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Science and Technology Studies

History ; 1960s till 1980s. Thomas Kuhns the Structure of Scientific Revolution(1962)

A Historian of S&T.

Student and Social Movements (late 1960s) Science, Engineering and Public policy studies(1970s)

Systems engineering approach.

The turn to technology (mid 1980s) also known as social

construction of technology. History ; 1960s till 1980s.

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.contd

Professional Associations Society for the History of Technology (1958).

Society for social studies of Science(1975)

Science,Technology and Human values. European Association for the study of Science and

Technology (1981).

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Product Development Process Phase

Phase I Idea Generation/Brainstorming

Phase II Idea Screening

Phase III Concept Development and Testing

Phase IV Business Analysis

Phase V Beta Testing and Market Testing

Phase VI Technical Implementation

Phase VII Commercialization

Phase VIII New Product Pricing

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Product Development Process Phase

In business and engineering

, new product development (NPD)

is the term used to describe the complete process of bringing a

new product or service to market. There are two parallel paths

involved in the NPD process: one involves the idea generation,product design and detail engineering; the other involves

market research and marketing analysis. Companies typically

see new product development as the first stage in generating

and commercializing new products within the overall strategic

process of product life cycle management used to maintain or

grow their market share.

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The process # 1

Idea Generation is often called the "fuzzy front end" of the NPD process

Ideas for new products can be obtained from basic research using a SWOT

analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities & Threats), Market and consumer

trends, company's R&D department, competitors, focus groups, employees,

salespeople, corporate spies, trade shows, or Ethnographic discovery methods(searching for user patterns and habits) may also be used to get an insight into

new product lines or product features.

Lots of ideas are being generated about the new product. Out of these ideas

many ideas are being implemented. The ideas use to generate in many formsand their generating places are also various. Many reasons are responsible for

generation of an idea. Idea Generation or Brainstorming of new product, service, or store concepts -

idea generation techniques can begin when you have done your OPPORTUNITY

ANALYSIS to support your ideas in the Idea Screening Phase (shown in the nextdevelopment step).

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The process # 2

Idea Screening

The object is to eliminate unsound concepts prior to devoting resources to

them.

The screeners should ask several questions:

Will the customer in the target market benefit from the product?

What is the size and growth forecasts of the market segment/target

market?

What is the current or expected competitive pressure for the product

idea?

What are the industry sales and market trends the product idea is

based on?

Is it technically feasible to manufacture the product?

Will the product be profitable when manufactured and delivered to

the customer at the target price?

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The Process # 3

Concept Development and Testing

Develop the marketing and engineering details

Investigate intellectual property issues and search patent data bases

Who is the target market and who is the decision maker in the purchasing

process? What product features must the product incorporate?

What benefits will the product provide?

How will consumers react to the product?

How will the product be produced most cost effectively?

Prove feasibility through virtual computer aided rendering, and rapidprototyping

What will it cost to produce it?

Testing the Concept by asking a sample of prospective customers what they think

of the idea.

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The Process # 4

Business Analysis

Estimate likely selling price based upon competition and customer

feedback

Estimate sales volume based upon size of market and such tools as theFourt-Woodlock equation

Estimate profitability and break-even point

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The Process # 5

Beta Testing and Market Testing

Produce a physical prototype or mock-up

Test the product (and its packaging) in typical usage situations

Conduct focus group customer interviews or introduce at trade show

Make adjustments where necessary

Produce an initial run of the product and sell it in a test market area to

determine customer acceptance

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The Process # 6

Technical Implementation

New program initiation

Finalize Quality management system

Resource estimation

Requirement publication

Publish technical communications such as data sheets

Engineering operations planning

Department scheduling

Supplier collaboration

Logistics plan

Resource plan publication

Program review and monitoring

Contingencies - what-if planning

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The Process # 7

Commercialization (often considered post-NPD)

Launch the product

Produce and place advertisements and other promotions

Fill the distribution pipeline with product

Critical path analysis is most useful at this stage

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The Process # 8

New Product Pricing

Impact of new product on the entire product portfolio

Value Analysis (internal & external)

Competition and alternative competitive technologies Differing value segments (price, value, and need)

Product Costs (fixed & variable)

Forecast of unit volumes, revenue, and profit

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SYSTEM MODEL- Value Chain

Firm Infrastructure (next slide)

Human Resource Management (next slide)

Technology Development (next slide)

Procurement (next slide)

PRIMARY ACTIVITIES

Inbound Operations>Outbound >Marketing >Services

Logistics> Logistics >Sales >

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Firm Infrastructure

General Management employees.

Planning Management employees.

Public affairs and quality management. Equipment and machinery

Hardware/software and peripherals.

Finance,legal and accounting

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Human Resource Management

Recruiting.

Employee development.

