Essential Question:

To what extent did rulers use a variety

of methods to legitimize and

consolidate their power in Early Modern

empires from 1450 to 1750?

Sources for biography information: Strayer, AMSCO, Ancient Encyclopedia, Britannica

State Building in the Early Modern Era

Learning Targets - You will identify these for the rulers you read about.

● Imperial expansion relied on the increased use of gunpowder, cannons, and armed trade to establish large

empires in both hemispheres.

● Political, economic, and religious disputes led to rivalries and conflict between states.

● Recruitment and use of bureaucratic elites, as well as the development of military professionals, became

more common among rulers who wanted to maintain centralized control over their populations and

resources.

● Rulers continued to use religious ideas, art, and monumental architecture to legitimize their rule.

● Rulers used tribute collection, tax farming, and innovative tax-collection systems to generate revenue in

order to forward state power and expansion.

● State expansion and centralization led to resistance from an array of social, political, and economic groups

on a local level.

● Many states adopted practices to accommodate the ethnic and religious diversity of their subjects or to

utilize the economic, political, and military contributions of different ethnic or religious groups. In other

cases, states suppressed diversity or limited certain groups’ roles in society, politics, or the economy.

● The power of existing political and economic elites fluctuated as the elites confronted new challenges to

their ability to affect the policies of the increasingly powerful monarchs and leaders.

HEIMLER’S HISTORY

Empire Expansion Empire Administration

Watch for a quick explanation of concepts BEFORE you begin the activity.

CLICK for Optional Video:

Crash Course Euro: Absolute Monarchy

Including a few of the

monarchs you’ll see in

today’s activity

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Essential Question:

To what extent did rulers use a variety of methods to legitimize and

consolidate their power in Early Modern empires from 1450 to 1750?

Expectations

● Read context and primary source for 4 Early Modern Rulers.

● Make a vertical, horizontal, or diagonal line with your selections [BINGO].

Record key information in the BINGO Choice Board Sheet [click for link]

Emperor Shunzhi

of Qing China

Mehmed II of

Ottoman Empire

Akbar the Great

of Mughal India

James I

of England

Shah Abbas I of

Safavid Empire

Suleiman I

of Ottoman Empire

Ivan the Terrible

of Russia

Charles I

of England

Louis XIV (14th)

of France

Tokugawa Ieyasu

of Japan

Emperor Kangxi

of Qing China

Phillip II

of Spain

Yongle Emperor

of Ming China

Henry VIII

of England

Peter the Great

of Russia

Aurangzeb

of Mughal India

Emperor Shunzhi

of Qing China

Emperor Shunzhi (1638–1661) was a child when his father Hung Taiji died in

1643. He was named the first emperor of the Qing dynasty. During his rule, the

main priority of the court was to conquer the rest of the empire and establish

a government for the new empire. His policies of reappointing the Ming

officials and continuing the Confucian Imperial Examinations helped the

empire to stabilize and prosper.The Manchus did not destroy Beijing and

decimate the population as was commonly done. In this way, the Manchus

persuaded other Ming officials and military leaders to surrender to them.

Perhaps in a test of loyalty, in 1645, Shunzhi’s advisor decreed that Ming men

must shave their hair in the front and make a long pigtail in the back. This

hairstyle was humiliating to the people, but helped him to identify resisters.

Tens of thousands of people who resisted the Qing were massacred. In 1646, he

reestablished the Imperial Examinations. These examinations were held every

three years, and in this way, he gained the support of large numbers of literati

and staffed the bureaucracy. He was open-minded and relied on the advice of

Johann Adam Schall von Bell, a Jesuit from Germany, for guidance on subjects

ranging from astronomy and technology to suggestions for governing an

empire. Schall’s relationship with the emperor made it possible for the Jesuits

to conduct their mission work openly, and it is said that 500,000 converts were

found during this period. After Shunzhi’s death in 1661, Schall was imprisoned

and condemned to death.

Primary Source

Emperor Shunzhi of Qing China

I CannotDo Otherwise (Budeyi), Yang Guangxian, part of a series of essays denouncing Christianity written

between 1659 and 1665.

While welcomed by the late Ming and early Qing emperors for their expertise in areas such as astronomy,

calendar-making, cannon and other firearms, and mathematics, the Jesuits made relatively few converts. By the

late seventeenth century, Christianity faced growing opposition among the officials and from the imperial

government.

“In [the Jesuit Father]Adam Schall’s own preface one can read that [the Christian scholars]...understood that they

could not dare publicly to give offense to Confucian norms. Adam Schall’s worksays that one man and one woman

were created as the first ancestors ofall humankind… How can we abide these calumnies! Theyreally aim to

inveigle the people of the Qing into rebellingagainst the Qingand following this heterodox sect, which would lead

all-under-Heaven to abandon respect for rulers and fathers. …Our Confucian teachingis based on the Five

Relationships (between parent and child, ruler and minister, husband and wife, older and younger brothers, and

friends), whilst the Lord of Heaven Jesus was crucified because he plotted against his own country, showingthat he

did not recognize the relationship between ruler and subject...Their teachers oppose the Buddhists and Daoists,

who do recognize the relationship between ruler and subject and father and son.”

Return to

BINGO

Kangxi of

Qing China

One of China’s longest reigning emperors, Kangxi (ruled 1661-1722) presided

over a period of stability and expansion. In addition to territorial expansion, Kangxi

aimed to continue the Neo-Confucian bureaucratic system, put Europeans in the

court, monopolize key industries, and trade with Europeans while resisting their

expansion. Under the Ming Dynasty, the Ming Empire developed a somewhat

laissez-faire attitude to internal trade and industry. But under the Kangxi Emperor

and his successors, the court more carefully controlled commerce and industry and

monopolized important industries. The empire reverted to the economic policies of

earlier dynastic eras.

