CONTENTSoldweb.ltu.bg/jmsd/files/volumes/msd_69.pdf · sonal qualities of a person. Investments in the professional development of the quality of human capital give a longer integral

CONTENTS FROM EDITORS ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

3

THEORETICAL BASES OF QUALITY OF A MANPOWER IN NATIONAL ECONOMY …………………………….. Nataliya Makovskaya

4

DETERMINANTS OF FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT IN BULGARIA …………………………………………….. Konstantin Kolev

7

CRITERIA AND INDICATORS EVALUATING THE FUNCTIONING OF QUASI-MARKETS ……………………….. Maya Tsoklinova

11

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND INNOVATION POTENTIAL OF THE MINING COMPANIES ……………... Borislava Galabova, Boryana Trifonova

16

PUBLIC WELFARE AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: TRENDS AND CHALLENGES ……………............... Maya Tsoklinova

22

SUSTAINABLE APPROACHES TO REVERSE LOGISTICS STATE …………………………………………………. Adriana Strekalovska-Garkova, Stanislava Kovacheva

28

EFFICIENCY OF PRODUCTION AND EXCHANGE FOR MULTIPURPOSE MANAGEMENT OF THE FOREST PROTECTION BELTS ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. Nevena Shuleva, Fotina Yordanova

33

COMPETITIVE VOCATIONAL EDUCATION – THE MAIN INFLUENCING FACTOR FOR THE NATIONAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT ……………………………………………………..………………………………………. Andra Zencaka, Maija Senfelde

39

PATTERNS OF PREPOSING OF SUBJECT-ORIENTED PREDICATIVE AND LOCATIVE COMPLEMENTS IN ENGLISH ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Bilyana Ovcharova

45

STUDY ON DYNAMIC LOADS OF CUTTING MECHANISM’S DRIVE SHAFT OF THE CARVED VENEER MACHINES …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Georgi Vukov

51

FEM ANALYSIS OF DEFORMATION AND STRESSES OF UPHOLSTERED FURNITURE SKELETON MADE OF PINUS SYLVESTRIS L. AND PLYWOOD ………………………………………………………….......................... Yancho Genchev, Nelly Staneva, Desislava Hristodorova

56

GENERAL REGULARITIES IN THE HEIGHT STRUCTURES OF NORWAY-SPRUCE, SILVER-FIR AND OTHER DENDROCOENOSES …………………………………………………………………………………………….. Roumen Petrin

62

STUDY OF THE DIMENSIONS OF THE CELLS OF THE CORE BEAMS …………………………………………… Nikolai Burdarov

68

A STUDY OF THE STATISTICAL INDICATORS OF THE SIZE OF THE WOOD RAYS …………………………… Nikolai Burdarov

72

ИННОВАЦИИ, ИНФОРМАЦИОННО-КОММУНИКАЦИОННАЯ СФЕРА И НЕМАТЕРИАЛЬНОЕ ПРОИЗВОДСТВО КАК СОСТАВЛЯЮЩИЕ РАЗВИТИЯ ЭКОНОМИК СТРАН МИРА …………………............... Наталья Скоробогатова, Сергей Войтко

76

МОДЕРНИЗАЦИЯ АЭРОВОКЗАЛЬНОГО КОМПЛЕКСА МОСКОВСКОГО МЕЖДУНАРОДНОГО АЭРОПОРТА ДОМОДЕДОВО …………………………………………………………………………………………….. Евгений Сафонов, Сергей Кирсанов, Галина Паламаренко, Бо Ванг

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Dear followers of idea for sustainable development, Dear readers, Dear authors and friends, You hold serial 69th volume (number 2/2018) of Scientific Journal of Management and sustainable devel-

opment, published since 1999 from Faculty of Business Management at the University of Forestry, Sofia, Bulgaria.

In this volume you can find the integral text of the part of presented papers before the XX-th International Scientific Conference on Management and Sustainable Development, held in Yundola in the period 23–25.03.2018.

The important issues of management and sustainable development were discussed. Some main aspects could been summarized as follows: multifunctional forest management have to be developed and encour-aged in Bulgarian forests, because of their high importance for environment improvement and biodiversity conservation, there are a high potential to encourage utilization of revenuwble energy sources, based on the forest biomass; contemporary practical and theoretical issues in human resources management; more atten-tion have to be pointed out to the social aspects for sustainable management; presentation and implementa-tion of the best practices and innovations; the practice for sustainable development shaping have to be rees-tablished; more atention have to be intended to the students and post-graduated students investigations; the more important issues have to be separated and have to be discussed into a suitable approach – for exam-ple, order of round tables, unformal discussions etc.; the all thematic fields have to be protected and the conference have to be approved as a forum for ideas exchange.

The Faculty of Business Management leadership and the Editorial Board of Scientific Journal of Man-agement and Sustainable Development have managed with the obligation to publish all presented before the Conference papers and posters, but in 6 volumes – 68, 69, 70, 71, 72 and 73 (1/2018, 2/2018, 3/2018, 4/2018, 5/2018 and 6/2018) of the Journal. All papers and presentations could be finding in the Internet site of the Conference and of the Scientific Journal on Management and Sustainable Development.

In the same time we offer of all of you not only to read published papers. You could send to our journal results of your investigations, ideas and papers on the issues of management and sustainable development.

Kind regards of all our readers! Editorial board

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УПРАВЛЕНИЕ И УСТОЙЧИВО РАЗВИТИЕ 2/2018 (69) MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 2/2018 (69)

THEORETICAL BASES OF QUALITY OF A MANPOWER IN NATIONAL ECONOMY

Nataliya Makovskaya Belarusian State Economic University, Minsk, Belarus

Abstract

High qualification, professional flexibility and adaptive ability of employees become the basis of their social protection:

such workers are the most competitive and mobile in the labour market. Changes in modern approaches to understand-ing the quality of labour in the national economy are associated with UNESCO recommendations on the transition to the concept of human competence and the provisions of the national system for assessing the quality of specialists. In this regard, the term „competence” becomes leading in assessing the level of quality of labour, the most important criterion of vocational training and an integral indicator of the quality of the workforce.

Key words: labour resources, human capital, labour market, labour productivity, professional qualifications. JEL: J01.

Introduction In the conditions of a market economy and its

innovative component, the criteria for the quality of labour resources are constantly expanding and supplementing. High qualification, professional flexibility and adaptive ability of employees become the basis of their social protection: such workers are the most competitive and mobile in the labour market.

Expansion of the production profile of employ-ees is one of the conditions for the fullest use of the achievements of scientific and technical progress, increasing the efficiency of the use of labour in a market economy. At the same time, it is necessary to take into account that the market economy, along with the identification of interrelations and the inte-gration of individual professions, strengthens the tendency to differentiate knowledge and skills and further specialization.

As practice shows, with the development of forms of ownership, the requirements imposed on workers in the labour market also change. Previ-ously, the employer proceeded from the accounting of 3–5 social, professional and psychological quali-ties and characteristics of the employee being hired. At present, their number has increased by 2–3 times, and the main criterion is the competitive-ness of the employee, his high professionalism.

If before higher education was enough for 20–25 years of practical work, today the optimal term of its effectiveness is 5–6 years, and in the sectors de-termining scientific and technical progress – 2–3 years. This means that in some industries, innova-tion cycles are shorter than the time for training specialists, which again confirms the need for con-tinuing education.

The quality of labour resources is a set of pro-fessional, educational, psycho-physiological char-acteristics that make a person capable of perform-ing labour functions of one or another complexity.

Until recently, the main criteria for the quality of labour resources were: the level of education of the employee; the level of professional training of the employee; the level of employee motivation to im-prove professionalism and quality of their own work; the ability of the organizational structure of an insti-tution (enterprise) to disclose all the qualities of an employee.

The quality of labour resources is characterized by such indicators as general and professional work capacity and availability of labour potential of work-ers. The integrated quality indicators are: gender, age, social and educational level, psycho-physiological indicators.

The modern labour economy offers the quality of labour resources to evaluate through the „prism” of the availability of formed human capital [2]:

1. Human capital is the basis of labour produc-tivity of workers included in the production process. Productivity of labour is manifested through quality criteria (ability to work, quali-fication, etc.). The productive capacity of a person, that is, his capacity for work, is de-termined by the age, state of health and education of the individual, is the basic sign of the category „labour resources”. The presence of the formed human capital re-flects the quality of labour relations between employees and employers regarding wages, social preferences, employment, etc.

2. Human capital is inseparable from its car-rier-worker. The employer leases this eco-nomic resource for the purpose of using it as a production factor for the wage rate. The higher the quality of this resource, the greater the economic effect of the producer. In this case, the quality of the labor resource is related to the fact that human capital has a value that is determined by the volume of services expected from the employee in the

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Nataliya Makovskaya

organization. The ability of human capital to create added value determines its value (and value) for the employer and the level of income for the employee. For an employee, his human capital is a commodity that he of-fers in the labour market, and for the em-ployer it is the capitalized value of the cost of capital spent on selecting and hiring an employee. With the appropriate investments (money, time, efforts of the worker himself), human capital will increase its quality (value), and also retain the ability to gener-ate income through additional types and methods of activity.

3. Human capital at the expense of capitaliza-tion increases its quality, which is a factor that ensures its preservation and effective use, both at the individual level and at the level of the enterprise, industry or a combi-nation of industries, region and country.

4. The quality of human capital is associated not only with investments in education and further industrial training, but also with per-sonal qualities of a person. Investments in the professional development of the quality of human capital give a longer integral social and economic effect over time.

The quality of human capital is linked to the no-tion of internal norms of bestowal. They are built by analogy with the rates of return on capital and allow us to assess the effectiveness of human invest-ments, especially in education and production train-ing. The rates of return act as a regulator of the distribution of investment between different types and levels of education, as well as between the education system as a whole and the rest of the economy.

There are two main approaches to calculating the rates of return.

The first is based on a direct measurement of benefits and costs. For example, the income from higher education can be represented as the differ-ence in the lifetime earnings of those who gradu-ated from college and those who did not go beyond high school. In the composition of costs in addition to direct costs include lost earnings, that is, income received by students for years of study. The internal rate of return will be a discount rate at which the given values of the benefits and costs of education will be equal.

The second approach is based on the evalua-tion of the parameters of the so-called „production function of earnings”, which describes the depend-ence of a person's earnings on the level of his edu-cation, length of service, length of time worked and other factors. The development of this class of func-tions is connected with the name of J. Mincer, who proved that within the framework of such a model

the coefficient before the educational variable will be equivalent to the value of the internal rate of return. This greatly simplified the assessment of the effectiveness of investment in education [1].

Calculations show that the profitability of human capital is usually higher than physical. This testifies to the assumption of the rational behaviour of stu-dents and their parents. In the United States, esti-mates of the rates of return of primary education reached 50–100%, the average – 15–20%, higher –10–15%. In the 1970s, the effectiveness of higher education dropped to 7–8%, which gave grounds for talking about the overproduction of the gradu-ated labour force, but in the 1980s it returned to its previous, higher level.

There are different rates of return for different categories of workers: for men they are higher than for women, for the white population is higher than for colour. International comparisons show that with the growth of per capita income, the effectiveness of investment in a person decreases, but in the richest countries it moves up again. Thus, the rela-tionship between the level of economic develop-ment and the norms of the impact of education is U-shaped.

The quality of human capital that underlies the labour force depends on investment in workers and the degree of their payback. In this connection, the issue of risk assessment and economic efficiency of such investments arises.

The main problem faced by modern enterprises is the evaluation of the effectiveness of investments in human capital. The difficulties arising in this case, to a certain extent, are explained by the fact that investments in human capital have a number of features that distinguish them from other types of investments [8–9]:

1. Return on investment in human capital di-rectly depends on the life of its carrier (on the duration of the working age). The earlier investments are made in a person, the faster they start giving returns. But you need to keep in mind that better and longer-term investments bring a higher and more lasting effect.

2. Human capital is not only subject to physical and moral deterioration, but it is also capa-ble of accumulating and multiplying. Wear of human capital is determined, firstly, by the degree of natural wear and tear (aging) of the human body and the psychophysiologi-cal functions inherent in it, and secondly, by the degree of moral (economic) wear due to obsolescence of knowledge or changes in the value of the education received. The ac-cumulation of human capital is carried out in the process of periodic retraining of the worker and the accumulation of production

5

THEORETICAL BASES OF QUALITY OF A MANPOWER IN NATIONAL ECONOMY

experience. If this process is carried out continuously, then as the human capital is used, its qualitative and quantitative (quality, volume, value) characteristics are improved and increased.

3. With the accumulation of human capital, its profitability rises to a certain limit, limited by the upper limit of active labour activity (ac-tive working age), and then sharply de-creases.

4. In the formation of human capital, there is a „reciprocal multiplier effect”. Its essence lies in the fact that in the learning process the characteristics and abilities not only of the learner improve, but also those of the per-son who trains, which subsequently leads to the growth of earnings of both the first and the second.

5. Not every investment in a person can be recognized as an investment in human capi-tal, but only those that are socially appropri-ate and economically necessary. For exam-ple, the costs associated with criminal activi-ties are not investments in human capital, as socially inappropriate and harmful to society.

6. The nature and types of investments in a person are determined by historical, na-tional, cultural characteristics and traditions. Thus, the level of education and the choice of profession by children largely depend on family traditions and the level of education of their parents.

7. Compared to investments in other different forms of capital, investments in human capi-tal are the most beneficial both from the point of view of the individual and from the point of view of the whole society.

The driving forces for changing the quality of la-bour resources include those that are external to this quality: political, economic, demographic fac-tors, etc. The study of the influence of factors on the change in the quality of labour resources allows us to understand the internal sources of their de-velopment. External factors affecting the change in the quality of labour resources can be divided into three groups:

‒ factors of direct action directly affecting the quality change;

‒ factors of indirect effect that affect the qual-ity change indirectly;

‒ the conditions in which the factors determin-ing the force of their action and direction act.

Factors directly related to labour activity and in-fluencing the degree of realization of a person's ability to work are factors of direct action. They are closely related to the quality of working life. Factors influencing the process of transforming potential labour resources into real ones are categorized as factors of indirect action. They affect the change in the quality of labour resources involved in the la-bour process and affect the overall level of quality of all labour resources: the state of the education system (as a factor in the formation of labour re-sources of a certain quality); the supply of labour in the labour market; demand for labour in the labour market; the price of the labour resource, which is formed in the labour market (wages).

References 1. Kapelyushnikov, R. Modern bourgeois concepts of

the formation of labour: critical analysis. Nauka. Moscow. 1981.

2. Becker, G. Human capital: theoretical and empirical analysis, with special reference to education. N Y. 1964.

6


DETERMINANTS OF FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT IN BULGARIA

Konstantin Kolev University of Forestry, Sofia, Bulgaria

Abstract

On the basis of theoretical foundations of foreign direct investment (FDI) are revealed their determinants. Regression

models are constructed. Dependent variable in the specified models is FDI, and independent variables are gross domes-tic product, interest rate on long-term loans for households and annual wage of employed persons in Bulgaria during the period 2000–2016.

Key words: foreign direct investment, GDP, interest rate, average wage. JEL: D4, D6, E1, E6, H3, H4.

Introduction Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is a long-term

investment of entrepreneurial capital, which the investors from one country make in industrial, agri-cultural, commercial, transport, financial, tourism and so on enterprises situated on the territory of other countries and which provides management control over external enterprises [9]. The positive effects of FDI for host countries are: increase in investment activity; increase in productivity of pro-duction factors; increase in welfare; influence on state budget and balance of payment; increase in the level of employment; building of export sector and so on [9]. Due to these the goal of current arti-cle is: on the basis of literature sources to define determinants of FDI and to specify econometric models that characterize the relationship between variables.

1. Theoretical concepts of FDI

The most important theoretical concept of FDI, which give directions to corporations for develop-ment and implementation of their strategies in the field of international entrepreneurship are Hymer’s model, product life cycle theory and OLI model. The essence of these three concepts is shortly pre-sented in the lines below.

