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SOUTH PACIFIC COMMISSION

SOUTH PACIFIC CONFERENCE

RESTRICTED SP, Con. l/s 17th April, 1950.

SOUTH PACIFIC COMMISSION

FIRST SESSION

INTRODUCTORY PAPER ON

FISHERIES METHODS IN TEE SOUTH PACIFIC TERRITORIES

Agenda Item 7 (A)

Prepared by

M,H. LEGAND,-Oceanographer, F r e n c h ' I n s t i t u t e of Oceania,

Noumea, New Caledonia,

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,,ML, ,J. ' t If < ,i sjGh*

FISHERIES METHODS IN THE SOUTH PACIFIC TERRITORIES

INTRODUCTION

The French T e r r i t o r i e s of the South Pac i f i c , t he only ones cr ns idered in t h i s r e p o r t , a re s u f f i c i e n t l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the whole of the Sou th 'Pac i f i c i s l a n d s . In f a c t , New Caledonia, a t the Western end of the Ocean, on the Eas te rn border of t he Coral Sea, i s a la rge i s l a n d of Melanesia, while t h e French Establ ishments of Oceania form the most important Western group of Po lynes ia , We s h a l l not mention 'here the New Hebrides , and Wall is and Futuna I s l a n d s , on which we have no d i r e c t documentat ion.

We w i l l see t h a t , between the two t e r r i t o r i e s mentioned t h e r e a re very important d i f f e r ences , r e l a t e d t o t h e i r geographical a spec t and t h e i r l i f f e r en t popula t ion . I t i s indeed enough, i n order t o - f o r e s e e these d i f fe rences , t o th ink of t h i s ' t r u i s m : in a large i s land , t h e e a r t h i s more important , mid in a small one, the sea more a t t r a c t i v e . The degree 'o f r ichness and e x p l o i t a t i o n of the lagoon is a l so a p r i m o r d i a l ' f a c t o r , Prevalence of cora l or off shore deep waters means the prevalence of l i n e on n e t , while muddy bottoms, wide r i v e r e s t u a r i e s and mangroves have t he opposi te e f f e c t . Let us a l s o note t h a t t he Polynesian i s much more of a fisherman and of a s a i l o r than the Melanesian9

To these constant f a c t o r s , we w i l l add t h a t , t he smal ler a lagoon near inhab i t ed sho res , the more l i k e l y i t i s to be heav i ly e x p l o i t e d , or ovon nea r ly exhausted. We now have the most important genera l c h a r a c t e r ­i s t i c s ^

FISHING IN THE FRENCH ESTABLISHMENTS OF OCEANIA

I . Gonoral c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

(a) Physica l and Geographical Condi t ions ,

The s i t u a t i o n of the French Establ ishments of Oceania gives t o the e x p l o i t a t i o n of the sea general f ea tu res which are fundamentally , d i f f e r e n t from what we w i l l observe for New Caledonia,

This group of i s l a n d s , s c a t t e r e d approximately from 8? to 28° S and from 132° t o 155 ° W,, includes very d i s s imi l a r formations j They a r e , in t he main, t he a t o l l s , d i s t i n c t i v e of t h e Tuamotu, the Socie ty I s l a n d s , surrounded by a b a r r i e r ree f very c lose t o the shore, t h e Marquesas w i t h t h e i r shores widely opened t o the ocean. In addition,, the d i s s i m i l a r i t y of physico-chemical c o n d i t i o n s , r e s u l t i n g from the wide dispersion* of these i s l a n d s , such as s a l i n i t y and water or a i r temperature , p r e v a i l i n g cu r ren t s , d i f fe rences of popu la t ion - ve ry no t i ceab le for ins tance between the Marquesas and the Socie ty I s lands - t oge the r with the h ighly v a r i a b l e condi t ions under which these a rch ipe lagoes are connected wi th each other and open to the ou ts ide world, have cons iderably influenced the f i sh ing methods used t he r e and the use made of sea p roduc t s . The abundance of pe lag ic f i shes i s c o n t r o l l e d by the ex i s t ence of the th ree main branches of the South Equa to r i a l Current , which run through or around the Marquesas, the Southernmost branch then ba th ing t h e Cent ra l Tuamotu and the Socie ty I s l a n d s , and of another cu r r en t , much f a r the r South, going towards the Gambler and Aus t r a l I s l a n d s ,

Outside of the g r e a t a t o l l s of the Tuamotu, such as Rangiroa or Makemo, lagoon f i sh ing i s n o t very important , a t l e a s t as far as product ion

• I V \ ' • Ill ,1

« 2 «

is concerned, and in the most unfavourable ca ses , the f ishermen have turned towards the o p e n s e a , p a r t i c u l a r l y in some i s l ands wi thout channels , and i n the Marquesas; a l l in te rmedia tes are anyway p o s s i b l e between those two s i t u a t i o n s ,

This is the g rea t b a s i c d i s s i m i l a r i t y with. New Caledonia , which is s t i l l fur ther s t r e s s e d by the f a c t t h a t seme lagoons , though small and consequently poor, are heav i ly e x p l o i t e d .

(b ) The Species, captured.-

We w i l l ch i e f l y l i m i t ourselves here t o a r e fe rence t o t h e genus of the p r i n c i p a l species f i shed for, and t h e i r names in the ve rnacu l a r .

In the open saa , the Bonito (Euthynnus polamis L , ) (Auhopu) and Tuna (flormo maoropterus Sch , ) (Aahi) l a r g e l y ' p r e v a i l w i t h sometimes the g roa t p r e d a t o r , " t h e swordfish (g , I s t i o p h o r u s , Ore ft g. Tet rapturuf i , Ihe raha) and Coryphoena (Mahi^mahTK Flying f i s h "(g» Cypse lurus) •(l\£rara7 i s sometimes sought" "for, while another species of l!BonrEb"'r, se"larom~caught (Euthynnus a l l o t t e r n t u s Rufa) (Otava) comes more e a s i l y ins ide tha lagoon^ S i m i l a r l y , t he " tazard" (Soanthooybium s o l a n d r i Cuv,) (Paere) i s t aken c lose r t o t h e reef "bar r i e r . Various s p e c i e s of the genus"'B'aranx (Autea' Gpiure, Pao_, Paaihere , P_ahur_u) are found i n s i d e and ou ts ide the lago'onj n e a r l y everywhere, and are captured i n a v a r i e t y of ways,

Hear t h e channels , above s lopes from 100 t o 200 m e t r e s , on the o u t s i d e , are caught the Gempylidae (Promothichtys prometheus G» ) (Mana) (.Ruvettus p re t io sus Cocco) (Ur_avena) , I t i s very o f ten ' i n t h e cuts i n the b a r r i e r reef, where i t joins the shore on "both s i d e s , t h a t the Deoaptorua santaeholenao Cuv. ' {Operu) and t h e Solar crumenophtolmnus Bl0 T7rturb.r"0~rare,) are looTrod f o r 0

I t i s impossible t o give here even the e s s e n t i a l s p e c i e s . f i shed in the lagoon. One can p r a c t i c a l l y say t h a t anything t h a t swims i s caught and eaten, with r ega rd only for s i z e and p o s s i b l e t o x i c i t y ,

Here are the most i n t e r e s t i n g fami l ies j

Chanidae (ffnanos ohanos F o r s k . ) (ATO) of which smal l and medium s ized specimen"aire very f requent i n marshes and brackish , w a t e r s , the b i g g e s t be ing caught i n very s a l t y w a t e r s ,

Mugilidae (Tohu)

Sphyraenidae (Pajie, Ono)

Hemiramphidae

Belonidae

Muraenidae

Holocentridao - g . Holocentrum (feunauna) - g, M y r i p r i s t i s ' _ ( M i )

Carangidae (see above)

Serranidae — g . Epinephelus (Hajru, Red)

Upeneidae (Faia, Oma) very f requent along the s h o r e .

Chaotodontidae - g . Chaetodon, Anisochaetodon, (Paraha) (Kerai)

Hepatidae - g, Hepatus (Pa ra i , Maito_) g . Hepatus t r i o s t e g u s J.Ev, • (Manini) g . Maso XTe.t±, UnieJ.