During his reign, the economy improved and the population started to grow.

New food crops such as corn, peanuts and potatoes helped the peasants to have

enough to eat.He also let a number of Jesuits into the empire and appointed them

to positions in his court. He valued them for their knowledge and used them as

advisers. They helped him in his diplomatic and military affairs, and they helped

him modernize the empire.

They taught his technicians how to make better guns and cannons and

advised him about world affairs. He wanted to govern more directly and bypass the

officials. He had a secret message system involving locked boxes that he used to

send messages directly to people.

During this 73 year period, the Qing Dynasty prospered the most of any

period in the dynasty's history, and the population grew quickly. Through foreign

trade, the court and the merchants gained wealth. The empire grew larger because

they subdued Tibet and the Xinjiang regions. The population reached about 300

million during this time.Primary Source

Kangxi of Qing China

Source: Sacred Edict, Kangxi, 1670.

The “Sacred Edict” was a set of moral and governmental instructions promulgated by imperial authority for

use in local rituals conducted throughout the Qing empire. The Edict was promulgated by the Kangxi emperor

(r. 1662- 1722) and revised to its current form of Sixteen Maxims by his son, the Yongzheng emperor (r. 1723-

1735). The Edict would be recited regularly at village lectures, which were a form of moral instruction

initiated by the Ming emperor Hongwu but more systematically carried out by the Qing than by the Ming

imperial government.

“1. Esteem most highly filial pietyand brotherly submission, in order to give due importance to human moral

relations.

2. Behave with generositytoward your kindred, in order to illustrate harmonyand benignity...

5. Show that you prize moderation and economy, in order to prevent the lavish waste of your means.

6. Foster colleges and schools, in order to give the training of scholars a proper start.

8. Expound on the laws, in order to warn the ignorant and obstinate.

14. Promptlyremit your taxes, in order to avoid being pressed for payment.”

Return to

BINGO

Tokugawa Ieyasu

of Japan

Under the influence of daimyo (lord) Tokugawa Ieyasu, who ruled from 1600-

1616, the center of power in Japanese government shifted to Edo (Tokyo). He was

declared a shogun, or supreme military leader, in 1603, and worked to reorganized

the government of Japan from a feudal system into a centralized state. This was

done in part by requiring regional lords to have a residence in Tokyo, thereby

keeping tight reign over his nobility.

He devoted much energy to improving his small army’s command structure,

appointing civil administrators, and formulating and enforcing procedures of

taxation, law enforcement, and litigation. He then placed large tracts of land close

by the town under direct administration by appointed officials, and made detailed

land and property surveys in order to regularize taxation. He also confiscated the

weapons of all villagers, thereby reducing the likelihood of peasant rebellion, and

moved vigorously to attract skilled artisans and businessmen to his new castle town.

He undertook engineering projects to enlarge his castle, facilitate urban

growth, and assure a water supply for the town populace. In the process he stripped

many enemies of their lands, placed a number of his allies in strategic locations near

surviving enemies, and secured for himself and his most faithful vassals direct

control of much of central Japan. He worked hard to restore stability to Japan and

encouraged foreign trade, which included the exchange of gifts with James I of

England and other European rulers. It was only later, under Ieyasu's successors, that

Japan effectively isolated itself from foreign contact. Primary Source

Tokugawa Ieyasu of Japan

Source: The Edicts of the Tokugawa Shogunate: Excerpts fromthe Laws of Military Households (Buke Shohato),

Tokugawa Ieyasu, 1615.

Although the Tokugawa shogunate proved a durable political system, it lacked the elaborate legal codes and

sophisticated bureaucratic apparatus of the Chinese imperial state. One of the most important Tokugawa

legal documents, the Laws of Military Households (Buke Shohatto), was issued in 1615, only one year before

Tokugawa Ieyasu’s death, and provided basic regulations on the behavior of lords and warriors.

“1. Thestudyofliteratureandthepracticeofthemilitaryarts,includingarcheryandhorsemanship, mustbe

cultivated diligently.Both mustbepursued concurrently...

10. Theregulationswithregard to dressmaterialsmustnot be breached. Lordsandvassals,superiorsand

inferiors,mustobservewhatisproperwithintheirpositionsinlife.Withoutauthorization,noretainermay

indiscriminatelywearfinewhitedamask,whitewaddedsilkgarments,purplesilkkimono,purplesilklinings,

andkimonosleeves which bearno family crest.…

13. Thelords ofthedomains must selectastheirofficials menofadministrative ability. Thewayof

governingacountryistogettherightmen.Ifthelordclearlydiscernsbetween the merits and

faults ofhisr etainers, hecanadminister duerewards and punishments.Ifthe domainhasgood

men,itflourishesmorethan ever.Ifithas nogood men,it is doomed toperish.

Return to

BINGO

Mehmed II of the

Ottoman Empire

Under Sultan Mehmed II (ruled 1451–81) the devşirme (forcibly recruited

soldiers) increasingly came to influence political and military motives and pressed

their desire for new conquests, and Constantinople became their first objective. The

transformation of that city into the Ottoman capital of Istanbul marked an important

new stage in Ottoman history. He worked to repopulate the city not only with its

former inhabitants but also with elements of all the conquered peoples of the

empire, whose residence and intermingling there would provide a model for a

powerful and integrated empire. Special attention was paid to restoring Istanbul’s

industry and trade, with substantial tax concessions made to attract merchants and

artisans. Mehmed used the conquering army to restore the physical structure of the

city. Old buildings were repaired, streets, aqueducts, and bridges were constructed,

sanitary facilities were modernized, and a vast supply system was established to

provide for the city’s inhabitants.