According to St. Hymer the realization of FDI is connected with higher risks and expenditures in comparison with the investments in the home coun-try. The higher risk and expenditures are conse-quence of the territorial distance, which obstructs the foreign branch management; the hardships connected with entering the foreign market through organization of the production on a place; the pos-sible discriminatory policy of the host country and so on. Because of these risks and expenditures the corporation investor has to possess some advan-tages inaccessible for their competitors [9]. Accord-ing to S. Hymer the advantages can be ‘exclusive and permanent control of proprietary technology, privileged access to inputs, scale economies, con-

trol of distribution systems, product differentiation and government intervention’ [13].

The product life cycle theory is created by R. Vernon. According to him the life cycle of the new product has four stages – introduction, growth, mature and saturation. At first the new product has to be produced for the national market. After that it has to be produced for the national and interna-tional market and finally the production has to be exported in foreign countries with cheaper input resources. In this way the product life cycle is pro-longed and transformed into an ‘international life cycle’ [9, 13].

The OLI model or the so called the Eclectic paradigm is worked out by J. Dunning. According to him investment decisions by multinational corpora-tions are taken when there are three advantages – from ownership (O), location (L) and internalization (I). In ownership advantages are included the fol-lowing components: size of the company and its position on internal and external market; know-how; technological capacity; trademarks; human produc-tive capacities; distribution and service networks. In location advantages are included the following components: price competition on resource markets – labour force, energy, raw materials; transport infrastructure; geographical location of resources; political stability; tax policy; stable law system; long-term market potential and market size; favourable investment climate. The internalization advantages reflect the ability of the company to realize O- and L- advantages in its own organizational structure [9, 13].

2. Specification of Regression Models

On the basis of the theoretical concepts pre-sented in the lines above are sum up some impor-tant determinants of FDI: gross domestic product (GDP), interest rate on long-term loans for house-holds (IRCL); annual wage of employed persons (WE). The regression models are based on time series for Bulgaria for the period 2000–2016.The

7

Konstantin Kolev

sources of time series are the National Statistical Institute (NSI) and the Bulgarian National Bank (BNB).

Table 1. Determinants of FDI during the period 2000–

2016 in Bulgaria

Years FDI, million

EUR GDP, mil-lion BGN

IRCL, %.

WE, BGN

2000 1 103.3 47 743 17.12 2 694

2001 903.4 49 543 17.15 2 880 2002 980.0 52 484 16.29 3 091 2003 1 850.5 55 190 15.68 3 280 2004 2 735.9 58 742 13.82 3 509 2005 3 152.1 62 927 11.85 3 885

2006 6 221.6 67 252 10.18 4 324 2007 9 051.8 72 192 9.75 5 167 2008 6 727.8 76 539 10.86 6 538 2009 2 799.8 73 794 13.45 7 309 2010 1 370.4 74 771 12.69 7 777 2011 1 537.2 76 203 12.02 8 230 2012 1 382.8 76 227 11.38 8 773

2013 1 509.2 76 884 10.66 9 301 2014 1539 77 906 10.37 9 860 2015 2 429.6 80 724 9.49 10 535

2016 1 042.0 83 905 8.61 11 379 Sources: NSI, BNB.

The essence of the variables used in the linear

regression models is presented below: ‒ GDP reflects the market size. It influences

the expected revenues of the investment. The relation between GDP and FDI is posi-tive. The larger the market size of a given country is the more FDI the country should attract [10, 11].

‒ Interest rate on long-term loans for house-holds (IRCL) is annual effective interest rate of consumer loans with a term of more than one year. In current article IRCL is used as an index to measure the economic confi-dence. Here should be underlined that an economy with long run stable and low inter-est is expected to have suitable environment for FDI [13].

‒ The lower annual wage level (WE) reduces the total production cost and increases the competitiveness of multinational companies on the global market. Due to this the cheaper labour should stimulate the in-crease of FDI [4, 13].

In current study two two-variable regression models with dependent variable FDI are specified. In the first model the factor variables are GDP and annual wage of employed persons (WE). In the second model the independent variables are inter-est rate on long-term loans for households (IRLC)

and annual wage of employed persons (WE). The parameters of two models are presented in the lines below:

92125.23F)0001.0()0000.0()0000.0(p

14df)774245.6()786362,6()452784.5(t

774.0r)26053.0()066611.0()376.3105(se

WE765.1GDP452.094.16932IFD

14,2

2

ttt

(1)

18242.17F)0002.0()0001.0()0000.0(p

14df)073356.5()741661.5()672080.6(t

711.0r)171599.0()4456.186()453.3236(se

WE8715.0IRCL51.107087.21593IFD

14,2

2

ttt

(2) Through LM Breusch-Godfrey test from 2nd or-

der is performed verification for autocorrelation in the residuals around the regression line [6]. By means of the test is established that the multiplica-tion between the number of observations and the coefficient of determination (R2) is 8.46 and is greater than the critical value χ2=5.99 reported from the values for χ2-distribution at two degrees of free-dom and level of significance α=0.05. When χ2 empirical is bigger than χ2 critical the zero hypothe-sis for lack of autocorrelation is rejected and the alternative is accepted [6].

In present study the autocorrelation is removed by means of the most often used approach for this purpose – the method of autoregressive transfor-mation [17]. It is applied in the following order:

‒ Firstly, if the residuals around the regression line are autocorrelated a first-order autocor-relation coefficient is calculated [14, 17]:

N

1t

2t

N

2t1tt

uu

u

uu

r1tt

, (3)

where ut is the residual elements around the regression line. The relation between autocorrelated residual

elements can be expressed through first-order autoregressive model as a Markov process [6, 17]:

t1tt uu , (4)

where ρ is a constant coefficient for all values of t; εt – random deviations, independent from each other. They can be expressed as follows:

1ttt uu (5)

On the basis of formula (5) the authors D. Coch-

rane and G. Orcutt suggest dependent variable (Y) and independent variable (X) from a single-

8

DETERMINANTS OF FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT IN BULGARIA

equation regression model to be transformed in the following way [17]:

1tt't1tt

't XXX;YYY (6)

This transformation is called autoregressive as it

is based on equation (4), which is an autoregres-sive first-order model. On the basis of formula (6) the transformation of the regression models from formulas (1) and (2) acquire the types presented in equations 7–8 and 9–10 [6, 17]:

t1tt3

1tt211tt

)WEWE(

)GDPGDP()1()FDIFDI(

(7)

t't

'3

't

''1

't WEGDPFDI

2 (8)

t1tt3

1tt211tt

)WEWE(

)IRCLIRCL()1()FDIFDI(

(9)

t't

'3

't

''1

't WEIRCLFDI

2 (10)

The determination of the constant coefficient ρ is

a significant problem in the application of the auto-regressive transformation. D. Cochrane and G. Orcutt suggest ρ to be replaced with the first-order coefficient of autocorrelation calculated by means of formula (3). The authors prove that

1ttuur [6].

‒ Secondly, with the first-order autocorrelation coefficient and through formula (6) is per-formed the autoregressive transformation and the values of the variables

't

't

't

't WEandIRCL,GDP,FDI are calculated

[17]. ‒ Thirdly, with the transformed values of the

two variables and on the basis of equations (7–8) and (9–10) are built regression mod-els. The residuals around the regression line should not be autocorrelated [17].

On the basis of the presented in equations (1) and (2) and through formula (3) are calculated first-order coefficients of autocorrelation (

1ttuur ).

Their values are respectively 0.459 and 0.527. They are used in formulas (7–8) and (9–10) in re-alization of autoregressive transformation. With the transformed values of variables the following re-gression models are received:

57367.16F)0001.0()0001.0()0008.0(p

13df)73333.5()40259.5()3416.4(t

718.0r)3634.0()10618.0()143.2929(se

WE083.2GDP574.027.12717IFD

13,2

2

't

't

't

(11)

125442.9F)0036.0()0017.0()0003.0(p

13df)54048.3()9297.3()8853.4(t

584.0r)24636.0()913.257()912.2015(se

WE872.0IRCL546.1013412.9848IFD

13,2

2

't

't

't

(12)

Both models and their parameters are statisti-cally significant. In residuals around the regression line there are not autocorrelation as χ2 critical is 5.99 and is bigger than χ2 empirical, which is 2.66834 for the first model and 4.034895 for the second.

Conclusions

The results from the research give grounds for the following conclusions:

‒ On the basis of two-variable regression model with dependent variable – FDI and factor variables – GDP and annual wage level (WE) is established: firstly, an increase in GDP with 1 million BGN and elimination the impact of WE cause an increase in FDI on average with 0.574 million EUR; sec-ondly, an increase in WE with 1 BGN and elimination the impact of GDP cause a de-crease in FDI on average with 2.083 million EUR.

‒ On the basis of two-variable regression model with dependent variable – FDI and factor variables – WE and interest rate on long-term loans for households (IRCL) is es-tablished: firstly, an increase in IRCL with 1 percent point and elimination the impact of WE cause a decrease in FDI on average with 1,013 billion EUR; secondly, an in-crease of WE with 1 BGN and elimination the impact of IRCL cause a decrease in FDI on average with 0.872 million EUR.

References 1. Ahmad, N., Hayat, M., Luqman, M., Ullah, S. The

causal links between foreign direct investment and economic growth in Pakistan. 2012. DOI: 10.12955/ejbe.v6i0.137.

2. Bilawal, M., Ibrahim, M., Abbas, A., Shuaib, M., Ahmed, M., Hussan, I., Fatima, T. Impact of ex-change rate on foreign direct Investment in Pakistan. Advances in Economics and Business. 2 (6). 2014. pp. 223–231.

3. Blonigen, B., Piger, J. Determinants of foreign direct investment. National Bureau of Economic Research. Cambridge. 2011.

4. Drabek, Z., Payne, W. Impact of transparency on Foreign Direct Investment. World Trade Organization Economic Research and Analysis Division. 1999.

5. Elbaiashi, H. The effect of FDI and other foreign capital inflows on growth and investment in develop-ing economies. A thesis submitted for the degree of doctor of philosophy in economics. University of Glasgow. 2011.

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Konstantin Kolev

6. Gujarati, D., Porter, D. Basic Econometrics. McGraw-Hill Companies. 2009.

7. Habib, M., Sarwar, S. Impact of foreign direct in-vestment on employment level in Pakistan: a time series analysis. Journal of Law, Policy and Global-ization. 10. 2013. pp. 46–55.

8. Mamoon, M., Rahman, A. Effects of foreign direct investment (FDI) on Bangladeshi labor market. World Review of Business Research. 6(3). 2016. pp. 46–60.

9. Marinov, V. International economic relations. Theory, system, politics. University publishing house ‘Econ-omy’. 2006.

10. Na, L., Lightfoot, W. Determinants of foreign direct investment at the regional level in China. Journal of Technology Management in China. 1(3). 2006. pp. 262–278.

11. Niazi, G. Does an inflation and growth of a country affect its Foreign Direct Investment? Journal of Man-agement. Economic and Finance. 2011. pp. 84–90.

12. Petranov, S. Foreign direct investment to Bulgaria. Agency for Economic Analysis and Forecasting. 2003.

13. Ren, J. Determinants and impact of foreign direct investment in China: a national and regional analy-sis. Loughborough University. 2012.

14. Stoenchev, N. Statistics. Publishing House at Uni-versity of Forestry. 2013. (in Bulgarian).

15. Stoimenov, M. International finance. Trakia-M. 2011. (in Bulgarian).

16. Tsoklinova, М. Foreign Direct Investment As A Fac-tor For Sustainable Development, 3rd International multidisciplinary scientific conference on social sci-ences and art SGEM. 2016. pp. 273–280.

17. Velichkova, N. Statistical Methods for Studying and Forecasting the Development of Socio-Economic Phenomena. Publishing House ‘Science and Art’. 1981. (in Bulgarian).

18. Walsh, J., Yu, J. Determinants of Foreign Direct Investment: A Sectoral and Institutional Approach. International Monetary Fund. 2010.

19. Zbida, A. Analysis of foreign direct investments in Hungary. Szent Istvan University. 2010.

20. Bulgarian National Bank. [www.bnb.bg]. 21. National Statistical Institute. [www.nsi.bg].

ДЕТЕРМИНАНТИ НА ПРЕКИТЕ ЧУЖДЕСТРАННИ ИНВЕСТИЦИИ В БЪЛГАРИЯ

Константин Колев

Лесотехнически университет, София

Резюме

На основата на теоретични концепции за преките чуждестранни инвестиции (ПЧИ) са откроени техни детер-минанти. Построени са множествени регресионни модели, в които зависима променлива са ПЧИ, а факторни променливи са БВП, лихвения процент по дългосрочните потребителски кредити и средната годишна работна заплата в България през периода 2000–2016 г.

Ключови думи: преки чуждестранни инвестиции, БВП, лихвен процент, средна годишна работна заплата.

10


CRITERIA AND INDICATORS EVALUATING THE FUNCTIONING OF QUASI-MARKETS

Maya Tsoklinova

University of Forestry, Sofia, Bulgaria

Abstract

Achieving sustainable development is the goal of any society. Over time, the idea of managing sustainable the theme of the development and functioning of quasi-markets in today's mixed business systems is extremely topical. The author focuses on five criteria for an assessment of quasi-market reforms, their indicators and the goals they have achieved. After the privatization of much of the state and municipal resources, the typical function of the public sector moves to the private sector. This functional change is associated with a change in the ownership structure of resources and the way they are funded. The latter makes the conclusion of contracts in a quasi-market agreement. These atypical relationships can be seen as different patterns of resource allocation and, more specifically, resource-oriented models. Research ac-tivity focuses on quasi-market employment reforms and, in particular, additional training services for job seekers in eco-nomic subjects. The objective of creating quasi-market conditions for the functioning of some activities of the national economy is related to the desire to achieve efficiency, freedom of choice and equality. The aim of quasi-market relation-ships is to improve efficiency, rationalize economic choices and raise standards of quality of life – without adverse con-sequences, especially for social justice and well-being among economic agents.

Key words: quasi-markets, evaluation, criteria, indicators, mixed economic system. JEL: D4, D6, H00.

Introduction Market forces are means for achieving public

goals rather than means for transferring funding from the public to the private sector. Traditionally, services aimed at reintegrating labour are highly monopolized by government regulations. In the market system, services are offered by a wide range of suppliers, with non-governmental organi-zations and economic organizations working with the government supplier. The State as a third part in the market relationship may continue to play its own role as a supplier [14]. The introduction of market forces stems from the drive to improve effi-ciency in the public sector. It should be noted that in economic literature the role of competition is limited to:

a. use of competitive pressure to encourage producers to maintain a lower level of prices;

b. stimulating the use of new production tech-nologies;

c. creating a favourable innovation environ-ment to avoid economic destruction [3].

Purpose of the study: The main objective of the research report is to analyze the functioning of quasi-markets as the author's attention is focused on five criteria to evaluate the functioning of certain activities in the national economy based on estab-lished quasi-market conditions.

1. The competitive mechanism of supply ser-vices

Markets with a potential threat to penetration of economic agents are described by economic litera-

ture as competitive markets. State funding is justi-fied in cases where it would lead to under-optimal levels of consumption and where there are positive social externalities and the principle of economic direction [8]. Therefore, a widespread distribution of educational, health and social services may be re-quired, broader than would be the case with purely private arrangements. However, while public fund-ing is justified, this does not mean that the State as an economic agent has to provide all (or some of) those services. In literature, this model is called quasi-market [11].

2. The Nature of Quasi-Markets

In quasi-markets, the relationship between buy-ers and suppliers is structured in a commercial way. This leads to the following situation: switching from suppliers of bureaucratic monopolies to independ-ent and competitive suppliers. As a result of this transformation, the state institutions responsible for the provision of these services have been replaced by state buyers who enter into contracts with inde-pendent suppliers to provide the service in question [11]. Decisions are made on the basis of market criteria for price, quality and delivery time. A num-ber of authors define this new way of delivering public services as an internal or quasi-market: mar-ket in the sense of independent economic agents who compete with each other for the attention of consumers but as a quasi-product – that is, unlike the normal market, purchasing power comes not directly from consumers but from the state [11].