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Lutjanidae (Mu)

Labridae with'occasionally very big species like the Mara, and a number of variegated species Xg.Thalassoma) (Pou) (g.Bpibulus) (Bapae_)

Scaridae -widely represented and often caught (Pahoro, Gavere, Kutu, Tej^Usgaj g. Callyodon)- '

Pomacentridae (g. Pomacentrus, Abudofduf, Dasoyllua)

Balistidae (Balistes) (Oiri)

Ostraciidae (Momou)

Diodontidae (g. Piodon) (£otar_a)

I I . Fishing Methods and Implements

(a) Boats

The fishermen, in view of their various techniques, have to use various types of boats. Outside the lagoon, and in tha areas -where tuna and bonito find a sufficient market, which moans prxmarily in Papeete, and in a secondary way in Raiatea for instance, are to bo found small launchos, from 2 to 7 tons, equipped with a Diesel engine. Officially, from informat­ion kindly supplied by the Seaboard Office, Papeete, there were 71 boats with fishing commissions in tho French Establishments of Oceania, in 1950. In fact, thero are probably not 50 actually working, of which nearly half for Fapeote,

In the Tuomotus, a number of cut ters , generally not over 15 to SO tons, are omployod in large lagoons for the transport of copra, and may sometimes bo used for fishing; tho same applies to the big whaleboats used in tho Marquesas,

But i t is not possible to give even a rough astLwito of tho number cf outrigger canoes, small or big, which go fishing in every island*

We show here some pictures of the principal types of t h i s kind of oraft . Their appearance is always more or less the sarno. Tho materials they are bu i l t of essent ia l ly depond on local resources, That is why, in a number of lagoons in the Tuamotus, canoes ent i rely made of boards are to be found, those boards being obviously easier to transport on the schooners than troo trunks,

The canoe is usually dug out of a purao (Hibiscus t i l i aceus ) or uru (Arthocarpus inoisa) , sometimes evon a coconut t roo . I t can bo f i t t ed with high or low plank sides, which are often sewn. The outrigger, usually made of purao, becauso of i t s l ightness, is held to tho body of the canoo, and at the fore end, by a well shaped piece of wood, which protrudes on the other side of the eanoo, and is t ied in place. But a t the stern, in every case, there is only a curved branch of some l i the, tough wood (Orange or lemon t ree for instance,) which has not boon shaped, and is intended to leave enough f lex ib i l i ty to the systom formed by tho canoo and outrigger, The paddles used are variously shaped. Lot us also note that a number of canoes in the Tuamotu lagoons aro provided with a support for an outboard motor, this pioce of equipment seeming to be very popular in French Oceania, Their general lin&s may also change according to the use for which they are intended, a canoo made of planking, with a f l a t bottom indicating for instance tho prevalence of copra t ransport . In the Tahiti peninsula area, wo find very large purao canoes, 5 or 6 metres long, pot-bellied', with inside planking, which are intended to handle the heavy ature ne t s , •

Wo wi l l limit ourselves here to these superficial data on canoes, as numerous ethnologists have described them with great precision,

..'.'. ' - 4 -

The' canoes; are of ten equipped w i t h a screen and b r a c k e t t o hold 'a lamp for n igh t f i s M n g . The lamps used a r e sometimes simple t o r c h e s , made'of bambdo f i l l e d i V i t h any inflammable l i q u i d and s tu f f ed a t t h e open end with, sacking; bu t • ijjpra., o f ten now, kerosene or gaso l ine commercial lamps.

Befpre^we'follow the canoe to i t s work, l e t us say a ' f e w w r r d s on an important t rad i t iona ; ] . element, The Tah i t i an ca l enda r gave numerous references t o the ' inajn"passages of f i s h e s . These were r e l a t e d wi th an empir ical knowledge•;offtho v a r i a t i o n s of t h e small c u r r e n t s in t h e lagoon, which.means, of the; '1 'd is t r ibut ion of the fauna in connect ion wi th t h e t i d e » In ac tua l p r a c t i c e , the Tah i t i an fisherman always knows approximate ly a t what time and placti lie;JL;S;; l i k e l y t o f ind t h i s or t h a t spocios of f i s h i n a 'given' s ec t ion of .thoVlagcfaji,

'': (b ) :.'•.Elshing-.'gas.!?,':&.-its •• us e

Line F.is,h:ing^ij . Hook and l ino f i sh ing techniques are v a r i e g a t e d in French• Oceania. ,;;TKbsp :concerning Tuna and boni to should be desc r ibed

•"'first,./;;;';: 'f'l '.• '>v;;-rtB.;¥';:''-'••

•;"•'• The' smail?&unches which f i s h for tuna and above a l l for bon i to a t Papeete, and whose; c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s wo have seen above, are u s u a l l y manned by two or three; men, • '.'••".;-Their s t e r n end, having no dock, i s s u f f i c i e n t l y open

,.tcr make i t pos s ib l e ; ' t phand lG the f i s h e a s i l y * They always go out for one :; d a y ' o n l y ' . . •• : ';...•'.•:, ;':/;; •';/>• ?; ^l:':.;

"'..•• ; Ti ie" f i sh ing ; implement most of ten used i s the ' ' ^ j t a u ' ^ _a auho£u" • (bonito hook); i t ikj'a l u r s cut i n the mother of pearl 'of""a p o a r l o y s t e r , . vaguely shaped; l ike ' 'avfish, as i n d i c a t e d i n the p l a t e s ; t h i s l u r e i s

trimmed a t i t s ; d i s t a l - end wi th a bunch of f ea the r ba rbs or c a t t l e h a i r , forming; a s o r t - o f ' b r u s h y The hook, bound on the lu re i s u s u a l l y a more :metal hook, :often'tnktie ;pf b r a s s , without b a r b , and very open; hooks made iof bpne are frequehtly^o'ELQUgh found i n the Tuamotus, The whole i s t i e d on ;, ;&:,;metal;'or cotton,;leader'^:y';-

Mother off p e a r l can be good or bad: according to the s h o l l i t ' was cut; from, t h i s ' l i r f t l i a t mother of p e a r l w i l l c a t ch f i s h or n o t . Up t o ; da te , t h i s seems-to^ba 'determined only by t r i a l and e r r o r „ I t s glimmers in

the 'wa te r , i t s dartsity^V which aro v a r i a b l e f a c t o r s , may'be considered as poss ib le reasons for t h i s f a c t . The genera l ' appea rance , i n a c t i o n i s t h a t of

: a- small wounded f i sh w h i r l i n g on the sur face , which i s obviously vory ' a t t r a c t i v e for p reda to r s , ;

AS soon a$ t hey are out of t h e Papeete channel, from 6 t o 8 a.m, the small boats / 'bruise; along t h e T a h i t i shoro, most o f t en from Paea p o i n t to Mount Venus, and.', a long the South Bastorn shoro of Moorea; the f ishermen scan, the sky a t t e n t i v e l y . As soon as an important c o n c e n t r a t i o n of b i r d s i s reportod off shoro , forming a t h i c k and noisy cloud, r i s i n g , d iv ing , f loa t ing on the. s u r f a c e , t hen on the i n i t i a t i v e of a few, going i n a body tp another p o i n t , ' t h e . ; launch speeds i n i t s d i r e c t i o n . The appearance of the b i rd s gives an ' idea ' of the importance and i n t e r e s t of the s choo l ; i f they go here' and t h e r e , i t means t h a t the f i sh i s not on the su r faco , or is s c a t t e r e d ; anyway, i t w i l l be a poor ca t ch , A good school , on the other hand, w i l l 'stay for a long t ime i n compact formation, and the birdG w i l l s t a y w i t h - i t , amidst an i n f e r n a l no i se , going down and r i s i n g almost a t the same p l ace , very concen t r a t ed , diving unceas ingly on the wounded preys , i n the middle of hunting sharks and swordf i shes . In one hour or l e s s , the launch w i l l catch severa l scores of b o n i t o e s , sometimes a hundred or

'more, and i t s work day i s over,

As soon, as the boat a r r i v e s i n t h e school , t h e sho r t bamboo poles 2 to 4 metres long are taken o u t . According t o the s i z e of the f i s h , two poles w i l l be used, he ld by two men, and r igged oh the same l i n e . A shor t cotton l i n e , secure ly fas tened , t r o l l s the mo the r -o f -pea r l b a i t immediately as te rn , on t h e sur face , and the fishermen w a i t for b i t e s . The f i sh i s immediately l i f t e d , thrown i n t o t h e boa t , where, owing to the l ack of barb and the open curvo o f ' t h e hook, i t unhooks i t s e l f ; i t i s k i l l e d , g u t t e d , the

I

- 5 -gi l ls are taken off, and i t is put on end in a sort of wooden frame j i f need be, i t is covered with dried coconut fronds« The launch c i rc les in this way at very slow speed over the school as long as i t stays near the surface, following'it in i t s movementso« Sometimes, a b i t of flotsam is found, a t ree limb, a coconut frond, under which are a number of small ature, i t is l i f ted aboard, and the small fry comes under the boat for ihelTor and follow i t in i t s slow movements. If the bonitoes aro hungry, i t is the most eff icient ba i t known, and they w i l l follow the boat of the i r own accordo

This technique is sometimes used with canoes, chiefly in the islands without channels, such as Fangatau or Pukapuka,

We must mention'here the technique described a t length by EQPITEAU for Tuna fishing, used un t i l recently at Maupiti. Two large canoes are coupled, forming the Vaa t ana t i , and equipped with a forked pole (tii-a) which makes i t theoret ical ly "possible to use four l ines , although only one is used in actual pract ice . This fork is rigged with l ines which were., in the past mado of mulberry or purao bark, or of pla i ted coconut palm fibe'rs, tipped with a mother of pearl lure or a mere hook made with a n a i l , A quantity of oma aro placed in a live box made of pla i ted fern stems (haapee). A d~zen people take part in the venture undor the leadership of a fishing leader (tahua) preferably at daybreak. The Tahua chums frequently as soon as they get out of tho channel. When tuna or boniTTo are reported, he chums again heavily. in the wake of the boat, which gathers speed, then lightly, so as to hold the fish without sat ia t ing i t , Bonitoes are caught with tho r ig described above. Tuna, being much heavier, are handled with the slanted t i r a j riggod with a metal hook baitod with a small oma hooked through the head, which f loats a l i t t l e under the surface. The §tir_a_ is brought back to the ver t i ca l by means of an improvised purchase. The fish is seized, stunned and unhooked0