In addition to conquering a large empire, Mehmed worked to consolidate it and

to codify the political, administrative, religious, and legal institutions developed

during the previous century by promulgating a series of secular laws (kanun)

compiled by subject into law codes. Mehmed also had only limited success in building

the economic and social bases of his empire. His most important problem was

securing enough money to finance his military expeditions and administrative

structures. The tax systems inherited from his predecessors did not provide the

required resources, particularly because most of the conquered lands were turned

into estates (timars) whose taxes went entirely to their holders in return for military

and administrative services.

Primary Source

Mehmed II of the Ottoman Empire

Source: Excerpt from History of Mehmed the Conqueror by Kritovoulos, 1470.

This account of the siege and fall of Constantinople was written by Hermodoros Michael Kritovoulos, who was

a civil servant working for Mehmed II. He served the Ottomans as the governor of his native island of Imbros

from 1456 to 1466, and afterwards lived in Constantinople and became a monk. He composed in Greek a

history of events from 1451 to 1467, a large section of which covers the siege of Constantinople.

“Having done all this, the Sultan summoned the cannon-makers and spoke to them about the cannon and the

walls, and about how the wall could most easily be demolished. They assured him it would be easy to demolish

it if, in addition to the guns they already had (for they already had some others, made earlier), they should

construct one more, which, they believed, would be strong enough to batter down and destroy the wall. For

this, heavy expense was needed, to purchase both a large amount of brass and many other materials…

[Mehmed told his troops] “And, best of all, we shall demolish a city that has been hostile to us from the

beginning and is constantly growing at our expense and in every way plotting against our rule. So for the future

we shall be sure of guarding our present belongings and shall live in complete and assured peace, after getting

rid of our neighboring enemies. We shall also open the way to further conquest.”Return to

BINGO

Akbar the Great

of Mughal India

In the last half of the 1500s, Akbar the Great ruled the powerful Mughal

Empire in India, inheriting the throne at only 14 years old. He was a direct

descendent of Ghengis Khan, and his grandfather Babur was the first emperor of the

Mughal dynasty. Akbar strengthened the central government and made his empire

larger and stronger than any in Europe at the time. He modernized the army,

encouraged trade, and introduced land reforms, promoting religious tolerance.

Akbar was a cunning general, and he continued his military expansion

throughout his reign. By the time he died, his empire extended to Afghanistan in

thenorth, Sindh in the west, Bengal in the east, and the Godavari River in the

south. Akbar’s success in creating his empire was as much a result of his ability to

earn the loyalty of his conquered people as it was of his ability to conquer them. He

allied himself with the defeated Rajput rulers, and rather than demanding a high

“tribute tax” and leaving them to rule their territories unsupervised, he created a

system of central government, integrating them into his administration. Akbar was

known for rewarding talent, loyalty, and intellect, regardless of ethnic background

or religious practice. In addition to compiling an able administration, this practice

brought stability to his dynasty by establishing a base of loyalty to Akbar that was

greater than that of any one religion.He did not force India’s majority Hindu

population to convert to Islam; he accommodated them instead, abolishing the poll

tax on non- Muslims, translating Hindu literature and participating in Hindu

festivals. Primary Source

Akbar the Great of Mughal India

Source: Akbar the Great and His Dominons, Father Monserrate, c. 1580s.

Father Monserrat was a Jesuit missionary who visited Akbar’s court in the 1580s.

“The King exacts enormous sums in tribute from the privinces of his empire, which is wonderfully rich and fertile

both for cultivation and pasture, and has a great trade both in exports and imports. He also derives much

revenue from the hoarded fortunes of the great nobles, which by law and custom all come to the King on their

owners’ death. In addition, there are spoils of conquered kings and chieftains, whose treasure is seized, and the

great levies exacted, and gifts received, from the inhabitants of newly subjdued districts in every part of his

dominions…

Moreover, he allows no bankers or money-changers in his empire except the superintendents and tellers of the

royal treasuries. This enourmous banking-buisness brings the King great profit; for at these royal treasuries alone

may gold goin be changed for silver or copper, and vice cersa. The government offices are paid in gold, silver, or

copper according to their rank. Thus it comes about that those who are paid in one type of coin need to change

some of it into another type.”

Return to

BINGO

James I

of England

As king of Scotland (as James VI) from 1567 to 1625 and first Stuart king of England

from 1603 to 1625, James dubbed himself “king of Great Britain.” James was a strong

advocate of royal absolutism, and his conflicts with an increasingly self-assertive

Parliament set the stage for the rebellion against his successor, Charles I.

Before succeeding to the throne, he had written The True Law of Free

Monarchies in which he argued that the divine right of kings was sanctioned by

apostolic succession. The king created new titles of nobility to reward his courtiers: in

total, there were sixty-two compared to fifty in the reign of Elizabeth I. James's firm

belief in the divine right of kings, and constant need for money, also brought him into

conflict repeatedly with parliament. When Parliament refused to grant him a special

fund to pay for his extravagances, James placed new customs duties on merchants

without Parliament’s consent, thereby threatening its control of governmental finance.

He would continually dissolve parliament for refusing to support his expenditures.

