at the little movie theater along the bayside, and we listened to the stories and songs of our elders in the quiet, dark nights. Life revolved around San Jose Church, and social events were family celebrations of fiestas, nobenas, weddings, christenings, and funerals. Mom and Pop stores provided everything we needed, from rice, flour and sugar to colorful cloth that we bought and took to the village seamstress to sew our clothes. The village bakery used the hotnu – the dome-shaped Spanish oven – to bake bread. The delicious smell drifted all over the neighborhood and people lined up to wait for the bread to come out of the oven. Inalahan in the 1960s was a bustling village of about 3000 people, most of who lived in the village proper. Spanish-Period History Spanish missionaries laid out the streets of this village in 1680. There was a typhoon in November 1680 that destroyed most of the homes in Guam. The Spanish missionaries used this opportunity to move the people into six centers: Inapsan, Pago, Agat, Merizo, Umatac, and Inarajan. After the Spanish conquered the native population Governor Quiroga then went into the northern islands (called Gani isles) to catch rebels who had fled there and to bring everyone back to live on Guam. Inalahan and other southern villages were resettled with captives from Gani in April of 1699 (Hezel, 1989, p. 13). To insure control of these natives, the Spanish governor encouraged their own people, such as retired soldiers who had married Chamorro women, to settle in Inalahan by offering them land. They also offered land to those who converted to Christianity.

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The ancestors of present-day Inalahan people are descended from this mixture of a few remaining local people, mixed with the Gani people from the northern Mariana Islands and Spanish mixtures from Mexico and the Philippines. While all families were required to build a house and live in Inalahan to be near the church, people still farmed their clan lands in the surrounding area. The men and older boys would often live and work on their ranches (called lanchos) from Monday to Saturday. They would return to their village home on Saturday evening in order to go to Mass and spend Sunday with their families. In this way, the ancestral land tenure remained pretty much in tact since the establishment of Inalahan as a village. The original structures in Inarajan began as simple thatched homes, built on poles, with a bamboo floor raised above the ground about one to two meters. As time went on, some homes began to use local ifil hardwood for floors and walls. More well-to-do families added a thick rock and lime cement wall around the poles, and added massive staircases and raised terraces in the back for outside kitchens. This Spanish introduction of rock and lime mortar construction is called manposteria. This is the type of house that exists today in the historic district. Description of the Vil lage Inarajan has the largest concentration of homes that were built in the early 1900s because the village was spared from intense bombing during World War II. Generations of the same family have lived here for over 300 years. The houses were built close together, with about 8 houses to each block, bordered by Salai Haya (presently San Jose Street) and Salai Lagu (presently Pale' Duenas Street). The hill defines the boundaries of the village on the inland (Haya) side, with one or two houses extending from Salai Haya partially up the hillside. As families grew, a second house was often built in front or back of the first house. The Duenas family owns large parcels of land from Salai Haya extending back into the hills. Families with village property along the hillside can almost always trace their family heritage back to the Duenas family. Houses also filled the area between Salai Lagu (Pale' Duenas Street) to the shore along Inarajan Bay. This was the lowest part of the flood plain that comprises Inarajan Village, and was less desirable property. Families built their houses on wooden poles to help protect them from sea surges and river flooding during typhoons. Many of the original families who lived along the shore where Gef Pa'go Cultural Village is located can trace their ancestry back to the Meno family. San Jose Church The Jesuit missionaries built the first church in Inalahan and named it “Patriarka San Jose Esposo de la Virgen Maria”. The first church was made of wood with a thatch roof, and it was quickly burned by rebels (Garcia, 1683, p. 179). By 1769, the third church built on this spot was a stone-and-mortar mamposteria building with a thatched roof

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(Haynes & Wuerch, 1993, pp.9; 17-20). As with all Spanish Catholic villages, the church was the most prominent feature in the village. The quaint gothic-style church of today was designed by Father Bernabe de Caseda and built by the villagers under his leadership between 1937 and 1940. Sand was shoveled by hand from nearby beaches and carried by trucks or jeeps to the site. Older men with building expertise supervised the younger men to mix cement by hand and carry the mortar by buckets to those working on the building. The iron rebar and other construction materials were often Navy surplus items. Builders Lino Chargualaf, Ignacio Taimanglo and Jesus Crisostomo, among others, were instrumental in building the church. Ignacio Taimanglo recalled that a ramp made of coconut tree poles extended from the hill behind the church to the height of the steeple. Workers moved building materials by wheelbarrow along that ramp to build the tower. Very few men were brave enough to climb to the heights of the tower or steeple, but in four year’s time the construction was completed without the use of any construction machinery. St. Joseph Church was damaged by Japanese and American air attacks during World War II, and repaired by villagers after the war. In 1949, it was damaged by typhoon Allyn and repaired again (Carano, 1974, pp. 12-13). Major structural repairs were made in the 1970s, when it was determined that the walls needed support. At this time the buttresses were added. The 8.1 earthquake in 1993 further damaged the church and demanded its reconstruction. Under a grant from the Guam Preservation Trust, Saint Joseph Church was completely rehabilitated to its present appearance and re-dedicated in 1997. The gothic-style decoration on the colonnades, arches and balustrades was done through the ingenuity of the builders. They formed the molds from whatever materials they had. From that learning experience Jesus Crisostomo went on to create many other decorative concrete motifs. An example of his work can be seen on the archway over the entrance walkway. The delicate arch is decorated on its underside by a repeat fleur-de-lis style motif consisting of three circles made by a simple home-made mold. Latte-shaped pillars support the arch. He created this when the church underwent major repairs in the 1970s (Jesus Crisostomo interview 1987). Significance of Historic Inalahan Structures At the time of its nomination to the National Register of Historic Places in 1974, the nomination report listed sixty-six significant structures. Eighteen dated from 1901 to 1925. Another thirteen were built before World War II. Another 35 were built immediately after the war and were similar in character to the earlier homes. The village as a whole represents the urban and architectural scale that was once common

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on the island (1974 National Register of Historic Places Inventory – Nomination Form, p. 2, Item 7). According to the National Register Nomination Form statement:

Inarajan Historic Architectural District is the last major remaining example of the urban and architectural scale that was once prevalent throughout the island. The main structures of the village are perhaps the last hope of preserving examples of the “village dwelling” that developed during the latter part of the 19th and early part of the 20th century. This development is unique to Guam and can be traced back to the prehistoric structures. The residences of Inarajan have evolved through centuries of tropical structures. As the dwellings evolved they incorporated some construction methods of the 17th through 19th centuries, some colonial Spanish details, and various types of building materials available during the 20th century. (1974, Item 8)

The older remaining buildings resemble the form and type of construction used in thatch pole structures. The floor was elevated off the ground approximately one meter in older thatch dwellings. Later this height increased to 1-1/2 to 2 meters, effectively creating a 2-storey building. The ground floor was earthen, and the second floor, framed and planked with ifil wood (intsia bijuga), became the main living area. A second type of residential pole structure evolved, which enclosed the lower level with thick walls of mamposteria. The Spanish introduced this building style in the 17th century. It is a rubble type of construction using coral rocks and lime mortar obtained from burning coral to form quicklime (afok). This enclosed area became known as the bodega because it was used for storage of rice, tobacco and other food. The Modernization Since 1970 The village began to change in the 1970s, when those who owned houses along the bayside were offered half-acre lots in the hills of nearby Malojloj in exchange for their little Inarajan lots. Gradually the bayside area became vacant. This is where Gef Pa’go Chamorro Cultural Village now stands. Television first came to Inarajan in the 1960s. At first it was a great social affair. The first families who owned televisions opened their homes to village children to watch “Gunsmoke” and “I Love Lucy”. The local television station sponsored a nightly rosary hour, and parents knelt with their children to pray with the techas (prayer leaders) on television. Between Supertyphoons Karen in 1962 and Pamela in 1976 the landscape in most of the island began to change. Bank financers required that people rebuild their homes

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with concrete walls and roofs to withstand these natural disasters. These new homeowners soon found that concrete boxes with small windows were too hot, so they began to air condition their homes. By the late 1970s most homes had air conditioning and televisions. Even those who lived in our wooden homes in Inarajan closed their windows and doors, turned on their air conditioners and focused on their television shows. By the 1980s children decided it was too hot to play outdoors, and the streets were no longer their playground. The Exodus Inalahan village today is virtually a ghost town. On each of the five blocks that comprise the historic district, an average of two houses out of the former eight houses are occupied. More than half of the sixty-six significant historical structures noted in 1974 no longer exist. What caused this exodus of families from their ancestral homes? My observations and discussions with others have revealed some of these reasons:

• People moved to be closer to where they worked and shopped • Families wanted to follow the American Dream of 2000 square-foot homes on

half-acre lots • It wasn’t “cool” or modern to live in old-fashioned wooden houses • Titles of many historic homes were still in the name of deceased parents or

grandparents – it was easier to go buy a new house than to try to settle the estate among dozens of heirs

• Clear titles are required for bank financing; therefore few people could afford to repair homes or to rebuild on family property

• Banks would only finance concrete houses with concrete roofs because insurance companies won’t insure wood frame, metal roof houses for typhoons.

• It was hard to get property surveys done because the triangulation points were too far away from the village. This made surveys very expensive if not impossible.

• Neighbors all over the district dispute boundary lines because there is no village-wide survey map.

The designation of Inalahan as a historic district was both good and bad for the continued existence of the village. It was good for the fact that it deterred people from tearing down historic buildings. Laws are in place that require applicants for demolition or building permits to be cleared by the Historic Preservation Office. This helped retain the historic scale and character of Inalahan. It became frozen in time – a relic of the early 20th century vernacular architecture. However, relics deteriorate if not properly preserved and maintained. Successive typhoons caused the destruction of several buildings. Fortunately, the Guam Preservation Trust was able to work with families of 13 homes to rehabilitate some of the most significant structures, including the San Jose Church. But the Trust can only help those who have clear title to their properties. Sadly, many of the homes rehabilitated by GPT were damaged by

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typhoons or poorly maintained by owners. Many of these rehabilitated homes have joined the list of abandoned buildings. Property owners don’t like to sell their ancestral lands. This has been good for the continued connection of generations of families to their village. However, many properties have been abandoned for more than a generation. Connections are being lost. Would it be best if these properties could be sold to others interested in revitalizing the village? Without clear title, these properties cannot even be sold. Lack of information about this historic designation also contributed to the decline of the village. Building contractors didn’t have sufficient knowledge of the historic district regulations, so they often refused to take building jobs in the district. For example, the lot sizes in the district are all substandard. Contractors would look at the lot and tell the owner that they needed eight-foot setbacks from the road, which didn’t leave enough room on the lot to build a house! They didn’t know that owners in the historic district could apply for waivers of these setback regulations. Its more expensive to rebuild in the historic district than to build a new house elsewhere. A case in point is the Fred Meno two-story house on San Jose Street. This house was built in the early 1950s, featuring a concrete ground floor bodega and a second-floor living area with concrete walls, back and front balconies, metal roof, wood floors and an exterior, concrete staircase and landing. Like most post-war homes, the roofline was not as steep as the pre-war houses. This house lost some of its roof in Typhoon Chata’an in 2002. Fred was granted a Small Business Loan of $50,000 to repair the house. He secured an architect and a contractor and he applied for a building permit. The Historic Preservation Office told him that the roofline had to be redesigned to a steeper grade because the house was located in the historic district. So he spent about $5,000 to re-design the roof. But then the structural engineers determined that a steeper roof would put too much stress on the walls, and they would have to be strengthened by posts running from the roof into the foundation. Digging into the foundation would require the cost of hiring an archaeologist to monitor the excavation. If, in the likely event that significant artifacts were found in the excavation, he would have to pay more money for archaeological recovery work. He gave up and abandoned the house. Presently, the house has deteriorated so badly that it is probably beyond repair. Revitalization Efforts In 2004, Gef Pa’go was awarded a two-year grant of over $400,000 to train interns in two areas that would help revitalize historic Inalahan. Hospitality and Tourism interns would learn how to demonstrate traditional crafts, tell about their village history, and provide hospitality services in the historic district. Historic Building interns would be trained and certified in basic carpentry, with a focus on learning the building methods

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and styles of the historic district. Both trainee groups had classroom training sessions as well as on-the-job training at Gef Pa’go Cultural Village and in the historic buildings in Inalahan. Over the course of the two-year project we trained 5 hospitality interns and 11 historic building interns. Our goal was to rehabilitate three historic buildings that could then be used for guest houses and retail spaces. The Building Interns first learned to build the pole thatch huts in Gef Pa’go Park. Then, they moved on to the job of replacing the roof of the pavilion, which turned into a major re-construction job that resulted in the pavilion you see at Gef Pa’go today. The interns then tackled an emergency replacement of termite-infested wood in the historic Isabel L.G. Cruz house, which we use as our office. We documented each step of the process, where they tore down water-damaged 1970s panel board to reveal the original Japanese fir wood paneling in the walls. They replaced termite-infested beams that supported the upstairs floor (a post-war addition of U.S. lumber as opposed to ifil used in the original structure.) They discovered that an original ceiling beam was sagging by 3 inches, so they installed a support beam that went from the bodega floor to the main floor ceiling. They learned finishing, caulking, painting, and created moulding to cover exposed electrical wiring. The George Flores House was originally intended for minor repairs to rehabilitate the upstairs as a vacation rental and the ground floor as a retail space. During the course of our project it was determined that the kitchen roof, which had been exposed since a typhoon in 2000, needed to be changed due to extensive water damage. Water flowing through the exposed roof had eventually rotted out the kitchen floor. Engineers determined that there was structural damage that required professional construction beyond the capabilities of our interns. Our building interns concentrated on cleaning out the bodega that had historically served as a retail store. They stripped away water-damaged paneling on walls and the ceiling that had been added in the 1970s, exposing mamposteria walls and original ifil support poles. Inspection by engineers revealed that the ifil poles were rotted through at the floor level due to constant damp rise from the concrete floor. However, concrete beams that were added in the 1970s supported the upper floor. The interns removed inactive termite-damaged wood from the ceiling, stabilized and cleaned the area. This building continues to deteriorate. Joe Flores House became the rehabilitation project, which resulted in the goal of establishing a guest rental house. Most of the 11 interns participated in this final project of replacing plumbing, repairing plaster, upgrading electrical wiring, replacing damaged wood, painting, tiling and polishing. At the end of the project, it became a vacation rental advertised on the Gef Pa’go website. It was subsequently returned to the owner, who rented it to a young couple who love the idea of living in a historic home that has all the modern comforts added. This project serves as a model of how

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we can attract a new generation of professional people to eventually occupy and rehabilitate the historic district. The Juan and Patrona C. Meno House was intended to be the major accomplishment of this ambitious two-year project. However, we discovered that two years is only long enough to complete the planning for the project, the architectural and engineering work, and the identification of wood materials similar to those used in the existing homes, such as ifil and other tropical woods. The preliminary work included extensive meetings with the surviving heirs of this house, to help them designate an administrator for this property, which is still in the name of their deceased parents. This project is one example of the way titles to ancestral properties might be resolved. We are encouraging them to form a family non-profit organization that would administer future income from the property for scholarships or other purposes that would benefit future generations. Conclusion: Recommendations to Support Revitalization The issues discussed in this presentation need to be resolved if Historic Inalahan is to survive with any significant structures intact. Depending on the action we take now, Inalahan can be a ghetto area where no one wants to live; or it can be the greatest cultural treasure of Guam, with rehabilitated homes for not only visitors to stay but for our own people to raise their children. It can be a source of pride for the present and future generations of Inarajan families, where all our island youth can come to learn about their Chamorro roots, their colonial heritage; their language and traditional arts and crafts. It can be a source of jobs in cultural tourism, historic building repair and related services. We’ve got to move forward for this village to survive and thrive. My recommendations include the following:

• Develop a master plan that includes land surveys, infrastructure plans and economic development sustained by cultural tourism and related services

• Educate the residents and property owners about the advantages of living and building in the historic district. Emphasize the positive and show ways to overcome obstacles through brochures, checklists, fliers, talks at local schools and other promotional activities.