Another difference from the usual competitive markets is the appointment of an agent to act as a

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Maya Tsoklinova

buyer on behalf of the end user and in some policy sectors – predominance of non-profit or even public suppliers. In the 80s and 90s, the new supply sys-tem is present in many areas of social policy such as health, education and housing. According to quasi-market theory, market forces have two main objectives: on the one hand – to increase efficiency and, on the other hand, to increase providers' ability to react and to promote consumer choice [12].

3. Establishing quasi-markets: a modern model for increasing efficiency in public sector man-agement

The introduction of quasi-markets for publicly funded services can be seen as a specific way of delivering services that differs from privatization or contracting. In privatization, a former public sector function is constantly shifting to the private sector, with a change in ownership structure and in the mode of financing [4]. Negotiation is often under-stood as an outsourcing by a public supplier or in a broader sense, contracting means that the former public sector function is subject to competition in the private sector where the public supplier may continue to act as one of the competing participants. In this sense, the conclusion of contracts means a quasi-market agreement. Finally, there is a voucher system that enables the customer to shop between different providers of the same service [6]. These models can be considered as different distribution models, oriented:

‒ to resources, i.e. this is the model of tradi-tional supply by the public sector;

‒ to the buyer, i.e. this is the quasi-market model;

‒ to the client, i.e. this is the model of the voucher system.

In each model the following roles differ: the role of resources, the role of the buyer, the role of the supplier and the role of the consumer. What needs to be clarified is that in the traditional model, pub-licly funded services are provided by the public pro-vider, with some parts usually outsourced to other suppliers.

Analyzing the different patterns of distribution, it is necessary to specify the following trend: striking is the situation where countries where quasi-market arrangements are implemented are involved in thorough reforms of compensation and aid systems as well as attempts to boost and stimulate employ-ment on the labour market [16]. The application of market forces can be seen as a means of achieving good social security management. This effective management function is achieved not by dividing rights on benefits but by reorganizing performance. To this end, the following formula applies: instead of using market forces in a free competitive market, much more „managed market forces” or even „con-

trolled market forces” is needed [14]. The question is not to choose between „government or market”, but what kind and structure should be the mix of government and market? In this paper, when de-scribing the model of quasi-market relationships, quasi-markets are typically considered, which form the typical publicly funded sectors such as educa-tion, healthcare and other social services. British researchers of quasi-market reforms in the health and education sectors have identified the following trends: the quasi-market of health services gener-ates more deficiencies than benefits. Conversely, the education market seems to have led to signifi-cant changes, including efficiency and opportunity to make consumer choice over the known eco-nomic criteria for maximizing behaviour [10].

There are a number of possible explanations for the failure in the healthcare sector and the relative success in the education sector. The first factor for the differentiation found is the incentive structure that impacts on the professional motivation in both sectors and which is quite different – relatively weak in healthcare and relatively strong in educa-tion. The second factor is the various constraints faced by economic agents in the process of per-forming their specific professional activities. The third factor is the overall motivation of the workers [9]. In hospitals, the prevailing motivation is the quality of care provided by specialized consultants and their professional development. In education, school managers are more concerned about the financial success or failure of their educational insti-tution [5]. As a summary of the above, the following conclusion can be drawn: the introduction of quasi-markets in the provision of public services in order to change the behaviour of the relevant actors re-quires a number of conditions and attempts to be made their assessment – i.e. to what extent they have developed and what results have been achieved.

4. Criteria and Indicators to Evaluate the Func-tioning of Quasi-Markets

The aggregated assessments (or impact as-sessments) aim to determine the results and effects of the program, especially for the purpose of mak-ing important decisions on the continuation, exten-sion, reduction and funding of the program. These two types of assessments are not mutually exclu-sive [13]. Over time, a specific program or reform of activities from different types of assessments, rang-ing from public procurement audits, monitoring and evaluation to global assessment and meta-assessment [7] can be included. The aim of quasi-markets can be both to improve efficiency, to pro-mote freedom of choice, and to raise quality stan-dards – without any adverse effects, especially on the level playing field among economic agents [12].

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By defining the main purpose of quasi-market func-tioning, it is necessary to consider and systematise criteria for their evaluation. These criteria are listed in the following text of the report. Each of them is further explained and illustrated with one or more elements without claiming exhaustiveness.

Efficiency

In economic literature, the „efficiency” category is interpreted in different ways. The author of this report associates effectiveness as one of the crite-ria for assessing the functioning of quasi-markets with two basic concepts that underlie much of the various author's interpretations, namely: the total cost of delivering services and the cost of delivering a certain amount or service quality (productive or technical efficiency). Favour

Raising favouritism can be seen as a pursuit of greater distribution efficiency. Allocation efficiency refers to the output that best suits the needs and preferences of end users as well as the place where they work. Quality

Quality cannot be ruled out when considering the assessment of public service provision. Quality is a broad concept with many interpretations. One of the many definitions covers an assessment of the set of organizational criteria in product produc-tion as well as an evaluation of the criteria of the results obtained. For the quasi-market evaluation, the quality criterion covers indicators such as: type and intensity of the service; the customer's percep-tion of the service provided; customer satisfaction; the possibilities for filing complaints if the product provided does not agree with the contract. Choice

When a government agency offers services as a monopolist, customers can not make their choices because they are deprived of the opportunity to have alternative options. The market should better guarantee individual freedom of choice, as the mar-ket mechanism (i.e. the very essence of trade rela-tions) is maintained by differences in individual preferences. In the case of quasi-market function-ing in the provision of public services, the fear of choosing can be justified as an end in itself or as an instrument for achieving other policy goals. Justice

Capital rarely appears to be explicitly one of the aims of quasi-market policy. Undoubtedly, because they are governed by a government for which the considerations of justice are not necessarily a high priority. The main concern in delivering social ser-

vices is the focus on those most urgently needed economic agents [12]. A number of authors define the fair service as a service whose use is mainly driven by need rather than factors such as income, socio-economic status, gender or ethnic origin. The more care means an individual needs to calculate his/her level of well-being to a predetermined level, the greater is his/her need. 5. Mechanism of functioning of quasi-markets in the healthcare sector

In today's society, a major challenge for Homo sapiens is its increased participation in health care. When it comes to the individual's right to health care, it is necessary to mention that individual inter-est, knowledge of health, health responsibility and public solidarity are basic ethical principles in health care. Healthcare policy, healthcare providers, and healthcare providers should help citizens make in-formed and literate choices as rational economic subjects. The economic nature of healthcare links the relationship between consumers and healthcare producers and the financing institution into a unified system [15]. All elements of the healthcare system are characterized by a number of functional fea-tures. Knowledge of the economic essence of healthcare and health insurance is of great impor-tance to understand the organization and funding of health systems in different countries and the tar-geted efforts of different health policies to improve the functioning of systems. State interference sup-ports the functioning of the economy of the national economy by neutralizing market failures and subsi-dizing positive effects in the economy [1]. The state is called as a third economic entity in market rela-tions, in order to build the basis for an efficient eco-nomic system and to deal with different types of „market failures”. The theory that the state is a means by which a nation defines and applies col-lective values clearly captures the taste of modern debates on issues such as the right to life and the right to choose, the commitment of society to ideals such as equality and justice, the views of universal health insurance, regardless of the ability to pay [2]. The state defends property rights and competition as the underlying principles of the market system. It corrects market failures or compensates for the lack of private initiative in activities of public significance. For the performance of these activities, the state adopts laws that regulate its economic and social responsibilities and obligations. The reasons for state intervention in the economy must be sought in the essence of the market system. In essence, the market for health products differs significantly from the typical commodity market with the following specific features: high degree of differentiation of the health product, asymmetric information, signifi-cant number of government regulations, moral

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Maya Tsoklinova

speculation, etc. It is this complex market for health products that is a typical example of a quasi-market. This means that all deduced theoretical quasi-market specificities in this report are applicable to the healthcare sector. Figure 1 shows the macro-

economic forecast for the healthcare sector in Bul-garia and in particular the planned funds in the pe-riod 2014–2020, both by the state treasury and the revenues under operational programs.

Table 1. Structure of healthcare expenditure as a share of GDP (%)

2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 GDP – current prices, thousand BGN/

83 234 100 87 177 200 91 120 300 95 063 400 99 006 500 102 949 600 102 949 600

Health expenditure as a share of GDP (%) – national fi-nancing

4,88 4,82 4,77 4,73 4,70 4,68 4,85

Health expenditure as a share of GDP (%) – national fi-nancing + еuropean funds

6,03 6,10 6,15 6,01 5,75 5,44 5,51

Source: [http://brsnet.bg/wpcontent/uploads/2013/08/National_Health_Strategy_2020_first_draft.pdf].

Implications Through the functioning of quasi-markets there

is a shift from suppliers of bureaucratic monopolies to independent and competitive suppliers.

‒ The introduction of quasi-markets for pub-licly funded services can be seen as a spe-cific way of delivering services that differs from privatization or contracting.

‒ The quasi-market of health services gener-ates more deficiencies than benefits.

‒ The education market seems to have led to significant changes, including efficiency and opportunity to make consumer choice over the well-known economic criteria for maxi-mizing behaviour.

‒ In essence, the market for health products differs significantly from the typical commod-ity market with the following specific charac-teristics: high degree of differentiation of the health product, asymmetric information, sig-nificant number of state regulations, moral speculation, etc.

Conclusion

In order to regulate the demand for and supply of public services and to reduce the growth of pub-lic spending in developed countries, various ap-proaches and measures are applied. The weak effi-ciency of market regulations motivates the practice of introducing rigorous state control and administra-tive regulation of the market and the activity of bu-reaucratic-organized producers of public goods. The market creates conditions for highly efficient production. Universal competition is a prerequisite for thriving the one who is quicker and best adapted to changes in consumer demand and most effec-tively introduces new developments in scientific and

technological progress and thereby reduces labour costs.

References 1. Bartlett, W. et al. A revolution in social policy. Quasi-

market reforms in the 1990s. The Policy Press. Bris-tol.

2. Bradley, S., Taylor, J., Diversity, choice and the quasi-market: An empirical analysis of secondary education policy in England. Working Paper 038. 2007. Lancaster University Management School.

3. Bowman, A. Competition for economic development among southeastern cities. Urban Affairs Quarterly. 23. 2008.

4. Claassen, R. Institutional pluralism and the limits of the market. Politics, Philosophy and Economics. 2009. pp. 420–447.

5. Cutler, D. Equality, efficiency and market fundamen-tals: The dynamics of international medical-care re-form. Journal of Economic Literature. 2002. pp. 881–906.

6. Deakin, N., Walch, K. The enabling state: the role of markets and contracts. Public Administration. No 1. 1996. pp. 33–48.

7. Izumida, N. Income Impact on the Use of Long-term Care Service: the Case of Institutional Care Services. Social Security Review. 2008. pp. 327–342.

8. Fisher, C. Resource allocation in the public sector. Values, priorities and markets in the management of public services. Routledge. London/New York. 1998.

9. Le Grand, J. Delivering public services through choice and competition – The other invisible hand, Princeton University Press. Princeton. 2007.

10. Le Grand, J. From knight to knave? Public policy and market incentives. In: Taylor-Gooby, P. (ed.) Trust and welfare. Macmillan. Houndmills. 2000.

11. Le Grand, J. The quasi-market experiments in public service delivery: did they work? Paper for presenta-tion at Pontignano conference. 6–8 April 2001. Lon-don School of Economics. London. 2001.

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12. Le Grand, J., Bartlett, W. (eds). Quasi-markets and social policy. Macmillan Press. London. 1993.

13. Reichard, C. Strengthening competitiveness of local public service providers in Germany. International Journal of Administrative Sciences. 2006. pp. 473–492.

14. Slaughter, S., Cantwell, B. Transatlantic moves to the market: United States and European Union. Higher Education. 2012. pp. 583–606.

15. Schwartz, B. The Paradox of Choice: why more is less. Harper Collins. New York. 2004.

16. Struyven, L., Steurs, G. Design and redesign of a quasi-market for the reintegration of job seekers: empirical evidence from Austtralia and the Nether-lands. Journal of European Social Policy. vol. 15. no. 3. 2005. pp. 211–229.

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КРИТЕРИИ И ПОКАЗАТЕЛИ, ОЦЕНЯВАЩИ ФУНКЦИОНИРАНЕТО НА КВАЗИ-

ПАЗАРИТЕ

Мая Цоклинова Лесотехнически университет, София

Резюме

Темата за развитието и функционирането на квази-пазарите в съвремените смесени стопански системи е из-

ключително актуална. Авторовото внимание е фокусирано върху пет критерия за оценка на квази-пазарните ре-форми, техните показатели и набелязаните цели за постигане. След приватизацията на голяма част от държав-ните и общинските ресурси, типична функция на публичния сектор се премества в частния сектор. Тази функци-онална трансформация се свързва с промяна в структурата на собствеността на ресурсите и в начина на тяхното финансиране. Последното превръща сключването на договори в квази-пазарно споразумение. Тези нетипични взаимоотношения могат да се разглеждат като различни модели на разпределение на ресурсите и по-конкретно – модели, ориентирани към ресурсите. Изследователският интерес е фокусиран върху квази-пазарните реформи за заетост и по-конкретно, услугите за допълнително обучение на търсещи работни позиции икономически инди-види. Целта при създаването на квази-пазарни условия за функционирането на някой дейности от националното стопанство е свързана с желанието за постигане на ефективност, свобода на избор и равнопоставеност. Ако трябва да се доуточни, целта на квази-пазарните взаимоотношения е да се подобри ефективността, да се раци-онализира икономическия избор и да се повишат стандартите за качество на живот - без неблагоприятни после-дици, особено за социалната справедливост между икономическите агенти.

Ключови думи: квази-пазари, оценка, критерии, показатели, смесена стопанска система.

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SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND INNOVATION POTENTIAL OF THE MINING COMPANIES

Borislava Galabova, Boryana Trifonova

St. Ivan Rilski University of Mining and Geology, Sofia, Bulgaria

Abstract

Innovation is at the heart of the economic development and growth. The state of the national innovation system is predetermined by the innovation activity of the enterprises. It depends on their capacity and focus on development and implementation of innovations. This topic is very important in the context of the need of increasing the competitiveness of the economy. In this sense, the main objective of the study is to reveal in principle the connection between the innovation potential of the mining company and the sustainable development as a leading contemporary concept of a balance be-tween the environmental protection and the efficient use of natural resources.

Key words: innovation, innovation capacity, mining company, sustainable development JEL: L23, O31, 030, Q01, Q50.

Introduction In principle the innovativeness of an economy is

one of its most important characteristics in the cur-rent business conditions. The gross innovation product shows the achieved degree of innovation. It’s expressed by the created newly products and services, developed new technologies and scientific results [3]. So it’s the result of the cooperation be-tween innovation, technological and scientifically product. It represents „the result of implemented innovation in form of new and significantly improved processes, products and services on the basis of newly created and/or adapted existing knowledge and know-how” [3]. Traditionally, the business is the greatest innovator. That’s why those innovations that were implemented in the companies are the most important for the economic progress. The fast informational and communicational development in recent decades and the related transition from an industrial to an information society have led to a great change in the traditional economical structure. It’s obvious to strive for a constant renewal and modernization in accordance with the increasing requirements of the consumer demand.

1. Conceptual framework of the innovation pro-file of the Bulgarian economy

Internationally, the Global Innovation Index (Global Innovation Index) is an indicator that covers the various innovation aspects. It provides tools that can help adjust policies to promote the production, to increase the productivity and to create new work places. The Global Innovation Index (GII) reflects the quantitative modern trends and concepts in the study of innovation profile of an economy. Its con-ceptual framework is based on the differentiation of the innovation factors and the related effects and results.