Retention and retrenchment. Compensations.

Appraisals.

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Technology Management

Support value chain activities like

repairs,upgrading,customer care and

service,warranty,spare part management etc.

Research & Development.

Process Automation.

Designing.

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Procurement

Purchase raw material and other inputs.

Purchasing machinery and equipments.

Purchasing,renting or leasing buildings, officespaces,commercial shops,factory locations for

company operations.

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contd Value Chain

Primary Activities

Inbound Logistics Receiving,Warehousing,Inventory Control.

Operations Processing Inputs to finished products.

Outbound Logistics Finished product to markets.

Marketing Sales - Attracting buyers to purchase products,advertising, pricing, channel selection.

Services Maintain and enhance the product value,customer

support,repair services,training,spare parts management and

upgrading.

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..contd System Model:Resources and

Capabilities

Resources (Assets) Firm specific assets.

Patents and trademarks.

Proprietary know-how. Installed customer base.

Reputation of the firm.

Brand equity.

Capabilities Firms ability to utilize the resources effectively.

To bring the product to the market faster.

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Classifications of Technologies

Based on generations

First Generation limited use of the technology which is mostlyerroneous and full of bugs.

Second generation no bugs or problems in the technology in usehere.

Third generation finished product brought/launched in the market. Based on attributes

Tools technology machines,equipments,hardware/software.

Product technology Defining strategy for selection ofproducts,define target markets and customer base,product testing,product project estimations and budget,product positioning in the

market. Process technology

Manual totally controlled by humans, no machines used. Mechanized partly manual and partly mechanized. Automated Robotics,NCmachines(Numerically controlled

machines).

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Technology Management

Set of disciplines to create competitive advantage.

It is the management of technology for humanadvantage and society as a whole.

Various concepts are Technology Strategy.

Technology Forecasting.

Technology roadmapping.

Technology project portfolio.

Technology portfolio.

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contd

Supervision of personnel.

Set of instructions in production and operations andproject management,quality control,computer

applications,quality control,safety and healthissues,statistics and general management principles.

TM aims at Integrated planning.

Design

Optimization.

Operation & Control.

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Impacts of Technology

Intra-organizational and inter-organizational.

Create/Change the organizational structure.

Economy. Education-videoconferencing,email,electronic

meetings etc.

National development.

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Technology as emerging discipline

Advances in technology.

Impacts on economies, social and nationaldevelopment.

Need of managerial and engineering practices. Historical perspective of the origin and interaction of

technology with the society.

Evolution of new terminologies,concepts,methods andtechniques.

Technological entrepreneurships and businessalliances and collaborations.

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Management levels and related issues

Top Management

Strategy formulation and decision making.

Making sales projections and estimations and finalize the budgets.

Set policies and review decisions.

Decide to decentralize the system and appoint managers at local levels.

Define the organizational structure and chart.

Exerts control.

Middle Management

Review committees to foster general control.

Exerts direct supervision over subordinates.

Prepare budgets and execute plans.

Lower Management

Procedures describing how operations should be done.

Regular and routine jobs done on day to day basis.

Direct supervision responsibilities.

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Management Issues

Design and structure the organization.

Creation of alliances e.g maruti-suzuki collaboration

Selection of Systems.

Implementation of the systems.

Adoption of group-decision systems decide technology to be used.

Determine the www. Strategy gmail,yahoo,hotmail service selection. Routine Transaction Processing Debitcard/online shopping.

Personal support systems-fax,epabx,intercom,printer etc.

Reporting and control MIS,excel sheets,charts,presentations etc.

Automated production processes e.g automatic dairy farms milk processingand pasteurizing systems,lays potato chips plant states hygienic anduntouched by hand processing and packaging plants.

The manager should be a competent user of technology and its relatedknow-how.He should learn to manage the technology that he is using.Torecognize opportunities and to apply technology and manage it.

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Sociology of Scientific knowledge

It is a study of science as a social activity.

Is influenced by political,cultural,economic or

corporate factors.

A field that emerged in 1970s and early 1980s.

Cyclical co-dependence,co-influence and co-

production of technology and society over each

other.

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Sociological factors and effects of

technology

Values.

Ethics.

Lifestyle.

Institution and groups.

International issues and cultural impacts and

influences.

Environment awareness and sustainability.

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Why technology is important for society?

For excellent communication systems through www.

and internet.

Digitization of information.

Music systems and entertainment.

Telecommunication systems.

Medicine and healthcare.

Agriculture, marketing,sales and transportation.

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Why technology is important for an

organization?

To transform and allow new types of organizational structure.

Use of information processing technology as a part of corporate strategy.

As a pervasive part of the work environment.

To support technology and knowledge workers.

Evolution of the computer from a device to a medium of communications.

The growth of the internet and www.