special issue December 2007 researcheu · Cyrus Pâques, François Rebufat, ... 41 A sea traffic control tower ... the vast volume of information transmitted between ships and the

European Commission

special issue – December 2007

researcheuthe magazine of the european research area

the state of the ocean

ISSN 1830-7981

maritime policy

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Editor in chiefMichel Claessens

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JournalistsCharlotte Brookes, Delphine d'Hoop,Carlotta Franzoni, Matthieu Lethé, Cyrus Pâques, François Rebufat, Julie Van Rossom

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Cover pageEntrance to the underwater cave off thecoast of Marseilles (Le Veyron). At the centre of the picture, the tubular spongeHaliclona mediterranea, surrounded byscleractinian polyps (corals) and a multitude of other sessile organisms. Laboratoire Diversité, Evolution et Ecologiefonctionnelle marine, Marseilles (FR)©CNRS Photothèque/Thierry Perez. Uauro

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The blue planetIt is yet another European paradox. Despite a territory a third the size of Africa, Europehas three times its coastline. Yet maritime policy remains for the most part fragmentedand managed by national governments. The seas and oceans nevertheless have animpact on all the EU Member States. Quite literally, as almost half its citizens live within 50 km of the coast, but also figuratively as the issues at stake – economic, environmentaland social – are considerable. Fishing, transport, trade, pollution, global warming,tourism: the seas and oceans are at the centre of many processes, each interactingclosely with the other. Their integrated, cross-sectoral and transnational management is therefore vital. Such isthe objective set by the Commission in its recently published “Blue Paper”, a visionary policy document in whichresearch is acknowledged as a key element of this vision, as our readers will surely note with interest.The sea was the cradle of life on Earth, around 3.8 billion years ago. Water is the symbol of life and makes ourplanet a unique satellite in this small corner of the universe. This original and vital aspect should in itself beenough to respect this natural element. But the human species, which is just one of the representatives of theEarth’s biodiversity, is disturbing and threatening the vast oceanic ecosystem. This complex system of balances,interdependencies and interactions must be approached and dealt with as a whole. Its survival as well as our owndepends on this. Let us hope that these fundamental considerations have some impact on our coastal policies.

Michel ClaessensEditor in chief

research*eu is the European Union’s research magazine, written by independent professional journalists, which aims to broaden the democratic debate between science and society. It presents and analyses projects,results and initiatives through which men and women are making a contribution towards reinforcing and unitingscientific and technological excellence in Europe. Published in English, French, German and Spanish, with ten issues per year, research*eu is edited by the Communication Unit of the European Commission’sDirectorate-General for Research.

The opinions expressed in this editorial and in the articles in thisissue do not necessarily represent the views of the European Commission.

Cross-sectoral management 4 The case for an integrated vision

of maritime zonesIn a Union where the maritime zones are bigger than the land zones, rationalmanagement of seas and oceans is essential. We look at the work of the taskforce set up by the Commission for this purpose in 2005.

5 The old man and the sea: a necessary change of courseBoris Worm, a marine biologist at DalhousieUniversity (Canada), reflects on a positiveand sustainable interaction between manand the marine environment.

The first ecosystemBiodiversity

8 A race against time in the ocean’s depthsMarine ecosystems and biodiversity are inperil. Researchers with the European MarBEFnetwork have the mission of revealing the oceans in all their biodiversity before it is lost. A view of an underwater world of a thousand and one species.

The ocean depths10 The hidden face of the Earth

Shedding light on the ocean depths andtheir mysteries, courtesy of the Hermesscientific platform that is studying theundersea terrain and its unique ecosystems.

Carbon

13 CO2 between sea and skyThe oceans of the world absorb CO2, but it seems these vast reservoirs areapproaching their limits. The CarboOceanresearch programme is studying this phenomenon and anticipating the consequences of potential saturation.

The generous oceanOverfishing

16 Untangling the fishing nets How to reduce overfishing of marineresources while protecting an age-old profession? A report on fishing and itsexcesses.

Aquaculture19 The seafood of tomorrow

Aquaculture is developing as a viable alternative to fishing. But only if practised in harmony with the environment.

Blue biotechnology22 A watery goldmine for “biotech”

Potential cures for cancer, biodegradableplastics, revolutionary antibiotics, energyproduction. The oceans and the creaturesthat inhabit it, sometimes in extreme environments, abound in valuable resourcesfor man.

Energy 25 The Wave Dragon sets sail

Projects to capture the energy of the sea are springing up along Europe’s coastlines.One of them is Wave Dragon, which generates electrical energy from the waves.

Fragile frontiersCoastal management

27 89 000 km of European coastlineFor sustainable co-existence with the complex and varied natural systems of ourcoastline, the EU is pursing a policy ofIntegrated Coastal Zone Management.Meanwhile, the Spicosa project is drawingup scenarios for anticipating coastal deterioration.

30 Tourism vs tourism The annual influx of visitors along theEuropean coastline is a catalyst for growthand jobs in the EU. Yet tourism also has itsdownside, in terms of impact on the socialfabric, economic balance and environmentalquality.

Pollution32 Marine reinforcements

In combating pollution – one of the principalscourges undermining the health of ourseas – some marine organisms can be powerful allies.

Maritime spaceTransport

35 Research, shipbuilding’s secret weaponThe state of play in the strategic sector of shipbuilding. Europe is reinforcing itsarmoury with the Waterborne TechnologyPlatform, a coalition for maritime innovationaimed at guaranteeing sustainable competition.

38 Getting ports into gearAs maritime transport intensifies, Europe’scapacities are approaching their limits.Although several innovative solutions exist,they are not being acted on. The Capoeiraproject is seeking to identify the reasons for this gap between research and society.

Navigation41 A sea traffic control tower

How to manage the 20 000 vessels navigating Europe’s coastline? Faced withthe vast volume of information transmittedbetween ships and the coastal authorities,the MarNIS programme is acting as arbiterby rationalising, organising and limiting the risks.

Oceanographic research42 Final mark: Excellent

The watchword in oceanographic research,excellence is growing throughout Europe.An overview of some of the centres that aredoing the EU proud.

NGOs43 Pricking our consciences

When the blue planet sounds the alert, the NGOs take note, act and apply pressureon the politicians better than anyone. A look at some of these lobbyists with a conscience.

Images of science 44 Victor and the hot springs

Ifremer’s underwater robot

research*eu SPECIAL ISSUE I DECEMBER 2007 3

CONTENTS

4 research*eu SPECIAL ISSUE I DECEMBER 2007

CROSSSECTORAL MANAGEMENT

The case for an integrated vision

of maritime zonesNo EU citizen lives more than 700 km from the coast, and almost half are within 50 km of a seashore. The EU is surrounded by four seasand two oceans, and has 89 000 km of coastline,twice as much as Russia. The maritime areasunder the jurisdiction of its Member States are larger than the land masses. The obviousconclusion: the need for rational management of the seas and oceans.

At the moment, management ofEurope’s maritime areas is fragment-ed. Various authorities take decisions,which may be contradictory or leave

negative impacts on the environment or theeconomic health of another sector of activity. To avoid such conflicts, the European Com -mission set up a task force in early 2005. Ledby the European Commissioners responsiblefor policy sectors with maritime components,this task force operates within the frameworkof the 2005-2009 strategic objectives aimed atrelaunching the Lisbon process. “Our remit,”explains the task force’s leader JohnRichardson, “is to relaunch the economy andemployment in Europe's coastal regions, withdue regard for the marine environment andthe quality of life in coastal regions.” Ideasfrom a series of preliminary consultationswere gathered into a “Green Paper on a FutureMaritime Policy for the Union”, which waspublished on 7 June 2006. All move in thedirection of a cross-sectoral management ofsea-related matters.

The voice of civil society“Based on this Green Paper,” John Richardsoncontinues, “we launched a vast consultation ofcivil society. Over 250 conferences and seminarswere organised across Europe. In parallel withthis, more than 480 contributions with newideas were received via the internet.”“Not only were we not expecting so manycontributions,” Mr Richardson states withpleasure, “but we can also say that the reac-tions to the proposals set out in the GreenPaper were generally positive: an overwhelmingmajority of contributors are in favour of anintegrated EU maritime policy, though obviouslywith diverging opinions as to the exact way tomove forward.”What next? “This autumn,” John Richardsonexplains, “a Blue Book was presented to andadopted by the European Commission. It con-tained not only the results of this large-scaleconsultation, but also a political vision of whata future integrated maritime policy should looklike, with an initial action plan and measuresfor implementing this political vision.”

Scientific research as a driver of political action“In the Blue Book, as in the Green Paper,”John Richardson adds, “scientific research isidentified as a key element of this politicalvision, placing Europeans in a strong positionto remain at the sharp edge of the maritimesector and to face up to global competition.But at the same time, scientific research is simplya driver for the better management of the seas,and hence for coordinated decision-making inmaritime matters.”The seas and oceans are at the centre of alarge number of interactions and processes.To optimise political decision-making, wemust first clearly understand these interactionsand processes. Ecosystems and their operatingmechanisms need to be understood in all theircomplexity, as do the disturbances caused byhuman activity. Fishing, tourism, trade, transport,global warming and pollution of various kindsare having undesired effects on the marineenvironment. All these problems are tackled in this issue ofresearch*eu. Together, they offer an insightinto the complexity of the “seas and oceansystem”: everything is interlinked, everythingdepends on everything else, everything affectseverything else. There is no other way toeffectively manage this system than to get togrips with it as a whole.

Matthieu Lethé

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The ocean cannot absorb man’s impactindefinitely. What are the visible signs of this? They are many and varied. Fish populationsare thinning and global catches slowly declining,despite increased fishing and more effectivemethods. Many experts agree that theexploitation limit has been reached if notexceeded. At the same time, there is strikingevidence of pollution along our coasts. We areseeing more and more of these famous “deadzones” where mass planktonic algae bloomsappear. When they decompose on the seabedthey deplete the oxygen in the water, suffo-cating all the marine animals in the zone.Global warming is also reducing the planktoniccommunities at the base of the food chain andaffecting the fish populations that feed onthem, thereby throwing the complete coastalecosystem out of balance.

The World Bank estimates that 50% of the world’s population lives less than60 km from the sea and the figure is rising all the time…Yes, this is a real challenge for humanity.Coastal ecosystems are very important forocean life. They filter and transform a greatdeal of waste and pollutants that we dischargeinto the sea. For example, a single oystercolony will filter the waters of an entire bay injust a few days. They are also reproductionsites, nurseries and feeding areas for so manymarine species: fish, mammals and birds. Thepollution and destruction of zones such asmangroves or underwater seagrass beds leadsto a deterioration in water quality and an increasein health risks linked to the consumption ofsea products. The planktonic blooms I justmentioned kill the fish and contaminate themolluscs, making them dangerous for consump-

tion. Although these are natural phenomena,the input of nutrients – mainly due to nitrogenfertilizers used in agriculture entering the sea– makes them worse. The frequent appearanceof these blooms probably indicates thatimportant ecological processes are beingimpaired or thrown out of balance.

Your recent studies lead you to envisagea collapse in the majority of fish stocksby the middle of the century.(1) Is thefishing industry really as badly managedas that?Few fisheries are well managed. The over- capacity of fleets, excessive quotas comparedto scientists’ recommendations, and illegalfishing practices are the main causes of resourcedepletion. For example, in the case of the NorthSea cod the International Council for theExploitation of the Sea (ICES) estimates



Boris Worm"There is strong evidence of pollutionalong our coasts and we are seeing more and more ‘dead zones’”

The old man and the sea: a necessary change of courseCan man exhaust the oceans? Boris Worm, a specialist inmarine biology at Dalhousie University in Halifax (Canada),believes that the stocks of species currently fished could collapse by the middle of the century. (1) But he is not a man topanic and is pursuing research on how to reconcile man andthe marine environment by seeking new ocean managementmodels. He suggests moving from a local and segmentedapproach to a more global ecosystem-based one as a way ofpreserving the essential biodiversity and survival of theoceans… and of man.

that declared catches are no more thanbetween 35% and 65% of what is actuallycaught and points to deficient management inverifying catches. These problems are furtherexacerbated in regions fished by several coun-tries, such as the open sea or the Mediterraneanwhere there is a lack of regulations or checks,and conflicts of interest are common.

Some people think that it is enough towait for a depleted stock to recover. Is itthat simple? Certainly not. We are already seeing that manydepleted fish stocks fail to recover after a pro-longed decline. The Newfoundland cod hasnot been fished for over 15 years, for example,but its stock remains unreplenished. It takesyears or even decades for a stock to recover asoften it is the entire ecosystem that has suffered.For example, when a population of predators isdecimated, small species proliferate, feedingon the eggs and larvae of the predators thatare consequently unable to recover. In easternCanada, herring stocks increased followingthe decline in the cod that feed off them. Youmay think that the cod would therefore havemore food and that the cod stocks would thenrecover more quickly. But that overlooks thefact that herring feed on cod larvae, therebypreventing stock replenishment. Other speciesprobably also need to be taken into accountwhen studying this kind of interaction – onethat involves the entire ecosystem – whendeveloping and implementing managementmeasures. Biodiversity is of critical importance,both between species and within the same


myweb.dal.ca/bworm/

species, as genetic diversity is a richness thatprovides opportunities for a destabilised speciesto adapt.

And what would such an ecosystem-based system consist of? To date, fishing has been managed perspecies. The ecosystemic approach seeks toembrace an ecosystem in its globality, as aunit, and to study its component parts andtheir interdependencies in arriving at anappropriate method of management. It takesinto account not only interactions betweenspecies, climate and oceanographic changes,variations in water quality and habitat, butalso the full range of human activities influ-encing the marine environment, such as fish-ing, tourism, oil drilling, coastal planning andpolluting activities. By integrating all these dif-ferent dimensions we seek to put into place amanagement system that is able to adapt tochange. The aim is to provide an optimalresponse to all of society’s expectations.Admittedly, further research is needed to bet-ter understand marine systems, but ourknowledge is already sufficient to implementthese approaches. We must start now and pro-gressively complete our knowledge by studyingthe effects of the measurements we take.Waiting until we acquire an in-depth expertknowledge of marine ecosystems beforeenvisaging this management model is mostcertainly not the right solution.

Many people speak of extending andincreasing the Marine Protected Areas…The MPAs (2) are the cornerstone of ecosystemmanagement. They provide a refuge for manyspecies, preserve fragile habitats and make itpossible to limit the impact of managementerrors made in other places. They are alsouseful reference zones for assessing the con-

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dition of ecosystems. The MPAs cover 1% ofthe world’s oceans, while many scientistsbelieve that between 20% and 30% of oceansshould be protected. (3) One interesting idea isto organise the MPAs into networks, each areabeing separated from another by a sufficientdistance to permit exchanges between speciesand spawn. This would increase their ability toresist disruptions. The cost of maintainingsuch a global network is estimated at between5 and 19 billion dollars a year. The operationwould create about a million jobs. This is lessthan the cost of current aid to the fishingindustry (between 15 and 20 billion dollars ayear). So why not envisage a reallocation ofthis aid?

Finally, what would you like to say tothose responsible for managing our oceans? As a scientist, I would recommend thatecosystemic management should be widelyintroduced to restore depleted species, protectimportant habitats, control pollution and protectthreatened species. Aid that encourages fishingovercapacity should be redirected to supportbetter management of fisheries and thepreservation of ecosystems. Legislation tointroduce economic incentives would beanother way of encouraging the fishing com-munity to adopt practices that show greaterrespect for the marine environment. Suchapproaches have already had positive effects,both for marine ecosystems and for those whomake their living from the sea.

François Rebufat

(1) Science, 3 November 2006, vol. 314(2) See article, Untangling the fishing nets, p. 16(3) Figures drawn up at the 5th World Parks Congress, Durban

in 2003

“To date, fishing has been managed per species. The ecosystemic approach seeks to embrace anecosystem in its globality.”