• Provide agents or provide a staff person at the mayor’s office – a person who is immediately and locally accessible - to address issues related to the historic district.

• Provide guidelines and checklists of procedures needed to build in the historic district

• Develop model structural elements and architectural features that builders can use for rehabilitation in the district – window and door styles, hardware, recommended materials and applications

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• Provide financial assistance and /or incentives to those who invest in historic properties – partnerships with banks and insurance companies, tax deductions for investments

• Promote the strength and viability of traditional wood construction – the best proof is the existence of these houses for over a century!

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Preservation for Our Souls: Lessons from University of Guam Students at Historic Inalahan

By Anne Perez Hattori, Ph.D. Associate Professor, History and Micronesian Studies University of Guam

Dangkulu na saina ma’ase to Señores Jose Rodriguez and Carlos Madrid of the Spanish Program for Cultural Cooperation, as well as the Guam Preservation Trust staff – Executive Director Joe Quinata, as well as Ruby Santos, Rosanna Barcinas, and Felix Benavente -- for their tremendous work in organizing this Conference, as well as for inviting me to participate. This gathering gives us all an opportunity to take a break from the frenzy of our daily lives and reflect upon what we’ve accomplished in the past, what we’re presently working on, and where our future is headed. The Chamorro people have long understood the importance of this process of integrating the past, the present, and the future, in particular, the necessity of knowing one’s history. This Chamorro appreciation for history, what we in academia might call an epistemology of history, opposes the classic Western notion of history as the past, as what’s behind us. It is encapsulated in the word mo’na and I will attempt to explain my thoughts on this. Mo’na literally means “front” or “in front of,” referring to what we can see standing before our very eyes. Mo’na also appears in the word taotaomo’na, our ancestors, literally, the people in front. According to this definition, our ancestors and, therefore, our history, are situated not behind us, not taotaotatte, but rather, in front of us, taotaomo’na. Thus in this Chamorro epistemology, history lies always in front of us, navigating us to the future. Looking ahead is essential; without looking in front of us, we would walk into ditches or drive toward oncoming vehicles. And looking ahead, mo’na, means knowing your history. There are many lessons to be learned here. It tells us that history guides our future, but it also tells us that knowing and preserving our history is essential, not simply to make tourists happy, but rather because of a true need to look before we leap, to remember the past and grow from it.

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This view of history can be found in islands across the Pacific, each one signaling the importance to islanders of history and historic preservation. In past decades, many publications and conference presentations have corroborated this. Yet the past decade of research in Micronesia has also shown that the islanders have frequently found themselves at odds with academics and preservationists, often possessing conflicting definitions of what it means to be historically significant.1 A recent publication by Jon O’Neill and Dirk Spennemann asserts that, throughout Micronesia, islanders “share a strong sense of dissatisfaction with current historic preservation practices.”2 This 2006 publication reported the results of a Historic Preservation survey that was disseminated throughout the US-affiliated islands in Micronesia.3 I myself had responded to that survey and I was one of those respondents critical of historic preservation. For me, particularly after I was hired at UOG in 1999 and began teaching many History of Guam sections, I had become interested in connecting my students to their historic island and region. I wanted to find ways to help them see their history all around them, to appreciate that the footsteps of their everyday lives took them across historic grounds all over Guam. But more importantly, I wanted them to see themselves in their island’s history, to see that they themselves are products of Guam’s unique past. I looked to the existing historical markers, those on the National or Local Register, as well as historical monuments, museums, and landmarks. I thought these would be useful tools for connecting students to their island’s long and rich past, and therefore, to their present-day complicated, multi-layered cultural identities. What I found, however, was quite disappointing, monuments and landmarks that paid tribute, not to Chamorros, but to Spaniards, Japanese, and Americans who had colonized Guam. In these historic places, other people’s successes and sacrifices were commemorated,

1 Lin Poyer, “Defining History Across Cultures: Islander and Outsider Contrasts.” Isla: A Journal of Micronesian Studies 1:1, Rainy Season 1992, 73-89. 2 O’Neill and Spenneman assert that, although both HPOs and the US National Park Service are evaluated as being ineffective in fulfilling their core responsibility of historic preservation, greatest dissatisfaction was lodged against local governments (Jon O’Neill and Dirk HR Spennemann, “Perceptions of Micronesians on the Efectiveness of the Historic Preservation Programs, Micronesian Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences 5:1/2, 2006, 544). 3 The article noted that the responses showed “a strong level of consistency … regardless of ethnicity, age, gender, and origin” (O’Neill and Spennemann, 544). O’Neill and Spennemann, however, do not give specific criticisms, nor does it propose ways to improve Historic Preservation practices.

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some in celebration, others in mourning. I was not, and am not, opposed to Guam’s many historic structures that owe their design and construction to Guam’s various colonial rulers because, indeed, part of our very uniqueness is precisely this long and dense colonial history that has resulted in Spanish, German, Japanese and American influences on the island. Rather, what disappointed me was that the stories accompanying these sites typically failed to reflect the active participation of Chamorros in the history of their own island. Neither the interpretative signage nor the other explanatory sources such as brochures, pamphlets, and websites, included Chamorros and the ways in which these forts, plazas, and battle sites touched their daily lives. I would, in fact, suggest that in doing so many of these historic sites contribute to Guam’s ongoing colonization, burying Chamorros and Chamorro history deeper and deeper beneath the stories of other people on our land and showcasing the island as a place that welcomes others to come and leave their marks on our body, our island. In looking at Guam’s historic places, few and far between did I see, read, or hear stories of Chamorro participation, determination, and survival.4 Despite my dissatisfaction, I still remain optimistic that things do change over time and those of us present today actually have power to make changes. We have the power to prioritize and select which sites get restored. We have the power to ensure that historic sites on our islands represent the past in ways that honor the experiences of the islanders and their roles in their own history. As Kelly Marsh and Dirk Spennemann express in “Bridging the Gap: Reflecting Chamorro in Historic Structures,” “It is incumbent upon historians and historic preservationists to reconnect Chamorros to their history long-denied them—to uncover the Chamorro stories within these [historic] structures, to help Chamorros see themselves and their ancestors reflected in them.”5

4 In a paper that was published in 2006, I asserted that history – not only history as it has occurred, but also history as it has been preserved in documents and structures -- has enacted violence against the Chamorro people, in part by romanticizing and celebrating the colonial history of the island, rather than positioning or even acknowledging its role in undermining Chamorro cultural, political, and economic sovereignty. See “The Politics of Preservation: Historical Memory and the Division of the Mariana Islands.” Micronesian Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences 5:1/2, November 2006, 1-4. 5 Kelly Marsh and Dirk HR Spennemann, “Bridging the Gap: Reflecting Chamorro in Historic Structures,” poster presentation, International Conference on Stonework Heritage in Micronesia, November 14-15, 2007, Guam.

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In my search for islander-centered historic structures, I realized that, thankfully, not all of Guam’s historic markers are testimonies to some Walt Disney wonderful world of colonialism. Two, in particular, stand out in my mind– the Asan Bay Overlook of the War in the Pacific Park, built in 1994, on the 50th Anniversary of Guam’s “Liberation” from World War II, specifically to honor Chamorro suffering during the war. The other is the project you’ve just heard about from Dr. Judy Flores, the Historic District of Inalahan, encompassing St. Joseph’s Church and the historic homes within the village. The designation of “historic district” was endowed upon Inalahan in 1977 by the US government, officially listing the site on the US National Register of Historic Places. The church, built in the 1930s by the villagers who donated not only their financial resources to pay for all of the construction materials, but also their labor, serves as the focal point of the historic district, and a cluster of homes fills out the site. Some of the homes are more than 100 years old and thus it represents the oldest inhabited village on Guam. Both of these historic places, one under the purview of the National Park Service and the other under the guidance of the Historic Inalahan Foundation, tell stories that highlight the Chamorro people, their encounters with “others,” their challenges through the best and worst of times, and their on-going survival to this day. Thus in my continual journey as a teacher to engage my students in their own history, I decided to bring them out of their comfortable air-conditioned classroom in order to answer for themselves some basic historical questions. These are questions such as: What do we choose to remember? Specifically, which historic sites are selected for preservation? That is, how have Guam’s people selected what is worthy of our remembrance, what becomes a part of our remembered past? Secondly, how do we remember? That is, what are some of the ways in which we, today, remember our past and what kinds of history lessons do we learn from historic sites? Finally, how can they, as students and as residents of the island, contribute to these processes of historical remembrance and preservation? Armed with these questions, I began engaging my History of Guam students in a service-learning project – providing service by volunteering their labor, while also learning through an educational experience. Thus far, they have donated over 400 labor hours to the Historic Inalahan

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Foundation in this spirit of service-learning. These students are, for the most part, first year students, aged 18 to 19, although we do get our fair share of non-traditional students. It was for several reasons that I selected the Historic District of Inalahan. Firstly, it is a Historic District, recognized on the National Register of Historic Places, and thus it offered opportunities to discuss, observe, and critique what it means to be a registered historic place. Secondly, Inalahan has been the recipient of numerous Guam Preservation Trust grants and thus it offered students the opportunity to see for themselves the ways in which Guam’s “Historic Sites” are being preserved today. Thirdly, the Historic Inalahan Foundation and the Gef Pa’go Cultural Center, under the sound leadership of Dr. Judy Flores, is a well-run organization with an endless amount of work to do and a staff of dedicated employees and volunteers who act as work supervisors. Because of their well-run organization and the leadership of people such as Mr. Carlos Paulino, their Maintenance Supervisor, and Mr. Rudy Sabares, a construction apprentice, I can confidently bring 30 to 40 students at a time and know that their services will be well utilized. Fourthly, and most importantly, I selected this site because, in my view, it exemplifies the best of what historic preservation can mean. On the one hand, it is a rich historic location that allows for discussions across hundreds, even thousands, of years of history, from precolonial Chamorro society, to Spanish colonial rule, through the early American influences, to World War II, and finally, to modern Guam. At the same, however, in one small village, amidst thousands of years of history, it is also a dynamic representation of living, breathing villagers, going about their daily lives, not in some pickled, touristic sense, but as modern people juggling the challenges of the past, present, and future. It is not a monument to Spanish, American, or Japanese colonialism, but rather, a tribute to Chamorro survival alongside generations of Spanish, American, and Japanese influence. In the remainder of my paper, I want to share with you some details of the project’s organization in the hopes that you might be inspired to do similar projects. If you are teachers, then think about engaging your students. If you work in the Historic Preservation field, then think about making partnerships with teachers, in the schools or colleges or at UOG. If neither of this applies to you, then maybe you can engage your village or community organization or even your children’s classes. In my

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experience, the results of this activity have been far more profound than my greatest expectations. So here is what we do. Initially, a few class days before their trip to Inalahan, students are introduced to the Guam Preservation Trust via a lively and detailed presentation by Rosanna Barcinas of the Guam Preservation Trust staff. She comes with a slide show that defines and explains historic preservation and that describes the various projects that the Trust has funded, including details about specific sites within Inalahan. Thus even before their trip to Inalahan, students have already heard a bit about historic preservation, about the village, and about the challenging politics of historic preservation and preservation funding. Once they arrive at the village, I invariably overhear them talking amongst themselves saying, “Oh, isn’t that one of the historic homes? Is that the Cruz house? Oh, wow, look at the church!” Although they may have driven down this same road tens or even hundreds of times in their lives, never before have they seen it in quite the same way. The work begins promptly at 9 am with Dr. Flores and her staff immediately assigning students into different groups, each with a specific task and under the leadership of a work supervisor. These tasks range from picking up trash around the village, to weeding and cleaning up in and around the historic structures, to cleaning up the shoreline to ease some of the problems associated with rising sea levels. Students are given mops and brooms, gloves, trash bags, paintbrushes, machetes, shovels, rakes, wheelbarrows, and, at the end of the day, thanks to Guam Preservation Trust, a plate lunch prepared by Kusinan Gadao that enables them to refresh, regenerate, and appreciate the value of their sweat. It is the deliciously fitting culmination to a sweet labor of love. Following the outing, I ask the students to write an anonymous reaction paper that reflects upon their experience. I ask them to be brutally honest, in order to guide me in modifying the project for future classes. In my presentation today, I will share some of the comments in these assessment essays, quoting their words directly, and, in the spirit of this Conference, even preserving their grammatical errors. Social Outcomes The day results in a range of benefits. For some students, especially those new to Guam, it serves as both a touristic opportunity as well as a cultural immersion experience. For others, the drive down south gives

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them a chance to visit a village they wouldn’t otherwise, and indeed, every semester, I have a handful of students who have never before ventured to the southern part of the island. For others, the outing becomes an important social event in their semester, a welcome opportunity to make friends. One student wrote that the event was “worthwhile because I got to know my classmates and meet new people, people that I wouldn’t have talked to.” This social aspect helps me, as well, because following this event, students do come back to the classroom with a stronger bond and greater affection for one another. Amazingly, in three short hours, they begin to forge a community of their own. A Pedagogical Tool As their instructor, the outing serves as a powerful learning tool in a number of ways. It provides students with a valuable hands-on opportunity to experience history, in addition to reading about it in their assignments and hearing about it in class lectures. For some students, it is an opportunity to do something out of the ordinary, one writing, “As students we are constantly stuck in the cycle of waking up, going to a classroom, taking notes, going home, and studying. Having an excursion outside of the classroom both helps reinforce whatever lesson is being taught and takes away the mundane everyday classroom experience.” Others note its instructive benefits, one of them writing, “From an educational stance I got to see first hand how the historic buildings were constructed. An individual cannot completely understand things like “Mamposteria” unless you see it for yourself.” Many students expressed ideas such as this one that stated, “In the classroom we learn through lecture and visuals, but it is different to smell, feel and see what history is and how [Guam] has changed.” One expressed that “The drive and hard work we did in the houses was worth it because I was there to see and touch the history of our island.” Thus, there is no doubt in my mind that students derive educational value from the experience. Specifically, I want to share four key areas of educational learning. Lesson 1: Learning about Inalahan I call the first of these educational lessons, “Learning about Inalahan.” One of my students who actually lives in Inalahan wrote, “Although I’ve lived there my whole life, just from this last visit I learned more than I