In Tahiti , tuna is also caught in another vei-y or iginal way, This method is used to f ish tho few "tuna holes" of the island, chiefly in Punaauia and Paea, These'fishing grounds, located with the aid of known bearings, and generally not very vast , are probably terraces 100 to 200 m, in width on the slope from the reef to the abyssos between Moorea and 1aKiti„ They are very near to tho channels of tho Tahitian lagoon, and' i t sooms they are related with the t ida l currents in theso. A canoe somewhat bigger than usual inside the lagoon is used,, Tho hook, of commercial type, large size, is fixed on a cotton lino without sinker, from 2 to 300 m, . long, wound in a b a l l , Before casting off, tho fishermen, one or two for each canoe, make a provision of round stones, s l ight ly f l a t on tho s ides, ono or two kilos in weight, which they choose'carefully on the part of the shore where the waves from the open sea breaks The line is baited oither with ature or with small oma, of which two or three are hooked through the head. The hook being baited is thon fixed f l a t on a rock, by two or three turns of the l ine . The whole is covered with a real hash of atur_e flesh, which is kopt together by winding tho line very t ight around i t j th i s is terminated with a s l ip-knot , Tho whole is thrown overboard and lino is paid according to depth, from 60 to 200 m0, un t i l a r e s u l t is obtained, or unt i l the edge of tho slope is reached without any catch being made,,

The f ish hash disintegrates on the way down, forming chum. When tho bottom is reached, the l ine is disengaged, if i t is needed, by a few tugs, and then a heavy cloud of chum must be produced, while the hook, not weighted, slowly comes up. Anyway, the fish bi tes near the bottom, as, when the bi te has not occurred in a few minutes, the spot is considered as unproductive and the operation is resumed a l i t t l e fa r ther ,

This kind of fishing is practiced by day, a l l the year round according to some people, in summer say others . Anyway, i t seems to be more productive when practiced regularly by several fishermen from the same center, the f i sh being at t racted by the chumming result ing from the i r fro^uont v i s i t s . An average of one or two fishes per canoe is taken, seldom more, but they are big tunas weighing from 2 5 to 50 k i l o s . They are

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killed with a spear if need he, hefore they are •boated,

Among the main hook and lino fishing techniques, we wi l l now describe uravena and mana fishing, which is quite similar to the l a s t one as far'as~Tishing grounds are concerned. It is s t i l l practiced in several places, in particular in tho two d i s t r i c t s alroady mentionod of Punaauia and Paoa, 'The hook used has not chango'd much in i t s shape and is often shown in museums. It is a fork of Tory hard wood, of variable length; usually around 20 cm. one of tho branches t ied to a strong metal loader, the other, shorter, .being rigged with a copper or iron hook, widoly open, barbless, and securoly fastened with metal wiroe Tho rig is completed by a cotton lino roughly 200 m. in length, the depths on fishing grounds being approximately the name as before. The ba i t is a small oma t ied on tho wood a t the base of the metal hook, A rather heavy rock is Tied by means of a s l i p knot in tho fork; i t w i l l act as a sinker and s l ip off upon touching tho bottom, It is probablo that the line then comes slowly up, and the b i t e may occur far enough above bottom. The hook floats as indicated oil the diagrams, the opening turned towards the ver t ica l piano. The f ish bi tes after 10 to 20 minutes, sometimes longer, sometimes not at a l l . The b i te is hardly discernible at th is depth, owing to the groat iner t ia of the l i n e ; the f ish is brought up slowly, and does not f ight much* although specimens up to 2 m„ and more, weighing up t o 90 ki los , maybe captured. The spear is then used, and the f ish is seized by the g i l l s , which is not an easy task , owing to the strongly serrated g i l l plates and tho denticulations on the scales„ I t is ki l led by stabbing i t in the skull with a knife . This kind of fishing is usually practiced in the late eveningo Like the preceding one, i t i s a remarkable technique. Imagine tho struggle of the big fish and the two fisherman in a f r a i l canoe, outside the reef, in the dark; the patient experimentation which led these men to realize t ha t th i s type of hook was the most efficiont and to keep i t and give i t the preference over imported honksx even when handling the line takes more than half an hour each time0 It seems that the hook most often sinks into the soft t issue behind the suture of the mandibles, i t s angular shape making i t t i p over when the lino is pulled0 The fish being often very big, the fisherman contents himself with two or throe, or oven one. The demand on the Papeete market is not anyway very high.

¥e give hero diagrams of various kinds of these hooks, thanks to tho kindness of Mr. F . Stimson, Papeete, who obligingly communicated tho important 'original documents he gathered on Polynesia, especially the abundant notes taken during a stay in Raivavae, Austral Islands, from which a l l of our quotations wi l l be drawn. This author indicates as material the _toa_ (Casuarina sp„) tho point being either merely f i re hardened, or made of a UsTi Fone.

We come now to the study of much more common and much less spectacular techniques. F i r s t of a l l , ature_ fishing, with hook and l ine0 This method is used to provide for family consumption, diversion or ba i t , and cannot compete with the enormous quantities of these fishes which are taken in the nets described later-. I t is practiced by night or by day, from shore or in canoes, in a l l the parts of French Oceania where th is f i sh and i t s kin are to be found, A simple l ine , 3 or 4 m, long, is used, t ied to a bamboo, and baited in various ways, sometimes only with the l i t t l e hook trimmed with feathers used for i h i i ; a special type of float may also bs found, of which we give a diagramj i t s part would be to provoke light movements of the hook by following the t ide r i p ,

A line with a float is also used for a l l surface fishes having habits similar to those of the mullet (tehu). I t i s a piece of l ight wood, (purao), spindle-shaped, about twenty centimetres long, and seven across, t ied to a line at one end, the other being rigged with a leader twenty cm, long with a hook baited with bread crumb or uru,

The float is also sometimes left free near the shore, each fisherman swimming to fetch the gear on which a fish is caught.

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We must mention a very c lose ly r e l a t e d t echn ique , d e s c r i b e d by M.Vernier, min i s t e r i n the Leeward I s l a n d s ! Poi_to f i s h i n g . The P o i t o (see fl iagrp) i s a spool made of l i g h t wood, 8 to IS cmT long by 4 or 5 cm, in diameter, t h i n n i n g out a t t he c e n t e r . On t h i s i s whund a t h r e a d about 2 m. long, wi th a small hook made of an ordinary copper w i r e , Hie whole i s b a i t e d wi th uru p a s t e ; the hook i s b a r e l y covered; i f t h e t a c k l e i s r igged wi th two hooTEsT" one i s l e f t hanging a few cent imetres below t h e s p o o l . The tehu come t o n ibble a t t he b a i t , and the po i to are l i f t e d when t h e f i s h are caught,

Another type of f l o a t i s used in Ra ia tea for the same f i s h ; i t is a simple wooden c r o s s , one branch of t t i i ch may be fas tened to a l i n e , wh i l e the three o thers are f i t t e d wi th hooks b a i t e d w i th bread,, u ru s or banana, s l i g h t l y hanging in t h e wa te r ,

M. Vernier descr ibes another kind of Tehu f i s h i n g , p r a c t i c e d i n P a u p i t i , The p a r t i c u l a r geographical condi t ions wn"ich t h i s au thor mentions are the o r i g i n of the method. Water u sua l ly e n t e r s the lagoon th rough a ve ry narrow channel ; i f t h e waves a re s t rong enough fo r a few daysa w i t h a South wind, secondary outgoing cu r ren t s are e s t a b l i s h e d in a few p o i n t s where the b a r r i e r reef i s lower, no tab ly near two large i s l e t s surrounded w i t h ' c o r a l t ab le s b a r e l y coming above sea l e v e l . The f i s h i n g l eader , s t a n d i n g on one of theEe t a b l e s , chums slowly wi th a pas te of hermit c r abs s u n t i l ' t h e f i s h i s no longer a f r a id of the f ishermen. The men then use s h o r t lineSj, about 50 cm, long, t i e d t o l i t t l e ' h a r d w o o d s t i c k s s l i g h t l y l onge r , and f i t t e d wi th an amber mothor of p e a r l hook, very open shaped, which the t e h u mis take fo r the f l o a t i n g chum, when i t passes on t h e f a s t running water,, TEey are l i f t e d ve ry qu ick ly and they unhook themselves once landed. This kind of f i s h i n g i s over i n a short t ime ,

We w i l l conclude the d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e hook and l i n e f i s h i n g techniques wi th a few types of hooks. We have a l ready spoken of the _ihi i hooks in r e l a t i o n to a t u r e ; t he se are simple commercial hooks trimmed w i t h small f ea the r s a t the-b'as"e". They are very much used and T a h i t i a n f ishermen often have a c o l l e c t i o n of them around t h e i r h a t s ,