The structure of the index is complex. It’s based on two sub-indexes: Innovation Sub-Index and Innovation Output Sub-Index. The sub-index „Inno-vation input” consists of five input pillars that reflect the main elements of the national economy and provide innovations in different fields – institutions, human capital and research, infrastructure, market and business sophistication. The structure of the index is complex and it’s based on two sub-indexes „Innovation Input Sub-Index” and „Innovation Out-put Sub-Index”. The „Innovation Sub-Index” is the simple average of the first five key pillar scores. They reflect the main elements of the national economy and provide innovation: „Institutions”, „Human capital and research”, „Infrastructure”, „Market sophistication” and „Business sophistica-tion”. Every pillar is divided into sub-pillars and each sub-pillar is composed of individual indicators (81 in total in 2017). The „Innovation Output Sub-Index” has two pillars: „Knowledge and technology outputs” and „Creative outputs”. They also have own sub-pillars – „Knowledge creation”, „Knowl-edge impact”, „Knowledge diffusion” and „Intangible assets”, „Creative goods and services” and „Online creativity”, and own indicators [11]. In practice the GII helps to create an environment in which it’s possible to monitor and evaluate regularly the key innovation factors. The study of the GII is compre-hensive and includes 127 economies for 2018, providing 97.6% of the world GDP. In 2017 the value for Bulgaria is 42.84 out of 100, so the rank-ing is 36 for its innovativeness [3]. In comparison, from 2009 to 2010 Bulgaria is in 49 place of a total of 132 countries, included in the study. Its score is 3.29 out of 5, taking into account the highest score of Iceland (4.857) and the lowest of Syria (2.13) [10]. The comparison of achieved in 2010 and 2017 values shows that significant progress isn’t regis-

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tered, although Bulgaria ranks in the ranking among the top 50 countries in the world.

According to the Methodology of the European Commission for measuring the innovation potential, Bulgaria is in the group of the „Modest innovators” in the context of our responsibilities to implement the flagship initiative of the strategy „Europe 2020 – Innovation Union” [8]. The results of the studies on this subject indicate that the country is far behind on the indicator for innovation potential to its Euro-pean partners. This is presented in the report „In-novation Union Scoreboard” for 2017. In this report all member countries of European Union are or-dered by the average level of the innovation poten-tial. This indicator is complex and is based on 25 indices for 2010 and 27 indices for 2017 different indices. The Innovation potential index takes values from 0 (the lowest level) to 1 (the highest level). Its conceptual framework rests on four groups of indi-cators, which are specified in 10 dimensions and 27 specific indicators. The first group of indicators covers the general framework conditions. Its di-mensions are „Human resources”, „Attractive re-search systems” and „Innovation-friendly environ-ment”. The second group of indicators is related to the investments. Its dimensions are „Finance and support” and „Firm investments”. The innovation activities capture the innovation efforts at the level of the company, grouped in three innovation di-mensions: Innovators, Linkages, and Intellectual assets. The impacts cover the effects of companies’ innovation activities in two innovation dimensions: „Employment impacts” and „Sales effects”. The third group of indicators refers to the innovation activities. It has three different dimensions: „Innova-tors”, „Linkages” and „Intellectual assets”. The fourth group of indicators concerns the impact and has two dimensions – „Employment impact” and „Sales effects”. The value for the Innovation poten-tial index is obtained on the basis of the average values of all four groups.

In the 2017th edition of the „Innovation Score-board Union” the countries are distributed accord-ing to the average value of the indicator in four main groups in the field of the innovativeness (from the lowest to the highest result). These groups are „Modest innovators”, „Moderate innovators”, „Strong innovators” and „Innovation leaders”. Seven years later, according to data in the report „Euro-pean Innovation Scoreboard” for 2017 [9], Bulgaria is in the penultimate place of all 29 EU member states included in the study. The country continues to be in the group of the „Moderate innovators”, together with Lithuania. Moreover, visible and measurable progress in the field of the innovation potential capacity and the development of the na-tional innovation system is not achieved (if the re-sults of the country in 2010 are taken into account).

2. Evaluation of the innovation potential of Bul-garia within the European Union

In 2017, as well as in 2010, Bulgaria is in the last innovation group („Modest innovators”), accord-ing to the results, achieved by the national innova-tion system. In 2017 it remains considerably further back in the rankings, compared to others EU mem-bers that joined the Union in the last waves of ac-cession. In the more advanced group „Moderate innovators” ranks Croatia, this is member of the Union from 2013. In the same group rank also Po-land, Latvia, Hungary, Slovakia, Cyprus, Malta, Lithuania, Estonia and the Czech Republic, which are members of the Union from 2004. Slovenia which is member from 2004 is in the more ad-vanced group „Strong innovators”. It’s apparent that the total value of the Summary innovation index of Bulgaria – as a measure of the innovative perform-ance of a country, is nearly twice lower than the average for the EU. In parallel, the innovative po-tential of the innovation leaders is more than 20% higher than the average for EU. This actual ranking confirms the need for speeding up the development of the innovation potential. It is necessary to achieve more rapid progress in the field of innova-tion because of greater convergence in the sectorial innovation performance of the EU members. These facts and data justify the actuality of the topic for the development and the growth of the Bulgarian business and the Bulgarian industrial enterprises. Obviously in front of Bulgaria stand many chal-lenges, related to the need for more rapid progress in the field of innovativeness, research and devel-opment. In fact, it’s fundamental condition for the realization of the national and the community tar-gets. According to the data from the Eurostat data-base, in 2010 the Bulgarian expenditure for re-search and development is only 0.5% of GDP. This fact puts Bulgaria together with Romania, Latvia and Cyprus.

Actually, Bulgaria hasn’t achieved recom-mended for the EU members’ target of 3% of GDP in the framework „Europe 2020”, despite the efforts for creating appropriate conditions for development of scientific research, high technologies and innova-tiveness. By this indicator, Bulgaria is far behind the economically developed states members like Finland, Denmark, Sweden and Austria. In all prob-ability, taking into account the present reached level, the stated goal won’t be accomplished until 2020.

In accordance to the Methodology of the Euro-pean innovation scoreboard (2017), Bulgaria is the only EU member which doesn’t register the signifi-cant progress in the field of the innovation potential growth over the period from 2000 to 2017 [4]. The value of the Summary innovation index is the same

17


as in 2010 and 2017 (0.234) [4]. The registered progress in the past seven years is unsatisfactory, which is evident from the examination of the rank-ings. It doesn’t allow the country to move in an up-per group and to achieve greater development and growth, based on the accumulation of a new knowl-edge and high technology, contributing to the value added in the economy. In addition, in recent years, a very low innovation activity of the Bulgarian busi-ness, in comparison with European is evident [4]. The majority of the enterprises don’t invest in the creation and implementation of innovations. This fact justifies a rather bad innovation country profile. The industrial enterprises should make persistent changes to be up to the European and world trends. Past practice proves that competitive ad-vantages in the industrial sector are achieved only by creation, implementation and diffusion of innova-tion. This is the only possible approach through which the companies can increase their competi-tiveness and productivity and to limit negative ef-fects of some production activities on the environ-ment. Otherwise, they could have lost their markets and significantly could have fallen far behind the competitors in a highly competitive environment and a dynamic international market situation.

3. Sustainable development and innovation potential – links and dependencies

The present indicators give reasons to claim that the process of modernisation in the Bulgarian in-dustry doesn’t tolerate considerable development in the last ten years. The cause of this unfavourable situation can be sought in a number of areas.

For example, one of them is the limited amount in the National Innovation Fund (5 million EUR), along with the quality of the preparation of the pro-ject proposals. As the Chairman of the foundation of the Informational and Communicational Tech-nologies Cluster Peter Statev said: „There is lack of efficiency, enough transparency and meaningful-ness in the methodologies and documentary proc-ess by which Bulgarian companies apply for the European Operational Programs, the National In-novation Fund and the Research Fund” [7]. One of the best examples for the development of the com-panies’ innovation potential in accordance with the principles of sustainable development can be found in the mining sector. The mining companies imple-ment and develop sustainable development pro-grams despite the global uncertainty. That uncer-tainty was declared at the World Economic Forum in 2014. The forum was dedicated to the topic of the international community's attitude towards the future of the resource potential. This topic was dis-cussed on the base the following paradigms:

‒ the world stands against а resource deple-tion;

‒ there is no control mechanism on costs and they are constantly growing;

‒ the society seeks to increase abundance; ‒ there is a need for social justice in the use of

resources. Many objective and subjective factors, con-

nected to the supply and the demand of resources, the change in the political, economic and social situation and the environment, which are result from the consumption of natural resources, require an integrated attitude towards the new paradigms. The mining sector is the basis for the development of the other industrial sectors. So the Sustainable Development Program up to 2030 sets up the framework for its future functioning. Based on an analysis of world mining production for more than 30 years, it is concluded that over the past decades the rate with which the mining production increase exceeds the growth rate of the population as well as the rate of economic development (GDP) [5]. This is why a sharp change in the attitude towards utilization of mineral resources is needed. This is possible when a new strategy that focuses on inno-vation and creativity in the use of primary and sec-ondary sources of raw materials is imposed [5]. So it’s important to implement innovation projects and projects for improvement of the production process, healthy and safe working environment, environ-mental care and development of the human poten-tial.

4. Some innovative practices in the mining in-dustry

According to the data of the National Statistical Institute of Bulgaria, in 2014 29.6% of industrial enterprises can be defined as „innovative enter-prises”, i.e. those who have carried out technologi-cal (product and process innovation) or non-technological (marketing and management innova-tion). The mining companies are among the few enterprises that make up work purposefully on the implementation of innovative practices, leading to the sustainable development of the local communi-ties.

4.1. Innovation processes related to the environ-mental protection

In this crucial direction a number of good exam-ples and practices for successful development of the innovation potential can be indicated. One of them is the innovation of the company „Assarel Medet” JSC Bulgaria. It’s about the technical and biological reclamation of mining landfill for waste ore, in which the company have invested over 10 million EUR. This innovative solution provides both retrieving copper from waste, disposal of by-products and restores natural habitats. After the technical recultivation of the ground, it is carried out

18


a biological recultivation with special mixtures, simi-lar to the naturally abundant grasslands in the area. A number of useful effects are achieved in 2015 through the experimental planting of one acre of reclaimed areas of the landfill with lavender. The first oil from this lavender has already produced in 2017. The innovation consists in application of this system on the still existing mining waste facility. The company was distinguished in the field of the green innovations for 2017 in the Bulgarian annual contest „Innovative enterprise of the year”. For this project for recultivation the company has been awarded in the field of green innovation for 2017 in the annual contest „Innovative enterprise of the year” [5]. The plans of „Assarel-Medet” JSC for 2018 are to invest 135 million EUR in moderniza-tion of the production process, energy efficiency, safety production process and qualifications.

„Dundee Precious Metals Chelopech” SA cre-ates and applies its own innovative technology. The innovation represents a special ventricular system with which the company achieve a remarkable transformation in terms of the work culture. With this innovation the company won second place in the Bulgarian contest „The most innovative com-pany 2016” [1]. „Dundee Precious Metals Chelopech” JSC apply innovative approach in managing years ago. So the processes in the un-derground can be monitored in real time, like those in the open cast mines. The company’s manage-ment system is a novelty in the field of underground ore mining worldwide. In 2011 the company launches a project for the issue of an annual sus-tainability report in connection with the Global Re-porting Initiative (GRI). This report presents infor-mation on stakeholders related to the activity of the company – the employees, investors, Government, local communities and society. The company gained enough experience in the process of recla-mation of the land from 2004 onwards. The scope of the activities in support of the green areas is constantly increasing. The company has invested more than 17 million EUR and has planted more than 10 000 PCs. trees and shrubs and over 30 acres permanent crops with essential oil and me-dicinal crops of lavender and rose oil. There are many different beneficial effects of this innovative practice. With this activity the company enables and assists not only the biological purification of the agricultural lands, but also promote the develop-ment of the sustainable business at local level and provide a higher standard of living of the local communities. The mining enterprises participate in the events of the calendar of the Bulgarian Chair-manship of the Council of the EU. During the meet-ing of the Economic Ministers „Aurubis” Bulgaria JSC presented some big challenges to the industry in Europe and the need for an implementation of a

long-term industrial strategy until 2030. The focus is on the development of energy-intensive industries as key to the development of all other industries and industrial enterprises. During the Annual Forum on Eco-innovation and Purity of the air „Aurubis” Bulgaria JSC presented its experience in the area of emissions’ reduction. The company has installed additional secondary treatment system of techno-logical gases, based on technology used in the chemical industry „Sulfacid” and introduced for the first time. It’s applied for the treatment of waste gas from melting the copper.

4.2. Innovation of the processes related to the im-provement of the working environment

„Solvay Sodi” – Devnya has developed and has implemented special system for the collection, evaluation and implementation of the employees’ ideas, named „Got it”. The innovation enables an overall assessment of ideas for innovations with a return on investment within two years.

This innovation won the Bulgarian competition for „Workplace innovation” for 2015 [7]. The interna-tional group „Solvay Sodi” applies the policy for sustainable development „Solvay way” by 2013. This policy includes many obligations with regard to the social, corporate and ecological responsibility towards all stakeholders. These stakeholders are the personnel of the company, the member of the local communities and the society as a whole. Thanks to the system „Got it” the plant in Devnya stands out as a leader in the Belgian group for sus-tainable development. In the „Industrial Cluster Srednogorie” there are four laboratories which op-erate with a shared resource for research and ap-plied activities in conjunction with the innovative concepts „Shared values”. This conception may be defined as next level of a corporate social respon-sibility. Through 2015 the Cluster, which brings together the interests of its members to increase competitiveness and potential of the local economy, has been awarded for innovative business cluster. This Cluster also has a bronze certificate from the European Secretariat for a cluster analysis on so-cial responsibility, which testifies to the high score obtained in this field [2].

4.3. Innovation of the processes associated with a increased efficiency in the utilization of natural re-sources

On the academic level, the St. Ivan Rilski Uni-versity of Mining and Geology works purposefully towards the implementation of some research pro-grammes in the enterprises in the mining industry. For example, „Gorubso-Zlatograd” JSC imple-mented an innovative approach for integrated man-agement of extraction and processing of lead-zinc ores in 2016. This approach was developed jointly

19


with „Minstroy Holding” JSC. It ensures the rational use of the natural resources and prevents their depletion, comply with the requirements for the sustainable development of the industry. The inno-vation is mostly targeted to the flotation process in which was created and introduced a new techno-logical and reactive mode of fractional delivery of new non-toxic flotation reagents. The result is lead and zinc concentrats with improved quality charac-teristics that fully meet the requirements for a met-allurgical processing. The described technological innovation is presented for the first time to the in-ternational academic community at the XXI World Mining Congress held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, October 2016 [1].

Summary and recommendations

The results of this study show that Bulgaria ranks among the top fifty countries in the world according to its Global Innovation Index. However, the progress achieved is insufficient. This is also evident at EU level, because the country is signifi-cantly lagging behind in the field of innovation po-tential from its European partners. In 2017, Bulgaria still occupies one of the last places, according to the degree of innovation of the national innovation system. This confirms the acute need of accelerat-ing the development of innovation potential and to achieve faster progress in this field in order to in-crease convergence in members’ states innovation performance. The companies, especially those in the industry, should make sustainable changes to keep pace with the European and the global trends. Indeed, many competitive advantages in the indus-trial sector are achieved only by creation, imple-mentation and diffusion of innovation.

A good example for the development of the in-novation potential of enterprises in accordance with the principles of sustainable development can be found in the mining industry. The enterprises in this sector continue to implement programs for innova-tion, despite the global uncertainty. In the field of innovation of processes, it could be indicated a number of working and good examples for success-ful development of the companies’ innovation po-tential.

Applied by years of practice for reclamation of mining landfills for waste rocks and terrains from previous activity not only improves but supports the biological purification of the farmland. It also allows the development of sustainable business and pro-vides a higher standard of living for the local com-munities. The innovation includes the creation of shared resources laboratories for research and development of the mining enterprises in Sred-nogorie region. These laboratories are focused on the enhancement of the competitiveness and the potential of the local economy.

Most of the companies in the mining sector im-plement sustainable development policy. They pro-vide information to the stakeholders – the employ-ees, investors, Government, local communities and members of the society. Those good examples show that it’s possible for the industrial enterprises to operate successfully for implementation of inno-vative projects and improvement of the production process. All these activities aim to ensure healthy and safe working environment and to care for the environment and the human potential. Conclusion

The national innovation system is determined by the innovation activity of the enterprises, in particu-lar their capacity and focus on the development and implementation of innovations. The development of an economy goes through the striving for higher added value of the produced products and services. It should be based on innovative and modern tech-nical solutions. The decisive factors for the pro-gress depend on the results from research and development activities. The good practices and approaches for increasing the innovation potential provide the rational use of the natural resources and the reduction of the depletion of natural re-sources. They are included in the policies for social, corporate and environmental responsibility of the mining companies. It’s one of the main reasons for growth of this sector and for investments in the three pillars of sustainable development: economic, environmental and social effectiveness.