The first ecosystem“I go now to the ends of the generous earth, on a visit to Okeanos, whence the gods have risen.” So speaks Hera, wife of Zeus, in the Iliad. Homer’sworld view is not wrong. The sea is the vital cruciblethat permitted life on Earth to develop, around 3.8 billion years ago. Cyanobacteria are theearliest life forms. Today researchers are still makingsurprising discoveries as they explore the underseaworld, realms to which no light penetrates andwhere extreme conditions prevail. They now knowthat the oceans play a major role in maintaining a balanced atmosphere, absorb more than 90 % of all the carbon on the planet and also store vast quantities of methane. They are a “reservoir” whose behaviour is crucially important in the context of global climate change.

© WWF-Canon/Cat Holloway © CNRS Photothèque/Claude Carre© WWF-Canon/Jürgen Freund

Often referred to as the “cradle oflife” on the blue planet, theoceans are teaming with anamazing diversity of species and

ecosystems. This richness is relatively unex-plored: while 240 000 marine species havebeen recorded, an estimated 10 million morecontinue to lurk anonymously. To learn moreabout these species and their habitats, theEuropean research network MarBEF (1) is tryingto discover more about the relationshipbetween biodiversity and the functioning ofecosystems. Uniting over 700 scientists from92 institutes spread across 24 European coun-tries, the platform enables the integration ofmultidisciplinary research on marine biodiver-sity and makes this more widely available. “By combining a large number of projects, thenetwork enables us to see what the trends areright across Europe,” explains Herman Hummel,Deputy Executive Director at MarBEF. “Our18 lines of research focus on global trends ofmarine biodiversity in ecosystems, on thefunctioning of ecosystems and on the socio-economic importance of biodiversity.”

Fragile biodiversityNot all the seas house the same richness ofspecies. “Certain ecosystems are made up ofbarely 100 species, whereas elsewhere wecount thousands,” underlines Herman Hummel.“There are several reasons for these differ-ences: biodiversity is notably lower in theBaltic Sea – which was freed from the glaciersaround 10 000 years ago – than in the tropicalzones. These were spared the glaciations andso more species have been able to evolve overa longer period of time. Within the same sys-tem, the presence of a particular habitat canalso result in explosions in diversity, illustratedby the hydrothermal vents found in the deepabysses.”Similarly, the destruction of marine habitats,like that of the rainforest, is causing the loss ofthe species that reside there. And in Europe? “Our


BIODIVERSITY

A race against time in Since life first appeared in the seas around three billion years ago, it has continued to diversify in order to survive the most extremehabitats. But now, overfishing, the destruction of habitat, pollution, the introduction of invasive species and climate change are damaging marineecosystems and biodiversity. Researchersfrom the European network MarBEF (Marine Biodiversity and EcosystemFunctioning) have taken on the ultimatemarine research challenge: to discover thenumerous life-forms present in the oceans,before they disappear forever.

Caranx sexfasciatus(or Bigeye), moving around in the Pacific Ocean. The threats to biodiversity concern allspecies living in and aroundthe oceans, since they are all inextricably linked. © W

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marine ecosystems suffer from overfishing,destruction of habitat, pollution, the introductionof invasive species and global climatechange,” explains Herman Hummel. “The con-sequences for biodiversity are largelyunknown. The different species have variousroles to play and a minimum number of theseparticipants is necessary to ensure the correctfunctioning of the ecosystem.”

Ripple effect From 2-micrometre phytoplankton to giantsquid measuring 13 metres, every species livingin the oceans is inextricably linked. Each playsa crucial role in the balance of its environmentand supports other life forms. Every changeaffecting one species is therefore likely to haverepercussions for a large number of interrelatedorganisms. Overfishing, for example, does notonly affect the hunted species: it throws awhole ecosystem into chaos.According to different studies, notably thosepublished in Science and Nature, the biodi-versity of top predators has radically declinedin all oceans over the last 50 years – duringwhich time the population of predators (inparticular whales) has fallen by 90% in theoceans. These disappearances have led to afood-related chain reaction. The small fishproliferate and eat more zooplankton. And thereduction in zooplankton allows the phyto-plankton that they feed on to flourish, affectingnumerous species. The phytoplanktonic algaeencourage the growth of bacteria whichdeprives the water of oxygen. Certain algae alsoproduce powerful neurotoxins which, onceintroduced into the food chain, threaten crus-taceans, fish, birds, mammals – and humans thatfeed directly or indirectly on these organisms.Ecosystems are also disrupted by the arrival of“invasive species”. Transported on the hulls orin the ballast of ships, or via exchangesbetween shellfisheries, these invaders rapidlyspread far from their original habitat, competingwith native species. One historic example is

that of the slipper limpet (Crepidula fornicata):this mollusc, from the eastern coast of theUnited States, was introduced into Europe inthe 18th century through oyster transfers andhas subsequently taken the oysters’ food andspace.

Restoring the balance?The growing development of coastal areasleads to the destruction of coastal habitats, butan even more pressing problem exists in thedeep waters. As they absorb atmospheric CO2,the oceans are becoming more acidic, whichthreatens the primary links in the food chain:coral, shellfish and crustaceans. Moreover, themore acidic water captures less CO2, so its pres-ence in the atmosphere increases, exacerbatingclimate change. This problem is particularlymarked in the Arctic region, where temperatureshave risen two or three times more rapidly thanelsewhere: by 3°C in the past 50 years. Arcticpack ice has already shrunk by 15-20% over

the last 30 years – and unless this trend isreversed, the local flora and fauna could beirreversibly affected.“There is a fear that some species may be lost,due to pressures on the environment, before theyhave even been discovered,” stresses HermanHummel. “That is why we must map marinebiodiversity as soon as possible. Our networkhas already established dozens of databaseswhich have recorded around 70 000 speciespresent in Europe.” Measuring the impact ofhuman activity on marine ecosystems is essentialin defining political measures for a sustainableblue planet. Will that be enough? ”We need toconstruct a network of protected zones largeenough to preserve biodiversity effectively,”says Herman Hummel. “These zones need tostretch over several hundred square kilometresto ensure the sustainability of populations.”

Charlotte Brookes

(1) The network of excellence MarBEF is receiving € 8.7 millionover five years from the European Union.


BIODIVERSITY

the ocean’s depths

Cnidaria anthomedusae. The cnidarians, whichinclude thousands of different species,exist in two forms, fixed (corals, seaanemones…) and free, like themedusas shown here.

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Ocean basinContinental margin

OCEANIC CRUSTCONTINENTAL CRUST

Continent

SEDIMENT COVERING

Continental plate (0°07’)

Continentalrise

Abyssal plain(4000 – 6000 m)

Mid-ocean crest(2000 – 3000 m)

Slope break (132m average)

Continental slope (4°)


THE OCEAN DEPTHS

The hidden face of the Ea

While recent exploration of the ocean depths hasunveiled many secrets, it has raised just as manyquestions. Do the ocean depths conceal newexploitable resources? Are pollution and climatechange damaging their unique ecosystems? How do we preserve them? It is these and similarquestions to which scientists like those in theHermes (1) project are starting to find answers.

Mountains, volcanoes, canyons,water springs… the picture ofthe seabed conjured up in mostpeople’s minds and in traditional

oceanic literature scarcely does justice to itsdiversity and complexity. With a rich variety ofunique structures, and governed by complexsystems, the ecosystems of this benthic world (2)

are also interdependent, which dramaticallycomplicates the task of scientists. Right now,research is grappling with the specificities ofeach separate part of the submarine terrain.While the seas and oceans cover 70% of theglobe, we know scarcely 1% of the beings thatinhabit them.

Life on the continental slopeOceanographers are very interested in thecontinental margins which extend the conti-nental shelves up to the abyssal plains. Thesecontinental margins, where the continentaland ocean plates meet, are littered with ventsthrough which many different gases – in par-

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The subject of muchresearch, most of thecontinental margins’potential is concentratedin its depths. Source Planète-Terre/Pierre-André Bourque


THE OCEAN DEPTHS

COLD WATER CORALS

The word “coral” immediately conjures upan image of superb tropical beaches. Butthere is also another type of coral that

grows in the dark depths of the seas, less brightlycoloured than its well-known southern cousinsbut spread over a wider zone, and one whichhas been recently brought to light with improve-ments in deep sea exploration technologies.These coral reefs grow at depths of 40 – 6 500min all Europe’s seas, from the Norwegian fjords tothe temperate Mediterranean waters, as in therest of the world. Whilst Lophelia Pertusa, a white

coral, is the most illustrious representative of this category, no less than 1 300 different species havebeen recorded so far in the north-east Atlantic alone. These cold water coral reefs, stretching attimes over several kilometres, lie at the centre of a rich ecosystem which provides protection, home andfood to a number of marine organisms, including a multitude of fish of commercial value. However,quite apart from the impacts of climate change and offshore oil and gas drilling, whole blocks ofcold water coral are torn away by deep sea trawl nets, which drag the sea bottoms looking for fish.These corals grow ten times more slowly than tropical corals, which means that a hundred, if not athousand years’ growth can be reduced to nothing in an instant. In recent years, a handful of coun-tries, including Norway, Ireland and the United Kingdom, have finally responded to repeated callsfrom the scientific community, which is fascinated by this biotope from the shadowy depths, andhave imposed measures to protect these poorly known specimens.

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ticular methane – escape. It is also there thatterrestrial sediments transported by rivers andmarine currents pile up before falling into theabysses. Unlike the abyssal plains, where lifeis rare, numerous organisms colonise thecontinental slope, feeding mainly off theorganic matter contained in the sedimentscovering it. Here we find a whole range ofunique ecosystems, highly fragile becausespecifically adapted to the extreme conditionsof the great depths where luminosity is weak,the temperature low and oxygen rare. Any sudden variation of this biotope couldpotentially wipe a myriad of unknown organ-isms off the face of the Earth. “The oil indus-try and the fishing sector are looking moreand more covetously at the sea depths, asresources available in more accessible placesbecome scarce. It is therefore urgent to betterunderstand the benthic environment in order toassess its fragility and, in the longer term, topropose sustainable forms of exploitation topoliticians,” says Philip Weaver, a researcher at

the National Oceanography Centre, Sout -hampton – NOCS (UK) and coordinator of theHermes project, a multi-disciplinary scientificplatform set up to study the edges of theEuropean continental shelves. All this repre-sents a major challenge for the European Union,with its three million square kilometres of con-tinental shelf. Given the immensity of the task,Hermes researchers are focusing on sevenstrategic zones, viewed as ecological ‘hot spots’.

Portugal’s Grand CanyonThese zones include the Portuguese canyons.Nazaré, a gigantic canyon off the Portuguesecoast, stretches for some 250 km, almost com-parable in length with its American cousin inColorado, reaching depths of 5 000 m in places.Nazaré constitutes one of the final stages forterrestrial sediment transported towards theabyssal plains at the foot of the continental slope.The organisms living in the abysses are highlydependent on this sediment, which carries largequantities of organic matter.

The mechanism of this phenomenon is simplebut effective: the sediments accumulate in thecanyon, creating large slopes over time. Withsuccessive deposits of sediment, the slopesbecome increasingly unstable. When they col-lapse following a geological event like anearthquake, or simply lose their balance, theycreate avalanches of sediment called turbiditycurrents. Pushed by gravity, large columns ofsediment-filled water pass along the bottom ofthe canyon, ending up at the canyon mouth,forming a bathyal cone or sediment fan. In thisway, sediments travel long distances at speedsof up to several tens of kilometres per hour.These currents, the frequency of which variesfrom one canyon to the next (approximatelyevery 400 years in the case of Nazaré), arestrong enough to break underwater telecom-munications cables or uproot observationstations anchored by scientists into the wallsof the canyon. “Turbidity currents hollow outthe canyons and ravage everything in their path.We are seeking to determine the ability

Lophelia pertusa colony living on the Sacken Reef, in Norway.

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Gorgonocepahlus caput medusae, lives 290 metres down in the Skagerak region off the Norwegian coast.

of ecosystems to recover from suchevents. This will enable us to evaluate theimpact of the various human activities that canpotentially be situated around the canyons,”Philip Weaver adds.

Mud volcanoesThe accumulation of sediment at the foot ofthe continental slopes explains another geo-logical phenomenon which is characteristic ofthe edges of the continental shelves. Largeamounts of hydrocarbons escape from the seadepths, through simple gas vents, pockmarks (3)

and mud volcanoes. Scientists call theseexhausts cold seeps, to distinguish them fromthe very hot hydrothermal springs found closeto the ocean ridges where volcanic activity isintense. “These emanations, consisting mainlyof methane, result from the decomposition ofthe organic matter held in the sediments, ormay derive from deeper-lying oil reserves.Methane, as well as the water contained in thesediments, is trapped under the sediment layer.Under the effect of pressure these escapethrough fissures in the seabed,” explains Jean-Paul Foucher, coordinator of the cold seepsproject at Hermes and a researcher atIfremer (4) Marine Geosciences department.“Right now, we are trying to map and betterunderstand the mud volcanoes, the abundant


GRANDS FONDS MARINS

Paul Foucher points out, “each volcano isdifferent, which presents scientists with anenormous task. But this type of structure is the habitat ofextremophiles, whose main source of energyis not photosynthesis but chiliosynthesis, theproduction of energy from the chemical com-ponents of the cold fluids, mainly methane.This unusual fauna and the intense microbialactivity consume a large portion of themethane given off by the cold seeps. The restis digested inside the water column. Butresearchers are afraid of the impacts of climatechange on the biotope specific to cold seeps,because if the extremophiles were to disap-pear, the massive liberation of unconsumedgas into the atmosphere could have disastrousconsequences: methane has a global heatingpower (GHP) 23 times higher than CO2, mak-ing it a powerful greenhouse gas.Study of this biotope is adding to our still verypartial knowledge of the interactions betweenthe oceans and the atmosphere, and in parti -cular confirms their vital influence on climate.Anticipating climate change necessarily involvesa more precise study of marine phenomena, inparticular those governing this “dark side” of theplanet which the ocean depths represent.

Julie Van Rossom

(1) Hotspot Ecosystem Research on the Margins of EuropeanSeas.

(2) The term benthic refers to the life specific to the seabed.(3) A pockmark is a trace left on the surface of the sediments by

the percolation of fluids through the sedimentary column. (4) Institut Français de Recherche pour l’Exploitation de la Mer (5) See here The Strange World of Oceanic Methane, in RTD

Info, no 48, February 2006, p. 9.

discharges of gas and water at times, and theparticular ecosystem that characterises them.”Populating these unusual structures is a multi-tude of organisms, the list of which is beingconstantly added to with the progress of sub-marine cartography. A mission was recentlycompleted in the Gulf of Cadiz on the JamesCook, an oceanographic vessel belonging tothe NOCS. But several other expeditions of theHermes programme are targeting the submarinemud volcanoes, one of the most impressive ofwhich, Häkon Mosby, lies 1 100 m down off theNorwegian coast. “For a little over a decade, wehave observed exceptional degassing activity atthe surface of Häkon Mosby. This mud volcanohas been repeatedly examined in order to betterunderstand its ups and downs and the eco -system behind it. On the Häkon Mosby, as onother mud volcanos or pockmarks, part of themethane discharged is trapped in the form ofhydrate crystals, a solid mixture of gas andwater, which could constitute an enormousfuture source of energy, but also represent apotential danger owing to the heating of theoceans (5).”

Inhabitants of the extremesHow do mud volcanoes work? At what depthdoes the source of this irregular eruption ofwater, methane and other gases lie? As Jean-

Studied by researchers from the Hermes project, the Nazaré oceanic canyon reveals the complex relationship that this underwater gorge has with its environment.

Hermes

www.eu-hermes.net/

NOCS – Classroom at sea

www.classroomatsea.net/

Ifremer – Sea beds

www.ifremer.fr/exploration/

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For CO2, water and air are both prettymuch the same. It migrates easilyfrom one to the other, seeking toinhabit these two environments as

uniformly as possible. When the carbon con-centration in the air increases, as it has beendoing for decades, the ocean absorbs the sur-plus and restores the balance. However, whilethe behaviour of CO2 in the air is relativelystable, at sea many interactions come into playthat essentially relate to two principal mecha-nisms: the physical pump and the biologicalpump.