One of James's great contributions to England was the Authorised King James's

Version of the bible (1611). He disappointed the Puritans who hoped he would

introduce some of the more radical religious ideas of the Scottish church, and the

Catholics, who anticipated more lenient treatment. Abroad, James attempted to

encourage European peace. In 1604, he ended the long-running war with Spain and

tried to arrange a marriage between his son and the Spanish Infanta. This attempted

alliance upset parliament and left him in contention with the legislature through the

remainder of his reign.Primary Source

James I of England

Source: King James VI and I, Speech to Parliament, 1610

James was king of Scotland and then of England (hence 'VI and I'). As well as being a ruler, he was also a

writer, who penned books and speeches in defence of kingly authority. He had been hectored in Scotland by

Calvinists who had deposed his own mother, Mary Queen of Scots; and he narrowly escaped assassination in

England by Catholics in the Gunpowder Plot.

“The state of monarchy is the supremest thing upon earth. For kings are not only God's lieutenants upon earth,

and sit upon God's throne, but even by God himself they are called gods. There be three principal similitudes

that illustrate the state of monarchy. One taken out of the word of God, and the two other out of the grounds

of policy and philosophy. In the Scriptures kings are called gods, and so their power after a certain relation

compared to the divine power. Kings are also compared to fathers of families, for a king is truly parens patriae,

the politic father of his people. And lastly, kings are compared to the head of this microcosm of the body of

man.”

Return to

BINGO

Louis XIV

(14th)

of France

Inheriting the throne in 1643 as a five-year-old-child, Louis XIV ruled France for

72 years. In Louis’s view, he and the state were one and the same. He reportedly

boasted, “L’état, c’est moi,” meaning “I am the state.” He continued to strengthen

the monarchy, taking the sun as the symbol of his power and commanding complete

loyalty from his subjects. The king was entitled to unquestioning obedience.

During his reign Louis:

● Expanded the bureaucracy (system on managing government through

departments run by appointed officials), appointing officials to collect taxed,

recruit soldiers, and carry out his rule in the provinces.

● Built the lavish (expensive) Palace of Versailles outside of Paris

● Persecuted the Protestant Huguenots (Louis was Catholic), depriving the nation

of many of its most hardworking and prosperous citizens.

In his personal finances, Louis spent a fortune to surround himself with luxury.

For example, each meal was a feast. Nearly 500 cooks, waiters, and other servants

worked to satisfy his tastes. Outside the curtains of Louis’s canopy bed stood at least

100 of the most privileged nobles at court. They were waiting to help the great king

dress. These rituals made the nobility totally dependent on Louis and took them from

their homes, as Louis required hundreds of nobles to live with him at Versailles.

Under Louis XIV, France was a wealthy, powerful state with great cultural

influence. However, Louis’s extravagant parties at Versailles and his costly wars left

France in debt, and there was social unrest among the starving peasants. The French

monarchy would not survive even a century after Louis XIV’s death in 1715 .

Primary Source

Louis XIV (14th) of France

Source: Archbishop Fenelon: Letter to Louis, 1690’s

The following selection is adapted from a letter written by Fénelon, a French archbishop, to Louis XIV.

Archbishop Fénelon served as tutor to one of the king’s children. This letter was sent anonymously.

“For nearly thirty years, your principal Ministers have destroyed and reversed all the ancient customs of the state

in order to raise your authority to its highest level. They no longer speak of France and its constitution; they only

speak of the King and of his royal pleasure. They have pushed your revenues and your expenses to unprecedented

heights...They have impoverished the whole of France with the introduction of monstrous luxuries of court. Your

ministers have been harsh, haughty, unjust, and violent. They have recognized no other rule but to threaten, to

crush, and to destroy all who resist them. They have rendered your name odious, and the whole French nation

intolerable to all our neighbors. They have caused almost twenty years of bloody wars.

Meanwhile, your people die of hunger as the cultivation of the soil is not producing enough food. All business

enterprise is stagnant, and no longer offers employment to working men. Instead of taking money from these poor

people, one should give them alms and feed them. The people themselves, it should be said, who hitherto have

loved you, are beginning to lose confidence and even respect. Your victories and conquests no longer cause them

to rejoice; they are full of bitterness and despair. They believe that you love only your authority and your glory.

There, Sire, is the state of things. You live as one whose eyes are fatally blinded.Return to

BINGO

Shah Abbas I

of Safavid

Empire

Called “Abbas the Great”, Shah Abbas ruled over the Safavid Empire at its height,

from 1587-1629. Abbas made the decision to create a standing army—a concept novel to

Safavid kings, who traditionally levied armies in time of need from the tribal cavalry.

The creation of a standing army immediately caused a budgetary problem, because the

old tribal cavalry had been paid from the revenues of the provinces governed by

Kizilbash chiefs (aristocracy). Abbas solved the problem in the short term by bringing a

number of these provinces directly under the control of the Shah; the taxes in these

new “crown” provinces were remitted to the royal treasury. Abbas imported weaponry

from Europe and also relied on Europeans to adise his troops about this newly acquired

military technology including firearms. Using Shia practices to back up his legitimacy, a

practice continued by future shahs, Abbas created a theocracy.

Abbas beautified the capital of Isfahan, adding broad avanues, parks, and

numberous mosques and schools. He also encouraged craft production, although the

exports of these crafts were not a strong aspect of Safavid economy. The Safavids

carried on some trade with the Portuguese fleet, which for a time held the Strait of

Hormuz, a vital waterway in between the Persian guld anf the Gulf of Oman. Then, in

1622, Abbas took control of the strait with the help of English ships. This aid began the

long history of British interest in the region. As his obsessive fear of assassination

increased, Abbas began to put to death or to blind any member of the royal family who

caused him anxiety in this regard. In this way, one son was executed (an act that

caused Abbas bitter remorse) and two were blinded, and his father and brothers were

blinded and imprisoned. Abbas died without an heir capable of succeeding him.Primary Source

Shah Abbas I of Safavid Empire

Report of Father Simon to Pope Clement VIII, 1605

Subtext: ‘Abbas I (‘Abbas the Great) became the shah, or king, of the Safavid Empire in 1588. His 41-year reign

marked a golden age of Persian culture. In order to strengthen his army, ‘Abbas sought out European weapons and

technology. To this end, he invited Western visitors to his capital Isfahan, even allowing Christian missionaries to

come and preach. In the following selection, Father Simon, a Carmelite missionary, reports on the customs of the

Safavids and on the rule of Shah ‘Abbas. The Habsburgs, a royal family who occupied the throne of the Holy

Roman Empire at the time, were interested in an alliance with the Safavids against the Ottomans.

