Optical Materials 27 (2004) 181–186

www.elsevier.com/locate/optmat

Stationary inverted Lyman population and a very stablenovel hydride formed by a catalytic reaction of atomic

hydrogen and certain catalysts

R. Mills *, P. Ray

BlackLight Power, Inc., 493 Old Trenton Road, Cranbury, NJ 08512, USA

Received 7 February 2003; accepted 25 February 2004

Available online 4 May 2004

Abstract

Rbþ to Rb2þ and 2Kþ to K+K2þ each provide a reaction with a net enthalpy equal to the potential energy of atomic hydrogen.

The presence of these gaseous ions with thermally dissociated hydrogen formed a plasma having strong VUV emission with a

stationary inverted Lyman population. We propose an energetic catalytic reaction involving a resonant energy transfer between

hydrogen atoms and Rbþ or 2Kþ to form a very stable novel hydride ion. Its predicted binding energy of 3.047 eV with the fine

structure was observed at 4071 �A, and its predicted bound-free hyperfine structure lines EHF ¼ j23:00213� 10�5 þ 3:0563 eV (j is aninteger) matched those observed for j ¼ 1–37 to within a 1 part per 104. This catalytic reaction may pump a cw H I laser.

� 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

The Lyman a, b, and c lines of atomic hydrogen at121.6, 102.6, and 97.3 nm in the vacuum ultraviolet

(VUV) region are due to the transitions from n ¼ 2; 3; 4to n ¼ 1, respectively. These lines are of great impor-

tance in many applications ranging from photochemis-

try, to laboratory simulations of planetary atmospheres,

to astrophysics and plasma physics. In plasma physics,

the Lyman series line intensities and their ratios are

frequently used in the determination of plasma param-eters such as hydrogen number densities and other

quantities such as particle fluxes or ion recombination

processes [1,2]. For the last four decades, scientists from

academia and industry have been searching for lasers

using hydrogen plasma [3–6]. Developed sources that

provide a usefully intense hydrogen plasma are high

powered lasers, arcs and high voltage DC and RF

discharges, synchrotron devices, inductively coupledplasma generators, and magnetically confined plasmas.

However, the generation of population inversion is very

*Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-609-490-1090; fax: +1-609-490-

1066.

E-mail address: rmills@blacklightpower.com (R. Mills).

0925-3467/$ - see front matter � 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/j.optmat.2004.02.026

difficult. Recombining expanding plasma jets formed by

methods such as arcs or pulsed discharges is considered

one of the most promising methods of realizing an H Ilaser.

It was reported previously that a new plasma source

has been developed that operates by incandescently

heating a hydrogen dissociator to provide atomic

hydrogen and heats a catalyst such that it becomes

gaseous and reacts with the atomic hydrogen to produce

a plasma called a resonant transfer or rt-plasma. It was

extraordinary, that intense VUV emission was observedby Mills et al. [7,8] at low temperatures (e.g. �103 K)

and an extraordinary low field strength of about 1–2 V/

cm from atomic hydrogen and certain atomized ele-

ments or certain gaseous ions which singly or multiply

ionize at integer multiples of the potential energy of

atomic hydrogen, 27.2 eV.

The theory given previously [9–15] is based on

applying Maxwell’s equations to the Schr€odinger equa-tion. The familiar Rydberg equation (Eq. (1)) arises for

the hydrogen excited states for n > 1 of Eq. (2).

En ¼ � e2

n28pe0aH¼ � 13:598 eV

n2ð1Þ

n ¼ 1; 2; 3; . . . ð2Þ

182 R. Mills, P. Ray / Optical Materials 27 (2004) 181–186

An additional result is that atomic hydrogen may un-

dergo a catalytic reaction with certain atoms and ions

which singly or multiply ionize at integer multiples of the

potential energy of atomic hydrogen, m � 27:2 eV wherein

m is an integer. The reaction involves a nonradiativeenergy transfer to form a hydrogen atom that is lower in

energy than unreacted atomic hydrogen that corresponds

to a fractional principal quantum number. That is

n ¼ 1

2;1

3;1

4; . . . ;