References 1. БМГК. Годишен бюлетин 2015, 2016, 2017.

[http://www.bmgk.bg]. 2. Индустриален Клъстер Средногорие. Раздел

„Новини”. [http://www.srednogorie.eu] 3. Иновации.бг. Иновационен потенциал на бъл-

гарската икономика. 2010. 4. Иновации.бг. България в глобалните техноло-

гични вериги. Фондация „Приложни изследвания и комуникации”. 2017.

5. Ковачева, В., Велев, В. Съвременни аспекти за устойчиво развитие на минералните ресурси. Сборник с доклади III Национална научно-техническа конференция „Минералните ресурси и устойчивото развитие“. НТС по минно дело, геология и металургия. София. 2017. стр. 26–34.

6. Фондация Приложни изследвания и комуникации. Национален конкурс „Иновативно предприятие на годината“. [http://www.arcfund.net]

7. Association of Business Clusters. Състоя се Националният Конкурс „Иновативно предприятие на годината”. 2017. [http://www.abclusters.org].

8. European Commission. Innovation Union Score-board 2010. The Innovation Union’s performance scoreboard for Research and Innovation. 1 February 2011.

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9. European Commission. European Innovation Score-board 2017. [https://www.rvo.nl/sites/default/files /2017/06/European_Innovation_Scoreboard_2017.pdf].

10. INSEAD. Global Innovation Index 2009–2010. [https://www.globalinnovationindex.org/userfiles/file/GII-2009-2010-Report.pdf].

11. The Global Innovation Index 2017. Innovation Feed-ing the World. Cornell University. INSEAD. the World Intellectual Property Organization. 2017.

УСТОЙЧИВО РАЗВИТИЕ И ИНОВАЦИОНЕН ПОТЕНЦИАЛ НА МИННОТО

ПРЕДПРИЯТИЕ

Борислава Гълъбова, Боряна Трифонова Минно-геоложки университет „Св. Иван Рилски”, София

Резюме

Иновациите са в основата на икономическото развитие и растеж. Състоянието на иновационната система на

една страна се предопределя от иновационната активност на предприятията – техния капацитет и насоченост към разработване и внедряване на иновации. Тази тема придобива голямо значение и актуалност в контекста на необходимостта от повишаване на конкурентоспособността на икономиката. В този смисъл основната цел на изследването е разкриването на връзката между иновационния потенциал на минното предприятие и устойчиво-то развитие като водеща съвременна концепция за баланс между опазването на околната среда и ефективното оползотворяване на природните ресурси.

Ключови думи: иновации, иновационен капацитет, минно предприятие, устойчиво развитие.

21


PUBLIC WELFARE AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: TRENDS AND CHALLENGES

Maya Tsoklinova


Abstract

Achieving sustainable development is the goal of any society. Over time, the idea of managing sustainable develop-ment has become a concept that a number of researchers are trying to explore through continuous and consistent measurement. At present, public welfare is not studied solely in terms of increased consumption of material goods and quantitative data characterizing economic growth. Along with these components, qualitative aspects are also being ac-tively used, including the social dimension of modern progress. However, the literary review shows that clear definition and accurate measurement of public welfare are not easy to achieve, and the measurement process itself is difficult to standardize. The main objective of this scientific report is to analyze and discuss the economic and non-economic indica-tors that characterize the most complete and accurate social welfare and which are related to the concept of sustainable development of the national economy. Special emphasis is placed on defining social welfare as a multi-dimensional fea-ture, whose complex assessment is based on key measures such as material living standards (including income, con-sumption, inflation, unemployment); level of healthcare in the national economy; level of education in the national econ-omy; the amount of work and leisure time; participation in public activities; management of social relationships and rela-tionships; environmental quality and uncertainty level (including: economic and natural risk assessment). Attention is focused on key elements of sustainable development and the use of alternative economic and non-economic indicators to measure social welfare. In this line of thought, social welfare should not only include purely economic measurement (the main focus is on GDP), but it is also necessary to apply non-economic measurement through a number of alterna-tive indicators.

Key words: public welfare, sustainable development, economic indicators, economic growth. JEL: D6, H00, I3.

Introduction In modern society, the notion of „welfare” is not

analyzed solely from the point of view of material living standards influencing to quantitative growth. This means that, in addition to the purely economic indicators, take effect and the qualitative aspects, the social dimension of the current progress, i.e. structural policy and public awareness [2]. Notwith-standing the above, the literature review shows that accurate measurement of welfare is not an easy process as no clear criteria and indicators for its quantification are set out. A number of authors who are studying this issue comment that although there is a widespread adoption of policies aimed at ana-lyzing public welfare, it is not clear how the term „welfare” is defined at individual or new society level. Prosperity can be presented as a multidimen-sional feature based on the following key dimen-sions that need to be considered simultaneously:

‒ material living standard, incl. level of income, consumption, employment and unemploy-ment;

‒ state, structure and financing of public health;

‒ educational level, incl. access to educational opportunities for the population;

‒ social relationships and relationships; ‒ state of the environment;

‒ degree of economic and physical uncer-tainty;

‒ an institutional environment and opportuni-ties for transparent management of eco-nomic and social processes.

Purpose of the study: The main objective of this scientific report is to analyze economic and non-economic indicators that characterize public pros-perity and are related to the concept of sustainable development of the national economy.

1. Public welfare as an element of the economic system

The welfare of a society implies the achieve-ment of adequate economic development, which is described as an objective dimension of prosperity and the resulting positive perception of people at the right stage of society, i.e. the life quality, which is described as a subjective dimension of welfare. In other words, when it comes to quantifying and assessing the welfare of a society, it is necessary to use objective and subjective indicators [4]. The main conceptual framework shown in Figure 1 pre-sents a new approach to attempts to define the concept of social welfare. Objective welfare can be equated with economic development (which is sus-tainable); can be measured with real, objective liv-ing conditions. Moreover, subjective welfare corre-sponds to the public perception of the quality of life.

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Maya Tsoklinova

Figure 1 presents the two main elements of pros-perity – the objective (what includes the real eco-nomic conditions of life) and the subjective (which includes the perceptions of economic agents about the impact of real economic conditions on life, i.e. the life quality).

Welfare

Subjective welfare

Resident perceptions about the life

quality

Subjective dimensions

Objective welfare

Economic development

(life conditions)

Objective dimensions

Source: [20].

Fig. 1. Objective and subjective welfare

In other words, the welfare of a society can be understood as a consequence and function of real living conditions (objective welfare). These condi-tions depend on how people perceive them, what they think and feel about them, and what conse-quences their action (subjective welfare) causes. This welfare observation approach is justifiable, as even the inhabitants of wealthy countries that take advantage of economic growth are not character-ized by a higher level of general prosperity.

The indicators of subjective welfare have the po-tential to provide comprehensive information on how people assess the living conditions in a given country and how these conditions impact on the attitudes, satisfaction, preferences and perceptions of society. The people themselves are the best ex-perts who appreciate their life quality in a credible way [5]. The need for income is not the only crite-rion for measuring welfare, it stimulates scientific developments to define different concepts, such as conditions and life quality, and therefore seek alter-native indicators (in terms of both dimensions) measuring public welfare. It is these alternative in-dicators that are directed towards its precise and quantitative determination [3].

In order to provide a basis for political interven-tion at every level of society, a combination of in-formation on objective living conditions and their subjective assessment should be used. The analy-sis of welfare needs to flow in the direction of its two forms - objective and subjective. Nevertheless, many countries do not have specific indicators of objective welfare and are satisfied with internal constraints on observed indicators. The concept of

sustainable development stimulates a number of studies and debates within the scientific community that can be summarized as „GDP weaknesses as a development measure”. They all highlight the weaknesses and reasons why this widespread measure cannot be used exclusively to quantify and understand actual public welfare [12].

2. Public welfare in the context of sustainable development

In identifying economic developments, it is pos-sible to focus on the social, technological, institu-tional and cultural aspects of this phenomenon [19]. What is present in all definitions is the perspective of time, i.e. it can be defined that economic devel-opment is a process that takes place over a long period of time and indicates a desired and positive change [11]. Economic development is a complex concept that leads to the progressive qualitative and quantitative development of all the individuals that make up the economic system. This improve-ment referred to above does not mean improve-ment in a purely economic sense. It also includes non-economic aspects, incl. environmental protec-tion, social rights, the cultural orientation of the community, the institutional environment and others. If there is a constant positive change in all these aspects, future generations will receive the same or better conditions, which mean that the economic system has achieved sustainable development [11].

The concept of sustainable development is a social paradigm that undoubtedly affects behav-ioural patterns. Therefore, it requires interdiscipli-nary research [10]. In this line of thought, exploring the significance of the concepts of „sustainable de-velopment” and „sustainability” implies the analysis of a complex set of dynamic factors and the aggre-gation of this heterogeneous population over a specific time period. Surely, what can be said is that this problem still provokes numerous scientific and expert controversies. Sustainable development is, inherently, a political and global concept initially linked mainly to environmental issues in less devel-oped countries [10].

Perhaps the greatest impact on the contempo-rary understanding of the concept of sustainable development and its promotion is related to the pursuit of enhancing public prosperity - in its mate-rial and intangible aspect [9]. This report identifies sustainable development as a development that meets the needs of current generations, without prejudice to the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, emphasizing global efforts to pro-tect the environment and balancing economic and political imbalances. In summary, the concept of sustainable development is based on three main elements [14]:

1. unified economic growth;

23


2. environmental protection; 3. respect and enhance social and human

rights. This approach to development is called a holistic

or a holistic approach. Between the above three interrelated elements, it is necessary to build sus-tainable interconnection relationships, because only in this way an economic system with features of fairness, efficiency and sustainability could be built [9]. Figure 2 illustrates the key elements and sub-elements of each sustainable development program. The concept is also often described as the „three pillars” – economic growth, environmental protec-tion and social progress, through their joint action, enable the sustainable development of society. Each of the elements of sustainable development forms has its own field of application. For example, the economic and social elements form a common scope for the impact of socio-economic subdivi-sions. Economic and environmental elements form another general scope, which is why the eco-economic sub-elements act. The social elements in their interaction with environmental elements form the sub-elements of the social and the environment. These three common fields of application have their own point of contact – they form a fourth cumulative field of application, which is the field of sustainable development. It implies an integrated approach to the impact of the environmental, economic and socio-economic environment.

Economic

-Growth- Risk management- Permanent return

Environmental

- Permits and licensing

- Biodiversity management

- Gas emissions

Social

- Individual respect

- Equality

- Diversity

- Human rights

SustainabilityIntegrated approach toward environmental, economic and socio-economic impact

Socio-economic- Employment-Education-Local economic and enterprises-Community-Partnership

Socio-environmentalHealth and security, Legislation, Climate changes, Crises manegement

Economic-environmental-Resources- Energy efficiency-Global Energy Problems

Source: [21].

Fig. 2. Main elements of sustainable development

The concept of sustainable development is closely linked to the desire to develop a harmonious society geared to great economic prosperity, social cohesion and environmental protection. In this re-gard, it is necessary to mention that sustainable development is associated and measured not only with quantitative but also qualitative characteristics. But in many situations the real state of the economy does not correspond to the known theoretical

framework [7]. The reason for the discrepancies in the theoretical concept is that in the economic sys-tem some elements are developing more slowly than anticipated or are preventing others from achieving better results. For example, even if eco-nomic and social equilibrium is achieved, society will not experience real progress if clean air or drinking water is exhausted. Z. Goldsmith speaks of a permanent economy, and explores ways to create a stable society. A penetrating economy is an economy in which sources are not spent in vain, food is produced sustainably, renewable energy sources are used, and the values of a community are assessed on the basis of their comparison with the notion of instability [9]. Some authors associate this contemporary social development with the no-tion of „circular economy”.

By analyzing the different elements of the con-ceptual framework of sustainable development, economic sustainability can be defined as realizing growth, achieving efficiency and fair distribution of resources and wealth among members of society. Social sustainability implies participation in deci-sion-making, mobility and cohesion, the realization of social identity, the development of institutions, etc. The third aspect of sustainability is environ-mental sustainability. This aspect respects the in-tegrity of different ecosystems, the capacity to con-serve natural resources, including biodiversity.

3. Economic aspects of public welfare

The main objective of economic policy is to monitor and quantify economic output and to use this data for future progress of society. In other words, the goal is to achieve economic growth. Economic growth, measured by GDP, is not the only indicator of the economic dimension of objec-tive prosperity [1]. When assessing and quantifying this economic dimension, other indicators must also be taken into account. It is GDP that is one of the indicators that economists use for the objective as-sessment of a country's healthy economic situation within its geographical boundaries, to measure the economic performance of society [13]. Therefore, economic performance can only be identified with the economic dimension of objective prosperity and natural economic growth.

Of these four indicators, GDP is the most widely used and widely known. It is well known that the assessment of prosperity, based solely on GDP, has a number of shortcomings and limitations [18]. Over time, GDP and objective social prosperity are somehow synonymous. The consequences of in-adequate use of GDP and its interpretation as an indicator of prosperity, the lack of an appropriate measure that takes into account the real progress of a society is high, especially given the strong in-fluence of GDP data on the functioning and direc-

24

Maya Tsoklinova

tion of the economy as a whole and on the deci-sion-making at all levels of government. Therefore, GDP is only one of the economic measures, which, with the non-economic ones, indicates the objective economic situation of a country.

4. Non-economic aspects of public welfare

Since the early 1980s, a number of alternative indicators have been developed to meet the goals set out in the sustainable development concept. In this line of thought, a number of authors are launch-ing different approaches, with the focus put on them to find alternatives to GDP [12]. Alternative indica-tors that compete with traditional ones can be grouped by different criteria, namely:

‒ to the organization that created them; ‒ the scientific field to which they relate; ‒ the target groups for which they are in-

tended, etc. In summary of the above classification, it can be

said that the differences between the alternative indicators are significant and depend mainly on the interests of their creators. For example, A. Dil [8] distinguishes three types of international indicators:

‒ It is the first type that measures the primary economic phenomena.

‒ Second are indicators that measure educa-tion, happiness, social development, the rule of law and human rights.

‒ Third type of indicators is those that cover the environmental aspects of the public sys-tem.

Other authors, such as P. Sheppelmann and I. Gossens, classify measures aimed at economic development in three main groups [15]:

1. indicators for GDP adjustment; 2. indicators replacing GDP; 3. Indicators complementing GDP. The first set of indicators – GDP adjustment re-

fers mainly to the adaptation of traditional indicators to account for economic phenomena through the inclusion of environmental and social factors. They lead to a positive or negative signal that is given to the public and can serve as an important manage-ment tool. The second set of indicators replacing GDP tends to measure and measure prosperity more directly than GDP. The third set of indicators is those that complement GDP on the basis of na-tional accounts systems. This group also includes indicators complementing GDP with additional envi-ronmental and social information.

Some of the most important alternative eco-nomic indicators are presented in the following classification:

1. The Genuine progress indicator (GPI) – the GDP adjustment indicator

The Actual Progress Indicator (GPI) was created in 1995 as one of the first alternatives to GDP by the San Francisco NGO, and is a variant of the Sustainable Economic Welfare Index (ISEW). The actual progress indicator (GPI) is an indicator that is proposed to replace or complement GDP. It is de-signed to take better account of the prosperity of a nation by including environmental and social factors that are not measured by GDP. For example, some models of the Actual Progress Indicator (API) de-crease their value when the poverty rate increases. This indicator separates the notion of „social pro-gress” from the „economic growth” category. This indicator allows politicians at national and regional level to measure how their citizens live in economic and social terms [17]. It aims to measure the wel-fare of a country and the quality of life of its resi-dents, and not just focus on the economic perform-ance of its functioning. 2. The Human Development Index (HDI) – an indi-cator that replaces GDP

The Human Development Index (HDI) is a com-prehensive statistical index of life expectancy, edu-cation and per capita income indicators that are used to rank countries in four levels of human de-velopment. The Human Development Index (HDI) was developed by UNDP in 1990 as a measure of the welfare and impact of economic and social poli-cies on people's life quality. It is used as a measure for human development and for determining the level of development of a country. The Human De-velopment Index (HDI) is a comparative measure of life expectancy, literacy, education and living stan-dards, and is among the most popular alternative measures of economic development. 3. Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)

The Millennium Declaration as a key policy document of the UN for the 21st century was adopted in September 2000 by statesmen of 189 UN member states, with the aim of reducing pov-erty in the seventh direction. The document is known for eight main objectives, including:

‒ overcoming extreme poverty and hunger; ‒ achieving universal primary education; ‒ promoting equality between women and

men and empowering women; ‒ reduce child mortality; ‒ improving the health of mothers; ‒ prevent the spread of HIV/AIDS, malaria

and other diseases; ‒ ensure a sustainable environment; ‒ creating a global partnership for develop-

ment.