“He is very valiant and has a great liking for warfare and weapons of war, which he has constantly in his hands: we

have been eye-witnesses of this because, whenever we were with him, he was adjusting his [swords], testing his

[muskets], etc: . . . This is the great experience, which he has obtained of warfare over so many years, that he

makes

it in person and from the first has made him a fine soldier and very skilled, and his men so dexterous that they are

little behind our men in Europe. He has introduced into his militia the use of and esteem for [muskets], in which

they are very practiced. Therefore it is that his realm has been so much extended on all sides. . . . All the above

mentioned soldiers, who will total some 100,000, receive pay for the whole year. “

Return to

BINGO

Peter the Great

of Russia

Peter the Great ruled Russia as czar from 1682 to 1725. Peter worked to

centralize royal power and bring all Russians under his authority. Peter was 24 years

old when he became the sole ruler of Russia.One of Peter’s goals was to learn about

European customs and manufacturing techniques.

Peter brought the Russian Orthodox Church under state control. He abolished

the office of patriarch, head of the Church, and set up a group to run the Church

under his direction. To modernize his army, Peter hired European officers, who drilled

his soldiers in European tactics and weapons. To pay for this huge army, Peter

imposed heavy taxes. Peter then moved the Russian capital from Moscow to St.

Petersburg so he could keep watch on the boyars there, who were doing their

required state service by working in his government. An estimated 25,000 to 100,000

serfs who built St. Petersburg died from the terrible working conditions and

widespread diseases.

Peter wanted Russian aristocracrats to adopt the customs he had seen in

Western Europe. He insisted that sleeves be tailored to the style of Western dress.

More controversial was his order that men shave their beards. Peter enforced his edict

by personally cutting the beards of some reluctant nobles. He also promoted

education. He established a school of medicine and a naval academy, and in 1714, he

introduced compulsory education in mathematics for the sons of all nobility and

government officials.In 1718, the tax on land in Russia was replaced by a tax on heads

(individuals), and peasants became more oppressed than ever. And yet, Peter

simultaneously promoted men according to merit rather than social class.

Primary Source

Peter the Great of Russia

Source: Decrees on Compulsory Education of the Russian Nobility, Peter I, Jan 12 & Feb 28, 1714

Peters reforms suggest an attempt to align with Western patterns to improve the direction of the state

bureaucracy, modernize the practices of the nobility, boost industrial production, and project European

cultural norms and practices.

“Send to every gubernia [region] some persons from mathematical schools to teach the children of the bobility

- except those of freeholders and goevrnment clerks; as a penalty [for evasion] establish a rule that no one will

be allowed to marry unless he learns these [subjects]. Inform all relates to isue no marraige certificates to thos

who are ordered to go to schools…

The Great Sovereign has decreed:...No fees should be coolected from students. When they have mastered the

material, they should then be given certificates written in their own handwriting. When the students are

released they ought to pay one ruble each for their training. Without these certificates, they should not be

allowed to marry.”

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BINGO

Henry VIII

of England

Henry VIII was king of England (1509–47) who presided over the beginnings of the

English Renaissance and the English Reformation. Famous for his six wives as he

searched for a male heir, the king was charismatic and domineering. The king’s first

marriage to Catherine of Aragon produced six children but all except one (Mary) died in

infancy. The king began looking for a new wife and he found his ideal candidate in

Anne Boleyn, who insisted on marrying the king before raising a family. His

controversial annulment and Parliament’s passing of the Act of Succession (30 April

1534 CE) meant that Henry was free to marry Anne, for which he wasexcommunicated

by the Pope for his actions. In order to replace the Pope as head of the Catholic Church

in England, Henry made himself head of the Church of England. This was achieved by

the Act of Supremacy of 1534 and meant that Henry, and all subsequent English

monarchs, only had one higher authority: God himself. Certainly not everyone,

however, was in agreement with Henry’s break from the Pope. Consequently, there

were both executions and uprisings.

Henry engaged in many military campaigns to expand England’s powerby

attacking Scotland, France, and Spain, and many of these campaigns were funded by

land confiscated from the Catholic Church. Another of Henry’s successes, and one with

far-reaching consequences for the history of England, was his creation of the Royal

Navy. By the end of his reign, the king had overspent on war and frivolities, and

rampant inflation meant that the pot of gold his father had carefully accumulated had

all been squandered. All of Henry VIII’s 60 houses were lavishly furnished with

tapestries, fine art, and gold and silver plate. Henry, cruel and vindictive, had few

friends left and a kingdom divided over religious matters.

Primary Source

Henry VIII of England

Act of Supremacy, passed by English Parliament in 1534.