1

p; p is an integer ð3Þ

replaces the well known parameter n¼ integer in the

Rydberg equation for hydrogen excited states. The n ¼ 1state of hydrogen and the n ¼ 1

integerstates of hydrogen are

nonradiative, but a transition between two nonradiative

states, say n ¼ 1 to n ¼ 1=2, is possible via a nonradiativeenergy transfer. Thus, a catalyst provides a net positive

enthalpy of reaction of m � 27:2 eV (i.e. it resonantly ac-

cepts the nonradiative energy transfer from hydrogen

atoms and releases the energy to the surroundings to

affect electronic transitions to fractional quantum energylevels). As a consequence of the nonradiative energy

transfer, the hydrogen atom becomes unstable and emits

further energy until it achieves a lower-energy nonradi-

ative state having a principal energy level given by Eqs.

(1) and (3). Processes such as hydrogen molecular bond

formation that occur without photons and that require

collisions are common [16]. Also, some commercial

phosphors are based on resonant nonradiative energytransfer involving multipole coupling [17].

The second ionization energy of potassium is 31.63

eV, and Kþ releases 4.34 eV when it is reduced to K. The

combination of reactions Kþ to K2þ and Kþ to K, then,

has a net enthalpy of reaction of 27.28 eV. Also, the

second ionization energy of rubidium is 27.28 eV; thus,

the reaction Rbþ to Rb2þ has a net enthalpy of reaction

of 27.28 eV. The catalyst product H(1/2) is predicted tobe a highly reactive intermediate which further reacts to

form a novel hydride ion H�(1/2). In this paper, we

report that the population of the levels n ¼ 3 and 4 of

hydrogen were continuously inverted with respect to

n ¼ 2 in an rt-plasma formed with Kþ and Rbþ cata-

lysts. To our knowledge, this is the first report of pop-

ulation inversion in a chemically generated plasma. The

plasma was further characterized by measuring theelectron temperature Te using a compensated Langmuir

probe, the H number density and temperature from the

Balmer a line intensity and broadening of the line width,

and the hydride ion product of catalysis by high reso-

lution visible spectroscopy.

2. Experimental

The VUV spectrum (900–1300 �A), the width of the

6563 �A Balmer a line, and the high resolution visible

spectrum were recorded on light emitted from a

hydrogen microwave discharge performed according to

methods reported previously [14] that served as a con-

trol for measurements recorded on light emitted from rt-

plasmas of hydrogen with KNO3 or RbNO3. Theexperimental set up described previously [7,8] comprised

a thermally insulated quartz cell with a cap that incor-

porated ports for gas inlet, outlet, and photon detection.

A tungsten filament heater and hydrogen dissociator

were in the quartz tube as well as a cylindrical titanium

screen that served as a second hydrogen dissociator that

was coated with catalysts KNO3 or RbNO3 and control

materials Mg(NO3)2 or Al(NO3)3. The cell was main-tained at 50 �C for 4 h with helium flowing at 30 sccm at

a pressure of 0.1 Torr. The cell was then operated with

and without an ultrapure hydrogen at a flow rate of 5.5

sccm maintained at 300 mTorr. The titanium screen was

electrically floated with 250 W of power applied to the

filament. The temperature of the tungsten filament was

estimated to be in the range 1100–1500 �C. The externalcell wall temperature was about 700 �C.

The VUV spectrometer was a normal incidence 0.2 m

monochromator equipped with a 1200 lines/mm holo-

graphic grating with a platinum coating that covered the

region 20–5600 �A. The VUV spectrum was recorded

with a CEM. The wavelength resolution was about 2 �A(FWHM) with slit widths of 50 lm. The increment was 2�A and the dwell time was 500 ms. The VUV spectrum

(900–1300 �A) of the rt-plasma cell emission was re-corded at about the point of the maximum Lyman aemission to confirm the rt-plasma before the line

broadening and high resolution visible spectra were re-

corded. In addition, the visible spectrum 4000–5600 �Awas recorded with the normal incidence VUV spec-

trometer using a PMT and a sodium salicylate scintil-

lator to record K lines.