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ever had about my own village.” Many of the students similarly comment that they were previously unaware of Inalahan’s history and significance. The students express, in different ways, that the village has touched them, one student writing, “Who knew Guam had such a beautiful place?” while another expressed, “While visiting the houses and restored projects I was struck with the beautiful uniqueness of each building.” Many students thanked the Guam Preservation Trust for its role in restoring St. Joseph’s Church, as well as the numerous homes, one writing, “The Guam Preservation Trust did a wonderful job restoring this beautiful church. Just walking into the church gave me a sense of all the history that our church and our island has been through.” Another student wrote, referring to the Ana Leon Guerrero home, “As I entered the home, history jumped right out at me.” Inalahan indubitably leaves its marks on the students who increase their knowledge and appreciation of this village’s history. Lesson 2: Learning the Value of Historic Preservation The second lesson I call “Learning the value of historic preservation.” One student summed this point up well, writing, “Historic preservation has to be taught. It is a learning process to realize that without the past there would be no future.” Another similarly expressed, “I learned why it is important to have knowledge in both history and historic preservation. Both work together hand in hand. Without historic preservation the people of our future will not know of their history, and without any awareness of their history people are bound to make the same recurring mistakes.” Another powerful response reads, “My understanding of the importance of historic preservation has always been present, although through the activities it has been enhanced by simply standing, walking and breathing in the buildings where Guam’s history had taken place and a whole new appreciation has taken birth in me and continues to grow.” The vast majority of the students share that, although they were previously only vaguely aware, if at all, of what historic preservation was all about, after the visit, they have become avid supporters who now understand in more specific terms both the benefits and challenges of preservation work. Coming to terms with this knowledge enriches many of them in this learning process. Lesson 3: Learning and Appreciating Guam’s History and Culture:

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The outing is also an opportunity to “Learn and Appreciate Guam’s History and Culture.” For many of the students, their time in Inalahan enables them to contemplate broader questions about the island. One wrote, The experience “helps the students appreciate their history – a history so rich and old, it bewilders even an outsider such as myself.” Another expressed that the day “helped me to realize the magnitude of how much our history matters to everyone living in the present day.” Some serious concerns also emerge, one student writing, “I hope that this field trip will allow other people to go through and recognize what I did … because it seems to me that many Chamorros do not even know their cultural history or background.” Students also point to the living aspects of culture that they saw and felt so vibrantly in Inalahan. One student stated, “Our field trip to Gef Pa’go was a success not only in the preservation of the site but as a learning tool for all people, not just Chamorros, to help teach who the Chamorro people are.” Some express that the very act of preserving history is a vehicle for keeping it alive. One wrote of “how much love the household gives to community” and assessed that “Historic preservation keeps the culture and lineage of the families preserved.” Other lessons about Chamorro culture also emerge. One wrote, “I have lived on Guam for over 15 years now and I believe I learned a lot about this island and culture…. I learned that the Chamorro people were more than a tight society that just came together and improved their village. They cared for one another and treated one another as family. It was more of a family effort to keep the village thriving [, full of ]pride and improvements. For example, when the Inarahan people came together, kids, moms, dads, uncles and so on, to build their beloved church.” Similarly, another wrote, “I have gained tons of respect and awe toward the island that I currently reside in because I had the opportunity to be part of the historic preservation in Inalahan.” One student who brought her son and daughter along for the day wrote, “I am ashamed to say that it took a class trip to really get in touch with my culture. I am not only glad for the experience, I am happy my children were able to experience it with me.” Many students realized how much hard work goes into preservation, maintenance and stabilization. One wrote, “My hands on experience has showed me how much work it needs to keep a landscape beautiful. I love the south, the beaches and the

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sights, it’s just amazing! To keep it this way, me and everyone else needs to work together and help clean up.” Similarly, another stated, “I know that the ‘yard work’ we did was nothing at all compared to the rigorous work that the villagers did in the past, but it gave me a better understanding of the responsibilities of the villagers and why it is important to continue their work.” Students generally saw Inalahan as illustrative of the larger Guam story. For example, one wrote, “These buildings are indicative of a strong people…. It is extremely important to emphasize how and why the indigenous people of Guam persevered through the worst of hardships and change to the current generations.” Thus from an educational perspective, students undoubtedly learn about history and culture, ranging from gaining a sheer appreciation for its age and depth, to an understanding of the dynamics of community-building and home maintenance, to the still-vibrant displays of dedication, teamwork, and physical labor.. Lesson 4: Taking Care of Our Future And although this project is explicitly about the past, many students also looked toward the future, writing statements such as “I have learned that we need to take care of our island….The Guam Preservation Trust has really done a great job … but we can’t just rely on them to take care of our island. The people of Guam need to work together and maintain our history and culture.” They acknowledged that a successful future requires hard work, one student writing, “I was part of the group that had to pick up all the debris from the shore. It was disgusting,… but someone’s got to do the dirty work. We all just got to suck it up if we really do cherish our home.” Another student wrote, “Before, I was passive about historic preservation – I was all for the idea, but not enough that I would actually participate. But after going to the historic site and seeing it, it makes me wonder if we are doing enough.” In fact, the main suggestion that I received in the essays was this recurring critique. As another student wrote, “I would recommend adding additional site visits and projects, so that both the students and the community of Guam may gain and grow in cultural knowledge and awareness. This would be an important move in the effort for cultural and historic preservation.”

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In their essays, many of the students express that while they care about Guam and its future, they also care deeply about its past and efforts to preserve it well. An Emotional Experience On top of some of these lessons learned, students also shared many emotional responses to their day, some of which you’ve already been hearing. In many of the essays, students expressed that in contributing their labor, they felt a “sense of accomplishment.” One student wrote, “Even though I was just cleaning, I felt that I was part of something bigger.” Arriving in their separate cars as individual students, they leave three hours later, realizing that they had collectively contributed to something meaningful. Another wrote, “The process of historic preservation is one that takes time, especially as things need to be stabilized first. Knowing that I was able to contribute something good and be a part of that process is a good feeling.” Many of the students say that they felt “lucky” to have had this small, yet moving, opportunity. Many of them also actually use the word “fun” to describe their day, and a number voiced the opinion written by one that said it was “cool to go and help clean up the village.” One student elaborately described, “I was assigned to pick up trash. Other than that, I also dug up the dirt from a ditch because every time it rained, the place was flooded. After that, I shoveled some other little rocks to cover the lower parts of the ground, so it can block the water outside. Personally, I thought the works were so heavy and difficult. I was exhausted completely, and I really enjoyed the trip…. The day was exciting and educational.” Many of the student essays pinpoint other forms of personal satisfaction. One student shared, “The visit to Inalahan raised my sense of pride and respect for my culture and my island” and numerous other essays made similar comments. Another student wrote, “I left Inarajan with a sense of pride …. This service-learning project is necessary because it inspires new outlooks as it has done for me.” Thus on behalf of my students, I want to thank Dr. Flores and her staff at Gef Pa’go and the Historic Inalahan Foundation. I also wish to extend a dangkulu na si yu’us ma’ase to Joe Quinata, Executive Director of the Guam Preservation Trust, and his staff – Rosanna Barcinas, Ruby Santos, and Felix. You have all extended your hospitality and expended your

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resources to impress the young, developing, impressionable minds of these students, our island’s future leaders. It gives them a lucky chance to smell, touch, see, hear, and feel their history and they appreciate it as an opportunity to learn and absorb some of Guam’s historical and cultural treasures. In addition to this, at the end of the day, it has also been an opportunity to nurture their souls, instilling pride in themselves and their island and a sense of accomplishment, adding self-confidence and self-respect as people who have survived many storms over many years and who are now contributors to the next chapter of Guam’s history. The experience dignifies their home as a beautiful place of history and culture, a place that they can be proud to call home. In the Historic District of Inalahan, these students encounter a living historic site that reminds them that in order to move successfully into the future, we must always look ahead, mo’na, and remember our past.

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Sources Anonymous Student Essays, Fall 2007, HI 211: History of Guam course, University of Guam, Mangilao, GU. Anne Perez Hattori, “The Politics of Preservation: Historical Memory and the Division of the Mariana Islands.” Micronesian Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences 5:1/2, November 2006, 1-4. Kelly Marsh and Dirk HR Spennemann, “Bridging the Gap: Reflecting Chamorro in Historic Structures,” poster presentation, International Conference on Stonework Heritage in Micronesia, November 14-15, 2007, Guam Jon O’Neill and Dirk HR Spennemann, “Perceptions of Micronesians on the Effectiveness of the Historic Preservation Programs, Micronesian Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences 5:1/2, 2006, 540-546 Lin Poyer, “Defining History Across Cultures: Islander and Outsider Contrasts.” Isla: A Journal of Micronesian Studies 1:1, Rainy Season 1992, 73-89

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The Resurrection of Nuestra Señora de la Soledad* By Richard K. Olmo Instructor of Geography, University of Guam (*La Soledad would be considered a ‘Batería a barbeta’, and would have also been considered a ‘Batería cruzante’ in conjunction with Santo Angel and San José.) Introduction In 1994 I had the good fortune to be involved in an ambitious project that included the partial restoration of Fort Soledad, an early 19th Century military structure, built during Guam’s Spanish Period by Governor Alexandro Parreño. At the time, I was employed by a contract firm named International Archaeological Research Institute, Inc., that had had conversations concerning archaeology at the fort with the project architect, in early 1991. But, like so many projects of grand scope, it took several years of planning and coordination before it was initiated. My participation in the project came about not only through this connection, but also as a result of my wife’s participation in a field archaeology class at the University of Guam being taught by Dr. Hiro Kurashina. At the time, Dr. Kurashina was the director of the Micronesian Area Research Center (MARC), home to the Spanish Documents Collection. This collection, under the knowledgeable administration of Marjorie Driver, provided one of the foundations for historical research on Soledad, and the other structures that were once considered part of the project. I refer to this as a project of grand scope, because, as originally conceived, it involved a total of seven Spanish Period sites, all located in southern Guam. Along with Soledad, three other batteries, Santo Angel, San Jose, and Nuestra Señora del Carmen (later, referred to as Santa Barbara); the original San Dionisio church; the Legaspi cross; and, the Merizo Conbento were included. In addition to the restoration or reconstruction of these structures, training in historic stonework and mamposteria construction techniques, for local workers, was built into the work plan, with discussions to formalize the training held with representatives from Guam Community College. The project concept called for interpretive signage, guided tours, a visitor center, and living-history interpretive programs once the restorations were completed. In addition to the architects and archaeologists from Guam, architects, archaeologists, and

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artisans from Mexico and Spain were slated to be involved. The Guam Historic Preservation Trust was the funding body for the project. At the time, Joe Quinata was its director, and he took great personal interest in the project and helped it along at many junctures. While a number of unfortunate factors converged that militated against realization of the full project, a substantial portion of Soledad was restored, and later, through a different project with different architects and no archaeological input, the Conbento was refurbished. My particular contribution to the original project was developing archaeological research designs and conducting excavations in support of the architectural restorations. Accurate architectural restoration of historic structures was predicated upon assaying and understanding the surviving ruins; obtaining substantial information from archival sources; developing a knowledge of period structures, building materials and construction techniques; judicious use of testing laboratories and materials scientists; accessing specialists in the construction techniques of the time period; and, the vision to take all of the disparate parts and make sense of them in a final construction. In the absence of detailed drawings, builder’s plans, as-builts, or period photographs three local sources of information were extensively mined: the MARC archives, the existing ruins, and their associated archaeology. A review of the Spanish Period forts on Guam had previously been conducted in 1979. It was initiated by Sister Felicia Plaza, M.M.B. who, along with Father Thomas B. McGrath, S.J. and Sister Yolanda Delgadillo, M.M.B., published a report which provided information on 14 forts using archival sources, recent air photographs, and location visits. The report, entitled Spanish Forts of Guam, gives detailed information on Nuestra Señora de la Soledad abstracted from the reports of official and unofficial visitors to the battery during the early 19th Century. A synopsis of this information is provided below. (Also referenced is a 1994 companion piece to this report, entitled, Architectural Sketches of the Spanish Era Forts of Guam, co-authored by Marjorie C. Driver and Omaira Brunal-Perry). Historical Synopsis A gun emplacement was situated on the hilltop know as Chalan Aniti prior to the construction of the Soledad battery. The battery was constructed during Governor Parreño's administration (1806-1812), prior to 1810. It contained "a barbette with guns mounted, a guardroom, quarters for the officers and men, and an ammunition storage room" (Delgadillo, et al. 1979:52). A report from 1818 stated that it had six cannons, while one from 1819 contains a problematic drawing showing four cannons in place at embrasures. Survey by Medinilla in 1826 declared the battery as "useless but there were two bronze

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cannons ready for service" (Ibid). An 1833 report stated that the masonry walls were beginning to crumble, the roof was off the quarters building, and the cannons were fixed in a single direction (suggesting that they were no longer on wheeled carriages). By 1845 no cannons were mounted at the battery, and it had fallen into increasing ruin. Prior Archaeological Work Professional archaeological excavations investigated portions of La Soledad during the spring of 1984. These were reported on in June of that year (Moore and McNerney, 1984). It appears from their discussions that restoration of the structure was also being considered at this time. An area of approximately 21 m² was excavated, and a total of 247 historic artifacts were recovered (excluding American Period materials). The bulk of the artifact collection (207 pieces) consisted of clay tile fragments. No military artifacts were found, nor were any artifacts recovered which conclusively supported interpretations of room use within the bodega (the stores/quarters building). Moore and McNerney generated a series of research questions prior to conducting their excavations. These were divided into questions needed to address "restoration and stabilization" concerns [I], and those needed to address "archaeological and interpretive issues" [II] (Ibid.). The questions and the answers arrived at are reproduced below. [I.] Q1. What is the condition and configuration of footings and foundations below the ground’s surface? A1. Excavations at several locations indicated that basalt was used as a foundation material upon which coralline rocks were placed. Further, the steep slope at the north wall was prepared for construction by a series of basalt terraces. Structurally, the subsurface portions of the walls are in good condition. Q2. Are there additional rooms or structures adjoining the fort which are not visible as ruins or are not shown on early plans? A2. Although the investigations were limited to testing, it is unlikely that there are as yet undiscovered structural features at the fort. Archival research also supports this inference. Q3. Is the large depression outside the west fort wall a modern disturbance or is it a feature associated with the Spanish occupation of the fort? A3. Lack of time and dense vegetation in this depression prevented excavation. However, local informants indicated that this was a bomb crater from W. W. II.

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Q4. What is the depression inside the fort walls? A4. Both excavation and local informants verified this depression as a bomb crater from World War II. Q5. What type of roofing materials were used on the soldiers' quarters? A5. Clay tile probably set in a bed of plaster. Q6. How far did the roof project beyond the walls? A6. This question was not fully answered; however, the abundance of tile fragments on the east edge of the support wall suggests that it may have projected to the edge of this wall. Q7. Were there other interior partitions? A7. Other interior walls were not defined; however, excavations in the center room did identify limestone post supports. Q8. What type of flooring was in the soldiers' quarters? A8. All rooms were covered with plaster. Q9. Was there a powder magazine or arsenal associated with the fort? A9. It was thought that the depression in the south portion of the fort may have been the remains of a semi-subterranean arsenal similar to Fort Santa Cruz (Delgadillo et al. 1979:35). Archival research supported by archaeology indicates that the south room of the soldiers' quarters was the arsenal. [II] Q1. What was the extent (if any) of non-Spanish use of the fort during and after the Spanish occupation? A1. Archaeological evidence suggesting the nature of the occupation from 1820 to 1898 is lacking. Archival evidence indicates semi-abandonment. The artifactual material in the soldiers' quarters which may have answered this question was post 1940's. Q2. Was there a permanent garrison at the fort or was it only occupied in time of need? A2. Test excavations produced scant domestic or military artifacts. It would appear that intense permanent residential occupation did not occur during the Spanish period. However, there is the possibility that there is a dump, as yet undiscovered, beyond the immediate fort area. If this is the case, it would change this interpretation. Q3. Will the material culture be representative of a Spanish military site?