The odyssey of oceanic carbonThe physical pump operates by virtue of thethermohaline ocean circulation, a vast globalheat exchanger. At the poles, seawater coolsconsiderably, its salinity increasing as the icesheet forms which excludes the salt. This cold-er and more salty water is consequentlydenser and sinks to the ocean depths. It is

there that it begins its long journey to the trop-ics where it heats up again, rising back to thesurface as it becomes less dense before mak-ing the return journey to the poles. It is around trip of around 80 000 km, which it takesa water molecule a thousand years to completeat the rate of a few millimetres a second. Thisis the ocean “conveyor belt” which draws inpart of the carbon dioxide present in ouratmosphere like a pump. The cooler the waterthe more carbon dioxide can be absorbed by it.CO2 is captured in large quantities by thepolar waters where it descends to the oceandepths. Several centuries later, when thewaters arrive in tropical zones, they heat upand become saturated with CO2 that thenreturns to the atmosphere. Nevertheless, part of the carbon dissolved inwater does not join this circuit but is consumeddirectly by the phytoplankton during photo-synthesis and then by other marine bodies aspart of the food chain. This is the principle of

the biological pump. The organic matter thatoriginates from these marine organisms –excrement, corpses – is recycled in the surfacewaters and, in a period of time ranging from afew days to a few months, the CO2 it containedreturns to the atmosphere. However, about atenth of this organic mass is exported – theterm used by the experts – to deeper waters.There the carbon remains for hundreds orthousands of years, or even for geologictimescales if it is deposited on the seabed inthe form of marine sediment.

Has the physical pump broken down?These two mechanisms, especially the physicalpump and to a lesser extent the biologicalpump, are able to store, at least temporarily, alarge part of the anthropogenic CO2 emittedinto the air. But in what proportion? And untilwhen? And what if the ocean carbon reservoirwere to become saturated, what would be theconsequences then?


CARBON

CO2 between sea and skyOceans are huge carbon reservoirs or“sinks”. Without them, the effects of globalwarming would be much more obviousthan they are today – and evident for the past two centuries. Nevertheless, at the present rate of anthropogenic CO2

emissions these gigantic reservoirs seem to be arriving at saturation point. To understand this phenomenon, a European research programme,CarboOcean, has been investigating theoceans of the world in search of indicatorsmaking it possible to assess the remainingCO2 absorption potential and the consequences of possible saturation.

Siliceous microalgae (Diatomea) typical of theKerguelen oceanic plateau, in the Indian Ocean,studied by Keops researchers.

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Commercial companies such as Planktos haveno hesitation in pushing ahead despite thisuncertainty. These operate on the relativelysimple principle of selling CO2 credits to pol-luting companies or authorities so that they canshow a zero balance for their CO2 emissions.Planktos then compensates for the emissionsof its clients by investing, for example, inreforestation projects on continents. But it alsoplans shortly to propose the fertilisation ofphytoplanktonic zones. However, there isnothing to say that the operation will be prof-itable, and that CO2 will be exported to theocean depths in the long term. The initialexperiments have in any event left the scientistsvery sceptical, and that is without taking intoaccount the undesirable effects. To shed light on this delicate question, theKeops expedition carried out observations atthe beginning of 2005 in the area of theKerguelen oceanic plateau in the SouthernOcean. This area was selected especially forits seasonal plankton bloom. “This is clearlydue to an iron influx,” explains StéphaneBlain. “This iron comes naturally from thedeepest ocean beds. Studying the reasons forthis input was one aspect of our research, butanother aspect was to observe the conse-quences. That made us realise just how effectivethe natural system is for exporting CO2 to theocean depths, but also that the conditions forthis natural input are completely differentfrom what one can hope to obtain artificiallyby adding iron to the surface layers. While it istrue that an artificial iron contribution boosts


CARBON

the capture of CO2 by surface waters one cannotgo further and say that there is a lasting exportof CO2 to the deeper waters.”

CO2 + H2O = carbonic acidWhen CO2 dissolves in water, the resultingchemical reaction produces carbonic acid. Inother words, the CO2 absorbed by the ocean,even naturally, increases the acidity in thewater. Before the industrial age, oceanic pH(1)

was 8.16, while today it is no more than 8.05.At present rates of carbon emissions into theair and its absorption by the oceans, the pH islikely to be around 7.60 in 2100. But as Christoph Heinze reminds us, “The sur-vival of many marine organisms, many of whichare at the base of the food chain in oceanenvironments, is partly dependent on pH.Acidification can therefore have the effect ofchanging the life in the oceans. Organisms withcalcareous shells will be the most vulnerable.” “If the oceanic carbon sinks continue to weaken,”concludes the CarboOcean coordinator,“we will probably have to revise presentgreenhouse gas emission scenarios down-wards, meaning communities will have toreduce their energy consumption, the majorcontributor to atmospheric CO2.”

Matthieu Lethé

(1) On the scale of acidity measurements, the most acidmaterials have a pH of 0, the more alkaline substanceshaving a pH of 14 and pure water, which is neutral, a pH of 7.

These are all questions that the vastCarboOcean European research programme hasbeen seeking to answer since 1 January 2005.”We want to better quantify the masses of CO2

that the oceans have absorbed since thebeginning of the industrial era (200 years ago),are absorbing today, and will continue toabsorb in the future, until around the year 2200,”explains Christoph Heinze, the coordinator ofthe CarboOcean project. Included under theSixth Framework Programme and allocated abudget of €14.5 million from the EuropeanCommission – out of a total research budget ofaround €20 million – CarboOcean is focusingmainly on the Atlantic Ocean, including theArctic and the Southern Ocean. “The firstresults of our analyses,” continues ChristophHeinze, “suggest that the physical pump in theNorth Atlantic, which exports CO2 to theocean depths, is not functioning as well as itused to. A number of hypotheses can explainthis, but we are waiting for more informationbefore drawing conclusions about the causesand effects of this slowing. We recentlyobserved the same phenomenon in theSouthern Ocean.”

Priming the biological pump?For many years, researchers have noticed that atcertain locations around the world – SouthernOcean, East Equatorial Pacific, North Pacific –the biological pump has also been slowing, dueto a lack of phytoplankton. Some believed itwould be enough simply to restart it for moreCO2 to be absorbed from the atmosphere. But why was it slowing? Because the phyto-plankton lacked iron. Experiments carried outsince 1993 show in fact that iron is an essentialnutrient for the growth of microalgae. Addingsmall quantities of iron to the ocean wouldsurely then enable the phytoplankton toregain their strength, thereby increasing thelevel of CO2 captured by photosynthesis. Butfor Stéphane Blain, director of the Keops(Kerguelen Ocean and Plateau comparedStudy) expedition, “these experiments left roomfor doubt. Because while it is true that this fer-tilisation results in increased biological activityat the surface – photosynthesis for example –the question of what proportion of absorbedCO2 penetrates to the seabed remains open.And it is this transfer to the seabed that reallyindicates that the biological pump is operating.”

This expedition, initiated by the CarboOcean researchers, enabled Norwegian pupils to take a trip on the Hans Brattstrøm scientific vessel, equipped with a plankton net andhydrographic sensors.

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The generous oceanLong regarded as inexhaustible, the ocean is dying. The WWF estimates that 76 % of commercialised fish stocks are overexploited or are close to reaching that point. Every year 300 000 marine mammals are trapped. Yet despite it all, “sustainable fishing” is not a myth. It is simplyabout ensuring that catches do not exceed the limitbeyond which resources cannot regenerate. For this, there must be regulations, appropriatecatching methods and protected maritime areas. Fish farming can be useful in meeting demand provided it takes place under controlled conditions,as much for the species which are farmed as for thewild species that inhabit neighbouring waters or for the coastal environment. If well managed andprotected, the ocean is rich in resources. It also haspotential for pharmaceutical research and new energy sources, in particular wave power.

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Has Europe squandered its marineresources? After 25 years of theCommon Fisheries Policy (CFP),the situation is increasingly a

cause for alarm. FAO(1) reports on the state ofthe world’s fish stocks show that the percentageof permanently fished species has been con-stantly falling, from 40% in 1974 to just 23% in2005. And the Union is directly concerned.The north-east Atlantic, from where over two-thirds of Europe's fish catches come, is one ofthe zones in which biodiversity is most underthreat (2). Here 46% of all stocks are overfished,impoverished or recovering, compared to 25%of fish stocks worldwide. The CFP “has notdelivered sustainable use of fisheries resourcesand will need to be changed if it is to do so.Its shortcomings can be expressed in conser-vation, political and economic terms,” as stated


OVERFISHING

We need to face the facts: the greatblue ocean is not the inexhaustiblesource of wealth we once thought it to be. And the good image of thefishing profession has slowly becometamished with the over-exploitationof the sea’s resources. Scientists and fishermen are at loggerheads, the former warning us of the catastrophic impacts of overfishing,the latter defending their livelihoods.What everyone does seem to agreeon is the need to conserve fish stocksin the long term. But how? Scientificresearch does not yet have all theanswers. And politicians need totake into account the answers thatalready exist.

Bluefin tuna fishing at Favignana(Sicily – IT) This overexploitednomad species undertakes majormigrations in the north Atlantic and adjacent seas, from its feedinggrounds in colder regions to itsspawning grounds in warmer climates.

Miraculous catch of fish? Industrial fishing centred on a single species, the orange roughy(New Zealand sea perch)

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Untangling the fishingnets

back in 2001 in the Commission’s Green Paperon the future of the CFP.

At last, an ambitious reform…Politicians’ difficulty in reconciling economicand ecological imperatives is one of the mainreasons for this failure. 76% of infringementproceedings against Member States in the CFParea relate to overfishing. The CFP has beenapplied with a very soft hand. Launched in 1982,it has certainly helped avoid conflicts at seabetween national interests, but has at bestpapered over the cracks when it comes tooverfishing. Some will talk of the iron grip ofeconomics, others will blame politicians seek-ing electoral capital; whatever the reason,politicians have rarely succeeded in imposingfishing quotas in line with the total admissiblecatches (TAC) which are scientifically definedto ensure the renewal of fish populations.Certain subsidies have also aimed at graduallyreducing the fleet whilst modernising theremaining vessels. Laudable but ineffective:the reduction in boat numbers has been offset bythe growing catch capacity of individual vessels.We know today that ocean biodiversity is basedon a complex tissue of synergies betweenvarious marine organisms, the survival of whichdepends on the fragile balance regulating theirenvironments. This complexity was only partlyunderstood when the CFP was set up. For thisreason the CFP still assesses the state of fishresources by the sole indicators of populationand fishing-induced mortality, stock by stock,independently of the evolution of the ecosys-tems. The ultimate aim of the CFP, in itsrevised (2002) format, is to provide a basis forthe sustainable exploitation of marineresources. But this calls for more research,because our knowledge of the ‘ocean system’is still too limited to effectively introduce thenew ‘ecosystemic’ approach the Commissionhas adopted.

Counting the uncountable… with errors?“We are working to assess a resource of whichit is impossible to count the individual compo-nents one by one. We are therefore forced togauge the state of fish populations indirectly, withthe help of statistical models,” Pierre Petitgasexplains. This biologist and geostatistician fromIfremer coordinates Fisboat, a European projectwhich is seeking to perfect ways of assessing

marine resources. The current process isbased on a combination of data from samplingundertaken by scientists at sea, and of catchdeclarations. The biases of sea sampling canbe calculated and corrected, but it is impossibleto determine to what extent fishermen reportthe true numbers of catches and rejects. It istherefore imperative to increase the reliabilityof evaluation methods, based both on scientificsamples and the flow of declarations from thefishing profession. “The quantification ofuncertainties is part and parcel of scientificrecommendations. It is a sine qua non forembedding the precautionary approach intothe political decision-making process,” Ifremerstresses.Another mistake is to base political decisions onpartial data. “Looking only at the demographicindicators is tantamount to producing a partialdiagnosis of the real situation. It’s like a farmerwho examines only one corner of his cornfieldwithout checking that the entire crop is growingat a normal pace,” is how Pierre Petitgasdescribes it. It is this which probably costCanada the collapse of its cod stocks beforedeclaring a moratorium in 1992. At the time,several biological indicators that scientistswere measuring – mortality rates, age of sexualmaturity, spatial distribution of the population –had not been included in the reports presentedto politicians. Subsequent examination has

shown, however, that indicators of the deteri-oration of the stocks existed well before civilsociety was informed of them. Europe’s marineindustries need, therefore, more reliable andpredictive assessments. This is the role ofFisboat, the evaluation methods of which willbe tested in ICES (3).

Smart Gear: rethinking fishing technologiesAnother major challenge is to develop fishingtechnologies that are less damaging to themarine environment. This is no mean challenge,given the impressive number of non-targetorganisms that are caught up accidentally infishing nets. From 3.8% for the least destructivefishing technologies to 50% for certain vessels,such as bottom trawlers, which also causeinestimable damage to highly fragile marinehabitats like coldwater corals. Oceanographersand nature conservation organisations are cryingout ever louder against such fishing techniques,the exact consequences of which on the benthicecosystem, where damage is particularly slowto recover, is still poorly determined. But we still have to propose other options tofishermen. Since 2005, WWF has organisedSmartGear, an international competition opento brains from all horizons, professionals,engineers, teachers and students. The objec-tive is to promote ways of fishing that


OVERFISHING

20 % of shark species are in the process of becoming extinct, mainly because of juveniles beingcaught in nets not intended for them. One of the latest winners of the Smart Gear competition for innovations to support sustainable fishing organised by the WWF has devised a system of magnets tokeep them away from trawlers-longliners fishing for tuna and swordfish.

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reconcile respect for the environmentwith commercial viability. The most innovativesolutions are at times disconcertingly simplistic.The 2006 winner was an invention which canlimit the impact of fishing on sharks, 20% ofthe species of which are on the verge ofextinction. The idea? To use sharks’ aversion tointense magnetic fields and their uniquecapacity to detect them. Powerful magnets,placed above the long-line baits used by tunaand swordfish fishermen, scare them awayfrom the deadly long-lines.The third prize the same year went to a Danishinvention which reduces captures of juvenilesand little non-targeted fish by reinventing thenon-return net placed at the codend (4). Withthe help of little flexible tubes threaded ontothe cord, the net presents a ‘variable geometry’mesh which retains only large fish, letting thesmall ones pass through unharmed. Thismore flexible, easier and less dangerous tohandle system has been widely adopted bythe blue whiting fisherman of the Faeroessince the coming into force, in June 2006, ofa law making non-return nets obligatory.

The future: protected marine zonesThese technological improvements do not,however, resolve a more fundamental problem:fishing takes away the largest fish whichweigh the most and whose spawn is the mostviable. This selection process favours smallerand less fertile fish, disturbs the demographicstructure of the species most popular withconsumers, further weakens populations thatare already on the verge of extinction andreduces hopes for a restoration of marine bio-diversity. For example, we are seeing a reductionin the average age of sexual maturity of cod, oneheavily overexploited species, which couldpermanently reduce the size and reproductivecapacity of the individual fish.The ideal would be to set up ‘respite zones’ inwhich fish could grow to their full size. Buteach species does so in a very specific envi-ronment. To be really effective, given thedegree of marine biodiversity, these respitezones would need to cover very large areas.But from the socio-economic viewpoint, settingup natural reserves closed to any fishing activityon such a scale is almost inconceivable, as itwould sound the death knell of the fishingindustry.