In a number of p l a c e s , e s p e c i a l l y i n ' t h e TuamotuSj i n T a h i t i (Taut ira) e t c . , a rudimentary hook may be found, made of a meta l rod, even

a n a i l , more or less curved, w i th a splayed barb , as i n d i c a t e d i n t h e diagram, I t s use , and the reason for which i t i s often p r e f e r r e d to commercial types would be to do less damage t o f i s h intended for p r e s e r v a t i o n i n l i v e boxes accord ing ' to some, t o hook more secu re ly somo f i shes such as _oiri and c r eva l l e s , according to o t h e r s ;

Lot us a l s o mention as a reminder t h e hooks made of mother of pea r l which do not seem to be used any longer now, and note t h a t i n some cases , t he s inker i s a small meta l rod„

MET FISHING AND ALLIED TECRNIffOES

Numerous types of ne t s a re used i n French Oceania s F i r s t of a l l , we must descr ibe "gar land" f i s h i n g , commonly used even now. This technique in i t s s imples t form i s used for c o l l e c t i n g l i t t l e oma for use as b a i t or chum in o ther types of f i sh ing . . A number of c'oconut fronds a re t i e d end t o end, and these are t h e n used as a l i t t l e se ine t o assemble the f r igh tened f i s h , which are then c o l l e c t e d w i t h dip ne t s or of ten w i t h t r a p b a s k e t s s imi la r t o those descr ibed by Eopi teau i n connection wi th tuna f i s h i n g i n Maupit i , These are made C'f f e rn stems, p l a i t e d in to the shape of a pr i sm open a t b o t h ends , a moving wa l l is fixed a t the en t r ance , near the bottom, and more or loss drawn up toward the ins ide by a s t r i n g , as shown on t h e diagram, to prevent the oma vchich have entored from coming ou t ,

Garlands sometimes f ind moro important uses , e s p e c i a l l y to lengthen the ends of a moving seine and widen i t s range, or d r ive back t h e f i sh i n some techniques s t ud i ed fu r the r i n t h i s document,

- 8

Reverend Fathor Laval has described a method used in his time at Mangarova. Each of two rafts carry one end of a garland 150 or 200 m. long and moire over regular and not vary 'deep grounds. They move slowly apart, opening the t rap in the assumed direction of the f i sh , which is driven by swimmers, under the diroction of a fishing leaders The garland is fixed here and there on f loa ts , around which i t s binding ropo is more or less wound according to the depth at which i t is wanted to work. The fish is driven, taking care to prevent i t from coming into contact with the coconut fronds. When i t is necessary to keep i t away, tho fishing leader dives and mumbles a few sounds underwater, The encirclement is completed in a chosen place, and tho f ish is caught with spears or dip netso

M.F. Stimson described in his notes on Raivavae a very similar method. The garlands, made here of "Casuarina branches are used, only at tho last moment, when the fish has been assembled near enough to the shore, and they are brought up very quickly behind the school. The beaters are either in canoes, or swimming*

Wets proper are numerous in French Oceania, Data given by the Customs Department for the period 1920-1928 give annual figures of 0»1 to 10 tons of imported nets , most often less than or nearly 1 or 2 tons,. In 1949, wo havo a figure of 1.1 ton, the most important suppliers being the U.S.A., Australia and France. I t should be noted tha t tho quanti t ies of lines imported are regularly greater, 16 tons in 1949, supplied almost solely by the U.SJi. This is part ly explained by the fact tha t a number of fishermen make the i r own ne t s . Local prevalences of net or l ino are con­ditioned by topography. We have often spoken of Punaauia and Paea, these are two centers where a l l kinds of hook and line fishing are pract iced, and nets are not important there ; on the other hand, tho frequent gaps in tho reef on the Eastern shore and the abundance of ature make th is l i t t o r a l an area where the main net fishing centers are to be. Tound. The same applies ' to a number of d i s t r i c t s in the Leeward •'•Blands, e,g, Utaroa^ Eaiatea, owing to the abundance of ojperu,

Ifany types of seines are found, varying in height and length according to the ground they are intended to work on. In R.aiatea, among' others, there are small nets , 40 or 50 m0 long, made of mosquito nett ing, the lower part being of even t ighter material, the t o t a l height being 1„20 m., tho sinkers spherical , Tliis type of net is used for ba i t catching (oma and othors,)

The other extreme, used on white bottoms to catch aya, uma_, paaihere e t c . , is a net 4 to 5 m„ high, SO to 40 m. long, with mesh 10 cm. squaFo7 or more, with a movable head rope0 Such large nets are obviously intended to encircle the fish, which is then caught in the r e s t r i c t ed enclosure in various ways. The most dist inct ive case of t h i s kind is the method used for aturo, orore_, £P£ru. This net , one of the features of the Tahitie.il landscape, may be 6 to 7 m. high, and a 100 m, long or more0 I t ia made of mesh 25 to 35 m/m square. Several nets are often ooupledj sometimes, they are even coupled rope to rope, to double the heights, Fish spotted on the usual fishing grounds are slowly encircled and con­fined l i t t l e by l i t t l e in a narrow space. They are then kept by putting the edges of the las t part of the not, which is crawling with ature_, on a floating wooden frame, about ten metres square, the bottom of the net being carefully closed. On other occasions, the "l ive box" is made only with tho support of canoes, coupled and moored. On others s t i l l , the fish are pushed in a rea l floating l ive box made of wire net t ing, or in a fish-garth, as we wi l l see la te r on. Such moves are very slow, and can take a whole day.

The throw not is not very much used in French Oceaniac A method used in Raiatea for para i , is interest ing in tha t i t is a l l i ed to the "carrelet" .

:•>,..'* r^Mfr

It is a round net, mounted rather loosely on a metal frame, at least 1 m, across, so ",,s to farm a pouch when lifted,, I t is placed on a rather shallow ground, and the fisherman constantly chums above i t , with uru paste, with which the net is bai ted. When the parai are in suf f ic ient numbers, the not is l i f ted quickly, the fish always tending to go downwards when they are frightaned, being caught in tho pouch,

A net of similar s tructure, a l i t t l e smaller, ( t a t a ) i s used in Raiatea for crabbing, in the samo way as a crayfish net . ~~

There are also several kinds of net fishing which use in fact movable parks, I t is not necessary to expound at length, the i r use being conditioned by location, direction of currents, ' t ides , and available equipment. Such' examples exist for instance in Paea, M.F. Stimson in the papers mentioned, ci tes others, in Eaivavae, of which we give a diagram,.

Let us note tha t tho floats used are most often pieces of purao, cylindrical or spindle shaped, frequently t ied on the head rope instead of being threaded on i t ,

Finally, various -types of dip nets are used almost everywhere, chiefly to collect the catch in the seines or the garlands0

Fixed Enclosures

Fishing by means of fixed enclosures is conditioned by the topo­graphy, I t usually requires shallow coral tables near great depths, crossed b'T currents which bring schools of fish, such as t ide currents in the v ic in i ty of a lagoon,, In other cases the enclosures are "assisted" by a ne t . They always are a source of rather regular supply for the populations of the moighbourhood, and may be the property of a familyo One often goes there to fetch what fish is s t r i c t l y needed, and they play a secondary role aa live boxes, Wo have seen none in Tahiti , but they are s t i l l - common in the Leeward Islands and the Tuamotus and we wi l l describe a few, a t the same time giving diagrams of the most d i s t inc t ive ,

In the Central and Western Tuamotus, fixed enclosures are found espocially a t Eangiroa, Kaukura, Takaroa, Fangatau, Makemoa These erections are made of piled up rocks; they often have the "shape of an elongated square or a heart ; and the res t r i c ted entrance may continue insido in a kind of constricted passage which bocomes narrower and narrower, and is opened towards the ingoing or outgoing current of tho channel, as the case may be. Two enclosures in Makemo deserve a part icular mention, Ono is shaped like a great curved collecting wall, and the re la t ive ly small traps are situated at both ends. The other includes two systems having opposed directions, one of which especially includes a larg.0 number of secondary enclosures where the small 'fishes may seek a refuge from bigger predatory fish. On other occasions, secondary enclosures may open through a passage into the main ones 0

In Raiatea, many enclosures are designed for operu fishing, and merely play the part of catch enclosure for the nets usually used,, These ai-o mounted on stakes, a line of which follows tho edge of the roof, wb.ilo tho other line is placed at a distance, in water a few metres deeper. The two linos of nets thus form a passage where the opeji entrance receives the current followed by the schools of fish, which are driven by canoes and sTimwors, The exi t t o tho passage is d i rect ly on the tab le p and coincides with the entrance to the rock enclosure. The entrance is often i t s e l f nrolonged by a narrow passage of rocks with two successive closing devices,