“Albeit the king's majesty firstly and rightfully is and ought to be the supreme head of the Church of England,

and so is recognized by the clergy of this realm in their Convocations. . . be it enacted by authority of this

present Parliament, that the king our sovereign lord, his heirs and successors, kings of this realm, shall be

taken, accepted, and reputed the only supreme head in earth of the Church of England. . . and shall have and

enjoy, annexed and united to the imperial crown of this realm, as well the title and style thereof, as all

honors, dignities, pre-eminences, jurisdictions, privileges, authorities, immunities, profits, and commodities to

the said dignity of supreme head of the same Church. . . and that our said sovereign lord, his heirs and

successors, kings of this realm, shall have full power and authority from time to time to visit, repress, redress,

reform, order, correct, restrain, and amend all such errors, heresies, abuses, offenses, contempts, and

enormities, whatsoever they be…to the pleasure of Almighty God, the increase of virtue in Christ’s religion, and

for the conservation of the peace, unity, and tranquility of this realm….”

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Suleiman I

of Ottoman

Empire

During the reign of Suleiman (1520 1566), the Ottomans reached the height of their

territorial gain. Under his administration, the Ottoman state ruled over

30 milltion people. By the time Suleiman died, the Ottoman Empire bridged Europe

and the Arab world. By then, Istanbul was a dynamic imperial hub, dispatching

bureaucrats and military men to oversee a vast domain.

Geographic expansion, trade, economic growth, and tremendous cultural and

artistic activity helped define the reign of Süleyman as a “Golden Age.” Developments

occurred in every field of the arts; however, those in calligraphy, manuscript painting,

textiles, and ceramics were particularly significant. The Ottomans were an important

world power that controlled much of the water traffic between the Black and

Mediterranean Seas. They reduced Venice to a tributary state, and their huge army

continued to expand and defend their frontiers. Through conquest, occupied

territories were forced to pay montary tribute to the central government in Istanbul,

as well as sending prized goods that contributed to interregional trade. The empire

became very diverse as it expanded and religious tolerance was practiced as long as

taxes were paid.

Süleyman surrounded himself with administrators and statesmen of unusual

ability, men such as his grand viziers (chief ministers). Süleyman built strong

fortresses to defend the places he took from the Christians and adorned the cities of

the Islamic world (including Mecca, Damascus, and Baghdad) with mosques, bridges,

aqueducts, and other public works. To finance his military and cultural projects, the

sultan relied heavily on taxation of peasants, which also weakened the central

government as tax collectors became wealthy and corrupt.

Primary Source

Suleiman I of Ottoman Empire

Source: The Turkish Letters, Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, 1555–1562.

Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, a Flemish nobleman who served as a diplomat for the Austrian Empire, which then

felt under great threat from Ottoman expansion into Central Europe, wrote letters to a friend presenting his

view of the Ottoman court and his reflections on Ottoman military power.

“The Sultan’s hall was crowded with people, among whom were several officers of high rank. Besides these

there were all the troopers of the Imperial guard and a large force of Janissaries;...In making his appointments

the Sultan pays no regard to any pretensions on the score of wealth or rank, nor does he take into

consideration recommendations or popularity. . . . It is by merit that men rise in the service, a system which

ensures that posts should only be assigned to the competent...These are not our ideas, with us [Europeans]

there is no opening left for merit; birth is the standard for everything; the prestige of birth is the sole key to

advancement in the public service. . . .On their side is the vast wealth of their empire, unimpaired resources,

experience and practice in arms, a veteran soldiery, an uninterrupted series of victories, readiness to endure

hardships, union, order, discipline, thrift, and watchfulness.”

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Aurangzeb

of Mughal India

Under Aurangzeb, the Mughal Empire reached its greatest extent, although his

policies helped lead to its dissolution. He grew up as a serious-minded and devout

youth, and showed signs of military and administrative ability early. In consolidating

his power, Aurangzeb caused one brother’s death and had two other brothers, a son,

and a nephew executed so as not to challenge his right to rule.

Aurangzeb’s reign falls into two almost equal parts. In the first, which lasted

until about 1680, he was a capable Muslim monarch of a mixed Hindu-Muslim empire

and as such was generally disliked for his ruthlessness but feared and respected for his

vigour and skill. Aurangzeb applied his great-grandfather Akbar’s recipe for conquest:

defeat one’s enemies, reconcile them, and place them in imperial service. After about

1680, Aurangzeb’s reign underwent a change of both attitude and policy. The pious

ruler of an Islamic state replaced the seasoned statesman of a mixed kingdom; Hindus

became subordinates, not colleagues, and the Marathas (a neighboring kingdom), were

marked for annexation rather than containment. The first overt sign of change was the

reimposition of the jizya, or poll tax, on non-Muslims in 1679 (a tax that had been

abolished by Akbar). Aurangzeb ruled as a militant orthodox Sunni Muslim; he put

through increasingly puritanical ordinances that were vigorously enforced by censors

of morals. Courtiers were forbidden to salute in the Hindu fashion, and Hindu idols,

temples, and shrines were often destroyed.The new Islamic policy alienated Hindu

sentiment and undermined noble support.

Aurangzeb maintained the empire for nearly half a century, but behind an

imposing facade, however, were serious weaknesses. The Maratha campaign

continually drained the imperial resources, straining his whole administrative network.

Primary Source

Aurangzeb of Mughal India

Source: Baktha’war Khan, an adviser to Aurangzheb,c. 1680’s

Written as part of a record of Indian history up to the rule of Aurangzeb, Khan records the leaders intolerance

toward Hindus and decision to oppresse them. Aurangzeb ordered the Hindu temples destroyed in order to

promote what he believed to be the one trye religion, Islam. This persecution led to disconttent in a majority

Hundiu empire, and weakened the Mughal rule.

“…Hindu writers have been entirely excluded from holding public offices, and all the worshiping places of the

infidels [Hindus] and the great temples of these infamous people have been thrown down and destroyed in a

manner which excites astonishment at the successful completion of so difficult a task. . . .