But there is nothing to prevent the definitionof strategic zones where fishing activities aremore strictly regulated in order to affordgreater protection to the ecosystems. This isthe concept of the marine protected area (MPA),which is one of the priorities of the 2002 CFP.But the term itself is a source of confusion,being used to designate both natural reservesthat are closed to all fishing activity and thezones where fishing activity is regulated morestrictly, and where the rules can vary dependingon the ecosystem needing protection. Thismore general approach seeks also to reconcileecological necessities and socio-economicimperatives.But how does one demarcate and managesuch areas? Which indicators does one chooseto evaluate their effectiveness? These are allquestions which European projects likeProtect are seeking to answer, in particular byanalysing earlier experiences. In a report pub-lished in February 2006, the Protect researcherstook a close look at six MPAs (5) in the northAtlantic. The five European ones each had onepoint in common – they failed to meet theirgoals. This is hardly surprising: the reasons forsetting them up in the first place were vaguelydefined, with few predefined indicators toassess their impact. “Which is not to say that thesystem is ineffective. The challenge in settingup MPAs lies in understanding the complex ofprocesses and activities in the targeted zone,and in foreseeing the long-term social andeconomic impacts,” explains Ole Vestergaard,a researcher at Difres (6) and the coordinator of


OVERFISHING

Protect. “We are trying to develop forecastingmodels to permit optimal planning. Thisincludes, for example, formulating precisemanagement objectives and defining theinformation we must first have on the differentinteractions of the environment and humanactivities.” High hopes are placed on research beingundertaken to achieve an ecosystemic man-agement of the fishing industry. Pulling this offwill be particularly difficult given the incrediblydiverse synergies of the marine world. It alsoremains to be seen how the political world willrespond to these new forms of management.The experts are giving a clear message: for anMPA to succeed, it must always be supportedby clear, absolutely unambiguous and rigor-ously applied legislation. .

Ju lie Van Rossom

(1) Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations –Since 1974, the FAO has published the SOFIA reports whichassess the state of fish resources worldwide.

(2) This list also includes the south-east Atlantic, the south-eastPacific and the high sea tuna fishing zones of the Pacificand Atlantic Oceans (SOFIA 2006).

(3) International Council for the Exploration of the Sea(4) The codend is situated at the far end of the trawl.(5) Defined here as any management measure directed at a

marine zone.(6) Danish Institute for Fisheries Research.

FAO

www.fao.org

FISBOAT

www.ifremer.fr/drvecohal/fisboat

PROTECT

www.mpa-eu.net

The Caretta tortoise, a protected species in the Bay of Laganas, at Zakinthos (Ionian Islands – GR).

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Today, with total production fromsea-fishing stagnating at around95 million tonnes a year, the greathope for the future is aquaculture,

which already provides 46% of the fish thatreaches our tables. Recent developments inEurope relate essentially to mariculture (saltwaterfish farming), which, although representing morethan half of the world’s farmed fish production,is relatively underdeveloped in the EuropeanUnion. “What is complicating this type offarming is the over-exposure of much ofEurope’s coastline to the strong Atlantic wavesand winds,” Alistair Lane, Executive Directorof the European Aquaculture Society (EAS)told research*eu. “But a number of innova-tions will soon enable us to expand Europeanmariculture. This is a promising prospect, inparticular for fishermen already confrontedwith heavy job losses as the inevitable conse-quence of overfishing. It makes a good deal ofsense to involve them in marine aquaculture,as they know this environment better thananyone,” Alistair Lane concludes.

Aquaculture could therefore constitute an idealalternative to overfishing, provided that thisancient art is practised in harmony with itsenvironment. The well-being of wild speciesdepends on it, as does the sustainability of theentire sector. With this in mind, in 2002 theCommission launched its first EuropeanAquaculture Strategy, which defines avenuesof research for raising production, maintainsoptimal quality for consumers and guaranteesa high level of environmental protection.Despite a wide-reaching consultation in 2007on this strategy with a view to improving thesystem, these three fundamental objectiveshave not lost any of their relevance.

Limiting environmental impacts There are many environmental issues sur-rounding aquaculture: excreted nitrates andphosphates, antibiotics and detergents, not tomention the thorny problem of introducingnon-native species, to which researchers aredevoting considerable attention. The fact isthat we still know very little about exactly how

marine ecosystems function. And, following theprecautionary principle laid down in the new2002 Common Fisheries Policy (1), given thescientific uncertainty involved, any marineactivity should at least be accompanied by asolid pre-evaluation of the environmentalrisks. Such an approach is also in the interestsof aquaculture, as the industry’s profitability isheavily dependent on having a quality envi-ron ment – demonstrated by the regular lossessuffered by mussel farmers from the prolifera-tion of certain toxin-emitting algae. But thereare other unknowns, in particular in terms ofexcreta and other waste matter, because sea-water fish farms cannot be provided withwater recirculation systems and all wastetherefore passes into the sea. Specialists arealso afraid that escaping farm fish couldcross-breed with wild species and affecttheir genetic heritage, even if our knowledgehere is still insufficient. For this reason, quan-tifying the risks inherent in aquaculture is themain objective of Ecasa (2). This project pro-poses defining the best indicators to


The consumption of fish – a vital source of protein for certain populations, the key to ahealthier diet for others – has grown so muchthat natural resources cannot keep up with global demand. This situation presents a majoreconomic opportunity for aquaculture (or “fishfarming”). But numerous environmental andhealth issues still confront this industry.

The seafood of tomorrow

AQUACULTURE

Aquaculture in Turkey.This fish farm, close to

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assess the environmental impact ofaqua culture in order to develop models thatare suited to the different European maricul-tures. With marine aquaculture facing fiercecompetition from other sea users – tourists,pleasure ports, fishermen, etc. – the project alsoaims to select the best locations for developingfish farms. This project is proving a vital tool inhelping fish farmers understand the linkbetween aquaculture and the environment.

Sustainable fish foodEuropean, salt-water fish farming focusesmainly on fish-eating species. The three mainspecies farmed, Atlantic salmon, turbot andsea bass, feed solely on fish in their naturalenvironments. 4 kg of fish are required to pro-duce enough fish meal and oil to obtain 1 kgof Atlantic salmon. This practice poses a seri-ous problem of sustainability, as extending thefarming of fish-eating fish will place growingpressure on stocks of the small pelagic(3) fish oflow commercial value that are needed toproduce fish meal and oil. Vegetal substitutesare already included in fish feed used in farms,but the technology needs to be improved inorder to reduce aquaculture's impact on fishstocks. Several research projects are lookingfor answers to this problem, includingAquamax (4), which is largely financed by theEuropean Commission. This project is aimed


Salmon breeding atVestnes (Norway). A practice that could‘compensate’ overfishing, and protectlocal wild species.

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A potted history of aquaculture

The first rudimentary fish farms dating back to 2000 BC have been discovered in Chinaand Egypt. A millennium and a half later, Greeks began cultivating oysters. Valliculture,which consists of holding captive fish travelling up-river to brackish water, first appears

in the 15th century. But it was not until the invention of artificial fertilisation of salmon in the17th century that man was able to master the entire life cycle of a fish species. The 20th centurysaw aquaculture boom as a new source of protein against a background of an exploding worldpopulation. The first eel farms appeared in Japan in the 1950s. A decade later, production ofrainbow trout became widespread in Europe and the United States. In the 1970s, amberjacks,catfish and certain shellfish arrived at the first sea pastures, where the early developmentstages were controlled in order to repopulate the natural environment. The following decadeswere to see the advent of new forms of aquaculture, mainly in a marine environment, with theproduction of salmon, shrimp, sea bass and bream, and very recently tuna, but here thereproduction process is yet to be mastered. In this case, juveniles are taken from the sea andfattened in captivity, a practice that has attracted the wrath of certain environmental NGOs.

AQUACULTURE

at FEAP, tells us. “An initial experimental phaseis carried out at the research centres. The resultsare then tested in situ in the 10 hatcheries tak-ing part in the project. This enables us to testthem in a real-life commercial situation, and toguarantee their effectiveness as far as possible.”


AQUACULTURE

at developing new fish feeds and assessingtheir quality and their effect on the life cycleof farmed fish, on farming methods, on theconsumer and on the environment. “The maindifficulty lies in defining the ideal vegetalcomposition to guarantee an alternative, high-quality diet. This is a long-term task, as eachspecies has its own specific needs,” says BenteTorstensen, a researcher at the NIFES (5) who isresponsible for the Salmon Lipidic Metabolismarea at Aquamax. This approach has the ben-efit of both limiting the use of sea catches andimproving the quality of the product. “Thenatural environment often contains largenumbers of pollutants, which are accumulatedby natural aquatic organisms,” Bente Torstensencontinues. “Minimising the use of capturedfish helps us control the contamination levelof farmed fish and so limit the risks for theconsumer. On the other hand, the use of veg-etal resources brings with it the risk of increas-ing pesticide levels in the product. There is nomiracle solution. We have always to carefullyweigh up the pros and cons in order to deter-mine the ideal substitute.”

Optimising aquacultural productionA healthy product is most certainly a majorconcern for consumers, but it is not the solequality criterion. The fact is that we eat firstand foremost with our eyes and are quick topush a malformed fish to the side of ourplates. A malformed fish also consumes morefood, and therefore represents a loss for fishhatcheries. In the natural environment thisphenomenon is automatically regulated by thepresence of predators. Defining the factorsthat encourage the appearance of deformitiesand modulating them in order to limit lossesshould help increase hatchery production.Such an improvement would reduce the costof producing juvenile fish and benefit theentire fish farming sector. Finefish (6), a projectmanaged by the Federation of EuropeanAquaculture Producers (FEAP), is attemptingto alleviate this problem by studying the threemain factors recognised as influencing juvenilemalformation: temperature, feeding and theenvironment in the breeding tank. “We aretrying to determine how these factors can beoptimised in order to limit the percentage ofmalformed fish in five different types of fishfarms,” Margreet van Vilsteren, a project assistant

(1) See article on fishing, pp. 16-18(2) An Ecosystem Approach for Sustainable Aquaculture.

The European Commission is contributing € 2.5 million to the financing of this project.

(3) Fish living in the open seas in the upper layers of the watercolumn (0 to 200 m).

(4) Sustainable Aquafeeds to Maximise the Health Benefits ofFarmed Fish for Consumers – The Commission is putting up€ 10.5 million out of a total budget of € 15 million.

(5) National Institute for Nutrition and Seafood Research (NO)(6) Improving sustainability of European fish aquaculture by

control of malformations – The Commission is contributing€ 3 million of the total budget of € 4.8 million.

(7) Health promoting, safe seafood of high eating quality in a consumer-driven fork-to-farm concept

(8) Institute for Marine Resources and Ecosystem Studies (NL)

Other research projects are attempting to usethe fact that fish farming makes it possible tocontrol each stage of a fish’s development toincrease the beneficial properties of marine pro-duce. In Seafoodplus (7), another wide-rangingresearch programme supported by Europeanfunds and aimed at enhancing the value ofmarine produce, Edward Schram, a researcherat IMARES (8), is trying to enrich fish fillets withorganic selenium, certain composites of whichare believed to have anti-carcinogenic properties.He has therefore added garlic, known to berich in organic selenium, to the meals used tofeed farmed fish. The experiment has proveda success: the flesh of the African catfish,which have served as guinea pigs, contains ahigh concentration of selenium without dis-turbing their metabolism. “We are now waitingfor the University of Madrid to develop anexperimental method for identifying and quan-tifying all the selenium composites detected inthe fillets. It’s clear that the selenium has beentransferred, but we need to be sure that thetargeted substance is indeed present in the

flesh,” Edward Schram explains. It remains tobe seen how consumers will react. Research inthe context of Seafoodplus shows them to besomewhat reticent towards improved naturalproducts.

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Granules being distributed in seabass breeding cages at CannesAquaculture at Golfe Juan (France).

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The Norwegian aquaculture research station(Fiskeriforskning) at Tromsø is at the centre of the Ethiqual section of the European Seafoodplusproject. Researchers there are observing the behaviour and stress tolerance of the differentbreeds of farmed fish.

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“Certain organisms survive inextreme depths, with little orno oxygen, or resistingextreme temperatures,” notes

Mike Thorndyke, leader of the Evolution,Development and Diversity node within theMarine Genomics network. “How do thesecreatures manage under such conditions?How do they cope with the dramatic depths,temperatures and pressure? We are trying tofind out, as their metabolisms could offerdiscoveries that would be of use to everyone,including in the field of human health. Theenzymes of these organisms are of more interestthan those usually used as, for example, wecould use them in very saline solutions and atextreme temperatures.”

ExtremophilesTake the case of fish swimming in the polarseas. Why don’t they freeze? Thirty years ofrelentless research has finally revealed the

secret of their resistance to the icy waters. Ateam of Canadian biologists has demonstratedthat “anti-freeze” proteins, ten times moreactive than those previously known, fix to icecrystals to stop them growing: a property thatcould be very useful in the field of medicine,in particular for organ storage or forcryosurgery, a technique which consists ofdestroying tumour cells by freezing them.Or consider the bacterium Desulfotalea, resistantto the cold since it grows in sub-zero tempera-tures on the seabed. By using the enzymes ofthis bacterium instead of their mesophiliccounterparts (which can only grow at moderatetemperatures), industries involving foodprocessing or washing processes could savesignificant amounts of energy.At the other end of the spectrum, the bacteriumPyrococcus abyssi lives in hot marine springsand maintains an optimal enzymic activity attemperatures of 80-110º C. The biochemicalnature of its enzymes could be a key tool in

technologies in the future to recombine DNA.Certain enzymes have already been put to com-mercial use: the DNA polymerase I, isolatedfrom the thermophile bacterium. Thermusaquaticus works in polymerase chain reactions(PCRs) to manufacture huge numbers ofgenes for in vitro research.The list of marine products useful in bio -technology is growing steadily and includes arange of proteins, lipids and “cazymes”,enzymes capable of converting complex carbo -hydrates to produce green fuel. Other bacteriaare involved in the breakdown of polymers, aprocess which scientists at Ifremer, the FrenchResearch Institute for Exploitation of the Sea,are using to produce entirely biodegradableplastic. “Finding micro-organisms capable ofresisting very high temperatures, or survivingin extreme conditions, should lead to revolu-tionary industrial applications,” explainsPhilippe Goulletquer, National Coordinator ofMarine and Coastal Biodiversity at Ifremer.“That’s why biodiversity is fundamental tobiotechnology.”

Chemical warfareIt is not only the habitats of some marineorganisms that have led them to acquirevaluable qualities, but also the way in whichthey spend their time. These “couch potatoes”of the deep combine a sedentary lifestyle witha soft body, necessitating a chemical meansof defence from predators. They have there-fore evolved the ability to synthesise toxiccompounds, or to obtain them from marinemicro-organisms. Particularly powerful, since they need to beeffective in water, and as diverse as the micro-scopic flora and fauna that produce them,these natural products are of great interest toscientists. They provide a huge reservoir ofsubstances that could be used, for example, todevelop new treatments for infectious dis-eases or cancer. Over 16 000 new compoundsof this type have been isolated from organismslike sponges, ascidians and seaweeds.


BLUE BIOTECHNOLOGY

A watery goldmine for “From fish in polar seas to bacteria in hydrothermal springs, some sea creatures live in conditions which make it hard for us tobelieve their survival possible. Their resistanceunder exceptional conditions, such as strongsalinity or extreme temperatures, or their abilityto produce toxic substances, is intriguingresearchers from Marine Genomics (1), a network of European excellence. Slowly butsurely, biotechnology researchers are taking aninterest in these astonishing natural phenomena,which can provide us with numerous benefits,from new medicines for cancer and revolutionaryantibiotics to biodegradable plastics.

micro-organisms, Fennical and his team dis-covered numerous actinomycete species in thebenthic deep, despite the received wisdomthat there were none in the sea. In 2003, theseresearchers demonstrated that SalinosporamideA, a compound isolated from one of theseactinomycetes, was able to bind to a tumourand inhibit its growth. It is now in clinical trialsfor multiple myeloma, a cancer of the blood.