Various Techniques

A number of other techniques are used. We w i l l f i r s t mention the pot nets , mostly of European inspira t ion. Many are made of wire net t ing, of cylindrical shape, about 1,50 m„ high by 1 m* across e The opening is

lil Ml M

-10-

a la te ra l s lot , with -biro inwards folds of netting forming a t r a p . The opening is sometimes a t the top. The net is baited with f i sh , hermit crab, often uru or old bread, in which case i t m i l catch £a£ai and tuhu. M,FoStimson mentions several t j ^ 8 8 of pot nets from Raivavas, 'one" of which is reproduced hereB Rev« Father Laval gives brief descriptions of basket-work pot nets used in the past in Mangarova, measuring up to 2 m0 long and 0075 m, wide, more or less funnel shaped,, and often camouflaged with blocks of coral ('aga and <inaki)»

Only a few individuals have applied this technique to crayfish catching,. Let us 'mention that some bold divers go and place small pot nets in coral cavities 0

Spears are variegated in shape,, most often they have several metal t ines , of variable s ize, according to the destination, from the very small used to spear river'prawns to thoso designed for big f i shes , ' They are often used at night, by torch or lamplight for HemirBanphidaa, Belomidae and other spocies ( pr underwater for reef fishes,

Turtle hooks, securely fastened to thick l ines , are used by divers, who hook them on tho t u r t l e ' s nooko Some lines have two hooks, as t u r t l e s often go in pairs during the mating season» This technique is very common; i t is chiefly used in the Tuamotus, Sturdy harpoons with a barb are also used,

Lot u.s also mention oysters, s a l t wa^er crayfish (by torchl ight at night on coral t ab les ) , crabs, Giant clams, sea birds eggs (at Pukapuka for instance) which are rather collected than fished for0

'Let us give a brie"f description of a method famous in the Leeward Islands, and nicknamed by Europeans "rock fishing" (Borabora. Raiatea),, The whole population of a d i s t r i c t , including women and children, assembles on a bay, ands going out in canoes, periodically drops big rocks in the water; these may sometimes be attached to the canoe, On shore., garlands, or at present most often ne t s , are set up, and the frightened f ish is gradually driven ashore'and f inal ly encircled with these nets,, One may see that this very productive technique, is in fact closely related to garland fishings We have mentioned i t here only to show be t t e r the logical re la t ion, the progressive improvement which, connect i t with the next two methods 9

In tho Marquesas, according to some witnesses, porpoises are driven towards the shore in schools by fishermen in canoes throwing rocks and making a great noise while gradually cloning in. Mass strandings would be obtained in this way0 In the Tuamotus and indeed almost everywhere, a dozen men assemble a t the edge of a roof, slowly progressing on the reef table, and gradually, s t r ik ing the water with the shaft of the i r spoars vdion i t is necessary, they closely encircle schools of Sca£idao, often important ones« These stay s t i l l with fr ight , and are then almost ent irely exterminated,,

All those moves indicate a discipl ine, a knowledge of f ishes, and an adjustment to the i r ways, which are t ru ly remarkable,

There is s t i l l another interest ing technique., the use of the octopus lure or "poreho". This piece of tackle is made of a small pointed st isk, about a fo'o't long, a t the end of which are fixed fragments of she l l s , overlapping each other u n t i l they reach the size of a r ea l cowrie cheIiG This lure is held -at tho end of a piece of l ine , from a canoe., on coral tables in shallow water, and jiggled l igh t ly before the holes . The octapus is a t t racted, grabs the lure and is then caught with a sort of gaff and l i f ted aboard. Octopus is widely used as ba i t ,

giving for Mother of Pearl

TJa shall not close th i s chapter without saying a few words on mother of pearl fishing, t h a t is to say, fishing for pearl oyster shol ls 0

6

- l i ­l t i s p r a c t i c e d only i n a few i s lands of the Tuamotus and Gairibier

groupso Tho3e a r e : Hikueru, Takume, Takapoto, Mangareva, Takaroa, Submitted to •very advanced p r o t o c t i v e regulat ions , , i t i s opened i n r o t a t i o n by sect ions i n the var ious lagoons, There i s then a r e a l m i g r a t i o n of divers , t h e i r fami l ies and canoes, t o the diving grounds, t h i s being made by moans of schooners, and a t tho expense of the c o n t r a c t o r . A temporary v i l l a g e i s erected^ wi th i t s Chinoso shopkeepers, who have r e c e i v e d advances from the employers, and w i th i t s amusements, i t s pubs and movie t h e a t e r s

•ffhon the work i s commenced;, the small c u t t e r s of the d i s t r i c t t ake the canoes in tow, and tako thorn out on the f i sh ing grounds, I t i s obviously-necessary to have f a i r and sunny enough w ea th e r , and the number of working days r a r e l y exceed 15 in a'month « The banks being s p o t t e d th rough g l a s s bottomed boxes, the d ive r s , equipped wi th goggles and ho ld ing a rock, l e t themselves down, most of ten a l i t t l e below the requ i red level , , drop t h o i r rock, and go up a l i t t l e , t ak ing care not t o loose the rope they w i l l use t o come up, They s w i f t l y p ick up a few oys te rs which they put i n t h e i r neb bag ; and go up, rezy o f t en a t too g r e a t a speeds They commonly reach 20 to 25 m, dopths, 'sometimes 35 or 40 me and s t ay under water up t o a minute and a hal f c I t should be mentioned t h a t t h e use of d iv ing goggles and weights became of g e n e r a l use only in 1907{ and increased working depths,, which up to t h a t t ime were only from 15 t o 25 m8 Tho d i v e r s tays only a few seconds a longside tho canoe, and c a r r i e s on a l l day long, w i thou t heeding the scorching sun or the long s t a y in the water (good average p roduc t ion a t Hikueru has been ranging around 100 to 150 k i l o s pe r day par d i v e r ) , The q u a l i t y of the d ivers has changed much s ince the i n t r o d u c t i o n of .. goggles and the ' subsequen t change i n working condi t ions^ they become worn out much f a s t e r , and t h e i r age average has cons iderably decreased,) Accidents due t o coming up much too f a s t a re f requen t . Beside the c l a s s i c embolism, loss of speech, of d i r e c t i o n a l sense s of memory, or p a r t i a l pa ra lys i s may occur0

The s h e l l s a re t hen cleaned, wi th , needless to say , an eye open for p o s s i b l e pea r l s ,

M, Herves i n a ve ry d e t a i l e d r e p o r t on p e a r l o y s t e r s , i n a d d i t i o n to numerous remarks on the b io logy of t h e mollusc, i n d i c a t e s t h a t , of the 60 k i l o s r e s u l t i n g from an average d i v e r ' s work,20 go to the a s s i s t a n t in the canoe, and about 7 to the owners of c u t t e r s which b r i n g t h e canoes tp the f i sh ing grounds. The number of divers on t h e main f i s h i n g grounds var ies obviously according t o the s t a t e of the commercial compet i t ion botween copra and mother of p e a r l for labour , and a l s o according to o ther f a c t o r s ; the men sometimes p r e f e r t h i s or t h a t lagoon, one year r a t h e r than ano ther , M„ Herve gives the following f igures«

1921 s 4,000 persons i n Hikueru. 1925- 26 : 2,500 " " "

1928 t 1,000 " " "

M, Mervin has r epor t ed 540 d ive r s i n 1949 and 300 i n 1950, in tho same pid'eo". On the o ther hand, during tho l a s t t w o ' y e a r s , the number of workers a t Takapoto has inc reased . But on the whole , the number i s over deoreaaingo

The use of the diving s u i t caused much t r o u b l e , and is s t i l l meeting wi th a v i o l e n t oppos i t ion on tho p a r t of t h e p e o p l e . These fac ts have led to i t s being p r a c t i c a l l y p roh ib i t ed 0

The abuses committed a t t he end of t h e l a s t cen tu ry .were, for a p a r t , the o r i g i n of t h i s . We s h a l l taka up t h i s m a t t e r i n a l a t e r chap te r . This kind of equipment i s t h e o r e t i c a l l y , au thor i zed for ins tance in some r i c h lagoons, a t tho end of a season, and in order to complete shor t y i e l d s . In f a c t , t h e i r cost p r i c o s b e ing too high under these c o n d i t i o n s , u s u a l l y p r o h i b i t s t h o i r u s e . The use of diving s u i t s had however e s t a b l i s h e d a r e a l o rgan iza t ion i n t h e work; the oys te r s

8

- 12 -were kept in a live well aboard, the raft , and opened only near the shore, the flesh was crushed on screens to look for pearls, and this method had the advantage of favouring the dissemination of possible eggs,

Util isation of Products

A very great part of the fishing production is meant for family consumption; in the archipolagoes, the fish are sometimes salted or smokeda But the biggest opening is the Papeete marketo

Bonitoes and tuna unloaded from the boats on the wharfs of Papeete in bunches, carried on poles, are weighed and hung overnight, in order to be sold very ear ly the next day. In the d i s t r i c t s , the ature, £rarp_, £peru, are taken out of the live boxes in the evening, and threaded on vines in bunche this is done on the beach by the women and children,, Hie quantity is figured according to sel l ing price and market demand ,̂ The busses then go to the chief town, and unload the fish at the market a t daybreak, The same applies to lagoon fishes, which are kept in these classic live boxes called _|_ajnm, in which ature are sometimes put„ Those live boxes are spindle shaped, made c>£ light Fainboo str ips fixed on hoopsj they are f i t t ed with a door a t the top„ and wi th l a te ra l floats designed to keep them on the surface. The size varies from 20 or SO cm, for l i t t l e oma to 2 m0 for big f ishes . The diameter is usually one th i rd of the length,