The Emperor is perfectly acquainted with the commentaries, traditions, and law. . . . One of the

greatest excellences of this virtuous monarch is, that he has learned the Qur'an by heart. Though in his early youth

he had committed to memory some chapters of that sacred book, yet he learned the whole by heart after

ascending the throne. He took great pains and showed much perseverance in impressing it upon his mind. He writes

in a very elegant hand, and has acquired perfection in this art.”Return to

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Yongle Emperor

of Ming China

The Yongle Emperor (aka Chengzu or Yung Lo, r. 1403-1424 CE) was the third

ruler of the Chinese Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 CE). Inheriting a stable state thanks to

the work of his father, the Hongwu Emperor, Yongle made lasting contributions to

Chinese history such as moving the capital to Beijing and beginning construction of

the Forbidden City as an imperial residence. The buildings, set upon white stone

slabs, were made of painted red wood and yellow glazed ceramic roof tiles and

surrounded by a high wall. Besides functional buildings, there were huge open

squares, pavilions, ornamental gardens, canals, bridges, and pagodas.

The Ming Dynasty expanded the size of China, conquering lands in Mongolia

and Central Asia, but it would not hold them for long as, in the 1400’s, Mongol

armies defeated Ming forces, inspiring the construction of the Great Wall of China as

it’s known today. A more peaceful and successful strategy of Emperor Yongle to

foster new international relations was his use of diplomatic missions. Ambassadors

were sent to central Asia, as well as to Manchuria, Tibet, and Korea, all with some

success. The most famous of these missions, though, was the adventures of Zheng

He (1371-1433 CE), widely regarded as China’s greatest ever explorer. These

missions won prestige for the Chinese government and opened new markets for

Chinese goods, although they challenged China’s social order with exposure to what

they perceived as inferior cultures.

Yongle reinstated the traditional civil serice exam, improved eduation by

establishing a national school system, and restablished the centralized bureaucracy.Primary Source

Yongle Emperor of Ming China

Source: Changle Stele, Zheng He, 1431

The Changle stele recorded the maritime expeditions in greater detail than most official sources, perhaps because

the civil officials responsible for official record keeping frowned upon the expensive voyages of their bitter rivals,

the eunuchs. Furthermore, the inscriptions were commissioned by Zheng He.

“The Imperial Ming Dynasty unifying seas and continents, surpassing the three dynasties even goes beyond the Han

and Tang dynasties...Thus the barbarians from beyond the seas, though their countries are truly distant, "with

double translation" have come to audience bearing precious objects and presents.

The Emperor, approving of their loyalty and sincerity, has ordered us (Zheng) He and others at the head of

several tens of thousands of officers and flag-troops to ascend more than one hundred large ships to go and

confer presents on them in order to make manifest the transforming power of the (imperial) virtue and to treat

distant people with kindness. From the third year of Yongle (1405) till now we have seven times received the

commission of ambassadors to countries of the western ocean. The barbarian countries which we have visited

are: by way of Zhancheng (Champa), Zhaowa (Java), Sanfoqi (Palembang), Xianlo (Siam), Xilanshan (Ceylon) in

South India, Guli (Calicut), and Kezhi (Cochin), Hulumosi (Hormuz), Adan (Aden), Mugudushu (Mogadishu),

altogether more than thirty countries large and small.

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Phillip II

of Spain

Ruling from 1556 to 1596, Philip II expanded his own power as well as the

influence of the Catholic Church and the Spanish empire. Philip wanted to control all

aspects of the government, believing that he ruled by divine right. Philip was a hard-

working ruler, and he did much to promote a golden age in Spain. Philip was shy,

serious, and—like his father—deeply religious. He was also very hard working. Yet

Philip would not allow anyone to help him. Deeply suspicious, he trusted no one for

long. Perhaps above all, Philip could be aggressive for the sake of his empire. IWhen

Philip assumed the throne, he viewed himself as Defender of Catholicism, as Europe

was experiencing religious wars caused by the Reformation. However, religious

conflict was not new to Spain. The Reconquista, the campaign to drive Muslims from

Spain, had been completed only 64 years before. In addition, Philip’s great-

grandparents Isabella and Ferdinand had used the Inquisition to investigate suspected

heretics, or nonbelievers in Christianity. Philip believed it was his duty to defend

Catholicism against the Muslims of the Ottoman Empire and the Protestants of Europe.

In 1571, the pope called on all Catholic princes to take up arms against the mounting

power of the Ottoman Empire. In 1588, Philip launched the Spanish Armada in an

attempt to punish Protestant England and its queen, Elizabeth I. Elizabeth had

supported Protestant subjects who had rebelled against Philip. However, his fleet was

defeated.

In the 1600s, however, Spanish power slowly declined as rulers spent too much

money on wars overseas. The Spanish relied on gold and silver from their colonies and

as a result neglected business at home. The middle class felt that they were being

taxed too heavily and stopped supporting the government.

Primary Source

Phillip II of Spain

Source: Act of Abjuration, 1581

When Calvinism spread over the Netherlands, Phillip II increased the persecution of the Spanish Inquisition to

promote Catholicism, building on the efforts of his father, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. The people rebelled in

1566 and the Duke of Alva was sent into the country to put down the rebellion, known as the Dutch Revolt. The war

lasted for forty years until, in 1609, a truce was established which ended in the acknowledgment of the provinces

in 1648 as one of the provisions of the Treaty of Westphalia.