A research odyssey“Despite these promising applications,research related to marine organisms and theseas’ vast potential is greatly lacking. The seasoffer riches that we need to take advantage of,before they disappear,” underlines MikeThorndyke. The pharmaceutical industry lacksinterest in this type of research, particularlybecause of legal uncertainty and a problem ofavailability: it is difficult to apply traditionalmethods of testing and development

BLUE BIOTECHNOLOGY

biotech”

Culinary classics with a twist

Some 20 % of protein in the human diet comes from theoceans. The health benefits of sea food have already beenwell-established and the future looks even more promising.

Gene technology should open the way to new foodproducts: containing high levels of unsaturated

fatty acids and fish protein, they will help toreduce the risks linked to certain chronic

diseases. Moreover, many organismscontain enzymes of particular use inthe food industry. Amino-peptidesfound in tuna reduce the bitternessin certain foods while proteases fromfish eliminate the skins of cuttlefish,squid, and the membranes surround-

ing the egg pouches of fish, helping inthe preparation of salmon caviar.

Blooming with energy

Producing green energy from a sealettuce, Ulva lactuta, is the chal-lenge taken on by a team of Danish

researchers at the National Institute ofEnvironmental Research (NERI-DMU).While the study on the production ofbioethanol produced by this green algais still in its early stages, early outcomesare promising: the sea lettuce produces700 times more biomass per hectarethan a traditional wheat field. The Ulvaand other similar species are verywidespread in most regions of theworld, particularly in eurotrophic zoneswhere their abundance threatens localecosystems: an environmental problemthat the harvesting of algae and theirtransformation into bio-fuel couldresolve. And the production platformsplanned in Denmark will help to use upsurplus CO2 produced by electricity andby fertilisers. Who could ask for more?

Genetic diversityIn Europe, the Marine Genomics network ishelping to discover new metabolites. “Wesequence DNA fragments to measure geneticdiversity in different sites along Europeancoasts, but also elsewhere, like in theAntarctic. It’s important to allow us to studyextremophiles, those organisms living inextreme conditions,” explains Mike Thorndyke.The network is constructing large databaseswhich support research into biotechnology,like the development of antibiotics from DNAfragments, the creation of micro-conductorchips and the mass production in bioreactorsof rare marine bioproducts, such as growthhormone.Director of the Center for Marine Biotechnologyand Biomedicine in San Diego, (USA), WilliamFennical is among the pioneers discoveringnew anti-cancerous molecules in the sea.Having left the invertebrate field to turn to

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Close-up on the fronds of the red algaChondrus crispus as they are attacked by microbes,

the algae can be real factories of by-products oxidised fromfatty acids, that could be used as medicines.

for a compound produced in tiny quan-tities by a sponge that lives hundreds ofmetres down. But, thanks to a few sea enthu-siasts, the “biotech” odyssey is running itscourse. For the last 20 years, the biotechnologycompany PharmaMar (ES) has been investi-gating potential anti-cancer properties of themarine products discovered by academics aswell as by its own explorers. Some 40 000 organ-isms and marine products likely to offertherapeutic potential have already beenrecorded by the Spanish company, and six ofthese are in clinical trials.In the future, researchers will find it easier toexperiment on hard-to-reach abyssal crea-tures. They will be able to grow the usefulsubstances in the laboratory, since they do notalways come from the marine organisms butfrom associated bacteria. Another option is toisolate the gene responsible for synthesisingthe compound and “grafting” it onto an organ-ism that is easier to handle. Either way, thesedevelopments cannot take place without


BLUE BIOTECHNOLOGY

Medicines fished from the seas

Ecteinascidia turbinate: this sea squirt from the Caribbean or the Mediterranean makes ananti-cancer compound, Yondelis (PharmaMar).Actinomycetes: with its active ingredient extracted from the actinomycete bacteriumMicromonospora marina, the anti-tumour drug Thicoraline is under development byPharmaMar.Bugula neritina: this cosmopolitan marine bryozoan lives in symbiosis with a bacterium ableto secrete an active biomolecule, bryostatin. This acts as a deterrent to predator fish, but is alsoknown for having properties against cancer of the kidney and the pancreas, and non-Hodgkin’sleukemia, melanomas and lymphomas. It is currently in clinical trials.

Fauna from the cold waters of the North Atlantic, growing in a protected marine zone, studied byMarBEF researchers (see page 8). The Gadus morhua breaks away fromthe bottom of a white coral (Lophelia pertusa) and orange coral(Paragorgia arborea), at a depth of 200m, north of Norway.

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ZALYPSIS®, YONDELIS®, APLIDIN®, illustrating cancer research from marine species, used by the Spanish biotechnology firm, PharmaMar.

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investments, both private and public. As partof this, the European Commission’s GreenPaper on maritime policy suggests the cre-ation of “Blue Investment Funds”.

Charlotte Brookes

(1) Financed by the Commission with €10 million over fourand a half years.

(2) Commission Green Paper: Towards a future maritime policyfor the Union: a European vision of the oceans and seas (7June 2006).

Cyanobacteria: scytonemin is a yellow-green unltraviolet sunscreen pigment present in thisaquatic blue-green algae and may be used to develop inhibitors for use as antiproliferativeand anti-inflammatory drugs.Aplidium albicans: this invertebrate has enabled the company PharmaMar to isolate a marineanti-cancer agent, Aplidin, currently in its trial phase.Sharks: sharks are particularly unaffected by cancer, largely thanks to squalamine, a moleculepresent in the liver. This could be used to fight against certain brain tumours.Japanese sponge: KRN 7000 is not a natural product but it consists of a series of compoundsextracted from a Japanese sponge, Agelas mauritianus. Tested on mice, it has been proven towork against tumours, particularly colon cancer.Conus magus: this cone snail paralyses its prey using a poison-tipped barb. The poison is apainkiller many times more potent than morphine and is now on the market as Prialt.Nemerte worm: GST 21 is the first molecule of marine origin that has been tested for thetreatment of Alzheimer’s.Marthasterias glacialis: the Roscovotine molecule has been extracted from this spiny starfishby Dr. Laurent Meijer from the National Centre for Scientific (CNRS) at Roscoff, France. In block-ing cancerous cells without affecting healthy ones, it is a potential chemical weapon againstcancer.

In 1986 Danish engineer Erik Friis-Madsenwatched the waves breaking onto thebeaches of a South Pacific atoll. Thestrongest waves cross the strips of beach

and accumulate in the lagoon at the centre ofthe atoll. Once the lagoon is over-full, thewaters sluice back out into the sea throughpassages in the atoll. Madsen was convincedthat it was possible to reproduce this naturalphenomenon to generate energy. He startedmaking his first sketches of what, a decade lat-er, was to become the Wave Dragon: a circularstructure similar to a “floating atoll” with a turbinein the centre through which the excess watercan run off.

From dream to prototype But it was only in 1997 that the project reallygot off the ground. Erik Friis-Madsen puttogether a team to work on this invention,whilst Hans-Christian Sorensen took over themanagement of the company Wave Dragon(DK), which he is still coordinating today. Withscientific and logistic support from businessand universities, the two founding fathers

perfected their knowledge of hydraulics andelectricity. Several models were laboratorytested. “The basic idea,” Erik Friis-Madsenexplains, “is to use the well-known principlesof traditional hydroelectric installations, but inan offshore version. It’s really quite simple.The Wave Dragon consists of two long armswhich concentrate the waves at the centre ofthe installation, floating slightly above sea level.The water builds up in a large tank, and thenruns off via the centre, activating a series ofelectricity-generating turbines.” In 2002 the European Union joined in theproject, providing € 1.5 million for producingand installing a 1:4.5 scale model. Weighing237 tonnes, it was launched into the sea inJune 2003 off the Danish coast. For Hans-Christian Sorensen, “this was probably themost important movement in Wave Dragon’sdevelopment: when we began regularly sup-plying electricity to the Danish grid.” But thisreduced-scale prototype generates no morethan a modest 20kW.

A real off-shore generator“But we now have better,” Mr Sorensen con-tinues. “A further contribution from the


ENERGY

The Wave Dragon sets sailAlong with bracingwinds, marine currentsand strong tides, thesea offers anothersource of energy, asresearchers experimentwith different ways of generating electricityfrom the rise and fall of the waves. We take a closer look at WaveDragon, a device whichproduces electricityfrom the swell.

Similar to a “floating atoll”, Wave Dragon stores up water in a central, slightly raised tank, thanks to itstwo long arms. The water then activates turbines as the tank is emptied.

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European Union (€2.4 million) enabled us toconclude an agreement with the Welsh govern-ment to install a full-size production unit (7 MW)off the Welsh coast. We are hoping that thiswill be operational by August 2008. In thethree years after that we could create anotherten additional units, giving a total productionof 77 MW.”Wave Dragon is obviously unable to competewith a traditional nuclear power station gener-ating between 500 and 2000MW of electricity.Even so, the system offers several far fromnegligible advantages. First, it is possible tomodulate the size of the production units – forexample by building a ‘station’ of ten or twentyindividual ‘dragons’ – and the number of tur-bines in each (up to 24). Second, Wave Dragonrequires only minimal, low-cost maintenance.Its visual and environmental impact is alsomodest, which should endear it to investors,politicians and public opinion. All of theseare good reasons to be optimistic about itsviability.

Matthieu Lethé


Fragile frontiers40 % of the world’s population live close

to the coast. In the past five years, towns have takenover 34 % of coastal territory in Portugal, 27 % in

Ireland and 18 % in Spain. The shores of theMediterranean attract one quarter of the world’s

tourists – 158 million people a year. But since 1993 the sea has been encroaching

on Europe’s coastline, at an average rate of 3 mm a year. The cause is the thermal expansion of oceans

and the melting of glaciers and ice caps. According to some models, sea levels will rise by

between 20 and 60 cm by 2100. Humankind is destroying biodiversity and climate

change is swelling the oceans. To combat this deterioration, which is already taking place,

many countries are experimenting with IntegratedCoastal Zone Management (ICZM).

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The fjords of Norway, the lochs ofScotland and the rias of Wales are aspectacular illustration of Europe’scontrasting coastline and of the con-

tinent’s varied geography. These heteroge-neous natural characteristics give rise tospecific environmental conditions and adapt-ed life forms. While providing a habitat formarshland fauna and wild birds – 30% ofEurope’s protected areas are on the coast – thecoastline is also home to man and economicactivities, the latter resulting in unique ruraland urban landscapes that reflect mercantilecultures and an openness to the exterior. But today’s coastline is changing as neverbefore. Acting as a magnet, it is becoming evermore populated. Almost half of Europe’s pop-ulation live within 50 km of the sea and exploitits resources, whether through tourism, fishing,aquaculture or industry. These sometimescompeting activities threaten natural balances,

biodiversity and the cultural identity of coastalareas. Then there is the looming threat ofclimate change. Rising sea levels, combinedwith more frequent and more severe coastalstorms, suggest serious consequences –especially as these problems often call intoquestion activities that cut across a number offields, and sectoral policies rarely manage tohalt the deterioration.

Integrated but insufficiently proactivemanagement“Awareness of coastal problems is not new,”explains Denis Bailly, scientific coordinatorwith Spicosa and deputy director ofCEDEM/UBO(2). “It was in the 1970s that theidea of integrated coastal management firstemerged, as one in which all the players in agiven zone would be involved in getting togrips with the nature of the problems and takingcorrective action. In the face of conflictsbetween urbanisation, tourism and natureconservation, Europe is again turning to thisconcept and, in 1992, signed the Rio declarationrendering ICZM official.” For a sustainableco-existence of human activity and naturalsystems, integrated management must takemore account of the physical and natural,social and economic, judicial and administrativeissues at stake in coastal areas. However, actually implementing this manage-ment is proving difficult, given the variety ofthe problems faced and the local structures.More often palliative than reparative, action istaken only after changes to the environmenthave been observed.

Anticipating with SpicosaTo stop irreversible change over time, the EUis trying out a new methodology with theSpicosa project, which has been allocated €10million between 2007 and 2011. “In the face of

imminent degradation and vital losses, wemust speed up the decision-making processeswith a view to a preventive rather than repar-ative coastal policy,” stresses the scientificcoordinator. The preventive action envisaged bySpicosa is based on future scenarios that will beconstructed through more open dialogue, agathering of information that is sufficientlyreliable to support political action, and effectivemultimedia and virtual tools for cross-referencingscientific and socio-economic data that are toooften excessively compartmentalised. This cross-cutting approach also takes accountof collateral effects, such as those of theCommon Agricultural Policy (CAP). “Fifty-three partners, including universities, SMEs andNGOs from 21 EU countries are developing toolsto integrate knowledge and support dialogue,”explains Denis Bailly. But Spicosa will alsohave to take into account the specific charac-teristics of each coastal zone so that itsmethodological framework can be applied justas effectively to the dune cordons in Dunkirk,the French Arguin bank and the endlessbeaches of Portugal.

Delphine d’Hoop

(1) Science and Policy Integration for Coastal SystemAssessment

(2) Centre of maritime law and economics at the Université deBretagne Occidentale (FR)


COASTAL MANAGEMENT

89 000 km of EuropeancoastlineA third the size of Africa, Europenevertheless has three times its coastline. Today, human activityalong its length is endangeringhydric resources, soil stability,marine ecology and – a majorconcern – water quality. It is toensure sustained co-existencebetween man and these naturalsystems of great variety and com-plexity that the EU is seeking to implement a policy ofIntegrated Coastal ZoneManagement (ICZM). However,given the time it takes to restorenatural balances, the new Spicosa (1) project willhave to prepare for further deterioration before seeing anyactual improvement.

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The Gulf of Riga, Baltic Sea Chemical pollution and eutrophicationIn Riga, the largest city on the Baltic and capitalof Latvia, 720 000 citizens inhabit the Gulf ofDaugava and its highly productive bay thatcombines a dense population with intensefarming, tourism and industrial activities. But thisfrenetic activity without suitable infrastructure orwaste management is polluting the water whileeutrophication is a growing problem due to theinflux of industrial waste from Riga and othertowns, including Pärnu.The concept of eutrophication originallyexpressed a richness of nutrients in an aquaticenvironment. Today it expresses an excess ofthese nutrients, to such a degree that the systemis unable to absorb them quickly enough, con-sequently slowly transforming the water intomarsh. The overfed aquatic plants then capturethe sun’s rays and exhaust the stock of oxygen inthe water, one that is 30 times that in the air. Theenvironment then becomes first hypoxic, thenanoxic, thereby satisfying the conditions for theappearance of noxious gases, such as methane. As a result, aerobic organisms – insects, crus-taceans, fish, marine plants – disappear. Thebiotope of the bay’s subsystem is changing, as isthat of the Gulf’s ecosystem as a whole, in turneffecting changes in the food chain. For thosewho live on its shores, the situation is urgent:30 % of Latvia’s drinking water fails to meet thecountry’s chemical standards.

Barcelona, Mediterranean Sea Urbanisation and the discharge ofpolluted watersIn 2006, Spain achieved the record for thefastest rate of coastal urbanisation in Europe.Barcelona, Spain’s second largest urban area interms of population – 4 million inhabitants – is

home to leisure, tourist and commercial centresas well as a few fisheries. These are all activitiesthat stand in contrast to the agriculture andheavy industry located upstream along therivers Besòs and Llobregat.These rivers flow through industrial, urban andrural areas, enter the sewage system and dis-charge onto Barcelona’s continental shelf. InSpain, 13% of wastewater is discharged directlyinto the sea. In 1979, Barcelona installed awastewater treatment plant at the mouths ofthese two rivers. Nevertheless, large quantitiesof water and particles continue to affect interac-tions between the land and sea. Bacteria andeutrophication are invading the beaches whilethe transport and re-suspension of sediment iscausing erosion. In addition, the complete urbanisation of 30 kmof coastline is based on a fragile soil of mud andsand, the grains of different size presenting therisk of sliding. Even the collapse of golf courses,for example, would have a major socio-economicimpact on neighbouring real estate resources.