In a number of islands, especially in the Tuamotus, there are permanent live boxes made of rocks, and we have seen tha t the fish-garths are sometime a used as live boxes,

The capacity'of the Papeete market for consumption is re la t ive ly considerable, ' In 1949, which was a good year for tuna and bonito, 7B9 tons of fish were sold, of which 461 tons were of tuna and bonito and 328 of lagoon fish and'ature, I t should be mentioned tha t un t i l 1947-48 a small local industry, -functioning sporadically, used to absorb from 50 to 100 tons of tuna and bonito each season, for canning^ This constituted the only export of preserved f ish from the t e r r i t o ry to France0 I t should be added that each year a few tons, usually less than ten, of fresh f ish aro sold to stationed ships,

The price of fish in Papeete is very variable, A very precise market price l i s t divides the 90 species mentioned into four grades, for which the prices in 1950 must not exceed, 15, 20, 25 and 30 C.F.P, Francs per kilogramme, respectively,

In the f i r s t grade are placed the Ihii„ Roj^ Paaihere^ Mu, e t c , , in the second, the Aahi, Otava ,̂ Orare^ Aya, ^ 7 £a™is Maunana_ e t c , , . , in the thirds the Auhopu,' (bonito)~ A t u i ^ ^rJTra.7 ]j[p£ru.. *-£a» e'fco» in the fourth, the-ManTni, Uravena, Fee_, etc„,B

The "bunch" of f i sh must weigh 2 k i los t with a t r l e ra ted margin of 100 gr.,

The mother of pearl is transported to Papeete by schooners, in sacks, sorted and cleaned. I t is then classif ied into four grades, the ra tes required for export being respectively 60??, 25$, 10$, and 5%, going down from the highest grade to the lowest,

Mother of pearl plays an important part in the commercial balance of French Oceania, -either as raw material , or in the form of curios. The best years have seen up to 1,333 tons being exported (1924), 866 tons (1943), 695 tons (1949)t France and the U.S.A. are the main buyers. Sales have sometimes gone down to 59 tons (1934),

Turtles are usually imported from the western Leeward Islands (Mopelia, Maupiti), River prawns and crabs have the i r source in Raiatea,

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I I I . The Future of Sea Industrios in the French Sstablismonts of Oceania.

We havo seen the importance of fishing for food for the people of French Oceania, Several considerations should not be omitted; f i rs t ' , the Polynesian fishermen, meaning'those who get most of the i r l iving from the sea,, do not by a long way, work to the full extent of thei r p o s s i b i l i t y and thoy are only waiting for one tiling to increase the i r a c t i v i t y : new-markets a

Ature and operu nets are set up only according to the demand of the Pp.pefcte~mark"et, and /Ehe men fishing for the great pelagic Scombridao if thoy have made their catch in an hour, make for the harbour without looking for more, neglecting vary big bonito, not very much appreciated by the consumers when fresh, and barely Used for pig feede On the other hand, on a school rf feeding Scombridae, the more lines thrown,, the more fishes .. caught, 'iVhen more Important' catches are wanted, i t w i l l bo easy to work under the same conditions with three or four men instead of two in each brfito Certain Scombridae, such as the £tava are seldom caught on hook and

lino, but would be eas"y~enough to catch wrnh big surround nets0

Finally, the resources of French Oceania are s t i l l far from being known. A remark is necessarys Jespersen,, analysing in 1935 the researches made by the Dana'from 1928 to 1930 on the quantit ies of macroplankton in the seas studied, publishes very suggestive f igures s Thus the waters from Uew Caledonia up to and inclusive of the Society Islands, have been found to bo vory poor, the poorest in the world; there is only one oxception, the Marquosas, nearer to the great South Equatorial current, which give a nearly average figure. But then we have no other information on the possibi l i t ies of the Marquesas. Some areas in the Tuamotus might bo of interest too, A careful survey, with a Bondix if possible, is necessary,,

Outside of Tahiti , no sufficient means of t ransport , in th is case ships with cold storage rooms, for instance, enable the fishermen of the islands to dispose of their eventual productionse Even in tho d i s t r i c t s of Tahiti, refrigerated trucks could serve the same purpose and in return bring to the country the bonitoes and tuna, caught by the town fishermen only, and at present transported exposed to the sun and dust on the busses, one day after being caught«

I t is this transport problem that any concern desirous of engaging in the fish industry in Tahiti should attack, and in th is way, the ac t iv i ty if the d i s t r i c t s would be considerably increased, without even requiring new fishing methods0

I t can be noted a t the same time that improvement could be made in the preservation of tho Scombridae for the market by the ins ta l la t ion of cold storage units which such a concern would bring about,, Anyway, there would resul t some steadiness in the price, for i t should be considered tha t while fish tend to become expensive at the end of the Scombridae fishing season, in January 1950 the ature_ f e l l down to 10 franos and even 5 f r s . 0BP„PB for a 2 kilogrammes bunch. I t i s , a l te rnate ly , the consumer's or the fisherman's bad luck.

A second category of facts should be considdred0 We have seen tha t the salo of fresh fish has reached 789 tons in Papeete in 19490 I t should not be forgotten that at the same time, 158 tons of canned fish and 4 tons of dry cured, salted or smcked fish have been imported, mostly from tho U.S.A. Some years have been even more remarkable; 259 tons of fish imported in 1920, 255 tons in 1947, for instance. And we do not mention the enormous stock of preserves' of a l l kinds, other than f i sh ,

I t would be highly des i rable ' tha t tho people of isolated islands shtuld consume more locally produced fish, oven local sa l ted or dried fish, which would tax their budget l ess .

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F i n a l l y , t he mother of p e a r l product ion could c e r t a i n l y be considerably increased wi thout harming the stocks« In the opinion of exper ts , i n the depths of the r i c h lagoonE of t h e channol less i s l a n d s , very grea t q u a n t i t i e s of p o l l u t e d s h e l l s c l u t t e r the banks a t depths inaccess ib le for naked d i v e r s , I t would be p r o f i t a b l e , in many cases , to increase the e x p l o i t a t i o n i n .o rde r t o purge the s t o c k s . Old mother of pea r l fishermen c i t e the good e f f ec t of the cyclones , such as the one in 1906, which gave a l a rge number of young s h e l l s oppor tun i ty t o a t t a c h themselves on dead t r e e s thrown into tho lagoons, The mother of p e a r l exports r ep re sen t ed in 1949, 26 m i l l i o n s out of t o t a l expor ts of 472 mil l ions i.

In 1920, 3 m i l l i o n s out of a t o t a l of 24„ In 1930-31, 1 m i l l i o n out of a t o t a l of 37, In 1946, 27 m i l l i o n s out of 288.

One may see t h a t the p ropor t ion , always, v a r i a b l e , remains however of ten worthy of r e s p e c t . I f then the t r u e diving s u i t , is so much feared, and has become u n p r o f i t a b l e , why not t r y t o use the independent diving equipment working wi th compressed a i r b o t t l e s , of which t h e r e a re so many t y p e s . These would inc rease the output wi thou t any oonsidorablo expense, and they would improve tho sa fe ty and hygiene , while leaving everyone h i s oppor tuni ty for independence, owing to the r e l a t i v e l y low cos t of t h i s appa ra tus , which the diver could own p e r s o n a l l y .

As the product ion can bo increased s u b s t a n t i a l l y , one may t h i n k t h a t the inc rease i n working capac i ty would not have much .bearing on t h e r igh t t o work of an over dwindling category of labours

A l l t h i s can obviously become accepted only by a slow adjustment and the example can be s e t up by the f i r s t conver t s , bu t not by d e c r e e s .

In t h e l a s t i n s t ance , a very i n t e r e s t i n g experiment conducted a t Mopolia, Leeward Is lands by a p r i v a t e ind iv idua l should bo mentioned, I t tends t o the p rogress ive increase of tho s tock of t u r t l e s , which a r e one of the resources of t h i s i s l and , by giving the oggs and young ones p r o t e c t i o n agains t p reda to ry hermit c r a b s , c r e v a l l s s , and sharks for a c e r t a i n time,, The eggs are gathered, and put i n shaded enclosures where, a f t o r ha tch ing , tho young ones are f ed . The young t u r t l e s are l e f t f r ee only when they aro nimble enough t o be safe from t h e i r enemios0

This t r i a l s e t s a very good example, i t should be publ ished and made known and i t gives an encouraging argument in favour of t h e study of future oppo r tun i t i e s for f i s h i n g in French Oceania,, Let us only r eg re t t h a t oysters have not been as lucky as t u r t l e s , and have not y e t found an or . t re icu l tu ro expe r t .