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A3. Other than nails, there were no artifacts which could be assigned with any certainty to the Spanish period and no military artifacts were recovered. Q4. Will the datable artifacts correlate with the historical period of Spanish occupation? A4. The nails probably date to the Spanish occupation, and after more research the two glazed earthenware sherds previously described may represent the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Q5. Will there be nonperishable hardware items (metal hinges, gun parts, etc.) that will aid in interpreting perishable materials? A5. The nails indicate the use of wood for doors, window and door moldings, posts and rafters. The lack of artifacts dating from the Spanish use of the fort led to the conclusion that it was only occupied or used immediate to the times of need. Specifically, the fort was manned when government ships were at anchorage or when the port was under threat by foreign powers. But, it is also likely that few artifacts might be expected when searching within the sub-floor of a building which once had a masonry and tile floor finish. During its use the bodega may have been swept out regularly, and any items dropped may have easily been seen and recovered by their owner. If the battery was abandoned or used only on rare occasion after c. 1830, useful items (e.g. the roof and floor tiles; dimensioned wood) remaining at the bodega may have been curated for use by government officials or other persons from the village of Umatac. Additionally, post abandonment digging for "treasure" within the bodega may also have removed what few artifacts remained inside.

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1994 Reconstruction Project Overall administration for the reconstruction project was provided by a partnership combining the talents of three architects, Gary Ashford, E. Logan Wagner, and Jorge Loyzaga, operating as Alarife. Alarife is a Spanish word derived from the Arabic al’arisha, meaning architect or builder. Prior to my involvement with the project other archaeologists were invited to participate. Fundacion Cultural Yucatan archaeologists, Luis Millet y Camara and Rafael Burgos y Villanueva, whose area of specialization includes Spanish colonial structures, were brought to Guam and asked to evaluate the structures. They brainstormed with Alarife on the course of the project, and conducted preliminary testing at Soledad. The first structure we investigated was the Batería Nuestra Señora de la Soledad. It was the most representative of the Period structures, the one that would have the strongest impact once completed, and the most accessible.

“From the initial discussions leading to our agreement, it has been generally agreed that Fort Soledad should be fully restored to establish the highest standards for future efforts and develop a data base for management and cost control purposes.” Alarife Restoration Plan, dated 2/22/95

Figure 1. Architectural Plan View of Bateria Nuestra Señora de la Soledad, with sections labeled. This is one of the original reconstruction plans drawn by Alarife, after some of the archaeological work had revealed the terraplene drain.

 

Garita  

       Terraplene  

Bodega  

               Barbette  

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In February 1994, Señores Millet and Burgos spent several days at Soledad, measuring structural elements, excavating in the room block referred to as the bodega, and assessing the overall site. They were aided on one Saturday by Dr. Hiro Kurashina and students from his Archaeological Field Methods class, as well as other interested parties from the local archaeological and historic preservation community. A 1 m by 1 m grid was established within the bodega, with a stake placed in the northwest corner of the north room serving as the local (main) datum. The field crews excavated in 5 cm levels in the effort to uncover the original floor. Because of my consulting firm’s planned, future involvement, my colleague Dave Russell and I coordinated this work.

Although the thrust of the proposed archaeological excavations was directed towards revealing details of construction, some portion of the investigation needed to address questions stemming from the use of the battery during the 1800s, and by other governments and peoples subsequent to its abandonment. In this way the requirements of Guam’s Historic Preservation laws and the goals of sound archaeological management of this important historic resource could be balanced with the goals of the restoration architects.

Figure  2.  Photograph of the University of Guam’s archaeology field school students, excavating in the bodega.

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The possibility of a nearby trash dump had been raised by Moore and McNerney (see II:A2, above). However, Millet thought this possibility remote, suggesting that little trash would have been generated at the fort, and that what little there was may have been thrown over the cliff to the west. As a result of these brief investigations, Señor Millet suggested the following construction sequence for the bodega floor. The extension of stuccoed wall below the floor level indicated that the floor was started once the walls had been built and stuccoed. First, a soil subfloor was created, with the occasional placement of flat tile fragments as leveling guides. Once the subfloor was finished a lime mortar was spread over the subfloor, and flat clay tiles were laid in this to surface the floor. Due to a variety of post construction disturbances, little of the original floor remains intact within the bodega. Millet expected that better preserved sections of floor would be intercepted in room corners, and that when exposed, the proposed construction sequence could be better evaluated. Millet also questioned the conclusion drawn by Moore and McNerney that the roof was covered by flat tiles. Instead, he believed that the few pieces of curved tiles recovered in the excavation represented the roof covering, and that the flat tiles recovered were for the floor.

Figure  3.    We see details of the floor construction in this photograph of the unit excavated by Luis Millet in the main room of the bodega. Fragments of flat tiles are exposed beneath the mortar layer. These are thought to have been used as leveling aids. The intact mortar was encountered in the area adjacent to the walls, as Millet predicted.  

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Millet described several unknowns which had to be explored to satisfy architectural restoration needs. Although the bodega floor construction sequence appeared to be understood, it was based upon the findings of a single unit, and that same sequence might not have been used throughout the entire bodega. This conclusion needed to be tested. In addition, some limestone blocks were located by Moore and McNerney on the floor of the main room which might have been piers for timber posts supporting the roof. The entire floor needed to be exposed to reveal these and any other floor features. The south room appeared to be more structurally complex than either the main or north rooms, and its features needed to be fully exposed. Allowing that Moore and McNerney's assessment of the flat tiles as roof elements was in error, the roof construction (i.e. form) needed to be better understood. The construction of the low bench, located immediately adjacent to the bodega, along the outside of the east wall, needed to be revealed. It was unclear if the exterior finish of the north wall of the bodega truncated at the present ground surface, or extended below it. This needed to be resolved. The function of the partial enclosure, adjacent to, and outside of the south wall of the bodega was a complete unknown. Millet also indicated the need to determine the construction of the main parapet walls, whose base was obscured by soil at the time of initial testing. Archaeological work within the bodega was therefore still necessary to clarify some of the architectural questions which remained, and it might also reveal if the south room was used for powder storage as was previously suggested. It is important to note that all of the iron nails recovered in 1984 was encountered in the central room. Because of the potential for sparks, iron was usually deliberately excluded from construction of a powder magazine. Wooden pegs or copper nails were most often used as fasteners for the wooden flooring and the shelving common to these rooms. For similar reasons, copper or wooden hoops were used to confine the staves of powder kegs (Hume 1969:186). In addition to Millet's observations, it seemed from archival data that parapet evolution may have occurred during the lifespan of the battery. Originally cannon, probably mounted on sturdy, small- wheeled, barbette carriages, would have been placed on the Plaza de Armas or esplanade (terraplene) and fired over the low wall of the parapet. If, in addition to the earlier description the representation from 1819 was also accurate, then the parapet was subsequently increased in height in places, creating merlons, and providing for the cannon to be fired through the associated embrasures. No evidence of either merlons or embrasures was extant at the site. The remaining walls appeared as the low ramparts suggested by the original description.

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We suspected that the removal of grass from the terraplene (firing platform) of the esplanade might provide another way to address the question of the number and placement of cannon. A cannon has considerable recoil when fired, and although this characteristic is used to advantage by the cannoneer by providing muzzle access to load the next shot, a variety of methods are employed to arrest the cannon from moving too far backward on the terraplene, and to allow it to be quickly maneuvered back into its original firing position. Since the terraplene is contiguous with the esplanade at Soledad, some type of stop would have to have been set in place to break the cannon's movement past a particular point. The stop may have been a large timber, or it may have been chains attached to the cannon's carriage and anchored to a pin set in the terraplene. Either way, holes in the flagstone floor of the terraplene would have been required to fix these devices. It was thought possible that a careful

Figure  4.    This  is  the  drawing  of  “Fort”  Soledad  made  during  the  Freycinet  

expedition.    It  shows  merlons  and  embrasures  in  the  west  wall.    The  drawing  is  

reproduced  from  the  Delgadillo,  et  al.  volume,  Spanish  Forts  of  Guam,  

referenced  earlier.  

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inspection of the flagstone surfaces after clearing the grass cover might reveal such features. The plan of the battery drawn during Freycinet's visit showed four cannons, all trained over the west parapet, yet, a year earlier, six cannons were reported at the site. From a tactical standpoint it would be odd if no cannons were angled to fire over the north parapet to provide for enfilade fire with Santo Angel or San José (hence fulfilling the role of batería cruzante), thus protecting the mouth of the bay. The associated question of parapet form could be satisfied by excavations on the outside edge of the fort's walls, to investigate areas where wall remnants might have fallen and come to rest. If extended to the base of the walls the excavations might also encounter builder's trenches. Builder's trenches often provide clues to both the construction, and the lives of the builders. Excavations adjacent to both barbette and bodega walls, if deep enough to intersect the original foundation trenches, might reveal some of this information. It was clear that additional excavation and archival research was required to address the questions resulting from Millet's assessment of the restoration needs, the unanswered or partly answered questions remaining from those posed by Moore and McNerney, questions related to apparent inconsistencies in the archival sources, as well as those which had newly emerged. These questions (Q) are explicitly stated below along with the archaeological strategy (S) which was employed to develop the data required; (F) presents the findings. Q 1: Is the floor construction sequence proposed by Sr. Luis Millet, consisting of tamped earth with occasional leveling tiles, covered by a thin layer of lime mortar, which is in turn covered by rectangular tiles set in mortar and grouted, valid for the bodega? S 1: The interior floors of the bodega and the garita were excavated. F 1: The construction sequence suggested by Sr. Millet, still appears to be generally accurate for the building interiors. A well preserved mortar base was found in both the north and south rooms. The central room contained very few areas where the mortar base was found intact, these were mainly adjacent to the interior wall of the north room. An additional finding is that where the mortar base was preserved it was found to be contiguous with the adjacent wall stucco, when it remained. Floor tiles were found in place on their mortar base in the garita. Although no complete tile remained in place, in either the garita or the bodega, the outlines of whole tiles were preserved in the bed mortar of the floor of the garita, and the dimensions of these tiles were recovered.

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A small area of the central room floor, adjacent to the north interior wall, contains a number of fragments of curved roof tile set in the mortar base. The reasons for this are not clear at the present time, and this area needs to be more fully investigated. Q 2: What remains of floor features within the three rooms of the bodega? S 2: Excavation of the entire floor of the bodega. F 2: In the north room, near the northwest corner, the mortar base course displays a series of regularly spaced oval depressions, each measuring approximately 8 cm along the major axis. These are areas where the mortar is

Figure  6.    Detail of garita floor. The faint, raised, rectilinear grid pattern is made by a lip of mortar that had squeezed up between the tiles when the garita was paved. Revealing this delicate feature allowed us to estimate the dimensions of a complete tile. None had been found intact in the garita.  

Figure  5.  This is a photograph of the interior floor of the garita, showing the tile fragments remaining along the north and west walls. This was the first instance where we encountered floor tiles in their original positions.    

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actually depressed rather than gouged. If these were common across the floor of the entire room, we would propose that they indicate preparation of the mortar base to provide better anchoring for the floor tiles. However, these are infrequent throughout the room.

The central room contains the remains of five stone blocks (a sixth is proposed to have existed). Three of these are spaced along the west wall, and two through the center of the room, one each against the north and south walls. A missing sixth block is believed to have been in the middle of the room, in line with the end blocks. These may have been piers designed to support a raised wooden floor, or perhaps basal supports for posts holding up the main ceiling joists. The south room is divided into two compartments; an antechamber is separated from an inner chamber by a stone threshold, indicating the presence of an interior door. The inner chamber contains stone footings, adjacent to the east and west walls, which have rectangular troughs cut into their upper surfaces.

Figure  7.  Field drawing of the floor features found in the north room of the bodega. Numerous depressions were observed in the floor mortar that did not lend themselves to ready interpretation. These were clearly impressions made while the mortar was still plastic, and not due to post-construction damage.    

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We believe that these troughs were cut to accept dimensioned lumber that formed the floor joists for a raised wooden floor.

Q 3: Can room use/purpose be ascertained from the discovery and analysis of features and/or artifacts in room fill? S 3: Map features and artifact distributions, analyze features and artifacts found in rooms. F 3: With the exception of the south room, the floor features in the remainder of the bodega, and the few artifacts recovered give no clear indication of room use. In the south room, the raised floor, coupled with the interior door, and the absence of a window, suggest that it was used for powder storage. Rooms with these attributes were commonly used to store gun powder in period construction. The double door provided protection against theft, accidental ignition of the gun powder, and some limited protection for occupants of the

Figure  8.    Detailed drawing of the interior chamber of the south room, interpreted to be the powder magazine. Limestone blocks used as piers to hold floor joists are shown around the perimeter. The joist grooves are still visible in the top surfaces of these blocks. In addition to the raised floor, the absence of iron artifacts (and their potential to cause sparks) supports the use of this room to store gun powder.  

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other rooms in the event of blasts. Both doors were found to open inwards, again, probably a blast safeguard. The raised floor was designed to keep the powder from becoming wet from water wicked up from the damp ground, or driven in by typhoons. The absence of a window also helped to keep water from entering the room. Several cut, square nails were recovered from the soils screened from the central room, and a fragment of decorated wall stucco was recovered from the north room soils. Both the central and north rooms exhibit some wall decoration in place. In the central room it can be found on the east wall, south of the entryway; in the north room it is near its northwest corner. The square nails might have been used in almost any wooden construction, architectural element or furniture. The decorated stucco, coupled with the fact that these rooms have windows, suggests that they may have been used for other than storage. Given the size of the central room, this may have been the administrative center for the battery. Given its size, it is suspected that the north room functioned as a bedroom, for use by the duty officer. The partial sub-grade location of this structure kept it cooler and made it a more pleasant place for “administrating” and siestas. Q 4: Was there a stone pavement leading to the bodega doorway? S 4: Excavate trenches outside of the doorway designed to intersect any path features. F 4: An echelon shaped trench excavated across the approach to the bodega doorway failed to encounter the remains of any developed pathway, stone, or otherwise.

Figure  9.  Trench designed to test for the possibility that a paved pathway led to the entrance to the bodega. No indications were encountered that such a feature ever existed.  

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Q 5: What was the function of the area enclosed by the low, rock wall adjacent to the south wall of the bodega? S 5: Excavate a controlled unit within this portion of the structure. F 5: The excavation unit placed within this rock enclosure found only wall construction debris, principally two lenses of excess lime mortar. The structure appears to have been part of the buttressing for the south outside wall of the bodega. In form, it may have been a simple recumbent curve, similar to that observed at the Alamo in Texas. Q 6: Is the slope adjacent to the north wall of the bodega contemporaneous with its construction, and does the exterior facing stonework truncate in intercepting the slope, or, is the wall faced below the current ground level? S 6: Excavate a trench adjacent to the exterior of the north bodega wall. F 6: The slope adjacent to the outside north wall of the bodega is not the surface which existed at the time of battery construction. Up to 60 centimeters of recent soil blankets the original slope. The top ~15-18 cm of the original slope is covered with a mixture of soil and limestone fragments. The fragments are believed to have resulted from the dressing and shaping of the esplanade pavers, and these may have been purposefully spread over the ground surface to provide a more erosion resistant surface and one that afforded greater traction.