Venice, Adriatic Sea The exploitation of biological stocksThe city of the Doges and its gondolas attract14 million tourists a year who join the residentpopulation engaged in port, recreational,industrial, agricultural and fishing activities,thereby influencing the natural dynamics andresilience of this lagoon in the northern Adriaticand damaging its environment. Fishing has always been an activity for the citizensof Venice. 60 % of Italian clams are taken from thelagoon waters and today there is also fishing forcaparozzoli and bivalves with a high commercialvalue. But the motor boats and mechanisationhave the effect of breaking down and stirring upthe sediment that consequently spends longer insuspension and is swept along by marine currents,


COASTAL MANAGEMENT

Spicosa, from the Baltic to the Black Sea

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Spicosa’s methodological framework will be tested in September 2007 at 18 sites with very different characteristics. Six of these illustrate the challenges awaiting the researchers.

fauna of the forest, dunes and marshes as wellas exceptional landscapes. But young people are abandoning this area ofeconomic decline, however picturesque it maybe. The high unemployment – almost 25 % –and disparities in standards of living betweenGermany and Poland make tourism its mainhope, with nature conservation as its basis.Germany and Poland are cooperating to managethe area. In 2002, the two environment ministers signedthe “Agenda 21 – Oder lagoon – Two nationsregion”, setting identical objectives to those ofthe ICZM. Ten fields of action place sustainabledevelopment and coastal management at thecentre of this cooperation. A Forum 21 sets outand implements the priorities – scientific andeducational cooperation and sustainable tourism– and enables German and Polish citizens andrepresentatives to cooperate actively by sharingtheir results and supporting their applications.

Cork Harbour, Atlantic Ocean Biodiversity in the face of rising sealevelsAgainst the backdrop of 17th century fortifica-tions, the natural harbour of Cork lies adjacentto one of Ireland’s main industrial areas. As thecountry’s second port, it is home to a refineryand about 100 pharmaceutical industries,including the giants Pfizer, Novartis and JanssenPharmaceutica. The biological richness of the coastal ecosystemalso benefits tourism and fishing. The lines catchtrout, salmon and cod while there are also thelarge nurseries plus shellfish and oyster farming. But farming on neighbouring land and the portactivities are placing undue strain on the environ-ment. Agriculture, for example, is increasingconcentrations of phosphorous and nitrogen inthe water, with a disastrous impact on aquaculture. More globally, the threat of climate change islikely to affect the region severely. Rising sealevels combined with more frequent and severestorms are a direct threat to the harbour. This isall the more the case as the waters of five riversflow into the harbour and a 15% increase in winterrainfall is predicted. These factors will erode theCork coastline which is made up of unconsoli-dated sediment. There is an urgent need forsimulation models and potential scenarios toestablish a long-term strategy.

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COASTAL MANAGEMENT

carrying nutrients and pollutants along with it.The phenomenon adds to erosion and displacessediment masses to shallow navigable channelsbringing a need for costly dredging operations.This continual working of the sediment alsoimpoverishes the flora and fauna. Ultimately, itis the fishermen themselves who suffer the con-sequences of these changes to the ecosystem,with a 40 % decline in shellfish productionrecorded between 1997 and 2001 for example.

The Danube Delta, Black Sea Tourists blight the landscapeThe Danube flows through 17 European countriesand forms a delta on the Romanian andUkrainian coasts. A paradise for wildlife that isclassified by UNESCO – it is a refuge for migratingbirds from Siberia –, this zone of marshes andreed beds is home to a fragile and complexecosystem that has been preserved by mansince antiquity. Today 15 000 people live in symbiosis with thisenvironment, many of the traditional fishingfolk seeming to have escaped the passage oftime. But further on, the city of Tulcea is growing,attracting newcomers intent on benefiting fromthe local tourist attraction. Despite warnings,illegal construction is transforming the land-scape. The future roads, factories and watertreatment plants and tourism-related serviceswill also bring in their share of workers needingaccommodation. The arrival of foreign investors seeking a quickprofit is creating an urgent need for a globalstrategy to conserve the ecosystem and itsattractions.

Oder Estuary, Baltic Sea Germano-Polish cooperation Before reaching the sea, the biggest river in theBaltic region, the Oder, forms a lagoon in twosections: the Kleines Haff (DE) and the WielkiZalew (PL). This protected estuary region ofgreat ecological and cultural value is home to

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In the space of no more than a few decadestourism has become an inescapable phe-nomenon of society. Every year hundredsof millions of travellers criss-cross the

globe, for the most part packing their swim-suits, sun cream and beach games. This isbecause among the countless destinationsproposed, the coast is by far the most popular.The promise of sun, sea, invigorating air andidyllic beaches has an undeniable power toattract. According to Gabor Vereczi, responsiblefor sustainable development with the WorldTourism Organisation (WTO), “the Mediter -ranean is by far the most popular touristdestination in the world,” with more than160 million tourists recorded on its Europeancoastline in 2006.

From unsustainable tourism…A list of all the negative consequences ofpoorly managed coastal tourism could wellrun to several pages. Nevertheless, environ-mental observers agree that three majorimpact categories can be defined: economic,socio-cultural and environmental.

At the economic level, the arrival of touristsclearly has positive effects on local communities,bringing in considerable amounts of money. It isfor this reason that the authorities often investheavily in major infrastructure intended tomake life easier for the tourists (airports, roads

and motorways, sea defences, urbanisation,etc.). But all of this has its downside, espe-cially for local populations. The employmentstructure changes with tourism. Activitieslinked to industry, agriculture and fishing tendto disappear while seasonal jobs become thenorm. This then leads to the situation wherebywages are unable to keep pace with the risingcost of living – especially property prices –that is fuelled by the influx of a prosperouspopulation. This latter aspect in turn has an impact at thesocio-cultural level. As hotels and secondhomes increase along the coast, local peopletend to migrate to the interior. Very oftenthose who remain have no alternative but toadapt to the tourist demand, by openingshops and bars, and local crafts tend towardsgreater standardisation, etc. A loss of cultural


COASTAL MANAGEMENT

Tourism vs tourismThe European Union occupies a central positionon the world tourism market and the 458 millionvisitors who visit the Member States every yearare an undoubted motor for the economy: 5% of Europe’s GDP is generated by tourismdirectly and 10% indirectly. However, althoughgenerating wealth and jobs, tourism could alsobecome a victim of its success. This is particularlytrue of coastal areas where the regular influx of visitors has a damaging impact on the socialfabric, economic balance, and environment…and thus ultimately on the value of these areasas a tourist attraction.

Golden sands and straw parasols in Bulgaria.

identity then follows, further exacerbated bythe loss of traditional jobs. Finally, at the environmental level, the conse-quences of coastal tourism are many:- Excessive urbanisation and the constructionof communication infrastructure is at the

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root of many problems for the environment,including deforestation and destruction ofnatural areas, loss of habitat and fauna,extraction of marine sand for use as a con-struction material, etc. Then there is the visualaspect, often constituting genuine aestheticpollution.

- Drinking water supplies become increasinglylimited due to the notorious over-consumptionby and for tourists who every day use up tothree times as much freshwater as local popu-lations – to fill their pools, water their gardensand for washing, for example. What is more,in many cases the waste water is discardedinto the sea completely untreated.

- What is true of water is also true of variousenergy resources: the consumption of elec-tricity and fossil fuels by tourists is very high(air conditioning and heating, transport, etc.)leading to important emissions of pollutinggases. Tourists are also major creators ofwaste that it is the responsibility of localauthorities to collect and dispose of as bestthey can.

- Coastal erosion: seawalls, breakwaters andother jetties have the beneficial effect of pro-tecting beaches and urban centres from theeffect of waves, erosion and potential flooding.But very often the problem is simply trans-ferred to beyond the urban areas to zoneswhere such infrastructures do not exist. Theresult is that these zones are progressivelyworn down by erosion.

…to responsible tourism“Local, national and international authoritieshave become increasingly aware in recentyears that tourism, if not properly developed,can self-destruct,” explains Jean-Pierre Martinetti,an expert on sustainable tourism and member ofthe Tourism Sustainability Group (TSG) set upby the European Commission to look at theproblem of sustainable tourism. “When speakingof sustainable tourism,” he continues, “youmust always keep in mind this ambivalence.On one hand, tourism can be a predator thatdestroys a whole environment, damaging thatwhich stimulated its growth in the first placeand therefore ultimately working against itsown interests. In this sense it is very far indeedfrom any notion of sustainability. But, on theother hand, it can be a lever for sustainabledevelopment as a source of economic devel-

opment, social progress, exchanges betweenpeople, and a knowledge and appreciation ofcultures, while at the same time respecting theenvironment.” Consisting of experts active in all sectorslinked to tourism from throughout theEuropean Union, the TSG started its activitiesin January 2005. Two years later, it publishedits final report (1) which was itself the subjectof wide-ranging consultation. Jean-PierreMartinetti: “A common sustainable tourismculture emerged as the work progressed, andthis despite our different origins and sensibilities.The challenges were evident: to reduce theseasonal nature of the demand, control theimpact of tourism, improve the quality of jobs intourism, maintain and improve the prosperityand quality of local life, minimise the use ofresources and waste production, observe andhighlight the natural and cultural heritage, pro-vide access to holidays for all and, finally, usetourism as a lever for sustainable development.”

“As the Group’s mission was essentially oper-ational,” continues the expert, “we made aseries of concrete proposals to meet thesechallenges, intended for all those involved inthe tourist industry: public and private stake-holders at the tourist destinations, tourismcompanies, and of course the tourists themselvesand everybody that could encourage them toadopt a sustainable behaviour (education,consumer associations, NGOs, etc.).” “They must all feel responsible for achieving amore sustainable tourism,” concludes Jean-Pierre Martinetti. “But this responsibility isshared between the different players at all levelsof the tourism system.”

Matthieu Lethé

(1) http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/services/tourism/tourism_sustainability_group.htm


COASTAL MANAGEMENT

The three pillars of sustainable tourism

Economy, society, environment. These are three keywords when speaking of sustainable tourism. Theaim is in fact to generate wealth at the different levels

of society while also ensuring that the different sectors ofeconomic activity remain profitable. At the same time,human rights and equal opportunities for all must berespected, poverty combated, and different culturesrecognised. Finally, the environment must be preserved inall its diversity, especially non-renewable resources andthose of value to man. “To achieve the ultimate aim that isthe viability of these three pillars,” explains Jean-PierreMartinetti, “they must be developed in a balanced manner.Too often, mistakes have been made because the emphasiswas placed on just one of the three pillars, to the detrimentof the others.” The development of tourism must thereforebe the fruit of balanced considerations if it is to provesustainable. Only then will the environment in which itdevelops be respected in all its diversity.

Underwater video. An additionalbonus for exotic coastlines.

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Sooner or later, nearly all terrestrial pol-lution ends up tipped into the sea.Despite its huge size and self-purifyingproperties, the ocean is unable to

absorb this incessant stream of pollution ofevery kind deriving from human activity. ForChristophe Rousseau, deputy director of Cèdre(1),“marine pollution is such a vast phenomenonthat a uniform response is impossible. At Cèdre,we concern ourselves solely with accidentalpollution, most of it from shipping. Even tak-en on its own, this problem area involves amultitude of technological constraints. Thetask is less vast, however, than for the chronicpollution caused by land-based human activi-ties. This is infinitely greater and more variedthan that caused by ships.” From this briefoverview one thing is clear: each pollution hasits own particular solution and each source ofcontamination its own specific action! Inachieving this tangle of research objectives, alittle help from nature can be very welcome.

From sentinel mussels …Take a cage, a handful of mussels, an anchoringsystem... and you have a coastal water pollutionsurveillance station. The simplest solutions areat times the most effective. The designers ofthe Mytilos project, launched in 2004, clearlyunderstood this in choosing active biomoni-toring for developing a network to controlchemical contaminants. The project has abudget of more than €1.5 million, including€800 000 from the Interreg III B Medocc pro-gramme, financed by the ERDF(2). The objectiveof Mytilos is precisely to use active biomoni-toring, a simple and inexpensive technology,for pollution surveillance in the westernMediterranean. “We are severely lacking inhomogeneous information on the state of con-tamination of this fragile sea, the waters ofwhich are renewed very little owing to itssemi-enclosed structure,” explains CharlotteBlottière, project coordinator at Toulon VarTechnologies, which is organising the Mytilos


Marine reinforcementsThe ocean is in poorhealth. Its immune system is bucklingunder the strain. The fight against pollution, one of themain ailments sappingthe health of our seas,is becoming a Europeanresearch priority. In this fight, researchersare also finding somestrong allies in the formof marine organismsthemselves.

In the Philippines,teams from the Dekontacompany (CZ) are working on bioremediation solutions following the oil spill which struckthe coasts around the Guimaras Straight in 2006.

POLLUTION

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network with scientific coordination byIfremer. “The states that had responsibility inthis area did indeed regularly monitor waterquality. But each used its own monitoringmethodology, defined at national level, whichof course made it impossible to compareresults at trans-regional level.” Biomonitoring consists of using living organisms,in this case mussels, to assess the level ofchemical contamination of a particular envi-ronment. Mussels have been selected as sensorsbecause they are constantly filtering sea water inthe search for the plankton on which they feed.Physiologically they are perfect bio-accumula-tors, as they concentrate the different substancescontained in the oceans – which makes themremarkable tools for measuring chemical con-tamination! “Using mussels as biosensors forpollution measuring was suggested in the1970s, but the first trials used species takendirectly from the environment. This approachposed a number of problems, such as assessingthe original contamination, comparing resultsfrom different species, or the fact that musselswere always naturally available on those partsof the coast where pollution was to be moni-tored,” Charlotte Blottière explains. “To alleviatethese gaps, Mytilos favours active biomonitoring.After locating the sites by GPS, experts placethe artificial stations of mussels themselves,thanks to caging, a system of baskets andanchorings. All the specimens are of the samespecies (Mytilus galloprovincialis) and comefrom the same reference batch, which makesit possible to precisely assess the original con-tamination.” At the end of 2007, an initialsnapshot of contamination levels in the westernMediterranean basin was presented by theMytilos network’s initiators. Even if the resultsdo not diverge fundamentally from those

the world and provides a livelihood to awhole community of small-scale fishermen. “Initially we took soil and water samples atdifferent sites to confirm the existence ofnative bacteria and to determine their abilityto break down oil. The laboratory test resultsshowed that, with the addition of appropriatecatalysts, local microflora could be used. Forexample, in one month, the aquatic bacteriathat had been stimulated in this way had brokendown around 90% of the hydrocarbons,” PetraZackova continues. “We are now working onisolating these bacterial strains, to make suretheir use does not represent any danger to theenvironment. Certain of these organismscould, for example, give off toxins that aredamaging to the overall target ecosystem.”Bioremediation is not a miracle solution, andthe intention is to use it only to complementexisting mechanical and chemical methods ofcombating oil spills. But it does remind us ofthe incredible potential of the oceans, hardly1% of the biodiversity of which has beenrecorded until now.

Julie Van Rossom

(1) Centre of Documentation, Research and Experimentationon Accidental Water Pollution, a French organisation thatis a world reference in its area.

(2) Interreg III B Western Mediterranean Méditerranéeoccidentale (Medocc) is a programme to promote Europeancross-border cooperation. It is supported by the EuropeanRegional Development Fund.


POLLUTION

Mytilos

mytilos.tvt.fr/

Dekonta

www.dekonta.com

Mécanisme européen de protection civile

ec.europa.eu/environment/civil/

obtained previously by national studies, thissystem marks the start of cooperation and astandardisation of pollution monitoring meth-ods at trans-regional level. Mytimed, a similarproject, was also launched in 2006 to extend theexisting network to the eastern Mediterranean.