B. FISHING IN NEW CALEDONIA

I , General C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

(a) Geographical and Topographical Condi t ions ,

New Caledonia i s a l a rge i s l and , 400 Km0 long by 60 wide0

Lying i n Fft'-SE d i r e c t i o n , approximately s i t u a t e d between the 163° and 168 E and the 19 ° and 23 ° S, i t i s consequently centered n o t i c e a b l y to t h e South of the main groups of t h e French Establ ishments of Oceania , I t i s touched only i n i t s most Southern p a r t by the g r e a t sea c u r r e n t s which, go through the Marquesas, Tuamotus and Soc ie ty I s l a n d s , I t is surrounded on a l l s ides by a b a r r i e r ree f s i t u a t e d very fa r from shore , more e l eva ted above s e a -l eve l on the Western c o a s t , and more broken, w i t h ve ry important gaps on the E a s t e r n c o a s t . I t i s sometimes a t more t h a n 30 km0 from shore and extends very far North and South, offer ing p r o t e c t i o n r e s p e c t i v e l y t o Belep islands, and Pine i s l a n d which are s i t u a t e d about 30 mi l e s off the mainland,,

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60 miles off the East coast are lined up the Loyalty islands, from N. to S. Uvea, Lifou, fere, among which only the f i r s t has important reefs * The Caledonian shoreline has hays, sometimes of consider ah le size, often dotted with i s l e t s , (Prony, S t . Vincent, JSTehoue bays, for instance.) Numerous rivers, almost a l l following a transverse direction, flow into estuaries which, especially in the west, resu l t in enormous sand .and mudbanks forming very wide shallow areas before the shore. Mangroves are very much developed there , Soma mangrove swamps are continuous for more'than 40 km. and are sometimes several hundred metres deep. Only one r iver , the most important of the colony, flows in 'a SE-N\T direction, i t is the Diahot, ¥fhich forms the Harcourt Bay in the North, the most dist inct ive of the type wo have just described,

In addition, the lagoon is sometimes deep (up to 30 or 40 m.) and not very rough, sometimes formed of great expanses of white sandy bottoms, shallow and dotted with coral c lus te rs ,

I t is advisable to add that the importance of t ides is different from what we find in French Oceania* the difference between levels is very noticeable hore, and may reach 1080 m,

From the ethnological point of view, with a few exceptions, which aro the t r ibes of the S.¥. islands and the Loyalty and Belep groups, the people seldom go to sea, or at leas t l imit themselves to res t r ic ted navi­gation in the lagoon. All to ld , i t maybe said that only a few Europeans, and two or throe tribes have taken up fishing as a means of l iv ing, or a t least one of the i r main supports. I t is obvious that th is s ta te of things has not always been so, and that i t constitutes a regression in tho opportunities for the natives to be self suff ic ient ,

All these considerations enable us to define the main charac te r i s ­t ics of fishing in these areas. One is naturally led to take advantage of the tides to encircle f ish coming to feed at high t i de , ei ther in the mangrove swamps or on beaches or sand banks, or on reef t ab les , uncovered a t low t i d e , They are sometimes simply pursued with spears. Line fishing is resorved mostly to ground lines used near coral formations or on weedy bottoms, Trolling fishing is not very act ive , very few pelagic Scombridao entering the lagoon, and very few boats going outside,

(b ) The species taken,

The main species taken are less numerous and havo a moro homogeneous sjrstomatic than in French Oceania0

We find everywhere in great quantities two or three spocios of tho genus Mugil (Mullet) , ' in the mangroves, Sparus berda Forsk. (Bream) FomadaiyTliasta B l . ' g , Garros (Blancs, Balabio) g. Leiognathus (Poisson "cochonl"g7~lviegalops, Chanos chanos Forsk, (Mekoua, milkfishj , Sillago sp, (Baloiniers), numerous species of the g, Epinephelus (Loches, rock cod) Lutjaiius (Daurade, rouget de paletuvier e t c , ) Lethrinus (Bee de cane, bossu) "Atherina (pretre) Siganus (picot, picot CLOTO") rays, crevalles , Sc.atophagus E lec t r i s , e t c . ,

Almost everywhere, there are also Olupea (Harengula) sp, (sardine) Sphyraena (barracudas, becunes) various species of "Mackerels", true or falso (Selar), Upeneus sp, Mulloidichtys (Barbillon, Wake in Hawaii, Oma in Tahiti) and universally found Sillago and Gerres.

On the reefs, there is a predominance of Siganus (Picots) Kaso (Daoua, Unicorn fish, Doctor fish, Kala (Hawaii) Kyphosus (Ouioua nonuo (Haw„) various Labridae and Scaridae (Perroquets, parrot fishes, uhu (Haw,)) Hook and line fishermen catch many Lethrinus, Lutjanidae~and Epinephelus. Acanthocybium (Tazar) and Oaranx (crevalleF) are taken in summer and autumn by t ro l l i ng ,

A l i t t l e surface fishing is done for Hemiramphus sp, (Aiguillette Needlefish) and various Tylosaurus (Qrphie),

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As for quantity, the predominant species are Mugilidae, Lethrinus Lutjanus, Epinephelus, Caranx, Naso, Scaridae, Clupeidae.

lit Fishing methods and means

(a) The boats.

"iTe have seen that there are very few professional fishermen in New Caledonia. In 1948, far instance, 9 boats have officially been commissioned for fishing for fish. But i t should be taken into account that 227 were commissioned for Trochus shall fishing, and among the 237 others commissioned as pleasure boats, a great number go fishing now and then, and may sell surplus fish. The boats which did not have any regular commission should also be added*

These boats are often dinghies, or even punts. Little cutters, of European type, locally built, are commons Some large ones are equipped with a live well, and one or two only, with a cold storage roome

Native boats are mostly cutters (Kone region, Northern area)0

The open sea sailing canoes are found almost only in ths South, and they often navigate between the island of Pines, Ouen island and Goro tribe, their places of origin. These outrigger canoes are rather massive, and can carry several persons, They are more and more in regression, and are replaced by cutters ,

Ifi) Fishing implements and their use.

Hook and line fishing,

The present hook and line fishing methods are everywhere of European inspiration,- ground line with one or two hooks, coupled on a beam, trolling line rigged with a commercial spoon and hook or a lure made of rags, or dead, fishes (Sillago or liullidae). The fishes used for bait are not the small Mullidae, the oma used in Tahiti, but small Mugilidae, Clupeidae, e t c . . . . . .

Wet Fishing

The nets used are mostly seines and g i l l nets. They are most often made in the European fashion, and their length, width, mesh dimensions and strength are'very variable, according to the ownor, the type of fishing he intends to do, and the way ho wants to use them. Small seinos about 60' me

,<> by 1,50 Jiu, with mesh 25 to 35 mm, square, are the most commonly found, The floats are made of purao, very seldom of cork, and usually cylindrical,

<• Most often they arc made of commercial nets. They are often tanned with mangrove bark, sometimes with ox blood.

It should be remarked that at the Ouen island, for instance, nots made by the natives of braided coconut fibers are s t i l l found,

Bets are used both for day or night fishing, either by dragging them diver beaches or sand banks, or by surrounding vast sections of mangroves which uncover at low tide. In this event, the fish is gathered dry-shod, or almost. °n the reef, the fish are only encircled and then speared (Haso. Callyodon, Siganus, Kyphosus, Caranx)c The same applies to Mugilidae, owing to tho ease with which they ~3ump over the nets,,

Some seines have oven a horizontal fixture, called a "veranda" in order to meet with the eventuality,

Mullets can be encircled by teams moving towards the same center, not only one, but two or three small seines0

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Coconut fronds, t i ed in garlands,, as in Tahiti , are s t i l l sometimes usod, to surround fish or to prolong the wings of seines. This is mostly •done in the Pino Island and Southern tribos«

Surrounding fish on the reef may ho done' in canoos. I t is the case for mokoua fishing, in tho Ouen Island region^, on coral platforms covered by ~ne~to throe metres of-water. Tho canoos move slowly and noiso-lessly over tho platform. As soon as a school of great Chanos (milkfish) is spotted, feeding on tho bottom, tho fishermen draw hoar i t , unfolding the not in a semi-circle, oach canoe holding one end of i t . When tho f ish are near, the not is paid out vor;/ fast , and at the same timo, the canoes aro brought together by poling them at top spoed» Tho nets used aro from 60 t o 100 motros long, mado of vory strong l inos, vd.th big mesh, about 10 om, square, Thoso strong fishos jump on ovory side, sometimes breaking the net when they fal l down on i t . All tho fishormon jump in the water and stun the f i sh with blows of their f i s t s , or spoar thorn. A nico catch may include from 50 to 60 of these big fishes, weighing from 10 to 15 kilos»

Surface nets are sometimes usod, and they aro weighted more l igh t ly than the others mentioned above. I t is the case for needle fish (Hemiramphus) j the net is seldom more than lo50 m„ high, and may be from 50 to 100 m.long, I t is used at night as a free floating not, and is often provided with a floating light a t i t s ond. A not 3 to 5 ma high is usod in the daytime for "Mackerel" of various -species, The f ish g i l l s i t s e l f in i t 0

Throw'nets of various types aro very common, the long sand beaches and mud f la t s , sometimes even the coral platforms being well suited to t he i r uso, They are used for sardines, "pretros", small Mugilidae or big Mullets,, "picots" and other f ishes.