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The wall extends for another 1.5 meters below the existing ground surface, and the stucco continues for another 80 centimeters below the present surface. The extent of the stucco is believed to represent the former extent of the exposed wall. The wall is composed of coralline limestone, and rests on a base course of basaltic rock. This information is useful if it is desired to restore the battery’s site lines. Q 7: What is the construction and purpose of the low bench adjacent to the east wall of the bodega? S 7: Examine the low bench in detail. Excavate units and trenches adjacent to it. F 7: The low bench appears to be constructed of shaped and sized limestone cobbles set in lime mortar. Stucco is preserved on some surfaces indicating that the bench had a smooth finish. The bench was constructed subsequent to the completion of the adjacent bodega wall, and abuts it rather than keys into it. The area in front of the bench, to the south of the bodega entrance, apparently had a mortar floor. Actually two floors were found in this area indicating two periods of floor construction. A lower floor was found separated from the upper floor by approximately 20 cm of fill. We believe that the lower floor was original and a design error, and that the upper floor is the modification

Figure  10.    Photograph of the exterior of the north wall of the bodega showing the excavation trench. While the stucco had long eroded from most of the exposed surfaces of the outer walls, it had been preserved, below grade, by soil emplaced sometime in the early 20th Century. We proposed that the immediate, post-construction topography was recoverable by measuring the lower interface between stuccoed and non-stuccoed portions of the outer walls. The excavations also revealed that the foundation, at least in this location, was basalt. Basalt does not appear at the surface in battery construction.  

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made to remedy the problem of the bench being uncomfortably high for the sitter. It is proposed that the bench was positioned to function as a buttress for the adjacent bodega wall and a seat for persons stationed at, or visiting, the battery. Q 8: Is there any evidence for roof construction found on the outside of the structure, particularly to the east of the bodega? S 8: Excavate trenches perpendicular to the east bodega wall. F 8: With the exception of locating curved roof tiles in soils adjacent to the east bodega wall and the bench, no direct evidence for roof construction was encountered. It is suspected that the bench outside of the east wall would only have survived (and been useful) if the roof extended over it. The same may be true for the outside masonry floor. This suggests that the roofline extended well away from the supporting wall. Q 9: Are artifacts located outside of, but near to the bodega which might reflect its use? S 9: Sift soils excavated from the units and trenches placed outside of the bodega. F 9: No period artifacts were encountered in soils outside of the bodega that reflect its former use. Q 10: Is there evidence to support merlon and embrasure construction of the parapet (barbette), as is indicated in the Freycinet expedition sketches? S 10: Closely examine the remaining barbette walls and the esplanade inside of the walls. Excavate adjacent to the outside of the barbette walls looking for anomalous wall fall. F 10: Examination of the walls, and excavations adjacent to the outside edge of the barbette, encountered no evidence in support of a merlon and embrasure parapet wall form. Examination of esplanade features in the area adjacent to the barbette indicates that a simple barbette was the finished construction. We believe that historic drawings showing merlon and embrasure features are based on artist’s conceptions and expectations rather than reality. In addition, the construction method for the barbette walls was found to vary from the initial assumption of mamposteria. Where mamposteria construction is the equivalent of rubble core masonry, the core of the barbette walls was found to be tamped earth.

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Tamped earth construction is consistent with the construction of parapet walls starting in the 16th Century. During the siege of Pisa by the Florentines, the Pisan ring wall was failing under Florentine cannon fire. Recognizing that they had to build a secondary wall they quickly constructed one of earth. This wall absorbed the same cannon fire that had destroyed the solid, outer stone wall (McNeill, 1982:90).

Q 11: Is it possible to determine the number and placement of cannon at the battery.

Figure  11.    Crew checks downhill adjacent to the west side of the barbette, searching for wall-fall features consistent with merlons and embrasures. No evidence was found, despite the extensive clearing of the vegetated slope.  

Figure  12.  View to south along west barbette remnant. The soil core is clearly visible.

 

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S 11: Expose the terraplene (esplanade), and examine it for primary and secondary features associated with cannon.

F 11: The entire terraplene was cleared of covering vegetation, mainly grasses. At least 6 notches, purposely cut in the limestone pavers, were revealed through this process (damaged and missing stones make it unclear if others existed). Three of these are rectangular and three irregularly shaped. The notches are found along the west side of the terraplene, in the north half of the battery. We believe that the notches are associated with anchoring devices to impede cannon recoil, and thus are spaced where cannon were positioned. Q 12: Is it possible to develop information about the individuals who constructed the battery? S 12: Sift soils recovered from site excavations, examine period documents, propose additional excavations with the hope of finding a period dump. F 12: No artifacts were recovered from site soils that refer to persons involved in battery construction. Such information will have to come from archival materials or possibly from excavations within the village of Umatac. At this time it appears that both the workers and the soldiers who staffed the battery (probably one and the same) were domiciled in Umatac. The battery is a short walk from the village.

Figure  13.  View to the south showing the crew removing soil and grass from the terraplene. The man on the right is using a fusiño.  

 

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Q 13: What can be determined about the people who used the battery and the activities which took place there? S 13: Sift soils recovered from site excavations, examine period documents, propose additional excavations with the hope of finding a period dump. F 13: The artifacts which have been recovered are principally construction materials or debris. Trenches located outside of the structure succeeded in encountering a construction dump, but this yielded only rock debris. Except for the architectural and construction decision-making of the battery, evidence for other aspects of early 19th Century colonial Spanish life at Umatac is lacking in the site assemblage. This must be recovered from archival and historical documents, and possibly, directed excavations within Umatac. As anticipated based upon prior archaeological investigations at Soledad, construction related artifacts are preserved while other cultural artifacts are missing. The remaining archaeological work involves detailed mapping/drawing of the floor features in the garita, and the floor features of the bodega interior; excavation, screening and sample recovery from the construction dump encoun-tered in backhoe trench #2; excavation of the remaining stratigraphic control wall outside of the north bodega wall; excavation of the soil beneath the removed concrete walkway; completion of the detailed map of the terraplene pavers; drawing measured cross-sections through walls, parapet, and floors, and excavation of a stratigraphic unit through the esplanade. How the archaeological findings were used by the restoration architects in the reconstruction of the Bateria. For the 13 points, the numbering matches the research questions l isted above. 1. Floor construction sequence and form. a. to determine the materials needs for full restoration. b. to determine the time requirements for completing this phase of the restoration work. c. to determine that the timing of wall resurfacing needed to coincide with floor restoration. 2. Bodega floor features revealed. a. A new design with a raised wooden floor over the west half of the central room of the bodega was drafted. b. The exact positioning of the raised wooden floor in the south bodega room was drafted. The layout of the floorboards was determined, and the exact

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size of the floor joists for this room was determined, based upon the archaeologist’s measurements. c. The depressed areas in the floor of the north room were considered by the restoration architects as indicators of furniture placement. This would be important to the interpretive design. 3. Room features and artifacts. a. The archaeological findings of the special floor and access situation for the south room allowed the architects to restore it as the powder magazine. b. The measurements at the doorways allowed door placement and opening direction to be determined. c. Uncovering decorated wall plaster in both the central and north rooms allowed these to be considered as rooms that would have been occupied as opposed to storage rooms. Function was suggested based upon room size and orientation to access. Function permitted ideas on interpretive design to be formulated. 4. The lack of a developed pathway leading to the bodega entrance. a. Although anticipated by the restoration architects as characteristic of comparable period structures, no finding of a pathway contributed to the ‘true’ and resource specific design formulated for bodega restoration. 5. Buttress outside south end of bodega. a. An accurate reconstruction of the facade was made possible by the exposure of the rubble at the south end and its identification as a buttress. The south wall of the bodega is a bit thicker than the north wall, and had a greater free standing area. This led to the need for greater support than had been used at the north wall. The north wall had a similar buttress, although it was reduced in volume. The two buttresses flanking the east wall were designed with visual symmetry in mind. 6. Identification of the original topography adjacent to the bodega and east wall of the bateria. a. Based upon our locating the original ground surface, the architects were able to plan the restoration of the landscape and give greater context to the bateria. The visual integrity of the site could be restored which would have the effect of re-establishing the psychological impact of the bateria. b. Uncovering the layer of construction debris at the interface between the old surface and the modern fill also helped explain how the builders dealt

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with waste materials. It was recycled as a slope-stabilizing medium, and may have helped keep weeds in control. 7. The east wall bench was found to function as both a buttress and a seat. a. One of the critical aspects of bodega restoration was roof construction. The finding that the bench served as a buttress helped the architects to understand the ways in which roof related stress on the east bodega wall was accommodated. It also provided a minimum for the distance the roof extended from the wall line. 8. Exposure of the masonry floor adjacent to the bench. a. The extent of the masonry floor allowed the architects to determine the maximal distance the roof extended beyond the wall line. 9. Failure to find non-architectural artifacts in area excavations. a. This was an important discovery with respect to the development of the interpretive plan because of the emphasis it placed upon the connection between Umatac Village and the bateria. People appear to have spent very little time at the bateria, and if there was a garrison, it was undoubtedly in Umatac. 10. Data found did not support merlon and embrasure parapet construction, and the barbette walls were not mamposteria as originally thought. a. The one sketch of the bateria from the Freycinet expedition is obviously in error, and points out the problem associated with relying upon supposed “eye-witness” accounts without verifying them. A reconstruction based upon available historic documents could have produced a false representation of the bateria. b. The barbette walls were originally filled with tamped earth. The earth used for wall fill contains local soils with hygroscopic clays. Because these clays tend to shrink and swell when wetted, this construction method contributed to the destruction of the barbette walls, once the protective stucco had eroded.

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11. Exposure, measurement and mapping of the terraplene (esplanade). a. Exposure of the esplanade surface provided the architects with the cannon positions at the bateria. All were positioned near the northwest end of the esplanade. It suggests that the only trouble expected by the Spanish would have been a raider attacking the Galleon, or trying to enter Umatac Bay. The cannon were positioned to provide enfilade fire with Santo Angel and San Jose. The anchoring slots also support claims for only a small number of cannon at the bateria. b. Exposure of the esplanade surface revealed that the Flag pole illustrated in the drawing from the Freycinet expedition, was either incorrectly placed by the artist, or not structurally integrated with the esplanade. This affects reconstruction design. c. The detailed measurement and mapping of the esplanade also allowed the architects to design the proper stone size and placement to fill in the areas of missing pavers. This is one of the more important aspects of the reconstruction, as the esplanade surface is devoid of any stucco, and the paver pattern is fully exposed. An inaccurate reconstruction of the esplanade would be easily seen. 12.,13. Sifting of the excavated soi ls, and archival research, proposal for additional excavations. a. Site soils were devoid of non-architectural artifacts. This greatly affects the interpretive plan, as it must be developed based upon off-site excavations, purely on historical documents, or some combination of the two. The best location for off-site excavations is Umatac Village. Pertinent historical documents were collected by the architects for use in developing the interpretive plan and in providing support information for the final project reports.

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Reconstruction of Soledad

Alarife had coordinated with a group of specialists in period construction techniques from Mexico, to come to Guam, to reconstruct Soledad. Arrangements were made to house them in Malesso, and they arrived several weeks before the archaeological work was completed. It was important for the masons to arrive in time to take care of some of the logistical aspects of their work. It had been decided to reconstruct the battery using original materials and techniques whenever possible. The limestone used for original construction was dead coral reef, and the lime mortar and stucco used in construction were produced locally, also probably from dead coral. This coral is part of the Merizo Limestone, which is found within the near-shore waters surrounding the island. Identifying limestone of sufficient quality, removing it, and transporting it to Soledad took numerous trips. It also required permission from a number of agencies.

Figure  14.  This is a photograph of the canteros (stone masons) from Mexico, who were contracted for the Soledad restoration. The white-haired gentleman in the first rowr is Augustin Flores, a master builder, who was responsible for constructing the kiln, and making the lime mortar. Jose Luis Nequis, in the white shirt behind Flores, was the supervisor for the stonework.  

 

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The following quote illustrates the difficulty in obtaining raw material, specifically rock, to be used at Soledad. It is an excerpt from an April 27, 1995 letter addressed to the Guam Preservation Trust, from Alarife principal, E. Logan Wagner.

“An inventory of coral that has been secured and worked by the masons indicates that we will need five times as much coral than we have right now. Jose Luis Nequis has identified where more can come from. But due to the intimidating treatment given by the Parks and Recreation Department they are reluctant to secure the coral on their own, even though we had a green light from the environmental Department in Guam.

I need you and the Trust to please help solve this issue, or if not, consider dropping the esplanade from the scope of the contract.”

When Jose Luis Nequis surveyed Fouha Bay for stone to work with, he already had a good understanding of the resource. Both Jose Luis and Nicanor Nequis had conducted a pilot project at the San Antonio Bridge, in Hagåtña. One of the buttresses on the south side of the bridge needed repairs, and since it was made from the same limestone as Soledad, it offered the opportunity for the

Figure  15.    This  is  an  Alarife generated sketch map of Fouha Bay, a main source area for the limestone used in the reconstruction of Soledad. This map was an attachment to a June 9, 1995 letter from Richard Reed, restoration architect to the Guam Preservation Trust, to Michael W. Kuhlman, Director, Department of Agriculture, petitioning for access to raw materials from Fouha Bay.  

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canteros to test both materials and working conditions. The test also gave the community, and the Guam Preservation Trust, a glimpse of the technical skills and artistry that the canteros would bring to the project.

There are several aspects of the repair work done on the buttress that attest to the quality of the cantero’s skills, and their keen eyes as artists. The replaced stones blend in perfectly with the original stone in color (now that they have weathered) and texture, the latter reflecting selection of rock with the right characteristics. The lines are even, and the symmetry of the buttress is unblemished. What is equally impressive is that under closer inspection, the tool marks on the new stones cannot be distinguished from those on the originals. A great quantity of rock was trucked to Soledad, since all of the stonework was to take place at the site. According to the work plan, the terraplene, barbette walls and garita were to be finished before work would start on the bodega. The reason for this was that the bodega would require carpentry in addition to masonry, and with the threat of rain and typhoons, the roof (a wood and tile structure) had to be in place before the interior walls and floor could be

Figure  16.  Photograph of Nicanor and Jose Luis Nequis in Hagåtña, dressing stone to repair one of the San Antonio Bridge buttresses. The characteristic tools of the mason, a level table, mallet, chisel, and square can be observed in this photograph.  

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finished. Consequently, only those portions of the structure that were purely stone were part of the initial phase of the project. In addition to the stone dressed for repairing the terraplene, enough rock had to be brought in to restore the barbette walls, and the garita. It was important for the canteros to have access to the site to make measurements and to try stones as they were near completion. It also gave the public the opportunity to watch the canteros at work in the restoration process.

While the canteros organized the stonework, Augustin Flores selected a location for the kiln that would be used to produce the mortar for the mamposteria, and the lime for stucco.

Figure  17.    This photograph shows a portion of the worksite, under the trees near the east side of Soledad. Work tables surround the materials pile, and on weekends and many week days, the public surrounded the work tables.  

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As is evident in the photograph, the kiln was/is a substantial structure. Refractory brick was purchased, and concrete, steel I-beams and rebar were used in its construction. In a first appraisal, it appears to be much more substantial than is necessary for the work done at Soledad. However, when it is considered that Soledad, itself, was a pilot project for the restoration of the other Spanish period structures listed in the Introduction, then it should be clear that this kiln was supposed to provide service for all of those restorations. It is unfortunate that the project ended long before any of that work could be realized. The kiln stands in mute testimony to what might have been.

Figure  18.    This photograph shows the kiln constructed to manufacture the mortar and stucco for the Soledad restoration.  

Figure  19.    This is a photograph of the testing area that was used for the lime that was manufactured on site. Different qualities were needed for the stucco than were required for the mortar to be used in mamposteria construction.  

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Before the barbette walls were reconstructed, the canteros created a mock-up so that they could determine materials needs and work through any design problems that might arise. This was done on site, but away from the battery, in close proximity to the work area. Although the original barbette walls were found to be earth-filled structures, consistent with their proper defensive function, it was decided that the new walls would be mamposteria (i.e. rubble-filled). This departure from the original was calculated to give greater longevity to the new walls, particularly if there was a lapse in the maintenance of the surface stucco. The battery has received no new stucco since it was completed in the mid 1990’s.