The electron density and temperature of the rt-plasma was determined using a compensated Langmuir

probe according to the method given previously [20].

The plasma emission from a hydrogen microwave

discharge [19] control and each rt-plasma maintained in

the filament heated cell was fiber-optically coupled to a

high resolution visible spectrometer capable of a reso-

lution of ±0.06 �A. The slits were set to 20 lm, the step

size was 0.1 �A, and the spectra (4000–4090 and 6560–6570 �A) were recorded by a PMT in a single accumu-

lation with a 1 s integration time.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Hydrogen Lyman series emission

The VUV spectra (900–1300 �A) of the cell emission

recorded at about the point of the maximum Lyman aemission from the KNO3 and RbNO3 gas cell are shown

Fig. 1. The VUV spectra (900–1300 �A) of the cell emission from

hydrogen microwave plasma (dotted line) and the KNO3-hydrogen rt-

plasma (solid line) with an inverted Lyman population.

Table 1

The population density ratiosNb

Naand

Nc

Nafor pure H2, KNO3, and

RbNO3

Plasma gasNb

Na

Nc

Na

Pure H2a 0.664 0.521

KNO3 4.72 3.48

RbNO3 4.30 1.26

aMeasured on microwave discharge maintained according to the

method of Ref. [14].

Table 2

The reduced population density ratios Ng for pure H2, KNO3, and

RbNO3

Plasma gasNb

Na

gagb

a Nc

Na

gagc

b

Pure H2c 0.292 0.130c

KNO3 2.07 0.870

RbNO3 1.89 0.314

a gagb¼ 0:444 where g ¼ 2n2 and n is the principal quantum number.

b gagc¼ 0:250.

cMeasured on microwave discharge maintained according to the

method of Ref. [14].

R. Mills, P. Ray / Optical Materials 27 (2004) 181–186 183

in Figs. 1 and 2, respectively, with the superimposedspectrum from the hydrogen microwave plasma. Strong

Lyman series VUV emission was observed only with

KNO3 or RbNO3 and hydrogen. The Lyman series lines

of the rt-plasma showed population inversion with much

greater intensity of atomic hydrogen versus molecular

hydrogen compared to the microwave plasma emission.

The population density of the excited hydrogen atoms

Na, Nb, and Nc with principal quantum numbersn ¼ 2; 3, and 4, respectively, were obtained from their

intensity integrated over the spectral peaks corrected by

their Einstein coefficients. The population ratios,Nb

Naand

Nc

Na, for pure H2 and H2 with KNO3 or RbNO3 are given

in Table 1.

The important parameter for a lasing medium is the

reduced population density Ng given by the population

density N divided by the statistical weight g as discussedby Akatsuka et al. [6]. The ratio of N

g for Lb to La and Lc

Fig. 2. The VUV spectra (900–1300 �A) of the cell emission from

hydrogen microwave plasma (dotted line) and the RbNO3-hydrogen

rt-plasma (solid line) with an inverted Lyman population.

to La given in Table 2 demonstrate that with appropriate

cavity length and mirror reflection coefficient cw laser

oscillations may be obtained between n ¼ 3 and n ¼ 2

since the correspondingNb

Na

gagb> 1 [6]. For the plasma

conditions of this experiment (Te � 0:7–0:8 eV, ne � 109

cm�3), a threshold reduced overpopulation of �2 · 108cm�3 is required for lasing assuming a cavity length of 5

cm and a mirror reflection coefficient of 0.99. Initial

modeling results based on the collisional-radiative

model with standard laser equations [6] suggest that the

threshold condition is achieved for these plasmas [20].

In a nonrecombining plasma [6], thermal electroncollisional mechanisms cannot produce the conditions

necessary for population inversion. All known sources

of excitation were exhausted [20,21]. The observation,

then, of population inversion indicates the presence of

free energy in the system. This is further evidence that a

new chemical source of energy, greater than 12 eV/atom

was present. The only possibility known to the authors

is the proposed reaction to form hydrogen states givenby Eqs. (1) and (3).