Tho Indo Chinese labourers, numerous in the country, use very small nets made of th in thread; these are placed on a l l sides, and the frightened liullots g i l l themselves in them, on muddy bottoms.

Turtle nets should also be mentioned; thoy are s t i l l vory numerous, and are of native invention. Those large nets are made of very strong rope, often of telephone wire, with makeshift f loats , and usually weighted with stones. They seldom oxcood 100 m. long. They are used to surround at night tho place where i t is presumod tha t tho t u r t l e is feeding, and the animal is seized whon i t is onmoshod,

Dip nets , of European inspirat ion, aro rather scarce and reserved for the gathering of fish in tho nets e

Mis ce llano PUB methods

Pot nets of European inspirat ion, usually mado of wire net t ing, r-.re common enough in the country. Thoy are used only for fish. Pot nets of local invention, of which drawings are shown, are s t i l l found, mostly in the Loyalty is lands. They are often baited with pawpaw leaves.

Spear fishing is very common in the whole of the Territory. I t is practiced both in tho daytime and a t night, with torches, Tho spears have single or multiple t ines j tho most commonly found have three . Turtles, very numerous, are fished for with big one tined spears with or without'barbs. I t is chased over white bottoms, two or three metres deep, which are frequently found on the ITTest coaEt, and around tho small islands on tho East coast, with launches;-,.small motor cut ters , or mere dinghies with an outboard motor. I t is soon exhausted, and is then spoarod or merely turned over on i t s hack by a divor,

Bow and arrow fishing is s t i l l usod a t times, mostly for r iver prawns.

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Collecting- by hand is vary active as far as crabs, oysters (mangrove or rock oysters) and giant c'lams - these las t abundant - are concerned. The same applies to s a l t water crayfish, -which aro collected at night on tho fringing reef whero tho sea breaks rather v io lent ly , by the l ight of a lamp or of a torch made of a bamboo fillod with kerosene and stopped with t ight ly packed burlap,

' A Tford should bo said about "Sea-cow" (Dugong)' hunting. This animal is usually watched for when i t comes up for a i r , shot with a r i f l e , chasod with a motor boat, and ki l led with a spear when i t has only been wounded,

Fishing With explosive must unfortunately be taken into account. I t is only too common in this country, owing to the presence of largo mining exploitat ions, and the stocks of dynamite this e n t a i l s .

Vegotal poisons have beon extensively used in tho past by the nativos 'especially in the Loyalty is lands. They are now very seldom, used in the sea, never in the r ive r s . We have not yet on hand the determination of the plants used, and wi l l not carry the subject farther*

There remains s t i l l to bo described a technique which, reminds one very much of tho Tahitian "pnreho", and is alsjo used for catching octopus,, I t is the a r t i f i c i a l ra t . I t is made of a rock topped with a shel l cut and trimmed with a " t a i l " made of coconut leaves, and sometimes with "ears" and "paws11, the whole being suspended from a fishing rod at the end of a string* The octopus grabs i t and is brought ashore,

Trochus Shell Pishing

Just as mother of pearl plays a groat part in the economy of French Oceania, Trochus shel l is here a great pole of a c t i v i t y , the only on<> tha t really a t t rac t s rrany men to the sea, outside of lighterage companies„ The labour employed, sometimes Japanese before the war, comes mainly from the Loyalty Islands. ' This kind of fishing is practiced, by diving on tho edge of the Ms; reef, almost everywhere, but most actively in tho central Bast, The diving depths''seldom exceed 10 to 15 metres. The quanti t ies obtainod are of a few hundred tons, the 500 tons mark being seldom passed. The unity price went up from about 7,000 C.F.P.Frs, in 1930 to 19,000 in 1948, with freakish fluctuations,

Ut i l i sa t ion of Sea Products. Future Poss ib i l i t ies in Mew Caledonia

The consumption of fish is a t present rather low in Hew Caledonia. If we do not take into account the ra ther considerable "familial" captures, wo have only about ten tons of fresh f ish sold in loumea each month, mostly live fish, sometimes fish preserved i n cold storage,,

Fish is often sal ted, dried or smoked, and i t is under these forms that the South t r ibes who s t i l l fish extensively, and private fishermen faced with a too great quantity of f i sh aftor a lucky day, s e l l thoir catches 0 Shell f ish and oysters aro found commonly onough in shops. Crabs are sold a l ive , thei r legs and pincers socure3ytAed; s a l t wator crayfish aro t r a n s ­ported and sold after being boiled.

Turtles and Dugong are reserved for personal consumption and pract ica l ly novor soldo

From the industr ia l point of view, there has boon only one t r i a l mado, by a meat cannery to can Tazar, t r i a l interrupted owing to tho d i f f icu l t ies in 3&tting v, supply of fresh f ish* Supply contracts of some importance, around ten tons a month, have been established between private individuals and services emi loying a largo number of Asiatic labourers, for tho supply of salted or dried f ish . They have novor lasted much longer than one year,

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As for Trbchus, a small' process ing p l a n t lias functioned for a few y e a r s j i t processed up to Z0% of the p roduc t ion . At p r e sen t , t roohus s h e l l i s exported unprocessed,

Future p o s s i b i l i t i e s should, i n our opinion, concern f i r s t of a l l s a l t e d or dr ied f i s h , and f i s h moals, In f a c t , the re i s a l a rge p reva lence of lagoon s p e c i e s , and t h e a c t i v i t y of t h e country i s a t p r e s e n t tu rned on t h e s e . These f i shes are not vory s u i t a b l e for i n d u s t r i a l canning, bu t t h o i r abundance should make' them u t i l i z a b l e , i f t he cos t p r i ce s • could be loworod, a s , for such p roduc t s , they must s t ay v e r y low. In t h i s case, new means could be employed, such as moored or f l o a t ' i i r t r awl l i n e s , where sharks a re not too numerous, small drag nets on t h e la rge muddy or sandy s t r e t c h e s i n the b ig bays or i n somo shallow w a t e r s , Large surface se ines would supply s u f f i c i e n t q u a n t i t i e s of the v a r i e t y of Bnnito ca l l ed £"tava i n T a h i t i ( (Euthynnus a l l o t o r a t u s Ruf , ) - which seldom b i t e s on a hook and l i n e - t o sui7pT3~X~smo7iT'"cannery. As for a survey of the g r e a t concen t ra t ions of • Scombridae, i t vrauld be necessary to 'make,extensive r e sea r ch in the waters Tar~oTf"thQ South 5a s t of the i s l and , w i t h a s h i p equipped w i th a Bondix,

P ish ing for crustaceans (c rabs , c r a y f i s h ) may be of i n t e r o s t . For the l a t t e r , i t would be convenient t o t r y the pot not method,

* T u r t l e s , very abundant and easy t o ca tch , might f i n d a smal l market on the nea r e s t con t inen t , being easy t o t r a n s p o r t a l i v e ,

The same remarks and the same changes as for mother of p e a r l f i s h i n g ' i n French Oceania' apply to Troohus s h e l l f i s h i n g ,

In any case , i t i s advisable to be caut ious i n s t a r t i n g even a smal l indus t ry , owijag to the t o o - p r i m i t i v e and too polymorphic a spec t of f i s h i n g in t h i s count ry ,

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS

A few conclusions 'may be drawn from t h i s shor t s tudy . In the French Establ ishments of Oceania, f i s h i n g only needs marke t s , When they w i l l have boen provided, i t w i l l be rebdVn t o a now a c t i v i t y which w i l l e n t a i l a g e n e r a l improvement of the p e o p l e ' s we l fa re , wi thout r e q u i r i n g any deep changes i n the methods used a t p r e s e n t ,

In New Caledonia, a g r e a t e r e f f o r t has to be mado for the e s t a b l i s h ­ment of such an i n d u s t r y or even a r t i s a n s h i p , fo r t h e r e i s p r a c t i c a l l y no ba s i s on which to s t a r t , and i t would be adv i sab le t o in t roduce new t e c h ­niques r a t h e r qu i ck ly ,

In these t w o ' c o u n t r i e s , t h e l o c a l consumption of f i sh w i l l i nc rease i f f i sh ing inc reasos , even i f i t should be d i r ec t ed towards cannery and i t w i l l be a good t h i n g ,

From the s c i e n t i f i c po in t of view, a b i o l o g i c a l and aystemat ic s tudy of the p r i n c i p a l species f i shed for i s i n progress i n New Caledonia, A s imi l a r s tudy should be undertaken i n Tahit i , , and p a r t i c u l a r l y proceed wi th mass markings of Scombridae» The survey for Scombridae i n New Caledonia has to be dono en t i re ly ] , as we have seenj i t would be adv i sab le to do i t i n the Marquesas and in the Tuamotus, which a re on the whole badly known, and a genera l i c h t y o l o g i c a l survey of t h e . I u b u a i i s l ands (Aus t ra l i s l a n d s ) would a l so be of i n t e r e s t ,

As for c rus taceans , a sys temat ic and b i o l o g i c a l statement of p o s i t i o n , a s tudy of methods and pos s ib l e f i s h i n g s t a t i o n s might become of a c e r t a i n economical i n t e r e s t , e s p e c i a l l y i n New Caledonia,