Figure  20.    Photograph of one of the canteros fitting stones into the terraplene. Not only did the masons have to dress the stones, but they also had to prepare the base course. Note the mix of stone sizes and the intricate joinery, both in keeping with the original workmanship.  

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Figure  21.    Photograph of one of the mock-ups of the finished barbette wall. This was built at a 1 to 1 scale.  

Figure  22.    Photograph of work on the northwest barbette corner.

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The most complete remnant of the original barbette wall was along the south perimeter. Only the inner, terraplene portion remained. It was incorporated into the finished wall on that side, and was left un-stuccoed, so that it would stand as a past reference. The width of the wall was determined by the existing foundation. The slope of the finished surface was modeled after the barbette wall from Fort Santa Cruz, which formerly protected Apra’s inner harbor. All that remains of this structure are a few photographs and drawings. The Navy demolished this fort during its expansion of facilities in Apra Harbor. A photograph showing the barbette wall is reproduced below.

Figure  23.    Photograph of the completed, west barbette wall prior to being stuccoed. Work on the garita has yet to start. This is the same stretch of wall that is pictured in Figures 12, and 22.  

Figure  24.      This is one of several photographs in the MARC archives that pictures Fort Santa Cruz before World War II. It shows a section of the barbette wall. The fort survived the war, but not post-war construction.  

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The restoration of the garita went quickest, in part because the structure is small, and in part because minimal work was needed. The same was true for the low walls flanking the entry to the terraplene. These can be seen in the background in Figure 20, to the right of the garita. The finishing work for this phase of the restoration included decorative stonework, and surfacing the barbette and the garita with stucco. Ball finials on top of pier caps were placed at the ends of the low stone walls to either side of the terraplene entry. A similar ball finial was fitted at the top of the garita, thus unifying the construction. Once the stuccoing was completed, work at the site ended. Within two weeks, the canteros had returned to Mexico, and the site was vandalized. Soledad had been vandalized over the years, some of it cosmetic, and some more damaging. Among the earlier vandalism, Graffiti had been spray painted onto the garita, and a large heart had been incised into the wall of the north room of the bodega. These are shown below.

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While we might understand the connection between vandalism, and a sometimes abandoned and often neglected ruin, we were unprepared for the damage that was visited on the restoration. Someone took a small sledge-hammer and broke each of the finials, including the one atop the garita. Then, that person systematically chipped off the inner edge of the stucco along the west barbette wall.

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Figure 25.    Photograph of the inner edge of the barbette showing the stucco that was chipped off by vandals. The sledge used in the damage was left at the site.  

Figure 26. Close-up photograph of the broken ball finial on the gate pier cap.

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Figure 27. Photograph of the broken ball finial on the top of the garita.

Figure 28. Photograph of damage to the southeast corner of the garita.

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While it might be easy to write off the vandalism as the opportunistic work of adolescent morons, the way in which the damage was done, particularly the removal of the upslope stucco from the edge of the barbette wall, and the corners from the garita, suggests that more thought went into this destructive activity. The vandalism mimicked, and consequently will hasten the work of weathering at the site. Weathering loves corners and edges, and naturally attacks these first. The nature of the destruction only makes the work of nature that much easier. It appears that the vandal was not only making an immediate statement, but did so in such a way, that the elements would continue the discourse. And, these were not the only attacks on the work done at Soledad. At the time, a letter to the editor of the Pacific Daily News was printed, and the author decried the restoration, saying that we had destroyed the site. Taking the physical damage (and the hubris of leaving the offending instrument behind) with the written attack, strongly suggested that there was more than an undercurrent of displeasure with the project, in some quarters. If, as the letter writer said, the restoration of Soledad had destroyed it, then what was the “it” that they were referring to? Two possibilities come to mind, both of which pertain to people’s perceptions of Soledad, first, the structure as a ruin, and secondly, the structure as a symbol of its time. Many people have grown up with Soledad as a ruin. It has been a ruin for at least 6 generations,

Figure 29. This photograph shows post-restoration graffiti and damage to the northwest corner of the garita.

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and therefore has been a constant in the memory of everyone alive today. Who can assess the many attachments that people place on this enduring edifice? How do we judge if our changes to the structure brought offense? In The Past is a Foreign Country, David Lowenthal comments on the cult of ruins,

“First valued as residues of a splendid past and tokens of true antiquity, ruins later attracted interest for their own sake. The patina of age became an adjunct to worthy sentiments and then a canon of taste, a prime ingredient of Romantic scenery. Time was felt to ‘ripen’ artifacts, the marks of age to enhance art and architecture. Picturesque taste enshrined ruins as consummate exemplars of the irregular, the accidental, and the natural; for the sake of pleasing decay houses were deliberately made ruinous and new ruins manufactured. In the nineteenth century even antique sculptural fragments came to seem beautiful, and mutilated torsos and heads were preferred to intact originals.” (1993:148)

If, however, it was Soledad as a symbol of its time that was at issue, then our restoration efforts, clearly aimed at bringing Soledad back to its former glory, were the problem. We had not just stabilized the site, thus only arresting time, but, we were on the road to turning back the clock. Soledad originally stood as a sentinel to protect the galleons during their Pacific voyage. It also stood as a representative of the Spanish government. Were this like post-WWII Europe, where German bunkers still dot the coasts of France, and where many people still have first-hand memories of the German occupation, then perhaps the following, from Paul Virilio, might be applicable,

“Many riverains told me that these concrete landmarks frightened them and called back too many bad memories, many fantasies too, because the reality of the German occupation was elsewhere, most often in banal administrative lodgings for the Gestapo; but the blockhouses were the symbols of soldiery. “ (1994:13)

But, considering that the more recent occupations, by the American and the Japanese militaries has surely eclipsed the negative aspects of Spanish colonization, it is somewhat difficult to believe that either of these roles still arouses a negative passion in the population. I doubt that we will ever know why the damage occurred, but it is an event that all of the forethought that went into the project failed to consider as a possibility.

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Postscript The grand project that was outlined in the beginning was never realized. Too many disparate forces came together and the project unraveled. It was worthy, and conceptually it represented the holistic way in which the historic sites should be approached. If it is tried again, then there is ample documentation and institutional memory to understand what went wrong, and what needs to be done to avoid the same in the future. REFERENCES Alarife 1995 February 22, Fort Soledad Restoration Plan Delgadillo, Yolanda, Thomas B. McGrath, Felicia Plaza 1979 Spanish Forts of Guam, Micronesian Area Research Center, Mangilao, Guam Driver, Marjorie C. and Omaira Brunal-Perry 1994 Architectural Sketches of the Spanish Forts of Guam, Micronesian Area Research Center, Mangilao, Guam Hume, Noel Ivor 1969 Historical Archaeology, Alfred A. Knopf, New York. IARII 1995 Field Notes from the investigations of Nuestra Senora de la Soledad Lowenthal, David 1993 The Past is a Foreign Country, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. McNeill, William H.

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1982 The Pursuit of Power: Technology, Armed Force, and Society since A.D. 1000, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.

Moore, Darlene R., Michael J. McNerny 1984 Archaeological Test Excavations at Fort Soledad, Umatac, Guam, American Resources Group Ltd., Carbondale, IL. Virilio, Paul, Bunker Archaeology, Princeton Architectural Press, New York, 199. Wagner, Eugen Logan, "Las Baterias de Umatac". Unpublished manuscript, Alarife, Yona, Guam, 1993. April 27 letter to Mr. Richard Reed, Guam Preservation Trust, 1995. Appendix: Summary Table The following table lists completed archaeological tasks with the relevant architectural responses. All of the archaeological work accomplished at Soledad contributed to architectural design decisions. Much of the archaeological work was oriented towards developing strategies to deal with Bodega reconstruction. The Bodega was considered from the start to be the most complicated element of the bateria, and the one that would take the greatest amount of investigation to fully understand. As work progressed on the Bodega, two aspects remained elusive; the roof construction details, and the people who were originally associated with the bateria. The only roof elements found were curved clay tiles, although notches for roof joists can be observed in the remaining Bodega walls. The roof is believed to have projected beyond the edge of the east wall bench seat, but not as far as the end of the outer masonry floor.

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ARCHAEOLOGICAL TASK   ARCHITECTURAL RESPONSE  

1. Excavate Bodega Interior. Vegetation and debris was cleared from each room. The interior was gridded and excavated in 1 meter square units. All excavated soils were screened for their artifact content. All floor features were measured and mapped in detail.

Reconstruct floor using stucco sub-floor, and tiles; feather tile set mortar into wall stucco; construct raised wood floors in south room and portion of central room. Interpretive design to include powder storage room accessories in the south room, administrative accessories in the central room, and bedroom accessories in the north room.

2. Excavate Bodega Exterior Trenches were excavated adjacent to the north, south, and east walls; perpendicular to the east wall; and, away from the entryway.

Reconstruct buttresses outside of north and south walls. Restore original topography based upon north wall exposure. Restore east wall bench as bench/buttress. Restore mortar floor to east of bench. Terminate roof overhang past the bench edge. Do not build path to entry way.

3. Sieve Site Soils Soils were screened through 1/4” mesh. Artifacts were collected from the screen lag for laboratory analysis.

Use period information from archival sources and other documents for the interpretive plan. Consider recommending off-site excavations in the older portions of Umatac village to recover period artifacts and midden.

4. Excavate Parapet Walls Trenches were excavated adjacent to the north, west, and south parapet walls; and the east edge of the esplanade. The interior of the west parapet wall was excavated.

Reconstruct parapet walls as true barbette walls. Rebuild these as mamposteria walls for greater longevity. Construct low, non-barbette walls along the east edge of the esplanade, adjacent to the entry. These are standard stone and mortar construction.

5. Expose, Measure and Map Esplanade Vegetation and soil were removed from the esplanade surface. Cut cavities were cleaned out. The esplanade was measured, and a stone by stone detailed map was created. A 2-meter square unit was excavated, through the esplanade, to the original prepared base.  

Reconstruct missing sections of esplanade. Create new pavers based upon the scale attributes of surrounding stones. Reset the existing pavers to restore rainwater flow parameters. Raise the northwest corner of the esplanade to the original position. Cluster cannons in northwest 1/4 of the esplanade. Locate the flagpole off of the esplanade.

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The Use Of Primary Sources In The Study Of House Construction And Social Realities In Guam, 1884-1898 By Carlos Madrid MARC Associate Researcher Introduction Guam and the Mariana Islands represent an exceptional case for the writing of its history, since besides archaeological data or anthropological studies, researchers are provided with written sources from 1521 onwards, especially for the later part of the 19th Century. This allows the extraction of information on political, economic and cultural realities that may serve to analyze several historical aspects. Extracting useful information from these documents requires a careful and critical reading, detailed analysis and a historic contextualization to provide a proper understanding of their meanings. Much of the sources of the last three decades of the nineteenth century -mostly administrative documents and memoirs, legal proceedings, preliminary reports, regular bureaucratic communications, etc- usually refer to Hagåtña, to a lesser extent to other villages of Guam, and to a lesser extent to the remaining populations of the archipelago. Certain documents contain information of value, for instance about the main features of the civil or vernacular architecture built in Guam during the last third of the nineteenth century. The potential value of such documents as repositories of a historical database is enormous, since they bear certain details that may serve as reference in the future for curators, architects, or cultural agents who want to understand the long history of the islands. It must be kept in mind that in many cases we find documents written by colonial officials, and therefore the vision incorporated in them, the references to priorities of the population, or other elements related to the indigenous people, must be properly evaluated beyond the explicit narration of the document. By doing so, we prevent the incorporation to our narrative of the mainstream discourse of official colonial agents. At the same time, we avoid the mistake of discarding historical data of huge

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ethnographic and historical value, simply because the sources were written by colonial officers. Timeframe and types of houses The period which we believe is more representative and interesting reaches between 1884 and 1899. The first date, since it marks the events associated with the assassination of Governor Angel de Pazos, in December 2, 1884, events that had represented a commotion in Hagåtña. It is also related to the 1885 "Crisis of the Carolines" between Spain and Germany. Such year would mark a further increase in communications between Manila, the capital of Marianas, Yap and Pohnpei, with a steam ship connecting the islands every three months. From the years 1884-1887, the population of Guam would experience an acceleration of economic processes put in place after the economic reforms of Ricafort (1828) related to commerce and market economy, very gradual over the last years of the 19th Century but that would be accelerated after 1899 and the American colonial administration. The second date is due to a practical need: access to sources at our disposal. However, during the early decades of the twentieth century and at least until World War II, the characteristics of civil architecture in Marianas will continue to manifest elements common to those of the previous century. Those common elements, maintained at different colonial periods, reflect a degree of autonomy on the part of the population of Marianas in the application criteria for construction or elements of ornate.

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As seen in this photo taken in Saipan in the 1930´s Chamorro homes had construction styles, materials and proportions on its own, regardless the colonial period in which they were built. This article will attempt to answer the question of whether the written sources can contribute to a better understanding of the features and elements of such architecture. And to show that the question can be responded positively, we will offer a series of references of an 1886 document. In 1818, 70 years before our time period, French traveler Claude de Freycinet described the common houses of modern Chamorros:

“... a modern house, of the sort still used by the majority of the natives. It is clear enough that it is a sort of imitation of a European house. As in the dwellings already discussed, its floor is raised above ground level, but only two or three feet. In shape the structure is rectangular, 18 feet long and 10 feet across, and divided into two unequal parts or areas. One of these, which is half the size of the other, constitutes the sleeping quarters of the heads of the family. It is next to the principal room, to which a door leads in. Two little windows permit the entry of air and light. This room is, at once, a sitting room, a dining room, and a

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bedroom for children. It receives daylight through two side doors or exits, both provided with ladders or steps, built of wood like the rest of the structure. The roof is covered with palm leaves, placed tightly enough together to prevent any water from entering”.1

In the late 19th Century, two types of homes appear to be more common in Hagåtña, depending on the materials used for its construction: those of stone, and those of wood or bamboo and nipa. The masonry houses, or “materiales fuertes”, (strong materials) as they were referred then, were by far the most expensive to build. They were also more resistant to weather, but probably much more expensive to maintain. As for roofing, some masonry houses could have tiles, some had nipa. The houses with tiled roofs were relatively numerous, and back then they were no longer modern, but old. By the end of the century and according to the legislation then, modern houses had to had zinc, which was more durable and easy to replace. But often, the law was more a theoretical code than a reality, and zinc was so costly that even the government palace of Hagåtña had to use old tiles rescued from a building in ruins in Umatac, instead of the modern zinc plates for which it was designed. The manufacture of tiles had fallen into disuse in Guam, even though many houses preserved it, along with small ornamental details that were reminiscent of the distant “madre patria” or metropolis. Ironically, the disappearance of tile manufacturing and its replacement with processed materials such as zinc, contributed to the increase of dependency of products from abroad: unlike tiles, zinc could not be produced in Guam.