… to oil-eating bacteria Marine pollution immediately conjures upimages of oil slicks. But whilst the spilling ofcrude oil into the sea represents a serious dangerto the environment, these contaminants havethe one advantage of being biodegradable.This is because certain bacteria strains that arenaturally present in the marine environmentuse oil as a source of carbon and hence ofenergy. The speed of this process variesaccording to the type of crude oil, bacteriaand ecosystem. But communities that dependon the sea for their livelihood cannot sit andwait for nature to act. A little help is some-times necessary to speed up biodegradation.“These organisms exist naturally in most of theenvironments which are polluted by crude oil.By optimising temperature, oxygen concentra-tion and nutrient levels, we can create idealconditions for bacteria to proliferate, whichhas the effect of speeding up biodegradation,”says Petra Zackova, chief laboratory researcherin the Remediation and Environment depart-ment at Dekonta, a Czech company specializingin pollution prevention and absorption. MsZackova has been delegated to the Philippinesvia the Community Mechanism for CivilProtection to advise the local authorities ondifferent forms of bioremediation for tacklingthe oil slick which has been fouling the coastsaround Guimaras Straight since August 2006.With its many mangroves and coral reefs, thisregion contains a biodiversity that is unique in

Biomonitoring undertaken by Mytilos projectresearchers

Monitoring toxic phytoplankton at theCentre Ifremer laboratory at Nantes

Pollution from the Prestige: oil slick reaching Punta Rocundo inGalicia (ES) 2002 and Erika (right) in France in 1999.

© Cèdre© IEO & Ifremer© Ifremer/Olivier Barbaroux © Cèdre


Maritime spaceEvery year, two billion tonnes of freight are loaded

or unloaded at EU ports. In addition to containerhandling, this freight relates to fishing activities,

sea-related services and sometimes shipbuilding. Its growing strategic importance is creating

a situation of under-capacity and a highly competitive climate. Increasing the role of

medium-sized ports could ease the situation andoffer ideal sites for intermodal transport intersections. The combination of different transport modes offersunique economic and ecological benefits. Five times

less costly than road transport, maritime transporttoday handles no less than 90 % of the EU’s foreign

trade and more than 40 % of its internal trade. It also generates around three million jobs in Europe.

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Saint Nazaire (FR). The shipyard is huge,the size of 14 soccer pitches. Alongsidethe dry docks used for construction,lines of cranes and the 70-metre high

gantry tower above the hangars, steel cuttingchains and assembly workshops. Welders areeverywhere, the occasional group pausing for asmoke. Higher up, three men suspended in theirharnesses are putting the finishing touches tothe hull painting. 7 300 people are employed at the 108 hectaresof one of Europe’s oldest shipyards, on thebanks of the Loire. A place where motorisationexperts rub shoulders with bridge partssuppliers, electronics experts and interiorarchitects. Each specialist is there to help fitthe steel skeleton of the Poesia, the futurefloating city 325 metres in length and withaccommodation for up to 6 400 passengersthat is a model of integrated technologies.Orchestrating the subcontractors is AkerYards, the international group that, since 2006,has owned the former Atlantic Shipyard and17 other sites around the world.

Research, shipbuilding’s secret weapon

Testing the Berlioz ferry, Atlantic shipyards (France).

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TRANSPORT

With a European turnover of 13 billion euros in 2006, shipbuilding is a strategic sector. SinceJapan and South Korea captured the market inmass-produced standard vessels, Europe hasfocused on sophisticated manufacture and innovation. Today, however, with China fast ontheir heels, the two Asian countries are starting tobuild cruise ships, a sector in which Europe hasenjoyed a virtual monopoly and the bedrock ofEurope’s shipbuilding industry. Faced with thisthreat, Europe is fighting back with theWaterborne TP – Technology Platform – that unites all the sea transport stakeholders inan attempt to change the way strategic decisionsin research are made, guarantee sustainablecompetitiveness and set a steady course for 2020.

The – distorted – rules of the gameThis grouping of shipyards illustrates theintense competition that governs the market.After World War II, South Korea and Japanbuilt their industrial structure by investing inshipbuilding, a very advantageous field interms of the jobs, technological innovationand foreign currency it generates. However,over-investment by governments distortedinternational competition. In 1999, after havingincreased its production capacities independ-ently of trends in demand, South Koreabecame the number one on the world market. Europe’s shipbuilding industry has borne thefull brunt of these policies, losing 75% of itsshipbuilding jobs in the past three decades.However, thanks to its unique maritime history– from trade routes to geographical conquest –Europe did not go under and retained theadvantage in building complex vessels. As themass production of simple tankers shifted toAsia, so the European workforce specialised inthe construction and fitting of more sophisticatedvessels. This network of subcontractors has succeededin providing a prompt and effective responseto changing demand and high technologies.More than 9 000 external producers – most ofthem SMEs – generate around 70% of the totalproduction. Thanks to them, Europe todaycontinues to dominate market niches for vesselswith a high added value, such as off-shoreplatforms, gas and chemical transporters,dredging vessels, super yachts and above allthe cruise ship market in which it has a virtualmonopoly.

High technology at seaAlthough it may not seem like it, behind thewalls of these cruise ships lies a labyrinth ofcircuits and systems. Dictated by today’s stan-dards in comfort, safety and ecology, systemsproviding air-conditioning – one of the biggestbudgets –, water distribution, food storage,electricity, safety, and computerised manage-ment are all present, as well as wastewatertreatment plants, incinerators and wastecompacting units to avoid the need to dumpwaste at sea. It is very rare for any two vessels leaving ashipyard to be identical. With long productionand refitting schedules – it takes three years tobuild a vessel with a service life of 30 years –,

these giants of the oceans incorporate cleantechnology applications developed on a case-by-case basis. Adaptation to demand requirescontinuous innovation that is very characteristicof the sector. Only a dense, tested and reliableindustrial fabric is able to satisfy the needs ofcustomers very sensitive to late delivery orbudget overruns, as the expenditure involvedrequires forecasting the return on an investmentfrom a vessel which is still in pieces in theshipyard. It is here that Europe’s industrial versatilityoffers an undeniable advantage. AlthoughAsia of course hires the services of foreignengineers, that is not enough to unseat Europewhen it comes to building complex andsophisticated vessels. But for how long? Koreaand Japan have been turning their attentions tocruise ships for the past 15 years. Concerned atChina’s recent entry to the shipbuilding market,the two countries are today confirming theseambitions. Nevertheless, European industrialistsbelieve it will take them at least 10 years toarrive at a finished product. [At the time ofgoing to press, the South Korean shippingconglomerate STX Shipbuilding acquired39.2% of Aker Yards -Ed].

Research at the heart of the battlePascal Monard, head of research and develop-ment at Aker Yards in Saint-Nazaire, explains:“This period of grace does not mean thatEurope can rest on its laurels and the Chineseare clearly planning on completing their firstcruise ship by around 2012-2015. In 2003, atthe time of launching Leadership 2015, (1)

Europe became aware that it would have todefend its position.”A direct descendant of the latter, since 2003the InterSHIP (2) project has been developingthe tools and design and production methodsto remain at the forefront in terms of environ-mental and safety aspects while also improvingprofitability and optimising vessel life cycles.“In Saint-Nazaire”, explains Pascal Monard,“InterSHIP led us to cooperate with otherEuropean shipyards, on combining computersystems for example – the application ofmobile computing at the yards and on boardthe ships. Essentially this means simplifying allthe data and integrating digital and analoguesystems. At present we have already combined15 on-board applications.”


TRANSPORT

A large part of the community – seven ship-yards, parts suppliers, classification companiesand other industries – is already benefitingfrom progress in research thanks to InterSHIP,which has successfully launched horizontaland vertical cooperation and, in October 2007,achieved its competitiveness objective. “Despitethe keen competition in our sector, the cooper-ation has been successful as it related toprocess development which is easier to sharethan applied innovation,” continues PascalMonard. “A network of exchanges and linkshas been created that would have been incon-ceivable a few years ago. Our participation inother projects, such as Flagship (2007-2011) – todevelop an on-board system of aid to decision-making, piloting and safety – is linked directlyto the links created within InterSHIP.” Lookingto the future, he concludes that “InterSHIP hasalso served to define the basis of cooperationfrom 2008.”

An in-depth responseThis new cooperation constitutes goodprogress. But to remain in the global race,Europe must look further. Since 2005, theWaterborne TP has provided a forum forEuropean associations representing compa-nies in each sector – shipowners, repairers,component manufacturers –, the politicaldecision-makers, research institutes, universi-ties and unions. Paris Sansouglou, secretary ofthe platform and of its coordinating body theCESA, (3) describes the goals. “The platform is undertaking a fundamentalreflection to establish and coordinate EuropeanR&D strategy. It involves its participants fromthe strategy definition stage through to theresearch projects that result,” he explains.“That makes it possible to ensure thatEuropean strategy is accepted and supportedby all the players. And, in the face of marketchallenges, to set targets that test the industry’sinnovations. For example, we know that the‘Zero Emission’ target is unachievable as itwould mean that passengers would have tostop breathing! But that does not mean wecannot aspire to the goal.” “Participants describe this new strategy in threedocuments. The first is the common mediumand long term vision, named Vision 2020,which defines three pillars: safe, sustainableand efficient sea transport, a competitive

European waterborne industry, and managingthe growth in transport volumes and changesin trade patterns,” adds Paris Sansouglou. “Onthat basis, the stakeholders evaluate the chal-lenges facing the industry and formulate theactions needed to meet them in the StrategicAgenda for Maritime Research – WSRA, whichsets out the itinerary and stages through to2020. Finally, the WSRA Implementation Plan,the result of this agenda, is still to appear. Thiswill define the projects and participatingmembers,” he continues. This implementation plan includes calls forfunding “very delicate and political projects”,admits Paris Sansouglou, “because they affectthe business sensitivities of each participantin this sector where everything is intercon-nected via subcontracting.” It is through suchapproaches in particular that Waterborne TPseeks to influence research policy at Europeanregional, national and private level.In addition to sensibilities, another difficulty isdeadlines. Long-term research cooperation inthe private sector is not to be taken for granted.At Aker Yards, Pascal Monard confirms this:“the difficulty lies in the synchronisationbetween the economic imperatives, whichapply in the medium term, and imperativesthat stem from the long-term research needs,usually without immediate applications.” Thatis also the view of Paris Sansouglou: “long-termreflection is a general problem for companies.But by dividing up the tasks you obtain bothbetter results and reduced costs for each party.”The stakeholders have no other choice,because innovation is a key to ensuring lastingcompetitiveness in building cruise vessels, thebedrock of European shipbuilding.

Delphine d’Hoop

(1) Group of leading personalities and experts from all areas of the sector in Europe.

(2) Integrated collaborative design and production of cruise vessels, passenger ships and RO-Pax

(3) Community of European Shipyards Association


TRANSPORT

www.cesa.eu

www.intership-ip.com/

www.flagship.be/

www.waterborne-tp.org/

Shipyard in Setubal(Portugal).

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The word ‘port’ is derived from theLatin word ‘portus’ (‘port’ or ‘door’),possibly linked to the older Greekword ‘poros’ or ‘passageway’. Since

Alexandria, or even the Phoenician tradersbefore them, ports have flourished as trade hasexpanded. Later, in the French language, theword ‘port’ was to take on a second meaning;that of the maximum load a ship can carry(‘porter’ in French). Today the semanticsremain unchanged: 6 billion tonnes of rawmaterials (bulk cargo) and other products of allkinds crossed the seas in 2005, representing90% of global goods traffic.

Strategic transport hubsUnderlying the ever-growing demand formaritime transport is the growing internation-alisation of economic life. The invention ofcontainers in the late 1950s facilitated trans-shipment from one form of transport to another.Upon arrival in port, containers are unloadedonto the quayside by gantry cranes and trans-ported onward by road or train. Their standarddimensions and single attachment systemmake them the “intermodal transport unit” parexcellence. Geographic constraints are not the only reasonfor using several forms of transport in succession.


TRANSPORT

Getting ports into gearThe essential role that ports have played in economic life down the ages is obvious to everyone. Ever since the aromas of the spicestraded from the Orient, goods have always lefttheir mark. But with globalisation comes ever-increasing volumes of goods, creating majorlogistics problems. Researchers are looking closelyat intermediate ports as a possible solution, but ideas are still at the prototype stage. Why are research and society having such a hard time understanding each other?Capoeira (1) is deciphering past experience toreduce future risks. But time is pressing, the situation is already critical, and could get worse.

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The lower cost of maritime transport, forexample, is leading freight managers to seriouslyenvisage seaborne solutions. This has ledports to adapt, and certain ports have becomehubs, that is, platforms that centralise anddistribute containers across a country, or evena continent. Road congestion is also working in favour ofintermodal transport. Many businesses andforwarders would like to be able to send car-goes to smaller, city centre ports. Despite thisadvantageous location, shortage of spacegenerally prevents city ports from generatingthe traffic needed to pay for the infrastruc-tures and transhipment facilities that are akey factor in competing with road transport.

Stop knotExisting smaller-sized ports could prove ofunrivalled use in carrying goods to the interiorof countries with lower ecological impact. Buthow do we convince fleet owners to usethem? They look at smaller ports and ask: howcan we shift containers quickly and withoutcongestion on 30-metre wide quays on whichdozens of trucks are running around withoutcongestion or accidents?The Asapp – Automated Shuttle for AugmentedPort Performance – project has found ananswer, based on a concept dreamed up byReggiane, an Italian company: a system forunloading containers onto an intermediateaerial platform doubles the available space.Containers are transported on an automaticshuttle, the performance of which is equal to thatof the heavy vehicles currently used. According

to its designers, the system optimises the uses ofgantry cranes (handling 200 containers/hour),and offers a rapid return on investment. Theidea and the prototype ought therefore tohave seduced port operators and fleet owners.But since the end of the project in 2001, nosingle platform or shuttle derived from Asapphas appeared on Europe's coasts (2)…

Analysis of troubled waters…To understand the fate of the research intoterminal structures, including Asapp, Capoeirauses a conceptual framework which serves tointerpret the strategies of all the playersinvolved: from the initial concept to the pro-posal, to putting together the consortium, tothe project itself and the end-results.Jean-Louis Deyris, one of the coordinators ofthe Asapp project, and himself a former landterminal operator, explains where Asapp gotbogged down: “the research effectively led tothe design of the terminal and the developmentof a shuttle. The prototype, built at Trieste (IT)was even followed by a second – Asapp I – able

to transport three containers simultaneously.But they never went into actual use.”Capoeira, a project financed entirely by theCommission to the tune of € 0.5 million, isexamining the matter until 2008. The firststage of building the future is to examine theearlier projects in order to clarify the reasonsthat condemned them to failure. For MrDeyris, who is also involved in Capoeira,where he is examining methodological issues,“the obstacles encountered constitute a complexset of problems which go beyond the merequestion of costs. We are using a systemic,empirical cross-sector approach to define thecriteria of success or failure. This work isbringing to light the often very diverse factorsinvolved, by looking at the needs of the inter-vening parties – fleet owners, port operatorsand others – and the way research is organisedinside the European Commission. The market,too, has evolved from the days when manu-facturers imposed their products on operatorsto a system that takes players’ demands intoaccount.

TRANSPORT

Europe’s number one port, Rotterdam, handled(in 2005) 9.3 million containers and 396 milliontonnes of freight. The dominance of northernEuropean ports is slowly being eroded by thegrowing activity of southern European ports. Trade with the Far East has placed Valencia,Algeciras and Barcelona among Europe’s top tencontainer ports.

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Port life in figures

Ports are nodal points in the distribution of goods towards internal networks: any hitchhere produces a knock-on effect right down the supply chain. Their importance isexpressed by the fact that 3.5 billion tonnes of goods pass every year through more

than 1000 European ports, that is, 90 % of Europe’s external trade and 43 % of its internal trade.Put end-to-end, the containers used in the process would stretch half way round the world. The Union’s ports are important points of passage, embarking and disembarking over 500 millionpassengers in 2005, including almost two Europeans in three, according to ESPO’s 2006-2007annual report. The ports sector also employs 350 000 people, counting services directly linkedto port activities.Finally, as a coastal environment, an average sized European port is home to 250 sea animalspecies, 70 bird species and 60 types of plants.