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From the above eight objectives of the Declara-tion, it is clear that they emphasize that everyone has the right to food, education and health. The main objectives set out in the Declaration can be achieved through the continuous development and strengthening of the global partnership in which the richest must help the poorest. Implications

‒ Objective welfare equates to economic de-velopment and is measured by real, objec-tive living conditions.

‒ Subjective welfare includes the perceptions of economic agents about the impact of real economic conditions on life, i.e. focuses on the life quality.

‒ The concept of sustainable development stimulates a number of studies and debates within the scientific community, which can be summarized as „GDP weaknesses as a development measure”.

‒ Sustainable development is a development that meets the needs of current generations, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, em-phasizing global efforts to protect the envi-ronment and balance economic and political imbalances.

Conclusion

In recent years, there has been a significant im-provement in available information and research related to sustainable development. The monitoring of data and indicators individually and unsystemati-cally may lead to unclear or even totally mistaken perception of the direction and progress of sustain-able development at regional, national or interna-tional level. It is necessary to monitor data in a sys-tematic and global way in order to allow their com-parison and tracking over time. The various indica-tors designed to measure sustainable development offer a solution in this context. They appear to be indicators that are an adequate alternative to the current economic situation.

References 1. Allardt, E. Having, Loving, Being, An Alternative to

the Swedish Model of Welfare Research. in Nuss-baum, M., Sen, A. (ed.) The Quality of Life. Claren-don Press. Oxford. 1993. pp. 88–94.

2. Bergheim, S. Schneider, S. Measures of well-being, There is more to it than GDP. Deutsche Bank Re-search. Frankfurt. 2006.

3. Bleys, B. Alternative welfare measures. MOSI Work-ing Paper No. 12. Vrije Universiteit Brussel. Brussels. 2005.

4. Boarini, R., Johansson, A., D’Ercole, M. Alternative measures of well-being. OECD Social, Employment

and Migration Working Papers No. 33. OECD. Paris. 2006.

5. Borhnke, P. First European Quality of Life Survey: Life Satisfaction, Happiness and Sense of Belonging, European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions. Office for Official Publica-tions of the European Communities. Luxembourg. 2005.

6. Goldsmith, Z. The Constant Economy, How to Cre-ate a Stable Society. Atlantic Books. London. 2009.

7. Goossens, Y., Makipaa, A., Schepelmann, P., van de Sand, I., Kuhndtand, M., Herrndorf, M. Alternative Progress Indicators to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as a Means Towards Sustainable Develop-ment Policy. Department Economic and Scientific Policy. European Parliament. 2007.

8. Dill, A. Wealth beyond GDP – Composing a National Commons Product, Global Commons Index. 2009.

9. Islam, S., Clarke, M. The Relationship Between Eco-nomic Development and Social Welfare: A New Ad-justed GDP Measure of Welfare. Social Indicators Research. vol. 57, No. 2. 2002. pp. 201–228.

10. Kates, R., Thomas M. What is sustainable develop-ment? Goals, indicators, values, and practice. Envi-ronment Science and Policy for Sustainable Devel-opment. vol. 47. No. 3. 2008. pp. 8–21.

11. Kolev, К., Yovkov, I. Social equilibrium as a criterion for sustainable development of social production. Еconomic thought. 3. 2011. pp. 68–91. (in Bulgarian).

12. Landefeld, J., Moulton, B., Platt, J., Villones, S., GDP and Beyond: measuring economic progress and sustainability. Survey of Current Business. vol. 90. No. 4. 2010. pp. 12–25.

13. Maxton, G. The end of progress: How modern eco-nomics has failed us. John Wiley & Sons. London. 2011.

14. Marshall, J., Toffel, M. Framing the Elusive Concept of Sustainability: A Sustainability Hierarchy. Envi-ronmental & Scientific Technology. vol. 39. 2005. pp. 673–682.

15. Schepelmann, P., Goossens, Y., Makipaa, A., To-wards Sustainable Development, Alternatives to GDP for Measuring Progress. Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment and Energy. Wuppertal special 42. 2010.

16. Stiglitz, J., Sen, J., Fittousi, P. Report by the Com-mission on the Measurement of Economic Perform-ance and Social Progress. 2009.

17. Wen, Z., Zhank, K., Du, B., Li, Y., Li, W. Case study on the use of genuine progress indicator to measure urban economic welfare in China. Ecological Eco-nomics. vol. 63. No. 2. 2007. pp. 463–475.

18. Wesselink, B., Bakkes, J., Best, A., Hinterberger, F., Ten Brink, P. Measurement Beyond GDP, paper presented at Beyond GDP: Measuring progress, true wealth, and the well-being of nations. Brussels. 2007.

19. Yotova, L. Global challenges and sustainable devel-opment in public sector. Economic alternatives. 4. 2009. pp. 66–68. (in Bulgarian).

20. Gomez-Lobo, A. Sustainable Development and Natural Resource Accounting in a Small Open Economy: A Methodological Clarification. Estudios de Economía. 2001. p. 216.

26

Maya Tsoklinova

21. Dasgupta, P. The Welfare Economics of Green Na-tional Accounts. Environmental and Resource Eco-nomics. 2009. pp. 38.

ОБЩЕСТВЕНО БЛАГОДЕНСТВИЕ И УСТОЙЧИВО РАЗВИТИЕ: ТЕНДЕНЦИИ И

ПРЕДИЗВИКАТЕЛСТВА

Мая Цоклинова Лесотехнически университет, София

Резюме

Постигането на устойчиво развитие е цел на всяко общество. С течение на времето, идеята за управление на

устойчивото развитие се превърна в концепция, която редица изследователи се стремят да проучат чрез непре-къснато и последователно измерване. Понастоящем, общественото благоденствие не се изучава единствено от гледна точка на увеличеното потребление на материални блага и количествени данни, характеризиращи иконо-мическия растеж. Наред с тези компоненти, активно се използват и качествени аспекти, включващи социално измерение на съвременния прогрес. Въпреки това, литературният обзор показва, че ясното дефиниране и пре-цизното измерване на общественото благоденствие не са лесни за постигане, а самият процес на измерване трудно се поддава на стандартизиране. Основна цел на настоящия научен доклад е да анализира и дискутира икономически и неикономически показатели, които характеризират най-пълно и точно общественото благоденст-вие и които са свързани с концепцията за устойчиво развитие на националната икономика. Специален акцент е поставен върху дефинирането на общественото благоденствие като многомерен признак, чиято комплексна оценка се основава на ключови измерители като материален жизнен стандарт (в това число: доходи, потребле-ние, инфлация, безработица); равнище на здравеопазване в националното стопанство; равнище на образование в националното стопанство; размер на работно и свободно време; участие в обществени дейности; управление на социални връзки и взаимоотношения; качество на околната среда и равнище на неопределеност (в това чис-ло: оценка на икономически и природен риск). Вниманието е фокусирано върху ключови елементи на устойчиво-то развитие и използването на алтернативни икономически и неикономически показатели за измерване на об-щественото благоденствие. В този ред на мисли, общественото благоденствие не трябва да включва единствено чисто икономическо измерване (основният акцент се поставя върху БВП), но също така е необходимо да се при-ложи неикономическо измерване чрез редица алтернативни показатели (в това число: GPI; HDI; MDGs).

Ключови думи: обществено благоденствие, устойчиво развитие, икономически показатели, икономически

растеж.

27


SUSTAINABLE APPROACHES TO REVERSE LOGISTICS STATE

Adriana Strekalovska-Garkova, Stanislava Kovacheva University of Forestry, Sofia, Bulgaria

Abstract

This research aim is to review reverse logistics worldwide: clarifying the essence of the concepts and defining some

objects, determining the importance of reverse logistics and clarifying the role of reverse logistics in today concept of circular economy. A circular economy seeks to rebuild capital, whether this is financial, manufactured, human, social or natural. This ensures enhanced flows of goods and services. A circular economy is a regenerative approach in which resource input and waste, emission, and energy leakage are minimized by slowing, closing, and narrowing material and energy. This is achieved through long-lasting design, maintenance, repair, reuse, remanufacturing, refurbishing, and recycling. This contrasts with a linear economy which is a 'take, make, dispose' model of production. The new environ-mental era represents a challenge to worldwide manufacturing and production enterprises. For everybody it is important to develop ways in which industrial development and environmental protection can symbiotically coexist. Based on an early definition of logistics a definition of reverse logistics is „the process of planning, implementing, and controlling the efficient, cost-effective flow of raw materials, in-process inventory, finished goods, and related information from the point of consumption to the point of origin for the purpose of recapturing value or proper disposal”. Integrative waste manage-ment can help to combat environmental problems and achieve sustainability. The shipment of materials back to disposal sites is a natural extension of reverse logistics. Talking about reverse logistics in the context of green logistics we must say that the energy and pollution reduction associated with better transportation planning, and the use of less packaging materials, could be considered as a part of the green logistics.

Key words: reverse logistics, green logistics, circular economy, product returns, sustainability. JEL: M11, P28, Q01, Q56.

Introduction Based on an early definition of logistics [1–5, 9]

a definition of reverse logistics is „the process of planning, implementing, and controlling the efficient, cost-effective flow of raw materials, in-process in-ventory, finished goods, and related information from the point of consumption to the point of origin for the purpose of recapturing value or proper dis-posal”. Reverse logistics’ growing strategic impor-tance. Focus on rebuilding not only financial capital, but also human, social and natural. Integrative waste management can help to combat environ-mental problems and achieve sustainability. The shipment of materials back to disposal sites is a natural extension of reverse logistics. The purpose of reverse logistics is to recover the value of re-turned materials and products or to provide funds for their proper disposal. Energy and pollution re-duction associated with better transportation plan-ning, and the use of less packaging materials, could be considered as a part of the green logistics agenda. The population of the planet Earth in 2017 is over 7 billion, and in 2045. It can reach 9 billion. Environmental pollution and the depletion of Earth's resources are among the biggest problems of hu-manity. In order to achieve sustainable develop-ment, it is necessary to limit the negative effects of human activity, both individual and corporate, the aim is sustainability to become part of the strategy of each producer and consumer. Reverse logistics is not only effective but long-term decision for pro-duction of recycled materials. And this brings bene-

fits to economy, society and environment. Reverse logistics is a part of today concept of circular econ-omy. The circular economy is a model which in-cludes three elements: manufacturing, consumption, use and recycling, and towards to minimising waste and making the most of resources (Fig. 1).

Source: Graphics: Fotolia.

Fig. 1. Concept of Circular Economy The aim of the research is to review recent re-

search in reverse logistics worldwide and to ana-lyze the state of reverse logistics in enterprises, both in Bulgaria and EU. To achieve this goal, the following tasks have been formulated: critical re-view and summary theoretical developments focus-ing on defining the boundaries of reverse logistics and identifying its objectives and tasks as well as defining the need to adapt the theoretical informa-tion and definitions of the content of reverse logis-

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Adriana Strekalovska-Garkova, Stanislava Kovacheva

tics, as well as determining the importance and need for the implementation of reverse logistics in enterprises; systematizing some more important lessons and commonly used methods. Main tasks are to clarify the essence of the concepts and defin-ing some objects, to determine the importance of reverse logistics and to clarify the role of reverse logistics in today concept of circular economy. Results and Discussions

Businesses that invest in resources and infra-structure for reverse logistics will have a competi-tive advantage gaining invaluable experience in servicing a product throughout its life cycle – from creation to its processing or safe destruction. By reducing the length of products life, the importance of reverse logistics will grow. Providing good ser-vice through the life cycle of the product will in-crease efficiency and reduce the negative impact on nature. Reverse logistics is based on a continu-ous logistic process by which products are moved by the manufacturer or the client for reuse, recy-cling, production or destruction. Reverse logistics can be described as a process of planning, deploy-ing and controlling raw material flows during pro-duction, distribution or end-of-life processes and the point of their proper disposal. In literature [7], the concepts of „green logistics” and „sustainable logis-tics” are often used as synonyms of reverse logis-tics, the three being equivalent in terms of content that is not consistent with the wider meaning of re-verse logistics.

Reverse logistics activities are determined by the amount of added value. Material flows that do not add value are not part of the reverse logistics chain. The boundary between logistics (from raw materials to end-user products) and reverse logis-tics (from end-user to recycling or new user) is not strictly defined in today's supply chains. For exam-ple, used/recycled glass has a significant contribu-tion to new glass production. A comprehensive overview of supply chains combines rights and re-verses logistics and is embraced by the concept of a closed loop supply chain [6, 8]. Crucial for eco-nomic viability to coordinate the movement of re-flows [9] define reverse logistics as a process of planning, implementation and control, which aims to maximize value creation and clean disposal of products flowing in reverse product flows through efficient management of raw material stocks in pro-gress and finished products, as well as the relevant information from the point of consumption to the point of origin.

Reverse logistics is different from green logistics because it looks for the environmental aspects of all logistics activities and is specifically focused on logistics from producer to customer [6, 10, 12]. En-vironmental issues in green logistics are the con-

sumption of non-renewable natural resources, air emissions, congestion and road use, noise pollution and the disposal of hazardous and non-hazardous waste [7]. The main problems of reverse logistics in enterprises are the need for efficient waste utiliza-tion and the application of production innovations and modernization. The problems of reverse logis-tics of forestry enterprises in Bulgaria are coordina-tion and control; the physical movement and deliv-ery of materials, extraction and processing, recy-cling or landfilling; and the subsequent return to production, where it is applicable. Many of the po-litical and economic decisions in the world are de-termined by the lack of resources and energy. Cli-mate change has an additional impact and is a problem on a global scale. In these circumstances is hard to strike a balance between many aspects of sustainability in economics, ecology and social well-being. Growing interest in logistics is related to the opportunities it provides for flexible manage-ment, the material flows, coordination between the different actors engaged in the production of a product, meeting the requirements of customers in terms of quality and timing, resulting in reduced overall logistics costs. From a retrospective per-spective, logistics undergoes substantial develop-ment, which manifests itself as an evolutionary process, and in the 1990s it finds its modern ex-pression in the concept widely known in the world as Supply Chain Management (SCM).

A total of 58% of wood biomass in the EU is processed from wood industries of the EU, repre-senting about 7% of EU GDP by production and provides nearly 3.5 million jobs, contributing to the objectives of EU industrial policy. However, its fu-ture competitiveness requires new processes and products that are efficient in terms of resources and energy and are also environmentally friendly. Mate-rial flows of wood recycling goods play an essential role in the bio-economy EU. The remaining 42% of wood biomass in the EU is used for energy, which accounts for about 5% of total EU energy consump-tion. Under the National Renewable Energy Action Plans, biomass will still be the main renewable en-ergy source in 2020. The EU proposes the imple-mentation of additional measures, including harmo-nized sustainability criteria, to achieve sustainability goals related to the use of solid and gaseous bio-mass for heating, cooling and electricity. Thus, wood-based biomass, along with non-wooden for-est products that are gaining increasing interest in the market, provide opportunities to maintain or create jobs and diversify incomes in a low-carbon, green economy.