Te was determined to be 0.5–1 eV for the Kþ and Rbþ

rt-plasmas respectively. Similarly, kBTe ¼ (0.30–0.43) eV

was determined for a Kþ rt-plasma as reported by

Conrads et al. [21] with the assumption of a Maxwell

Boltzmann distribution of the level population, and a

slightly higher temperature of kBTe ¼ (0.32–0.48) eV was

found when a corona model was applied. The dataindicated that the electron temperature was not higher

than kBTe ¼ 0:5 eV. On this basis, it was astonishing that

a strong Lyman beta transition appeared in the spectra

since an excitation energy of 12.1 eV is required. This

energy is a factor of about 25 above the measured

thermal energy. The amount of electrons in the Maxwell

184 R. Mills, P. Ray / Optical Materials 27 (2004) 181–186

tail that had enough energy to enhance the Lyman

transition was 11 orders of magnitude lower than the

total number of electrons. Longer range fields (of the

order of mm) were only about a 1 V/cm. In addition to

electron collisional excitation, known chemical reac-tions, resonant photon transfer, and multiphoton

absorption, and the lowering of the ionization and

excitation energies by the state of ‘‘nonideality’’ in dense

plasmas were also rejected as the source of ionization or

excitation to form the hydrogen plasma.

A source of energy other than that provided by the

electric field or known chemical reactions must be con-

sidered. We propose that the plasma formed chemicallyrather than electrically and that the product of the

energetic chemical reaction of atomic hydrogen with

potassium or rubidium ions which serve as catalysts as

well as reactants are compounds having hydride ions

H�(1=p); p¼ integer discussed in Section 3.3. Prior re-

lated studies that support the possibility of a novel

reaction of atomic hydrogen which produces a chemi-

cally generated or assisted plasma (rt-plasma) and pro-duces novel hydride compounds include VUV

spectroscopy [7,8,12–15,20–30], characteristic emission

from catalysts and the hydride ion products [20,23–27],

lower-energy hydrogen emission [12–15,22,30], chemi-

cally formed plasmas [7,8,12,20,21,23–28], Balmer a line

broadening [15,18–20,23,27,30], population inversion of

H lines [20,29], elevated electron temperature [12,15,18,

19,30], anomalous plasma afterglow duration [21,28],power generation [13,15,30], and analysis of novel

chemical compounds [31,32].

The lines of Kþ, and K2þ corresponding to the cat-

alytic reaction were observed as reported previously [26]

with the assignments confirmed by a standard potassium

plasma spectrum and NIST tables [33,34]. K2þ was

observed at 550 �A, and Kþ was observed at 613 �A. K

was observed at 3447, 4965, and 5084 �A.The lines of Rbþ and Rb2þ corresponding to the

catalytic reaction were observed as reported previously

[26] with the assignments confirmed by the NIST tables

[34]. Line emission corresponding to Rb2þ was observed

at 591, 581, 556, and 533 �A. Rbþ was observed at 741.5,

711, 697, and 643.8 �A.

Then the inverted population is explained by a reso-

nant nonradiative energy transfer from the short-livedhighly energetic intermediates, 1 atoms undergoing cat-

1 As a consequence of the nonradiative energy transfer of m � 27:2eV to the catalyst, the hydrogen atom becomes unstable and emits

further energy until it achieves a lower-energy nonradiative state

having a principal energy level given by Eqs. (1) and (3). Thus, these

intermediate states also correspond to an inverted population, and the

emission from these states with energies of q � 13:6 eV where

q ¼ 1; 2; 3; 4; 6; 7; 8; 9; 11; 12 shown in Refs. [12–15] and [30] may be

the basis of a laser in the EUV and soft X-ray, since the excitation of

the corresponding relaxed Rydberg state atoms Hð1=ðp þ mÞÞ requiresthe participation of a nonradiative process.

alyzed transitions to states given by Eqs. (1) and (3), to

yield Hðn > 2Þ atoms directly by multipole coupling [15]

and fast Hðn ¼ 1Þ atoms. The emission of Hðn ¼ 3Þfrom fast Hðn ¼ 1Þ atoms excited by collisions with the

background H2 has been discussed by Radovanov et al.[35]. Collisions with oxygen may also play a role in the

inversion since inverted hydrogen populations are ob-

served in the case of alkali nitrates and water vapor

plasmas [29]. Formation of Hþ is also predicted which is

far from thermal equilibrium in terms of the hydrogen

atom temperature as discussed in Section 3.2. Akatsuka

and Suzuki [6] show that it is characteristic of cold

recombining plasmas to have the high lying levels inlocal thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE); whereas,

population inversion is obtained when Te suddenly de-

creases concomitant with rapid decay of the lower lying

states.