1 Freycinet, Louis Claude de: An Account of the Corvette L´Uranie´s Sojourn at the Mariana Islands, 1819. Translated by Glynn Barratt. 2003. CNMI Divission of Historic Preservation. pp. 114-115

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In Hagåtña some houses with tiled roofs had this discreet ornamental detail, to be found also in Spain but not in the Philippines. The houses of wood or nipa were the vast majority of private homes of Guam, being of materials easier to transport and treat than the stone. The houses of wood and bamboo represented a much lower cost than others, and could be built, maintained and rebuilt much more effectively. The introduction of zinc to the islands facilitated its use in small pieces to make a top juncture on the roof that protected the house from rainwater leaks. This cover was called Pupung in Chamorro. A combination of the two types of houses would be those with the foundation and bodega built out of stone, with the remaining walls made out of wood, similar to what still can be seen in that beautiful example of 1901, the Leon Guerrero house in Inarajan. On the years following the assassination of Pazos we can glimpse a series of daily realities in relation to the construction of houses, ovens, furniture and other accessories. When Governor Francisco Olive took over the government of the province, he was undoubtedly aware of the serious state of affairs in Hagåtña, and he presented a paternal bando or edict to

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all the indigenous authorities of the islands, with detailed instructions and laws on virtually all spheres of public life. We are referring to the edict Bando General de policia Urbana y Rural, of 1886, one of the key documents that sheds light on the subject of our study, on social life in Guam. A copy of this edict is kept in the National Archives of the Philippines. 2

2 PNA, Marianas 1880-1897. SDS- 4358. Bando General de policía Urbana y Rural. Agaña, 1 September, 1886. 175 pages.

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Homes of wood and nipa were easier to repair than masonry houses, although not without cost. Governor Olive was an officer of extensive experience in the Philippines, and amateur writer who had an intense romantic relationship with a Chamorro woman, whose son was legitimized.3 It was therefore an officer with social connections at its disposal to get an informed assessment of the realities and needs of the island, "as it is my duty as an official of the State and as honest man" 4, although such duty actually implied a full assumption of the colonial policies and values. As an in-depth study of the 175 pages of the document would require a specific publication, we shall confine ourselves to selected references, incumbent to our topic, as testimony of the potential that written sources have to increase our knowledge of Chamorro culture and 19th Century Guam. Houses and Timber In the section “Montes, Maderas, Leñas, Frutos y Roturas” (Forest, timber, firewood, fruits and cultivations) of Olive´s edict, we find some passages relevant to shortage of timber:5

“... Today they are no areas [...] except in almost inaccessible sites, which prove the neglecting, [and] lack of foresight in adopting on time a reserve zone that avoided the lamentable shortage of construction timber that now is noted on accessible sites. Regarding what has been cut, and better said cut without need, is proven by those houses half built, which have wasted many good wood, not foreseeing those who undertook the work to cover it until they have means to complete it, preventing timber from rotting, as has happened with several houses in Hagåtña and its neighbourhoods, whose rotten skeletons reflect the punishable abandonment of having them for many years exposed to weather. "

3 According to testimonies of the descendants, collected by the author in Guam in 2002. 4 Bando general... p. 3 5 Words in [brackets] were added to clarify the sense of some sentences.

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"This must be normalized in accordance with existing regulations for forests [...] in order to avoid the complete disappearance of timber for construction, which would be fatal consequences for these islands in a more or less distant future" "... The Municipal authorities and principales of the villages are those who have to know the forests and ensure their conservation, taking special care to issue reports on cuts and cultives, and that those [cuts] do not harm the repopulation of the forests, and those [cultives] do not take place where there is usable timber, especially for construction." “Article 2. Those who need to cut some [wood], must request it to the Government through an application, in which they will specify the amount, type, size of the pieces, place where they are found, period in which they will be cut, and end use." "Article 3. These licenses will be free of charge and will be granted only to: those who need to repair the house in which they live, or construct a new one if they don’t have one, or for their farm implements, or for one or two bancas at their exclusive service; [According to] Article 26 of the Reglament of Forests, and clarifying Royal Order of May 11, 1886. Neighbours without license may cut firewood for domestic use as well, and with license if it is for stakes for fishing pens. And being mangrove very scanty in these islands, the stakes for such fishing pens may be cut, in the absence of Mangrove, out of Angilao, Macpunao, Panao, Catol, Guayabo and other [trees] not suitable for timber (...)” "Transitory orders. Article 1. Having some neighbours cut timber from State forests, undoubtedly because of lack of knowledge or by an oversight of the regulations, and in view of the harm that would be caused upon them in case its seizure takes place, taking into account that they have not done so by malice, time is given until 1 January 1887 for those who have such timber, to use it

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for their benefit in accordance with the spirit of the letter of Article 26 of the Regulations of Forests (...)" 6

The preceding paragraphs shows that to get timber for the construction of a house was not as easy task as it might appear. Appropriate wood was getting harder to obtain. The conditions of the island determined that for Chamorro housing, maximization of resources and materials was a must. Under the section “Casas” (Houses) of the same document, we find references to the construction of houses and their alleged state of neglect:

"Specifically in the Marianas, it is noted that in general there is an unfortunate abandonment regarding the houses caused by negligence, since having the materials, construction, repair and maintenance of houses depend upon work, and that who does not work is indolent and lazy. But not only there are a large number of houses in poor condition and even repugnant state, but there is also a lack of them to a greater or lesser degree in some villages, especially in Agat, which causes that many people live in overcrowded houses with the subsequent harm to morality and hygiene. Besides lack of houses, in general those standing are dirty inside so much that is repugnant to enter into some".

The reader familiar with the colonial language will not be surprised to find the usual accusations or the release of responsibilities upon the indigenous population, so common in colonial societies. Easy identifiable are the aspirations of the authorities, self perceived as representatives of public respectability, to have control over the morality of the inhabitants. Such values promoted and justified social intrusiveness. However, we can establish that in the period of our study there was a problem of housing in Hagåtña, where life was relatively expensive for an average family. Perhaps as a result of that, the population of Agat had grown since the mid-century, and showed more than other villages the housing shortage referred in the edict of Olive. Given such a shortage, sometimes more than one marriage would share house, which ruled against government’s dispositions. Thus, in the Bando general we read:

6 Bando general... páginas 39 y 41.

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"Article 1. In order to prevent the agglomeration of many people in one house, and a fortiori, when they belong to more than one family, since the houses in general do not meet the hygienic conditions needed by their limited capacity; it is henceforth prohibited that more than a couple7 residing in a house, therefore the head of the family must proceed with the construction of a separate house, either of stone, wood, bamboo and coconut wood, with capacity enough for people would live in it. Article 2. For the construction of bamboo houses the following rules will be observed:

1º The floor must be one metre in height from the street. 2º They will have at least two rooms, in order to prevent

persons of opposite sex sleeping in the same room. 3º Houses´ interior and exterior must be coated of

saguales,8 preserving the residents from wind and water, which otherwise enters through the joint canes.

4º The kitchens will be in the ground, separated far enough from the house to prevent fire.

5º The courtyards will have banana trees or other useful trees planted, which besides is of good use, will also facilitate the abovementioned [protection from weather]. Article 3. All houses, no matter the material of which they are constructed, must be maintained by their owners in good condition, and should have the courtyards as previously stated, well terraced, cleaned and fenced, if they have the capacity planting in them in addition to bananas or other trees, whatever vegetables they prefer, something that besides beautification, serves of immediate benefit. Article 4. Nobody can build a house, even owning the plot, without prior knowledge of the Government of the Province, so that the Assistant of Public Works or someone designated by

7 The original reads “matrimonios” or married couple, referring to a family unit. 8 Saguale: Tagalog word incorporated both into Chamorro and into Spanish. In Spanish it meant a fabric made from strips of a plant. A dictionary of English-chamorro (Topping, Ogo, Dungca, 1975) defines saguale' as a thatched house, whose fabric is made from karisu, a type of bamboo that is produced mainly in muddy areas.

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him can mark the line where it will be established in order to be in line with the adjacent streets. Article 5. Owners or tenants of a house will whitewash it at least once a year, in December, under a fine of 1 peso to defaulters. Article 6. It is not permitted to have in the railings of the balconies or sill of the windows, pots or other objects whose fall may harm a passerby, under the fine of 0.25 pesos per offender, without prejudice to the pertinent costs of the injures caused" 9

9 Bando General... pp. 20-23

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Newly built houses had to be oriented in line with the adjacent streets. Urban planning did exist in the Hagåtña of the late 19th Century. Thin walls

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"... Besides, I recommend that the houses that are not of wood or mampostería, have the dindines10 well adjusted, and covered by well weaved saguale, for the ocupants to be well protected from the open air; as well as that houses of wood have the plank joints covered with strips, and all houses internally whitened and clean ... "

Furniture

"They [the houses] also lack most of the most indispensable furniture. The accessories or kitchens that are usually behind the backs of the houses show the greatest abandonment, because there are some houses even of masonry, which have roofless kitchens at least for the last year and a half (...)"11

We do not need to emphasize that the author, as a man of his era, was applying is own criteria, using standards out of context that could or could not be in line with those of the Chamorros, in relation to furniture, comfort, and so on. Hence, we should not conclude by his statement that the referred individuals were have-nots. What a 19th Century officer meant by referring to "the most essential furniture," does not necessarily correspond to what a resident of Guam deemed necessary, desirable or essential. Notwithstanding the foregoing, we must also keep in mind that a majority of the population of Guam lived in conditions of subsistence. Regarding furniture, we can add that Spanish-style, Hispano-Filipino or European furniture was not rare in affluent homes. They could have been purchased abroad or made on island. Besides, even then it was already in practice the custom of buying at cost the furniture or belongings of whoever Spanish official (the haulies of that time) leaving the island after fulfilling a term. Ovens The outdoor ovens or hotnos, although undoubtedly much more abundant than they are today, most probably were a valuable asset, since not all houses had one. This is extracted from a reference on page 36 of that Bando general, where we find the following rule aimed specifically at those houses that had ovens: 10 Dindin: Thin wall, partition. 11 Bando General... p 21v.

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"Article 1. For houses that have an oven, the owners or tenants must take care that the ember extracted after use is perfectly extinguished, in order to prevent fire, being responsible for any accident occurring as a result of their carelessness”.

Erecting and paying for a house Community work to fulfil the needs of close and not so close relatives, was part of the complex and efficient social network regulating the private lives of the inhabitants of Guam. In addition to collaborating family members, and although many officials insisted in their writings that Chamorros had not learned professional skills, and that everyone was a little bit of everything, it is also true that many Chamorros had specialized professions, such as construction. Even in 1852, more than 30 years before the period of our study, there are references to people like Rafael Castro and José Flores as masons, and Justo Baza and Ignacio Fernandez as master carpenters, whose professional skills are proven by the fact that the government commissioned them to recognize "according to their understanding" official buildings owned by the State, 12 who had specific regulations for the tropics. In relation to the proportions of the masonry walls, any private house that was built in accordance with the rules against earthquakes established in 1880, should have walls measuring in wide at least one fifth of its height. The official or public buildings, (such as the masonry walls of the Church of Merizo in 1852, whose thickness was of about 83.59 centimeters) were built to resist as long as possible and to cost as little as possible. Thus, to maximize available resources was also a necessity for the administration, something that allow us to understand why construction techniques learned in the exercise of official work, were put into service of vernacular construction: those techniques simply worked. Finally, what was the price of a house? In 1886, there were homes of 100 pesos, but it goes without saying that the higher the quality of materials, the higher the price, so houses could reach 1,000, 1,500 or even 2,000

12 PNA, Marianas 1850-1880. SDS-4345. Exp 7. Inventario y tasación de edificios y fortalezas de las islas Marianas. Agaña, 31 December, 1852.

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pesos for a newly built masonry house. 13 To get an idea of what this price meant at that time, lets quote that a working day of tax was valued in 0.30 cents, at least in accordance with Article 35 of the Regulations of Polos (taxes) and services, which stated that each polista should receive a compensation of 0.30 cents per day.14 Another example: one day in prison was equivalent to 0.50 cents of fine, as revealed by the fines imposed by the government in times of Olive. Conclusion The society of Guam in the late 19th Century, subject as many other territories in the Pacific to a colonial system in which values were predetermined by the hegemonic culture, was experiencing a process of change very different from the rest of the territories of Oceania. The distinctive features of the case of Marianas in relation to other Pacific nations evolve around the fact that the Chamorro society had experienced exogenous influences from much earlier date than any other place: early invasion, dramatic demographic crisis, changes in social, political and religious habits, slow repopulation, etc. While other societies in the Pacific were beginning to confront those changes, the inhabitants of Marianas who lived in the second half of the 19th Century were already descendants of people who had experienced them. The families living in Guam were immersed in a society subjected to challenges governed by their own responses, the result of years of autonomous experience across terms of successive administrators. In this process of slow and gradual change, not surprisingly the construction of civilian buildings reflect in one way or another unique features, specific to Guam, part of the Chamorro culture, regardless the origin of the techniques or materials that perhaps were exogenous in origin, but finally were the result of indigenous modification and assumption. The society of Hagåtña was subjected to economic constraints whose origins and causes fall beyond the subject of this brief paper, but among the consequences we can infer the autonomy of the indigenous population

13 Olive García, Francisco: The Mariana Islands 1884-1887. Random Notes. Second Edition, Translated and Annotated by Marjorie G. Driver. Marc, Guam. 2006. P. 119. 14 Olive García, Francisco: The Mariana Islands 1884-1887. Random Notes. Second Edition, Translated and Annotated by Marjorie G. Driver. Marc, Guam. 2006. P. 115.

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in taking decisions to resolve or alleviate individual and collective needs, as is the construction of private homes. Through the eyes of outsiders who assumed that nature delivered everything effortlessly, Guam was an earthly paradise where its people lived handed over to leisure and laziness. We have discussed how such statements conflict with historical data that reveals that as the 19th Century progressed and the population of Hagåtña gradually increased, timber suitable for building houses was becoming harder to obtain, in other words more expensive, since its collection was linked to a series of technical difficulties (identify them, carrying it from distant forest, transform it into planks, etc.), in which family involvement and participation was instrumental. But house building also implied certain administrative processes, especially if using timber from public lands, since a formal application to the authorities must be submitted, free of cost but specifying the type of wood, its location, amount and size of the logs. In a society where not every one new how to read or write, such an application would have to be prepared by a friend, relative, of hired individual, what certainly implied additional costs, whether socially or economically. Getting the wood, as well as prevent it from deteriorating, was an expensive process. The rural life in Guam required sacrifices and hard work. The information that can be obtained trough a systematic and critic scrutiny of the appropriate documentation, may allow us in the future to expand current knowledge about this topic. Primary Sources PNA, Marianas 1880-1897. SDS- 4358. Bando General de policía Urbana y Rural. Hagåtña, 1 September, 1886. 175 pages. PNA, Marianas 1850-1880. SDS-4345. Exp 7. Inventario y tasación de edificios y fortalezas de las islas Marianas. Hagåtña, 31 December, 1852. Photo Credits Photo 1 and 4 (enhanced): Private Collection. Photo 2 and 3: Archivo de la Compañía de Jesús, Granada:

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Bibliography Corte y Ruano-Calderon, Felipe de la: Memoria descriptiva e histórica de las Islas Marianas y otras que las rodean en relación con ellas y de su organización actual con estudio analítico de todos sus elementos físicos, morales y políticos. Imprenta Nacional, Madrid, 1875. Driver, Marjorie G.: El Palacio. The Spanish Palace in Agaña, 1668-1898. University of Guam. Guam, 2004. Freycinet, Louis Claude de: An Account of the Corvette L´Uranie´s Sojourn at the Mariana Islands, 1819. Translated by Glynn Barratt. Divission of Historic Preservation. NMI, 2003. Ibáñez García, Luís: Historia de las Islas Marianas con su derrotero y de las Carolinas y Palaos: desde su descubrimiento por Magallanes en el año 1521 hasta nuestros días. Imp. y Lib. de Paulino V. Sabatel, Granada, 1886. Madrid, Carlos: Beyond Distances. Governance, Politics and Deportation in the Mariana Islands, 1870-1877. NMI, 2006. Olive García, Francisco: The Mariana Islands 1884-1887. Random Notes. Second Edition. Translated and Annotated by Marjorie G. Driver. Marc, Guam. 2006. Topping, Donald M; Ogo, Pedro; Dungca, Bernardita: Chamorro-English Dictionary. University of Hawai´i Press, 1975.