The data provided by Eurostat [11] for the mate-rial flows is included as the main criteria for achiev-ing the objectives of sustainable development and the circular economy. The material flows in each

29


EU country have different values. To make a com-parative analysis are divided into two groups. In the first group, of which Bulgaria is part, the data for the period 2007–2016 are presented for the countries with import values of wood by-products of up to 600 thousand euro. The lead in the group is Greece for the period 2007 to 2011. In 2012, Romania comes first with imported wood products of 202 thousand euros. Bulgaria takes the last place (Fig. 2).

The second group determines the major con-sumers of wood by-products. Leader is Italy with 2,104,000 € in 2011. The countries in this group have built-in reverse channels for maximum return on value of products, have sorting centers, while developing reverse flow management systems – material and information. The results clearly show the importance of reverse logistics in the modern economy based on circularity and the concept of sustainable development (Fig. 3).

Fig. 2. Products made of recycled wood

Fig. 3. Products made of recycled wood by major consumers

30

Adriana Strekalovska-Garkova, Stanislava Kovacheva

The EU monitors and analyzes the development of the forestry, economic and technological per-spectives sub-sectors and identifies key challenges and corrective actions (2013–2020) to help improve the global competitiveness of the sector.

The results of the re-use amount of wood pack-ages in the period 2010–2016 are visualized in Fig. 4 by grouping the EU countries into three levels according to the quantity of re-used resources in tons. Bulgaria, Macedonia, Romania, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Slovenia and Ireland are the group with the smallest returns.

Source: Eurostat.

Fig. 4. Level of re-used wood packages in EU Conclusions

The forestry sector and the forestry industry can become leaders in meeting the Commission's ambi-tious CO2 reduction target in Roadmap 2050 Policy Brief No. 70, October 2017 with innovative produc-tion technologies, reduced energy consumption, and increasing the recycling of wood products. In-dustry continuously develops modern processes, materials and solutions to improve competitiveness. New recycled-based modern materials have im-proved properties that promote efficient re-use of products, recycling and thus pave the way for a circular rather than a linear model of an economy worldwide.

Recycling, landfilling and waste disposal must be integrated into fully developed reverse logistics. The concepts of reuse and renewal of intelligent materials could reduce the amount of waste. It is

necessary to gather information on the relevant factors in order to develop and optimize the treat-ment of waste to assure minimization to the envi-ronmental impacts. This includes the development of logistics chain, lifecycle procedures and reverse logistics system that provides new or expanded business opportunities for business. References 1. Ковачева, С., Тасев, Г. Логистични методи и

подходи. София. 2007. 2. Тодоров, Ф. Логистиката – възможности и пре-

дизвикателства. Издателски комплекс – УНСС. София. 2015.

3. Толев, М. и др. Логистични системи. УИ „Сто-панство”. София. 2010. стр. 176–180.

4. Carter, C., Ellram, L. Reverse Logistics: A Review of the Literature and Framework for Future Investiga-tion. 1998.

5. Carter, C., Rogers, D. A framework of sustainable supply chain management theory. International Journal of Physical Distribution and Logistics Man-agement. 38 (5). 2008. pp. 360–387.

6. Browne, M., Whiteing, A. Green Logistics: improving the environmental sustainability of logistics. 2012. 229 pр.

7. Grant, D., Trautrims, A., Wong, C. Sustainable Lo-gistics and Supply Chain Management: principles and practices for sustainable operations and man-agement. Kogan Page Limited. London. 2013. 240 pp.

8. Wang, J., Chen, H., Rogers, D., Ellram, L., Grawe, S. A bibliometric analysis of reverse logistics re-search (1992-2015) and opportunities for future re-search. International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management. vol. 47. issue. 8. 2017. pp. 666–687.

9. Kopicki, R., Berg, M., Legg, L. Reuse and Recycling – Reverse Logistics Opportunities. Council of Logis-tics Management. Oak Brook. Illinois, USA. 1993.

10. Rogers, D., Tibben-Lembke, R. An Examination of Reverse Logistics Practices. 2001.

11. Secondary wood products. Eurostat data base. [http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database?p_p_id=NavTreeportlet-prod_WAR_NavTreeportletprod_INSTANCE_nPqeVbPXRmWQ&p_p_lifecycle=0&p_p_state=normal&p_p_mode=view&p_p_col_id=column-2&p_p_col_count=1].

12. Tibben-Lembke, R., Rogers, D. Differences Between Forward and Reverse Logistics in a Retail Environ-ment. Paper in Supply Chain Management. 7(5). 2002. pp. 271–282.

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ОБРАТНАТА ЛОГИСТИКА В КОНТЕКСТА НА УСТОЙЧИВО РАЗВИТИЕ

Адриана Стрекаловска-Гъркова ,Станислава Ковачева Лесотехнически университет, София

Резюме

Изследването е насочено към изясняване на същността на понятията, спецификата и значението на обратна-

та логистика и изясняване на ролята й в съвременната концепция за кръгова икономика. Икономиката базирана на многократно използване на ресурсите се стреми да възстановява капитал, независимо дали от финансово, производствено, човешко или социално естество. Това движение в кръговрат осигурява засилване на потоците от стоки и услуги. Кръговата икономика е подход, при който изтичането на ресурси се свежда до минимум чрез забавяне, затваряне и повторно използване на отпадъци, емисии, материали и енергия. Възможностите да се постигнат тези цели са иновативен дизайн, поддръжка, ремонт, многократно използване, повторно производство, реконструкция, рециклиране и др. Изброените дейности влизат в противоречие с линейния модел на досега действащата икономика, който е модел – вземи, произведи, използвай и изхвърли. Новата екологична ера пред-ставлява предизвикателство пред световните производствени предприятия. От световно значение е да се раз-работят начини, по които индустриално развитие и опазване на околната среда могат да съществуват съвместно. Въз основа на ранните дефиниции на логистиката определението за обратна логистика е „процесът на планира-не, прилагане и контролиране на обратни потоци от суровини по време на процеса на производство на готова продукция и свързаната с тези потоци информация от мястото на произход до точката на потребление с цел възвръщане на стойността или подходящо унищожаване”. Интегрираното управление на отпадъците може да помогне за борба с екологичните проблеми и постигане на устойчиво развитие. Говорейки за обратната логисти-ка, трябва да се отбележи, че намаляването на използването на енергията и ограничаването на замърсяването, свързано с по-доброто планиране на транспорта и използването на по-малко материали за опаковане, може да се разглежда и като част от концепцията „зелена логистика”.

Ключови думи: обратна логистика, зелена логистика, кръгова икономика, устойчиво развитие.

32


EFFICIENCY OF PRODUCTION AND EXCHANGE FOR MULTIPURPOSE MANAGEMENT OF THE FOREST PROTECTION BELTS

Nevena Shuleva, Fotina Yordanova


Abstract

The main thesis of this research is that: only one way giving characteristics of manufacturing function of multifunc-tional properties of forest protection belts, the owner can receive economical realization of their ownership of community value. Difference is made between their community value as obligation and product of exchange. This research stays for the position that the value of use from the best alternative production function can be used to estimate the value of the lost benefits. There are questions that need to be answered: what will be the fair income that should the owner of forest protection belts is receiving as part of the gross added value created in the country's agrarian sector?

Key words: forest protection belts; missed benefits; value of use; production function; production efficiency; ex-

change efficiency. JEL: Q23.

Introduction In Bulgaria in the 1950s in the Dobroudja region

9 state forest belts and a comprehensive network of forest protection belts were created. At present, in the north of Bulgaria, the forest protection belts are more than 9 000 ha. For the purposes of the For-estry Law, they are a forest with a protective pro-duction function.

The main purpose of the protection belts is by reducing the wind power to improve the microcli-mate of the area and to protect neighbouring agri-cultural lands from their destructive power. This in turn reduces the evaporation of water from the soil and its more efficient use of agricultural plants and increase yields of agricultural crops. The protective function of the forest protection belts increases crop yields to 30%.

The forest-economic entrepreneur at every stage of social development transforms into a pro-duction function some of the intrinsic properties of forest ecosystems: wood-producing; water and wa-ter regulating; tourist and tourist; field protection; anti-erosion; landscape–architect–tourneys; biore-servative; wild-animal breeding, etc. [2, 4, 6, 7, 10].

The main thesis of this study is: only one way giving characteristics of manufacturing function of multifunctional properties of forest protection belts, the owner can receive economical realization of their ownership of community value. Difference is made between their community value as obligation and product of exchange. This research stays for the position that the value of use from the best al-ternative production function can be used to esti-mate the value of the lost benefits. There are ques-tions that need to be answered: what will be the fair income that should the owner of forest protection belts be receiving as part of the gross added value created in the country's agrarian sector?

Each individual production function taken using one of the natural properties of the forest has an optimum. The multipurpose production function also has its own optimum, which in this part of the study once again relates to the historically imposed eco-nomic idea that science assigns to Pareto. Applied to the multipurpose forest production function, this idea of an optimum can be represented by an algo-rithm consisting of the following consecutive inter-dependent steps:

‒ efficiency of forest production: choice of such a combination of the natural properties of forests used, as a result of which the value of the use of the forest ecosystem is at the limit of the production possibilities;

‒ exchange efficiency: the distribution of value added by individual price chains is made at relative prices that do not allow the interests of one economic entrepreneur to be satis-fied at the expense of others;

‒ efficiency of forest production and ex-change: relative prices as a closing act of forestry transactions are equal to their mar-ginal costs; the relative prices of transac-tions for access to factors of production con-sumption are equal to their marginal prod-ucts and do not contain any external effects [11].

1. Efficiency of forest production

The efficiency of production is quite natural to connect with the wood-producing function of the woodcutter. The reason for this is that, in modern conditions, it still does not have a more reasonable economic justifiable alternative. This does not mean that there is no more sensible social, environmental and other alternative.

33


The level of the maximum production capacity of the forest protective belts when economizing only the wood using function can be graphically pre-sented in the way shown on Fig. 1

The curve illustrates the first condition in order to achieve the optimal Pareto satisfaction of the interests of the woodcutter and the founder, the production function carried out by the woodcutter must be effective. Effective in the sense, that the cost of using the forest territory reflects its most valuable alternative use. If the most valuable alter-native use is wood production, then the production capacity limit will be located in item A (Fig. 1). This alternative can be counter-opposed to the other- protection function. However, it must provide the missing benefits of the logging function. When the latter is replaced exclusively by the field protection function, the missed benefits will be equal to the value of use of the best alternative to the forestry function. This will be in item E (Fig. 1).

Source: [14]. Fig. 1. The curve of the production capabilities of the

forest protection belts

The above alternatives are the two extreme forms of production functions of forest ecosystems. The organizational structure of the forest territories of Bulgaria institutionalized forest categorization combining the diversity of inherent properties of forests. Thus, in the category of environmental pro-tection and wood-producing forests, the target func-tion is wood production, and forestry systems for wood production are in line with ecology and forest biology, including the field protection function. In the category of forest protection belts, forestry systems for protection of agricultural lands have been im-posed, taking into account the possibilities for regu-lating the value of using wood production. For this reason almost all forest territories of Bulgaria are

inherent forms of management, which are a combi-nation of both extremes. This combination in Fig. is illustrated in B, C and D. In order for the forestry owner production function to be effective, it must not suffer damages from lost profits in cases where it cannot realize the full value of forestry use for wood production purposes. The losses he will suffer from missed benefits are illustrated in F, M and N (Fig. 1). This is an illustration of the social-economic paradigm that any value institutionalized through public law is at the expense of others. Meanwhile, each value has a price that has to be paid [1, 3]. The price is lost profits for the woodcut-ter is fair to be paid by those who actually use the goods created by him. Obviously, becoming that wood user must be in exchange with the wood owner. From the latter, the alternative price should be deducted as an expression of lost profits.

The mechanism that reflects the nature of the transactions between the two entities and where they acquire the rights to the property is the type reflected in the following formula:

)de()k1(

Q.PR

n

1i

ii

, (1)

where R is forest rents (income from the ownership) for the forest owner, BGN/m3, BGN/kg.; Pi – market price of the i-st forest product BGN/m3, BGN/kg.; Qi – quantity of the i-st forest product BGN/m3, BGN/kg.; k – average sector norm of missed value be-tween the owner and the user, part of 1.0; e – expenses for yield of one unit of forestry goods, BGN/m3, BGN/kg.; d – outcome for transportation for of one unit of forestry goods. Under this mechanism, transactions are of such

a nature that the two entities, guided by their inter-ests and defending them in the negotiation process, receive the expected fair value of the income from their invested capital. Fair, of course, to the extent that the institutions created for market management protect equally the two types of property of users and owners. Under this mechanism, if the forest ecosystem has a wood-producing function, the rent (R) as the income of the wood owner will be real-ized as a component of the reached market price of the wood resources.

The profit realized by the user is the result of the amount of exploited tree resources and sacrificial value (k) contained in the market price per unit of wood resource. This rule reflects the following ex-change rate: the price the buyer has agreed to give the seller to accept under the circumstances exist-ing during each transaction. That is why it is just as

34


much as the institutions are provided with the con-ditions for protecting the property rights of the users in the exchange. Finally, the operating costs (e+d) made by the user will obviously depend on the cost of the factors of production. These factors are terri-torially differentiated and influence the final income – rent and profit.

Now we can ask the question: what should the owner of the forests get as the lost benefits of being deprived of maintaining the wood-producing func-tion at the limit of production possibilities. The eco-nomic logic shows that this will be the alternative value of rental income losses from unrealized wood use rights. These unrealized rights may be:

Full – when the income from wood is zero. Here the loss of unrealized rights for forestry use is 100% and should be provided at 100% on the price chains, alternative to the wood production, including the agricultural production

Semi-limited – when forests are used equally with both wood-producing and other functions. Here justice requires 50% of the income to be at the ex-pense of the woodworking, and the other 50% of the forestry, water and water regulation, hunting, etc. functions.

Limited – when forests take precedence over wood production or some other function. It is rea-sonable here that income be at the expense of the primary or alternative function in a proportion of 75:25.

The second question that arises is what is the source of income that loses the forest owner from an unrealized right to use tree resources [13]. In ecological forest management, this is the monetary value of the current growth in the economic life of the invested capital – infinity. The specific here is that the value of tree root vegetation is the value of forecasted capital in the forest business. This natu-ral capital produces a certain amount of wood growth each year.

The economic task of every forest owner is to maintain such an eternal tree structure that pro-vides maximum current growth. From this general point of view, it is obvious that it is the assessment of investments in forests whose economic life is infinite and the net financial contribution - the mone-tary value of the current growth. This value has to be updated for the entire endless economic life of this particular investment.

The formula that reflects the economic balance between the upfront capital and the net financial contribution will have the formula known in the the-ory of investment evaluation:

0Wv)r1(

1WNPV

n

n

1in

текin

, (2)

where

NPV is the net present value of the contribution from investments in a diversified managed forest for the period (n) of its economic life;

текW – the monetary value of the current tree

growth BGN/ha;

)r1(

1d

– a discount factor;

r – a rate of profit of investments in a diversified managed forest under the conditions of the rele-vant market, part of 1,0; Wv – monetary value of the tree stock in a standing mass, BGN/ha. At the same time, Formula (2), which expresses

the economic balance between the upfront capital and the net financial contribution, under IRR, can also be represented by:

0Wvr

)r1(WIRR

тек1

(3)

Wv.r)r1(W тек1 (4)

)WWv.(rW тек1

тек1 (5)

100.WWv

Wr

тек1

тек1

, % (6)

Every investor in forests will strive to maximize

W growth and profit rate (r). It is obvious that this will be achieved if the varietal structure of annual (periodic) growth, root-based timber and their aver-age depreciated prices are optimal for the relevant market [8, 14].

Regarding the loss of the annual value of the contribution from this investment but already ex-pressed in the economic balance in formula (3), it will get the formula in formula (6). These formulas also give other important information. It refers to the rate of return realized by the owner of elective for-ests with a targeted function of „wood production”. Only when this norm is achievable when replacing the woodworking with another function or the com-bination between them, then only its interest will be satisfied.

