Spring 2007 Motivation 1

Motivation

Spring 2007 Motivation 2

Motivation

• Definitions

• Content models

• Process models

Spring 2007 Motivation 3

What is Motivation?

• “Willingness to exert effort to reach organizational goals”

• The force that starts, sustains, and directs activity

Need

Drive Search

TensionReduction

Sat.Tension

Feedback

Spring 2007 Motivation 4

Why Does it Matter?

Performance

Ability Motivation

Spring 2007 Motivation 5

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation

• Where does our motivation come from?• Extrinsic = external rewards• Intrinsic = rewards from the task itself

• Application to domains of human activity

Type of Activity Motivation Freedom Human Value

Work Extrinsic Constrained ???

Play Intrinsic Freely Chosen Distraction

Leisure Intrinsic Freely Chosen Self-Fulfillment

Spring 2007 Motivation 6

Content vs. Process

• Content• What motivates us?

• Process• How are we motivated?

Spring 2007 Motivation 7

Content Models

• Maslow

• Herzberg

• McClelland

• Theory X, Theory Y

Spring 2007 Motivation 8

Maslow’s Pyramid

Physiological

Safety

Social

Esteem

Self-Actualization

Spring 2007 Motivation 9

Herzberg’s Two Factor Model

• Ideas developed through work with engineers and scientists

• Job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are separate, not two ends of a single scale

• One group of factors prevents dissatisfaction, but does not cause satisfaction

• Another group of factors cause satisfaction• Question: does satisfaction lead to performance?

• Traditionally, we said Yes• However, performance may cause satisfaction• But, satisfaction is related to turnover

Spring 2007 Motivation 10

Hygiene vs. Motivators

Hygiene Motivators Quality of

supervision Rate of pay Company policies Working conditions Relations with others Job security

Career Advancement Personal growth Recognition Responsibility Achievement

Lack of these results in dissatisfaction

These result in satisfaction

Spring 2007 Motivation 11

McClelland - Needs

• Three basic human needs• Achievement• Power• Affiliation

• N Ach performance• Tested on large scale basis

• N Ach (children’s stories)• National performance (utility usage)

Spring 2007 Motivation 12

Theories X and Y

Little ambitionDislike work

Avoid responsibility

Theory X

Self-directedEnjoy work

Accept responsibility

Theory Y

Spring 2007 Motivation 13

Motivating with Money

• Does money matter?• According to Herzberg, no

• But…..

Spring 2007 Motivation 14

Process Models

• Behavior modification

• Goal setting

• VIE

• Equity Theory

• Job Characteristics Model

Spring 2007 Motivation 15

Behavior Modification

• Basic psychological theory• Pavlov• Skinner

• Behavior is a function of its consequences

• Some say….assumes that people have little free will

Spring 2007 Motivation 16

Basic Terms

• Positive reinforcement

• Negative reinforcement

• Extinction

• Punishment

Shaping:Reward close approximations, then closer approximations, until desired response is achieved

Spring 2007 Motivation 17

How it WorksConsequence

Reward Punishment

Con

tin

gen

cy

Apply

Withhold

PositiveReinforcement

NegativeReinforcement

Punishment

Extinction

Schedules of Reinforcement

FIXED INTERVAL

Reinforcement occurs at fixed intervals of time: the bimonthly paycheck.

FIXED RATIO

Reinforcement occurs after a set number of behaviors: piece rate pay.

VARIABLE INTERVAL

Reinforcement occurs at random intervals of time: the supervisor visits the employee, on no fixed or set schedule, to praise at that time.

VARIABLE RATIO

Reinforcement occurs after a random number of behaviors: gambling, especially slot machines.

Spring 2007 Motivation 19

Using Reinforcement

• If workers are positively reinforced for their high performance, they will work harder.

• If workers receive immediate reinforcement for their hard work, they will work harder than if their reinforcement is delayed.

• Frequent reinforcement of positive behavior and infrequent reinforcement of negative behavior results in higher performance.

Spring 2007 Motivation 20

More on Using Reinforcement

• Workers will work harder if their reinforcements for work are somewhat random.

• If a positive work behavior is never reinforced, it will be extinguished.

• Reinforcements may be of several different kinds and must be tied to the individual worker.

• If workers are rewarded for even small increases in performance, then greater performance may result.

Spring 2007 Motivation 21

Goal Setting

• Goals lead to performance• Specific goals lead to higher performance than

general goals• Performance increases in proportion to goal

difficulty -- but goals should be attainable• Goals must be accepted• Goals should be linked to feedback and rewards

Spring 2007 Motivation 22

What is a Good Goal ?

• Specific

• Measurable

• Attainable

• Rewarded, realistic

• Timely• Feedback• Integrated, Intermediate• Challenging, clear

Spring 2007 Motivation 23

Using Goal Setting

• Workers work harder if they have goals to strive for.

• Workers work harder if they have goals that are high and challenging, rather than easy or unattainable.

• If goals are clear and understandable, workers will work harder.

• If workers have a chance to participate in setting goals, they will be more committed to attaining those goals.

Spring 2007 Motivation 24

More on Goal Setting

• If larger goals are broken down into short-term goals, workers will receive more frequent feedback about goal accomplishment and, thus, strive harder to meet those goals.

• If employees know what the consequences of goal accomplishment are (for themselves and the organization), they will strive harder to meet those goals.

Spring 2007 Motivation 25

Yet More…

• If individual goals are integrated with organizational goals, workers will work harder.

• If progress toward goal accomplishment is measurable and feedback is given, the workers will strive harder to meet those goals.

• Workers work harder if goals are specific, rather than general or “do your best”.

Value ofReward

Effort

PerceivedEffort-Reward

Probability

RolePerception

Skills, Abilitiesand Traits

Performance Goals

ExtrinsicRewards

IntrinsicRewards

Satisfaction

PerceivedEquity ofRewards

E1

E2

The Complex Model….

V

Spring 2007 Motivation 27

A Simplified Model

IndividualPerformance

OrganizationalRewards

IndividualEffort

IndividualGoals

Expectancy

Spring 2007 Motivation 28

Equity Theory

• Employees must believe they are treated fairly, or motivation will wane. Equity theory maintains that employees evaluate their inputs (IS) in relation to their outcomes (OS) as compared to the inputs (IO) and outcomes (OO) of others to determine fairness.

I

O

I

O

s

s

O

O

Spring 2007 Motivation 29

Responses to Perceived Inequity

• Change perception of own outputs

• Change perception of own inputs

• Change own outputs (ask for raise)

• Change own inputs (work less)

• Change perception of others’ inputs or outputs

• Choose a different referent

• Withdraw from situation (quit)

Job Characteristics Model

Strength of Employee Growth NeedStrength of Employee Growth Need

Personal andWork Outcomes

High InternalWork Motivation

High-QualityWork Performance

High SatisfactionWith the Work

Low AbsenteeismAnd Turnover

Core JobDimensions

Skill Variety

Task Identity

Task Significance

Autonomy

Feedback

CriticalPsychological States

ExperiencedMeaningfulness

of the Work

Experienced Responsibility for Work Outcomes

Knowledge of the Actual Results of the

Work Activities