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Considering Structures By Rosanna P. Barcinas Guam Preservation Trust Program Officer As a Cathedral grade school student in the ‘70s, we had to run around the Plaza de España in Hagåtña to exercise. My focus was to not trip over the flame tree roots like Johnnie who lost a tooth the day before. At Academy of Our Lady in the ‘80s, if you sat in the right place in the Kiosko, you could stay hidden from your teachers when you wanted to sneak a cigarette. My focus was to wave my arms inconspicuously to dissipate the smoke.

I would sometimes think about my Grandpa Perez playing his trumpet in the Navy band. I knew this history of the Kiosko because my grandma told me about it. I knew no history of the Plaza because Guam History was never taught to my generation.

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Why are these structures here? Who built them? How did they build them and why? Why should we even care about them? I prefer to see, touch, feel history for myself, rather than read about it in history books. These historical structures are physical, tangible links to our past. We’re not limited to just looking at pictures of what used to be. In Tan Ana Leon Guerrero’s 1901 house, located within the Historic District of Inalahan, I can poke my finger through the bullet holes in her ifit flooring, evidence of bullet strafing from World War II, which is evidence that this house, this family, survived a great ordeal. I can see the old Romex AC/DC wiring running along the interior walls of her living room—evidence that this house was built before electrical power came to Guam. As a program officer with the Guam Preservation Trust, my focus now is to answer these questions. The Guam Preservation Trust is a nonprofit, public corporation responsible for restoring historic structures. The Trust researches and educates the public not only about these historic structures but also the people who built them, the reasons they were erected and the activities that occurred inside them, as this is just as significant as the buildings themselves.

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Because of this belief, the Trust also funds and manages projects in areas such as ethnography, oral history and archeology. Our enabling legislation, created by former Sen. Elizabeth Arriola in 1992, not only outlines the needed intention of our office, it identifies a funding source that has allowed the Trust to complete the restoration of 14 structures, numerous archaeological studies, video documentaries and publications. Building permit fees collected in Guam come to the Trust, whether they come from building a hotel or an extension to a home. We believe it extremely appropriate that these forces of change help preserve our past. One recently completed endeavor of the Trust was an international conference: “Stonework Heritage in Micronesia,” held at the Hilton Guam Resort and Spa in November 2007. The possibility of a conference like this occurring here was discussed 10 years ago. The signing of the Valladolid Agreement in 1998, named for the hosting city in Spain, marked the beginning of a positive, formal relationship between Spain and its former territories in an effort to foster good relations among all. Representatives from Guam, Palau, the Federated States of Micronesia, the Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas and others agreed that highlighting the positive aspects of our shared histories was the direction to take this millennium. Representing Guam at this signing were Chamorro language expert Dr. Katherine Aguon, former Sen. John Aguon and historian Tony Palomo. As adirect result of the Valladolid Agreement, the Kingdom of Spain’s Ministry of Culture established the Instituto de Cervantes in Manila. The Instituto funds and manages the Spanish Program for Cultural Cooperation, which funds projects highlighting such shared histories. Spanish scholar and co-organizer of the conference, Carlos Madrid, writes:

“In light of the cultural and historic relations of Spain with Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia and Palau, the Spanish Program for Cultural Cooperation with the collaboration of the Guam Preservation Trust and the Historic Resources Division, Department of Parks and Recreation, organized this International Conference on Stonework Heritage in Micronesia.”

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“Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary defines stonework as, ‘a structure or part built of stone’ and ‘the shaping, preparation or setting of stone.’ It also defines heritage as the ‘property that descends to an heir’ or ‘something transmitted by or acquired from a predecessor.’ Therefore, we refer to Stonework Heritage as the historic legacy of structures made of stone. “Cultural heritage represents one of the most significant aspects of the identity of a nation and its material manifestation across eras and periods. The physical presence of a historic structure is a visible testimony of the past that contributes to the maintenance of the collective identity of a community. “The Micronesian region is significantly rich and diverse in cultural heritage. By incorporating it into a collective appreciation, we are better prepared to move forward for the new challenges of the future. In a world wherein cultural tourism is growing in importance and numbers, the historic heritage of Micronesia represents an economic venue for sustained development.”

The conference presenters included experts and individuals in the Micronesian region, the Philippines and Spain, who were directed to present papers on stone heritage and issues such as the challenges in its conservation, restoration techniques, contemporary tourist potential and appreciation among the community. The eventual publication of this call for papers will serve to increase bibliographic materials, serving as a reference and to raise awareness about appreciation for historic properties. Director Jose R. Rodriguez, the general coordinator of the Instituto de Cervantes, which administers the Spanish Program for Cultural Cooperation, began the international conference with a brief history of the Instituto and reiterated Spain’s commitment to funding projects focused on positive relations between Spain and her former colonies. Madrid offered the chronological framework established by historic times in 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, considering structures related to the Spanish colonial era in the Pacific. Early 20th century architecture was also included, as it referred to the historic districts of Hagåtña and

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Inarajan highlighting Chamorro vernacular architecture, due to its historical and cultural significance. The geographic framework of this conference was limited to the territories of the Micronesian region that have stonework heritage built during the defined timeframe. Department of Parks and Recreation’s Historic Resources Division historian, Toni Ramirez, began the conference with a detailed slide presentation noting Guam’s historical ties with Spain, the Philippines and Mexico with an emphasis of sites and structures listed on the Guam and National Register such as Fort Soledad in Umatac and the Taleyfac stone bridge in Agat. Ramirez reminded the conference attendees that Guam has historical ties with Spain that are not erasable. “They’re almost indelible; they are a part of the identity of the Chamorro people,” Ramirez said. Scott Russell, noted historian of Northern Mariana Islands and former NMI Historic Preservation officer, presented “Stonework Structures of the Spanish Era in the Northern Marianas.” Russell shared rarely seen photos of stone structures in Saipan, Rota and Tinian, many of which we can only read about because of the heavy destruction of these sites during World War II. Sadly, the buildings remaining have little chance of surviving without funding for their restoration. Maita Maronilla-Reyes, a chemist conservation consultant with the University of Santo Thomas’ Center for Conservation of Cultural Property and Environment in the Tropics reminds us that to understand the building, we need to first understand its composition. Maronilla-Reyes said that while conservation is to stabilize the condition of the stone, restoration is an attempt to bring back deteriorated stone and structure to their original form, shape and condition. Stone conservation in a tropical setting is challenging because of several factors such as an accelerated deterioration in hot and humid climates; cracks in the building from seismic activity become deterioration sites for vegetation or rodents to settle in; and frequent flooding complicates the situation even further. Another expert from Manila, architect Michael Manalo, presented “Selected Uses of Lime in Heritage Buildings: Construction and

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Conservation.” Michael argued that lime-based building materials were the most indispensable for construction use during the Spanish colonial period in the Philippines and the same goes for Guam. Lime comes from either limestone or seashells. He also discussed the cycle of lime. When lime is prepared with sand it creates a mortar mix that is durable and highly porous. Following the technical presentations from our friends in Manila, day two brought more attention to Guam. Marjorie Driver, curator of the Spanish collections housed within the University of Guam’s Micronesian Area Research Center, gave us glimpses of life in Guam during the Spanish Colonial Era dating 1668 to 1898, noting that mamposteria construction was introduced in Guam in the early 1700s. Like the Romans introduced this method to the Spanish, the Spanish introduced stone construction to Guam and the Philippines. Mamposteria is the method of building limestone walls consisting of two parallel rows of coral rubble with infill of sand, shell and small stones. A limestone mortar mix is applied to the interior and exterior walls for moisture protection and aesthetics. One of the oldest mamposteria structures still standing, still in use by the parish priest serving the parishes of Malesso’ and Umatac, is the Malesso’ Kombento. Built in 1856 to honor those who lost their lives in a small pox epidemic that year, the Kombento was abandoned in 1987 and restored in 2000 by the Guam Preservation Trust. This Kombento is an excellent example of mamposteria construction from that era. “In a world wherein cultural tourism is growing in importance and numbers, the historic heritage of Micronesia represents an economic venue for sustained development.” Chairman of the Guam Historic Review Board for over 20 years and the founding chairman of the Guam Preservation Trust, Jack Jones offered elements of “Chamorro Vernacular Architecture.” These are architectural elements of a home that your regular Chamorro family would have built at the turn of the 19th century. Elements such as the steepness of the roof, open balcony, raised floors, wide stairwell and the use of ifit as a main building material are all defining features of homes dominating our village

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landscape pre-World War II. The Historic District of Inalahan is the only village with homes reminiscent of this prewar era. Visiting Philippine preservationist, Dr. Jaime Laya, discussed the “Restoration and Development of Intramuros in Manila.” He notes how these famed walls were once the seat of government for 400 years, yet fell victim to severe American bombing in 1945. Initialized via presidential decree in the 1960s and through efforts of the Intramuros Administration, Intramuros has been revitalized to house reconstructed homes and restaurants. New developments within the historic walls boast museums, stores and income-producing festivals. “Intramuros is part of Philippine history and its restoration not only evokes an era of the Philippine’s past, but also could help revive some lost skills and crafts,” he said. Dr. Laya argues that buildings built during the Spanish regime are not Spanish but Philippine-Hispanic. In agreeing with Dr. Laya, these remaining stone structures in Guam may have been built during the Spanish era but they are Chamorro structures, used and built by Chamorros. Revitalization efforts such as these are also occurring within the Historic District of Inalahan, thanks to the nonprofit organization, Historic Inalahan Foundation. Consultant Dr. July Flores offered a history of the maintenance efforts taken to stabilize historic pre-war homes such as those of Joseph Flores, George Flores and Isabel Cruz. In this world of globalization, tangible cultural elements are what make a country distinctive. Quoting historian Kelly Marsh, University of Guam history professor Anne Hattori shared, “It is incumbent upon historians and historic preservationists to reconnect Chamorros to their history long denied them—to uncover the Chamorro stories within these historic structures, to help Chamorros see themselves and their ancestors reflected in them.” In an effort to help her students uncover Chamorro stories from historic structures, Dr. Hattori has been including them in a “Service Learning” program where the students learn about historic structures in the classroom as well as visit and assist in stabilization efforts at an actual site.

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What collective stories are told from stone structures in Guam, in Micronesia, in the Philippines and in Spain? Discussions of available building materials, indigenous and introduced building methods versus the evolution of both, the effects of climate and neglect on these structures are just a few of those stories. But the larger, more meaningful story is of interconnectedness among our countries and cultures and the need for continued collaboration.

Rosanna Barcinas, Guam Preservation Trust Program Officer, with Jose R. Rodriguez, the general coordinator of the Instituto de Cervantes, which administers the Spanish Program for Cultural Cooperation. Editor’s Note: This essay about the Stonework Conference was first written for GU magazine.

Bridging the gapReflecting Chamorro in historic structures

The GapChamorros have been written out of and disconnected from their history in many ways. For example, the label the “Spanish Era” is both limiting and misleading as it obscures the Chamorro in their 400 years of complex interaction with the Spanish (1521-1898). History texts have traditionally placed Catholic missionaries, colonial officials, and foreign visitors on center stage, while the Chamorro were relegated to the periphery. The depopulation, intermarriage and migration during Spanish colonization (1700-1898), caused some to claim that the Chamorro no longer existed. Indeed, for a time, one signboard stated that the Chamorro latte (stone house pillars) were crafted by an ‘unknown race’ who had lived there ‘centuries ago.’Though some steps at rectifying that situation have been taken, more work needs to be done in rethinking, reclaiming and relabelling the thousands of years of continuous Chamorro history in the Mariana Islands.

Reflecting the Chamorro, culturally embedded• As resistors: Throughout the Spanish colonial regime, Chamorros staged major offenses along roads or at forts, burned various structures and buildings, attempted coups, and assassinated a Spanish governor at the Plaza de España.• As leaders, guards, police men and more: Chamorros held many positions in the Spanish colonial government, from the gobernadorcillo (mayor) managing village affairs from his office to the militia men performing drills on the Plaza de España.• As a vibrant people living daily life: Chamorro voices filtered into structures as they steered carabao pulling carts, children called out produce for sale, the faithful prayed during processions or graveside at a funeral, and crowds ushered excited murmurs or shouts of encouragement while attending public proclamations, celebrations and games.

Bridging the GapIt is incumbent upon historians and historic preservationists to reconnect Chamorros to their history long-denied them—to uncover the Chamorro stories within these structures, to helpChamorros see themselves and their ancestors reflected in them. This will begin to bridge the gap. But, ultimately, only Chamorro can decide what roles these structures play as part of their heritage.

Chamorros also share history with some of the Spanish historic structures that exist around the world. Chamorros ventured to the rest of Micronesia, Chamorros resettled in Spain, and Chamorros have also long voyaged to the Philippines. As time continues, more of these sorts of historic connections are likely to be (re-)discovered.

StructuresStructures, in the historic preservation sense, refer to public works and other features constructed for purposes other than shelter. Bridges, roadside shrines, sentry boxes, garden houses, ovens, bell towers, roads, forts, walls, dykes and more are examples of structures that were built in the Mariana Islands between 1668 and 1898.

Structures are often presented to the public as sterile, pristine, romantic versions of themselves, stripped of the people which give them their true meaning and context. However, if one looks at Guam and the Northern Mariana Island’s pictorial history closely, one will find the Chamorro. Together, these pictures create a story that shows that in reality Chamorros have not been absent, silent or in the background of their own islands’ history.

Kelly G Marsh & Dirk HR Spennemann, School of Environmental ScieKelly G Marsh & Dirk HR Spennemann, School of Environmental Sciences, Charles Sturt University, Albury, Australiances, Charles Sturt University, Albury, Australia

Reflecting the Chamorro, producing structuresChamorros have centuries of connection with Spanish-influenced structures. In fact, some have speculated that Chamorro latte and lusong (stone mortar), were used at times as building material for such structures or that the elongated, “wall” latte on Luta reflects Chamorro experimentation with Spanish architectural features. Chamorro and Spanish construction merged over time. Spanish structures were Chamorrocized, adapting thatch roofs and other Chamorro features while Chamorros added the mamposteria, tiled roofs, and Spanish aesthetic elements to their already well-developed construction skills and styles. Chamorros took this knowledge with them as they settled and resettled areas, leaving their fingerprints on those structures and those landscapes.

ContactKelly G Marsh, kmarsh@csu.edu.au

Dirk HR Spennemann, dspennemann@csu.edu.au

Pictures: Sanchez Photo Collection & photo collections found in Farrell, Don A (1991) The Sacrifice 1919-1943

Carabao Racing, Plaza de España, Hagåtña

Pole & Thatch Church Bell Tower

Guam Museum, Garden House, Plaza de España, Hagåtña

Tolai Acho, San Antonio de Padua Bridge, Hagåtña

Pedro ‘Pete’ Cruz & Vicente ‘Ben’ Chargualaf, defending Guam during WWII, Plaza de España, Hagåtña

Fort Soledad Sentry Box, Humåtak

Outdoor Oven, Under a Pala palaPole & Thatch Cover

Atantano Roadside Shrine, Piti

Pala pala Pole & Thatch Cover Protecting a Roadside Shrine

Malesso’ Bell Tower