3.2. Measurement of hydrogen atom number density and

temperature from Balmer line intensity and broadening

The energetic hydrogen atom densities and energies

were calculated from the intensity and the width of the

6563 �A Balmer a line emitted from microwave and rt-

plasmas [18,19]. The full width half maximum DkG of

each Gaussian results from the Doppler ðDkDÞ and

instrumental ðDkIÞ half-widths:

DkG ¼ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiDk2D þ Dk2I

qð4Þ

DkI in our experiments was 0.06 �A. The temperature wascalculated from the Doppler half-width using the for-

mula:

DkD ¼ 7:16� 10�7k0Tl

� �1=2

ð�AÞ ð5Þ

where k0 is the line wavelength in �A, T is the tempera-

ture in K (1 eV¼ 11,605 K), and l is the molecular

weight (¼ 1 for atomic hydrogen). In each case, the

average Doppler half-width that was not appreciably

changed with pressure varied by ±5% corresponding to

an error in the energy of ±10%. The correspondingnumber densities varied by ±20% depending on the

pressure.

The results of the 6563 �A Balmer a line width mea-

sured with the high resolution (±0.06 �A) visible spec-

trometer on light emitted from rt-plasmas of hydrogen

with KNO3 is shown in Fig. 3. Significant line broad-

ening of 17 and 9 eV and an atom density of 4 · 1011 and6 · 1011 atoms/cm3 were observed from an rt-plasma ofhydrogen formed with Kþ and Rbþ, respectively. A

hydrogen microwave plasma maintained at the same

total pressure showed no excessive broadening corre-

sponding to an average hydrogen atom temperature of

�3 eV and a density of 2 · 1011 atoms/cm3. These results

could not be explained by Stark or thermal broadening

Fig. 4. The high resolution visible spectrum in the region of 4000–4090�A recorded on the emission of a rt-plasma formed with Rbþ catalyst

from vaporized RbNO3. The H�(1/2) hydride ion with a predicted

binding energy of 3.0468 eV with the fine structure was observed as a

broad peak at 4071 �A with a FWHM of 1.2 �A. An observed inverse

Rydberg-type series of broad emission lines that converged at

increasing wavelengths and terminated at about 3.0563 eV––the hy-

dride binding energy with the fine structure plus the spin-pairing en-

ergy––matched the theoretical bound-free hyperfine energies EHF given

by EHF ¼ j23:00213� 10�5 þ 3:0563 eV for j ¼ 1–37.

Fig. 3. The 6563 �A Balmer a line width recorded with a high resolution

(±0.06 �A) visible spectrometer on a rt-plasma formed with Kþ catalyst.

Significant broadening was observed corresponding to an average

hydrogen atom temperature of 17 eV.

4000

4010

4020

4030

4040

4050

4060

Wav

elen

gth

(Å)

0

10 20 30 40

j

Observed Wavelenght (Å)

Calculated Wavelength (Å)

Fig. 5. The plot of the theoretical bound-free hyperfine air wavelengths

corresponding to energies EHF given by EHF ¼ j23:00213� 10�5 þ3:0563 eV (Eq. (8)) for j ¼ 1–37 and the wavelengths observed for the

inverse Rydberg-type series of broad emission lines shown in Fig. 4.

The agreement was better than within a 1 part per 104.

R. Mills, P. Ray / Optical Materials 27 (2004) 181–186 185

or electric field acceleration of charged species since the

measured field of the incandescent heater was extremely

weak, 1 V/cm, corresponding to a broadening of much

less than 1 eV [8,17–20,22,24].