“From that time forward the king of Spain, following these evil counselors, sought by all means possible to reduce

this country (stripping them of their ancient privileges) to slavery, under the government of Spaniards having first,

under the mask of religion, endeavored to settle new bishops in the largest and principal cities, endowing and

incorporating them with the richest abbeys, assigning to each bishop nine canons to assist him as counselors, three

whereof should superintend the inquisition…

All these considerations give us more than sufficient reason to renounce the King of Spain, and seek some other

powerful and more gracious prince to take us under his protection; and, more especially, as these countries have

been for these twenty years abandoned to disturbance and oppression by their king, during which time the

inhabitants were not treated as subjects, but enemies, enslaved forcibly by their own governors.Return to

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Ivan the Terrible

of Russia

Crowned tsar in 1547, Ivan IV immediately set about to expand the

Russian border eastward, first by taking control of the khanates of Kazan,

Astrakhan, and Siberia held by the descendants of the "Golden Horde," the

Mongolian conquerors. This expansion came to rely more and more upon the

use of gunpowder. To commemorate the victories over Kazan and Astrakhan, Ivan

commissioned the building of St. Basil's Cathedral (still standing in Red Square,

Moscow), which served as a visual reminder to the nation that the tsar and the

Church were united. The Russian government made great efforts to convert the

population around Kazan to Orthodox Christianity, but most people remained

Muslim.

To control the boyars (nobility) at home, Ivan established

a paramilitary force loyal to him called the Oprichnina. Dressed in black and

traveling quickly on horseback, the members showed fierce loyalty to Ivan.

They were drawn from lower-level bureaucrats and merchants to assure their

loyalty to Ivan rather than to the boyars. The Oprichnina's methods would be

reflected later in the development of the Russian secret police.

After killing his son in a fit of rage, Ivan sank deeply into paranoia. He died

in 1584, leaving Russia without a strong heir. Having killed not only his own

son but also the inhabitants of entire cities, Ivan earned his name "the Terrible."

But in spite of his reputation, he did add much territory to the Russian state and

expanded its trade opportunities.Primary Source

Ivan the Terrible of Russia

Source: Notes on Muscovy of the 16th Century, Jerome Horsey, c. 1603.

Horsey was an English diplomat who travelled to Russia multiple times over the course of 17 years, mostly during

the reign of Ivan IV. He operated as an envoy of Ivan to Queen Elizabeth I, and then from the English Court in

response back to Ivan, helping to facilitate trade relations between the two countries.

“The king lived in constant fear and fear of conspiracies and attempts on his life, which he revealed every day, so

he spent most of his time in interrogations, torture and executions, sentencing noble military leaders and officials

who were recognized as participants in the conspiracies to death...The Tsar enjoyed bathing his hands and heart in

blood, inventing new tortures and torments, and sentencing those who caused his anger, and especially those from

the nobility who were most devoted and loved by his subjects, to execution. At that time, he opposed them in

every possible way and supported the biggest villains of his military leaders, soldiers, all this in fact led to the

growth of warring and envious people who did not even dare to trust their plans to overthrow the tsar (which was

their main desire). He saw this and knew that his state and personal security were becoming less reliable every

day… [He was] a real Scythian, cunning, cruel, bloodthirsty, ruthless, and by his own free will and understanding

controlled both internal and external affairs of the state…”

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Charles I

of England

Charles always needed money, in part because he was at war with both Spain and

France. Several times when Parliament refused to give him funds, he dissolved it. By

1628, Charles was forced to call Parliament again. This time it refused to grant him any

money until he signed a document that is known as the Petition of Right. In this petition,

the king agreed to four points:

● He would not imprison subjects without due cause.

● He would not levy taxes without Parliament’s consent.

● He would not house soldiers in private homes.

After agreeing to the petition, Charles ignored it. Even so, the petition was

important. It set forth the idea that the law was higher than the king. In 1629, Charles

dissolved Parliament and refused to call it back into session. To get money, he imposed

all kinds of fees and fines on the English people.

Charles offended Puritans by upholding the rituals of the Anglican Church, and

tried to force the Presbyterian Scots to accept the Anglican prayer book. He wanted both

his kingdoms to follow one religion. The Scots rebelled, assembled a huge army, and

threatened to invade England. To meet this danger, Charles needed money—money he

could get only by calling Parliament into session. This gave Parliament a chance to

oppose him. Parliament passed laws to limit royal power. Charles fled London and raised

an army in the north of England, where people were loyal to him. From 1642 to 1649,

supporters and opponents of King Charles fought the English Civil War. In 1649,Charles

went on trial for treason against Parliament - he was found guilty and sentenced to

death. Kings had often been overthrown, killed in battle, or put to death in secret.

Never before, however, had a reigning monarch faced a public trial and execution.

Primary Source

Charles I of England

Source: Petition signed by twelve members of the House of Lords [egislative body, of English Parliament], 1640

Twelve years after dissolving Parliament after a disagreement over religion and taxation, Charles was forced to

recall Parliament in 1640 to gain funding for a conflict with Scotland. However, Parliament refused to grant taxes

until Charle had listened to its grievances. His refusal to respond to these demands sparked the English Civil War.

“That your majesty's sacred person is exposed to hazard and danger in the present expedition against the Scottish

army, and by occasion of this war your revenue is much wasted, your subjects burdened with coat-and-conduct

money, billeting of soldiers, and other military charges,... by the soldiers raised for that service, and your whole

kingdom become full of fear and discontents...

The great grief of your subjects by the long intermission of parliaments, in the late and former dissolving of such as

have been called, without the hoped effects which otherwise they might have procured...

For remedy whereof, and prevention of the dangers that may ensue to your royal person and to the whole state,

they do in all humility and faithfulness beseech your most excellent majesty that you would be pleased to summon

a parliament within some short and convenient time, whereby the causes of these and other great grievances

which your people lie under may be taken away.”

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