TRANSPORT

www.capoeiraproject.com

ec.europa.eu/transport/white_paper/

The activity of Europe’s ports is measured inmillions of TEUs. By way of example, Rotterdam(NL) scores 9.3, Antwerp (BE) 6.5 and Algeciras (ES)3.2. TEU means “twenty foot equivalent unit” and isa reference unit for measuring container transport,based on the normal length of containers (a littleover 6 metres).

…and a lack of cooperationThe inability of the different parties involvedto sit round a table and work together has sur-faced as one of the main reasons why initia-tives have been stillborn. “Ports are competingto acquire and retain their traffic.Notwithstanding a few very rare projects thatbring together seven or eight parties, the ruleis clearly that each port closely guards its ownknow-how. Some even have their own engi-neering departments. In other highly competi-tive sectors like aviation or the automotiveindustry, however, research is conducted jointlyby several players, with competition limited toeach player’s specific applications,” Mr Deyriscontinues. On top of this, consultation betweensocial partners in certain countries leaves muchto be desired.This project analysis stage led to a series ofrecommendations, presented in Paris on 19October. “The entire port community is eagerlyawaiting the results,” Mr Deyris tells us. “Thisis because, before building forecast scenarios,

we took the necessary time to analyse theexisting situation.” And this, despite the cryingneed for progress in Europe’s ports.

Approaching stormEurope is lagging behind the rest of the world.Its biggest ports have been unable to expandfast enough to absorb the exponential rise inexports from Asia. At Rotterdam in particular,extension work has been blocked by envi-ronmental disputes. This has led to chaoticcongestion, delayed deliveries, or even shipsbeing turned away owing to lack of berths,inevitably undermining the confidence ofpartner ports. During the first quarter, 73% ofcontainers were unloaded behind schedule.And all this despite that fact that, according tothe European Sea Port Organisation (ESPO),maritime transport is set to double between2006 and 2015. By way of temporary conclusion, Mr Deyrisstates that: “there are major and very difficultrevisions to be made, like building ports on the

open sea, with the ensuing new distributionlogistics. But neither research nor the marketare sufficiently mature today to look to suchhorizons – even if recently the trend seems tobe reversing, with the major ports showing adesire to join current or future projects.”

DDH

(1) Coordinated Action of Ports for integration Of EfficientInnovations and development of adequate Research,development and innovation Activities.

(2) However, trials will soon be carried out in a majorEuropean port.

Ports, gateways to “motorways” of the sea

Every year, traffic jams block 10 % of Europe’s road network, and cause the loss of 0.5 % of ourGDP. In the EU15 alone, freight transport is expected to increase 70 % between now and2010. Roads, with their infrastructure costs, their impact on the landscape and their 90 %

share of total CO2 emissions from the transport sector, have passed saturation point, clogging thewheels of the “transport machine”. A reorganisation is imperative. This is the objective of the Motorways of the Sea project of DG Environment and Transport, focusedon short-distance maritime transport. This form of transport, which is gaining in importance – over25 % between 1995 and 2002 – is safer, more fluid, more economic in fuel costs and also morecompetitive in terms of time and cost than most road itineraries, in particular for avoiding naturalobstacles like mountain chains. The fruit and vegetables leaving Spain every year on 60 000 trucksbound for Ireland and England could save 600 to 1200 km travelling by sea.But these perishable products cannot wait a single day on the quayside. Maritime transport needsto be able to intensify its services to absorb the continuous flow of goods arriving by road, rail andwater. Developing navigation – 30% of the FP6 research budgets in the maritime sector – becomes inthis way part of a wider perspective, embracing all forms of transport and the way they interconnect.The multimodal approach - intermodal when we speak of containers - is one of the keys to EUpolicy. It requires us to rethink the entire transport management system, obviously to increasethe frequency of maritime services, but also to define genuine logistic chains that channel transportflows towards a limited number of target ports providing access to the motorways of the sea. Fourmain corridors have already been designated, in the Baltic Sea, in western Europe, in south-eastEurope and in south-west Europe.

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Herald of Free Enterprise, Erika,Prestige… Names that evoketerrible memories of disaster,with loss of human life, polluted

beaches and oiled seabirds. Never again! Yetaccidents continue to happen at sea all toofrequently, sometimes bringing environmentaldisaster and loss of life and sometimes not.Fishermen are particularly exposed to risk,with an occupational mortality rate of worryingproportions: around 2 for every 1 000, whilein other risk sectors, such as construction andmining, it is “only” 0.3 for every 1 000. Veryoften it is a lack of communication betweenships that is to blame.

The AIS, everywhere at all timesTo combat this problem, the European Commis -sion proposes to extend the AIS (AutomaticIdentification System) obligation to all boats andfishing vessels more than 15 metres long,whereas the International Maritime Organisationonly makes this compulsory for cargo vesselswith a laden volume of more than 300 GrossRegistered Tonnage – or 849 m³ – and for allpassenger ships. But what exactly is the AIS?This identification system consists of an auto-matic message exchange device using veryhigh frequency (VHF) radio waves. Connectedto the vessels other navigational devices –position, speed, change of course indicators,

etc. – the AIS automatically emits a series ofdata at regular intervals enabling other vesselsand surveillance systems based on the coast topinpoint their precise position. It also providesadditional information on cargo, size, destina-tion, etc. At the same time, the AIS incorporatesthe same information from any vessels crossingtheir path at proximity. “This system clearly makes it possible toimprove safety at sea,” says Gabriele Mocci,head of high frequency maritime telecommu-nication studies at the Telespazio centre(IT).“But to make it more efficient, this systemmust be extended to apply globally and on allvessels.” It is precisely this generalisation thatthe Commission plans to impose, at least atEuropean level.

MarNIS for integrated management“But at the same time, thanks to the MarNISresearch programme,” explains its coordinator,Cas Sillems, “the Commission plans to furtherdevelop the potential of the AIS.”Launched in November 2004 in cooperationwith more than 40 partners – includingTelespazio – in 13 European countries,MarNIS has set itself the ambitious goal ofimproving global security in European waters.“To achieve this, telecommunication systemscan play a major role,” stresses the MarNIScoordinator. “In particular, we are trying tocombine as best we can the information sup-plied by the LRIT (Long Range Identificationand Tracking) systems, positioning systemssuch as GPS and Galileo, and cartographicdisplay systems. By integrating all these dataand presenting them in the form of a graph ona single interface, sea traffic can be generatedby a single operations centre, a kind of singlecontrol tower, similar to what we have inaviation.”

Matthieu Lethé

(1) ESPO – European Sea Port Organisation.


NAVIGATION

A sea traffic control tower

According to the ESPO, (1) more than three and a half billion tonnes of merchandise passthrough Europe’s 1 200 sea ports every year. At any one time, 20 000 vessels are navigatingour coastline. This creates a considerable logistics headache for sea traffic controllers as this dense traffic generates a major flow of information that is exchanged between thevessels themselves as well as with the coastalauthorities. Since November 2004, the MarNIS – Maritime Navigation and Information Services– research programme has been trying to rationalise and organise these flows to limit the risk of accident.

www.marnis.org

Antarctic amphipod

AWI I Alfred Wegener Institute(DE)With its enormous expertise inpolar research, the Bremerhaven-based Alfred Wegener Institutecoordinates all Germany’s researchin the area, and manages much ofthe research work being carriedout in the Arctic and Antarcticoceans. It is a driving force behindPolarstern, a mammoth ice-breakerwhich has just spearheaded thefirst in-depth biological explorationof the Antarctic seabeds. (see Research*eu 52).

www.awi.de/de/

DOP/Universitade dos Açores IDepartment of oceanographyand fisheries (PT)Full of as yet unexploited wealth,the Azores are attracting oceano-graphic researchers of every kind.Research at the DOP/UAç focuseson describing, experimenting withand modelling ocean systems. TheArquipélag’s young Azorean crew isworking hard to better understand

the dynamics of the Atlantic, and tocompare its biology, physics,chemistry and geology with thoseof the other ocean regions of theworld.

www.horta.uac.pt/

ICES I International Council forthe Exploration of the Sea (DK)ICES coordinates and promotesmarine research in the NorthAtlantic and other adjacent seaslike the Baltic and the North Sea.The organisation serves as a rallyingpoint for more than 1 600 scientistsfrom 20 north Atlantic countries. Itsprimary objective is to gather asmuch information as possibleabout the marine ecosystem and tofill existing gaps in our knowledge.

www.ices.dk/

IEO I Instituto Español de Oceanografía (ES)This multidisciplinary research cen-tre concentrates mainly on problemsderiving from resource exploitationand pollution. Through its researchand consultancy activities, the IEOis contributing to developing andmaintaining industrial, social andeconomic activities linked to thesustainable use of the oceans.

www.ieo.es

The zone of Storegga, on theNorwegian continental margin.

IFREMER I Institut français de recherche pour l’exploitationde la mer (FR)This spearhead of French marineresearch is working on 25 sites alongFrench and overseas coastlines. Itsprimary missions are promoting thesustainable exploitation and eco-nomic development of oceanresources, as well the surveillanceand protection of the coastalmarine environment.

www.ifremer.fr

IOPAN I Institute of OceanologyPolish Academy of Sciences (PL)IOPAN is Poland’s largest marinescience institute. In 2003, the EUgranted it Centre of Excellence sta-tus for research into the continent’sseas. IOPAN operates mainly in theBaltic Sea, the north Atlantic andthe European Arctic regions.

www.iopan.gda.pl

Scientific vessel Pelagia.

NIOZ I Royal NetherlandsInstitute for Sea Research (NL)Founded in 1876, NIOZ is one ofEurope’s oldest oceanographicinstitutes. Working closely withphysicists, chemists, geologists andbiologists, it seeks to undertakemultidisciplinary research aimed


OCEANOGRAPHIC RESEARCH

FINAL MARK: EXCELLENTAs the first ever event of its kind, in June 2007 the EurOcean(1) conferenceassembled eminent figures from European marine research to examinetogether the role of marine sciences and technologies in Europe. Europeboasts world-level skills in oceanography and the associated data pro-cessing that it needs to maintain and develop. This is resulting in increasedcoordination at European level between specialist national institutionsand ambitious new research programmes. Below is a list of some of themain pillars of European oceanographic excellence, all of which are settingvery high standards.

essentially at the continental coastsand seas. As far as possible it seeksto play a catalyst role in politicaland social decisions.

www.nioz.nl

Research diver.

NOCS I National OceanographicCentre Southampton (UK)Working from a waterfront campus,NOCS is one of the world’s five largestmarine institutes. Its 520 scientistsmanage a national oceanographicresearch fleet and strategic pro-grammes for the NERC (NationalEnvironmental Research Council). TheNOCS also promotes knowledgetransfer by sharing its expertise withthe government, business andpublic utilities.

www.noc.soton.ac.uk

The polar bear behind the logo of an institute concerned with climatechange and ice melting.

NERSC I Nansen Environmentaland Remote Sensing Center (NO)The NERSC seeks to better under-stand, monitor and forecast ecolog-ical and climate fluctuations on aregional and global scale. Particularfocus points are ocean modelling,data assimilation, remote detectionand climate research.

www.nersc.no/main

(1) www.eurocean2007.com/

© Ifremer/Vicking 2006

© Cédric d’Udekem d'Acoz

© Stein Sandven, NERSC.

© NIOZ

© NOCS

Greenpeace, the agitatorA genuine activist for the preservation of theplanet, Greenpeace openly denounces thehooligans of the seas and confronts them withtheir wrongdoings. Its talent lies in its ability toreach citizens directly via powerful high mediaprofile initiatives. Its spectacular campaignsagainst whaling in Japan, with militantsprotecting whales by placing themselves in the harpooners’ direct line of fire, have becomea Greenpeace trademark.

Since 2002, the ship Esperanza – so named by Greenpeace’s cyberactivists – has beenpursuing very specific missions like thecampaign against the killing of dolphins bytrawlermen in the English Channel or bottomtrawling in the north Atlantic. On the last World Ocean Day (8 June 2007),Greenpeace put forward three priority themesin its awareness-raising campaign:safeguarding heavily overexploited bluefintuna stocks, informing consumers of the needto diversify the number of species being eaten,and creating a vast network of marine reservescovering 40 % of the oceans, which wouldmake it possible to revive ecosystems andreconstitute marine populations.

oceans.greanpeace.org/fr/

WWF, the diplomat WWF (World Wide Fund for Nature) is the largestindependent nature conservation organisationin the world and, as such, is heavily involved insustainable development. Its groups of expertsare at work in over 40 countries, payingparticular attention to twenty or so marineeco-regions, including the ice caps of the farnorth and coral reefs. To better carry out itsmission, WWF has set up a European PolicyOffice in Brussels that acts as a catalyst ofinfluences, able to affect the direction ofdecision-making at European level. By adopting a cross-sectoral vision of marinepreservation, WWF aligns itself with – or ratherserves as inspiration to – Europe's newmaritime strategy and is working closely withscientists, fishermen, economists, lawyers,lobbyists and other communication experts to pursue its own maritime programme.In 2002, WWF launched a campaign aimed atchanging Europe’s Common Fisheries Policy. Its objectives are the introduction of a highlysustainable fisheries system and the creation of protected marine zones covering 10 % ofoceans by 2020.

www.worldwidelife.org/oceans/

Friends of the Earth International, the nexus Since 1969, the world’s largest ecologistnetwork, covering 70 countries, has beenmobilising people to tackle currentenvironmental problems, viewed in acombined economic, social and politicalcontext. These friends of the earth act in fact asa sort of confederation of different groupings,each retaining its individual autonomy of action.You will find Friends of the Earth at largepopular events (music festivals, non-violentdemonstrations), distributing informationwhich is intended to be pertinent and able tobring together people from different horizons.By working to create joint initiatives withvoluntary associations, trade unions and othersocial movements that share its objectives, FoE makes citizens aware of the active role theycan play in preserving the environment. For example, since 1992, its Mediterraneanprogramme MedNet has brought togethermember organisations from Croatia, France,Italy, Spain, Tunisia and the Middle East toreinforce the different ecological movements in the Mediterranean basin. In the longer term,MedNet hopes to develop a tourism model,organise waste management in the region, and highlight – by 2010 – the negative impactsof introducing a Euro-Mediterranean free trade zone.

www.foeeurope.org/

(1) www.euractiv.com


NGOS

PRICKING OUR CONSCIENCES

Their activities, marked by passion andhumanity, sway public opinion. According toa recent Euractiv (1) survey, non-governmentalorganisations (NGOs) are the most effectivecommunicators to give depth to the debatebetween the EU and its citizens. They havebecome veritable lobbyists, capable of putting pressure on political authorities andcompany executives to achieve their objectives. When the blue planet is in dangeris in danger, the most emblematic NGOssound the alarm bell.

The Esperanza approaching Sydneyin its war against whalers.

Defenders of theocean – a few of themanySeas at Riskwww.seasatrisk.orgEuropean Bureau for Conservation & development (EBCD)www.ebcd.orgFondation Nicolas hulot « Planète eau »www.planete-eau.orgCoastal Union www.eucc.netOceaniawww.oceania.orgDeepwavewww.deepwave.org

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2 630 metres below sea level in the eastern Pacific, Victor 6000 is taking

samples and measurements from a hydrothermal spring. This remote-controlled

submersible robot, belonging to Ifremer, was a key player in the Phare 2002

campaign, helping researchers analyse how biological communities living in these

hot environments, discovered in the late 1970s (temperatures in certain springs go

as high as 350°C), function. Since then, Victor 6000 has gone on to new tasks.

In 2006, laden with eight cameras, it explored the subterranean life in and

around hydrothermal vents on the mid-Atlantic ridge south of the Azores during

the Momareto expedition.

SCIENCE IMAGEKI-A

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Victor and the hot springs

Documents

special issue December 2007 researcheu · Cyrus Pâques, François Rebufat, ... 41 A sea traffic control tower ... the vast volume of information transmitted between ships and the