3.3. High resolution visible spectroscopy recorded on rt-

plasmas

The catalyst product H(1/2) was predicted to be a

highly reactive intermediate which further reacts to form

a novel hydride ion H�(1/2) with a predicted binding

energy of 3.047 eV given by the following formula[10,24] for the hydride binding energies EB:

EB ¼ �h2ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffisðsþ 1Þ

p

8lea20

1þffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffisðsþ1Þ

p2

� �2 � pl0e2�h2

m2e

� 1

a3H

0BBB@ þ 22

a301þ

ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffisðsþ1Þ

p2

� �3

1CCCA ð6Þ

where p is an integer greater than one (1/2 in this case),

s ¼ 1=2, �h is Planck’s constant bar, l0 is the permeability

of vacuum, me is the mass of the electron, le is the re-

duced electron mass, a0 is the Bohr radius, aH is the

radius of the hydrogen atom, and e is the elementary

charge. The ionic radius is

r1 ¼a0p

1�

þffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffisðsþ 1Þ

p �; s ¼ 1

2ð7Þ

For both the KNO3 and RbNO3-rt plasma, this hy-

dride ion was observed with the fine structure transition

by high resolution visible spectroscopy as a broad peak

at 4071 �A with a FWHM of 1.2 �A as shown in Fig. 4 for

RbNO3. From the electron g factor, bound-free hyper-

fine structure lines of H�ð1=2Þ were predicted with

energies EHF given by the sum of the binding energy

186 R. Mills, P. Ray / Optical Materials 27 (2004) 181–186

peak E�B (Eqs. (6) and (7) with the fine structure), the

spin-pairing energy Esp, and the fluxon energy EU that

was derived previously [24].

EHF ¼ EU þ Esp þ E�B ¼ j22ðg � 2Þ lBffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

sðsþ 1Þp l0

r3e�h2me

� �

þ gl0

r3e�h2me

� �2

þ E�B

¼ j23:00213� 10�5 þ 3:0563 eV ð8Þ

where j is an integer. The predicted spectrum is an in-

verse Rydberg-type series that converges at increasing

wavelengths and terminates at 3.0563 eV––the hydride

binding energy with the fine structure plus the spin-pairing energy. The high resolution visible plasma

emission spectra in the region of 4000–4060 �A shown in

Fig. 4 matched the predicted emission lines for j ¼ 1–37

to 1 part in 104 as shown in Fig. 5.

4. Conclusion

Rbþ to Rb2þ and 2Kþ to K+K2þ each provide a

reaction with a net enthalpy equal to the potential en-

ergy of atomic hydrogen, 27.2 eV. The presence of these

gaseous ions with thermally dissociated hydrogen

formed a plasma having strong VUV emission with an

inverted Lyman population. We propose an energetic

catalytic reaction involving a resonant energy transfer

between hydrogen atoms and Rbþ or 2Kþ to form Rb2þ

and K+K2þ, respectively, and a hydrogen atom with a

Rydberg state n ¼ 1=2. Emission from Rbþ, Rb2þ and

K, Kþ, and K2þ were observed. The catalyst product

H(1/2) was predicted to be a highly reactive intermediate

which further reacts to form a novel hydride ion H�(1/2). Its predicted binding energy of 3.047 eV with the fine

structure was observed at 4071 �A with its predicted

bound-free hyperfine structure lines EHF ¼ j23:00213�10�5 þ 3:0563 eV (j is an integer) that matched for

j ¼ 1–37 to within a 1 part per 104.

The ionization and population of excited atomic

hydrogen levels was attributed to energy provided by

atoms undergoing catalyzed transitions to states given

by Eqs. (1) and (3). The high ion temperature with a

relatively low electron temperature, Te < 1 eV, were

characteristic of cold recombining plasmas [6]. Theseconditions of the rt-plasmas favored an inverted popu-

lation in the lower levels. Thus, the catalysis of atomic

hydrogen may pump a cw H I laser. From our results,

laser oscillations are expected between n ¼ 3 and 2.

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