When a forest owner provides the use of wood to a user, obviously, his net financial contribution (NFC) will be of a rentable nature. For the determination of this, the economic balance between the forestry and the land user must also take into account the current costs of the user. In this case, formula (1) of this bal-ance takes the form of annual balance between the two subjects

годгод Q).de()k1(

NFCR

, (7)

where R is the annual forest rent of the forest, BGN/hа;

35


(e+d) – costs per 1 m3 of logging and primary wood processing and transport costs of the tim-ber to the nearest reception point, BGN/m3; Qгод – the amount of wood harvested for 1 year of the current growth in the diversified forest, m3/hа; k – coefficient of the sacrifice in favour of the social equilibrium value, part of 1.0. The efficiency of forest production as a condition

for achieving Pareto optimum is protective when the individual natural properties of forests are used at the limit of maximum production possibilities. Every natural property of the forest is a value. However, it acquires the character of a commodity product only when it is protected by the institutions as a result of the production function of the economic entrepre-neur concerned. When this economic entrepreneur is a professional forester, he, through his work, gives a commodity character to the forest as a whole or to a distinct natural property. Through this activity forests acquire user value. As a consumer value, the forest has an owner who has the right to economically realize its rights. The economic reali-zation is related to the contribution of the forecasted capital forests. This contribution is appreciated and its monetary expression is the value of using the forest. If the mode of production is associated with the wood-producing property of the forest, the value of use reflects its productivity as measured by the amount of wood that can be removed from the for-est without disturbing its integrity. 2. Effectiveness of the exchange state of the forest-user and forest-owner

The exchange, as a mechanism for the realiza-tion of the social right over the forest, takes place between the economic entrepreneurs – the owner and the user. The two subjects in this process have different social functions. In the historical process of development of the forestry sector, through its more than 130 years of history, the forest owner has per-formed his social function as an economic entre-preneur alone or in production with the user.

From how their property rights have been pro-tected through the institutions, the effectiveness of their individual models for organizing their produc-tion functions depends on them. In the most gen-eral case, i. when the two economic entrepreneurs have established themselves as values and when each one has a well-defined social role, their pro-duction relations can be represented by the maxi-mum production capacity curve (Fig. 2). The eco-nomic nature of the curve lies in the fact that it ex-presses the production attitude of a forest-user - a user. It is another expression of the analytical rela-tionship already shown in formula (7).

Source: [13]. Fig. 2. The curve of the maximum production capac-ity of the forestry, organized by the economic entre-

preneurs of the forest owner and the user

The public division of labour in the forestry sec-tor, through the activities of the woodcutter and the user, imposes them as values of social functions that are important to society. Of course, it did not happen suddenly and in a revolutionary fashion. In the course of the historical development of forest use during separate periods, the foreman was a major economic entrepreneur. As such he has in-dependently advanced capital for the acquisition of forests and assets for forestry activities. This mode of operation by the woodpecker in the curve of maximum production capabilities is shown through the so-called (see Fig. 2). In other periods, the user has been the primary social function of an eco-nomic entrepreneur. Thus, it is an alternative to the forestry producer with a production function, whose maximum we have shown in E. The historical proc-ess of development of the forestry sector presented through these two entities is entirely influenced by the three basic laws of dialectics. The law of unity and the struggle of opposites show the inner forces that have made them acquire certain forms of exis-tence. The law on the passage of qualitative changes in quantity is manifested not only as a quantitative change of the economic organizations but also as a qualitative transformation of their so-cial functions [5].

The efficiency of exchange, which is the second condition of optimality, is expressed as regularity in the numerical characteristics of the sacrificial value coefficient (k). It has been shown that the social equilibrium between the two subjects will again be ensured when the coefficient of sacrifice is k=0.5 [11–13]. Thus, the social balance between the two subjects acquires a measurable form by regularity, expressed by a cut-off equation of the rules ex-pressing the possible alternatives to the values by the following formula: R=0.666Pi–(e+d) (8)

A 0

A 2

A 1

A n

E 0

En Y n

E 1

E 2

Х

Y

0 Forest owner

F

ores

t use

r

B 0

B 1

B 2

B n C 0

C 1

C 2

C n

D 0

D 1

D 2

D n

) ( 1 d e

к Ц

R

1 d e R

Ц k

75 , 0 k

50 , 0 k

25 , 0 k

36


In this model the rent (R) as an economic reali-zation of the ownership of the forest or on any product transformed into a commodity, its natural property is functionally dependent on production costs (e+d) and prices (Pi) of forest goods on the market. The first step for social equilibrium is there-fore the share assigned by the forest owner to be а=0.666... of the market price after deduction of production costs (e+d). These are the costs that are known in the current practice as the costs of ex-tracting, transporting and transporting forest re-sources to their consumption centers. These costs are inherent to each forest user. If the forest owner himself organizes the activities to carry out the above production phases, the cost of the forestry takes the form of production. The alternative to this process is the assignment of the above economic activities to other economic entrepreneurs. In this case, production costs are transformed into trans-action costs. In accounting practice, they are known as external service costs.

When there are enough economic entrepre-neurs in the relevant market and they work in an economic environment close to perfect competition and information that is not asymmetrical, market prices on transactions are close to the value [9].

The opportunism that is inherent in the two enti-ties – a woodcutter and a user, diverts the mecha-nism of action in a direction other than that of the ideal model. Approaching the actual models to the ideal is a task of the respective forest economic policies. They have to be done by economic entre-preneurs. Any opportunism of any of them does not act in the direction of sustainable development. First of all, sustainable development is disrupted as production functions go beyond the maximum pro-duction capabilities. And secondly, the social equi-librium is distorted as it grows into social conflicts. Conclusion

Institutions defining forest ownership rights must recognize all their forest owners as their capital, and hence the extraction of incomes by price chains other than wood production and use. The transformation of any natural property of forests into the production function of the woodcutter and the user will, of course, have its economic cost. Thus, if forest areas are to be given full priority for a forestry function, for example, this price will be equal to the maximum value of the wood-producing benefits for the benefit of the new function. Alternative choices may also be the combination of tree-producing and field-protection functions, which means fair eco-nomic realization and multi-purpose use. In this case, the cost of lost profits will be limited to the amount of economic rationality. This will be the price that another economic entrepreneur is able to pay for the new value. If this new production func-

tion is identified as a public asset and its product as a public good, it is quite obvious that the price will have to be paid through public sector resources.

When we ask about how much does it costs, ob-viously things depend not only on demand and sup-ply, but also on production and consumption, which are also part of the social functions of the two sub-jects, namely:

‒ the wood owner as an economic entrepre-neur in order to maintain the value of using the forest territories that he possesses on the border of their production capacity;

‒ the wood user as an economic entrepreneur to turn forest resources into consumer value and value.

Obviously, in the economic relationship between the two subjects, forest services such as wind pro-tection, snow protection, soil protection, etc. they are not a natural gift. They are a service created on the forest ecosystems of the economic activity of the woodcutter. Therefore, the value accumulated on all price chains also creates a value from which it should be rewarded. References 1. Davidaviciene, V., Pabedinskaite, A., Davidavicius,

S. Social networks in B2B and B2C Communication. Transformations in business and economics. 16 (1). 2017. pp. 69–84.

2. Dragozova, E., Ivanov, I., Kovacheva, S., Paligorov, I., Galev, E., Stipcov, V. Demographic Factors for the Management of Forest Landscapes in the Velingrad Area. Economic Alternatives. 2. 2015. pp. 50–61.

3. Fereira, F., Fereira, J., Fernandes, C., Meidute-Kavaliauskiene, I., Jalali, M. Enhancing knowledge and strategic planning of bank customer loyalty us-ing fuzzy cognitive maps. Technological and eco-nomic development of economy. 23 (6). 2017. pp 860–876. [http://doi.dx.org/10.3846/20294913.2016.1213200].

4. Lapinskiene, G.; Peleckis, K.; Slavinskaite, N. En-ergy consumption, economic growth and green-house gas emissions in the European Union coun-tries, Journal of business economics and manage-ment. 18 (6). 2017. pp. 1082–1097. [http://doi.dx.org/10.3846/16111699.2017.1393457]

5. Merkevicius, J., Davidaviciene, V., Raudeliuniene, J., Buleca, J. Virtual organization: specifics of creation of personnel management system, E&M Economics and Management. 18 (4). 2015. pp. 200–211. [http://doi.dx.org/10.15240/tul/001/2015-4-014].

6. Paligorov, I., Ivanov, I., Dragozova-Ivanova, E., Kovacheva, S. Ecosystem of the Forest Landscape and Conflict of Interests of Stakeholders. Economics and Business. 25. 2014. pp. 61–67. [http://doi.dx.org/10.7250/eb.2014.009].

7. Paligorov, I., Galev, E., Stiptzov, V., Kostov, G., Sal-nas, O., Kovacheva, S., Ivanov, I., Dragozova, E., Sotirov, M. Integrated Forest Management Scenar-ios in Teteven and Yundola. WP 3.2. Case Study Reports for Bulgaria. Sofia. 2015. p. 136.

37


8. Shuleva-Alexova, N. Forests with Water-Preserving Proposition Functions – Essence and Approach for Valuation. Journal of Management and Sustainable Development. 1 (2). 2006. pp. 184–188. (in Bulgar-ian).

9. Tvaronaviciene, M., Maciulis, A., Lankauskiene, T., Raudeliuniene, J., Dzemyda, I. Energy security and sustainable competitiveness of industry develop-ment. Economic research. 28 (1). 2015. pp. 502–516. [http://doi.dx.org/10.1080/1331677X.2015.1082435].

10. Yovkov, I., Paligorov, I., Alexova, N. Forest Economy Policy in Bulgaria before and after Reforms in 1998. Scientific Journal of Management and Sustainable Development. 1–2. 2001. pp. 6–13 (in Bulgarian).

11. Yovkov, I., Shuleva-Alexova, N. Efficiency of Forests’ Multi-Purpose Production Function According to Pareto’s Criteria. Scientific Journal of Management

and Sustainable Development. 1–2. 2009. pp. 26–32. (in Bulgarian).

12. Yovkov, I., Shuleva-Alexova, N., Kolev, K., Drago-zova-Ivanova, E. Efficiency of the Production and Exchange of the Forest Ecosystems’ Multi-Purpose Management. Second Scientific – Technical Confer-ence Innovation in Woodworking Industry and Engi-neering Design. Yundola, 6–8 November 2009. (in Bulgarian).

13. Yovkov, I., Shuleva-Alexova, N., Kolev, K., Marinova, V. Sustainable Development to Social Economic System with Public – Privet characteristics. Avan-gard – Prima Publishing house, Sofia. 2010. (in Bul-garian).

14. Yovkov, I., Shuleva-Alexova, N. The water-preserving proposition function in forest manage-ment models on forest areas. Avangard – Prima Publishing house. Sofia. 2011. (in Bulgarian).

38


COMPETITIVE VOCATIONAL EDUCATION – THE MAIN INFLUENCING FACTOR FOR THE NATIONAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Andra Zencaka, Maija Senfelde

Riga Technical University, Riga, Latvia

Abstract

The competitive human resources are one of the essential factors for the country's economic development. The voca-tional education, its quality, compliance with the development trends of the national economy and labour market demand has a significant role in formation of these resources. Researches carried out in the world suggest that as a result of technological development, one fifth of the workers in the coming decades will need to develop their knowledge, skills and competences, or to completely change their field of activity. In this situation, vocational education acquires an impor-tant role in the context of the development of the national economy and labour market and requires continuous improve-ment of knowledge which does not necessarily require a long-term training process, but, conversely, it must be fast and qualitative in order to be able to respond effectively to changes in the labour market. The aim of the study is to define the determinants of competitive vocational education, their impact on the labour market and the development of the national economy. In order to achieve the objective of the research the tasks to analyze the vocational education system in Latvia as well as the medium and long-term forecasts of the labour market in the aspect of the national economic development are set. Generally recognized methods of research in economics as document analysis, comparison, classification, and statistical analysis are used. As a result of the research, the authors determine the factors that affect the competitive-ness of vocational education and suggest the creation of a flexible vocational education system that is internationally open, widely available, quality and capable of providing demand for relevant qualification professionals in accordance with the needs of the national economy and the trends of the global education market.

Key words: human resources; labour market; economic development; vocational education; economic growth. JEL: I25.

Introduction Education as one of the most important sectors

of the national economy is an integral part of soci-ety’s life, which must be closely interrelated with the development of market, science, technology, pro-duction and information technologies. The decisive factor for the country’s economic development is the competitive human resources, which are essen-tial for vocational education, its quality, compliance with the development trends of the national econ-omy and labour market demand. The Latvian Sus-tainable Development Strategy until 2030 states that vocational education as a basic means for solving many global problems of the modern world must be of high-quality, knowledge-based and competency based, lifelong and creatively oriented, enabling rapid and effective response to the global competition and demographic challenges. Re-searches carried out in the world suggest that as a result of technological development, one fifth of the working people in the coming decades will need to improve their knowledge, skills and competences, or to completely change their field of activity. In this situation, vocational education acquires an impor-tant role in the context of the development of the national economy and the labour market and re-quires continuous improvement of knowledge which does not necessarily require a long-term training process, but, on the contrary, it must be fast and qualitative in order to be able to effectively respond

to changes in the labour market. Since vocational education, its quality and competitiveness are a prerequisite for solving a number of contemporary global problems, the aim of the research is to de-termine the determinants of competitive vocational education, their impact on labour market and de-velopment of the national economy. In order to achieve the aim of the research, the tasks are set out: to analyse the vocational education system in Latvia and resources involved therein, as well as medium and long-term forecasts of the labour mar-ket in terms of the national economy and the coun-try’s economic development. In the study well-recognized methods: document analysis, compari-son, classification, and statistical analysis, will be used. The main sources of information: The Latvian Sustainable Development Strategy until 2030, the Guidelines for the Development of Education, the medium and long-term forecasts for the develop-ment of labour market, and data collected by the Central Statistical Bureau of Latvia. Upon the in-crease of the global competition, the authors sug-gest the creation of a flexible vocational education system that is internationally open, widely available, qualitative and capable of providing demand for professionals of relevant qualifications in accor-dance with the needs of the national economy and trends of the global education market. As a result of the research, the authors will identify the factors that affect the competitiveness of vocational educa-

39


tion, as well as develop recommendations to be implemented in order to implement competitive vocational education in Latvia in line with the devel-opment trends of sectors of the national economy, to prepare knowledgeable and globally competitive human resources that would promote the economic sectors and long-term economic development of the country.

1. Medium and long-term forecasts for the la-bour market demand

The Latvian labour market forecasts are based on the scenarios of the development of national economy and demography developed by the Minis-try of Economics, based on the medium and long-term growth goals of Latvia. Labour market fore-casts are one of the tools that allow anticipating the emergence of labour market consistency or incon-

sistency in the future and allow the provision of a more efficient allocation of labour resources in the national economy. Currently, the labour market is dominated by the demand for employees with voca-tional education, which points to the high-quality development of the labour market, which is due to sectoral technological development and interna-tional competition of companies, reflected in the reduction of demand by lower educational work-force (LR MES, 2014). When analysing, the labour market situation, it is possible to forecast labour market trends and possible risks, taking into ac-count labour market dynamics and demand for new knowledge, competences, skills, and abilities. The main risk factors of the development of the labour market and their mitigation measures in Latvia until 2030 have been summarized by the authors in Table 1.

Table 1. Risk factors of the labour market development and measures of their mitigation in Latvia until 2030

Serial No.

Risk factor of the labour

market devel-opment

Description of situation Measure of mitigation

1.

Imbalance between the demand for and supply of labour force

Education and qualification level, acquired knowledge, skills and competencies do not meet the demand and vacancies in the labour market.

By implementing appropriate and effec-tive lifelong learning policies it is possible to affect the structure of labour supply, to ensure, as far as possible, the compli-ance of the supply of labour force with the demand for labour force.

2.

Different trends of the development of the state regional labour markets

Development of the regional labour markets is associated with the business, social-economic development and opportunities of investment attraction. Latvia has a structure of settlement and economic activities highly oriented to the capital. It does not result in the development of regional labour markets, and economically ineffi-cient regions with insufficient competitiveness establish that negatively affects the country’s overall labour market development.

It is necessary to promote business de-velopment, investment attraction and job creation in the regions. To strengthen the regional and local capacity and the role of promotion of their territorial development. To implement appropriate and effective vocation education policies in the regions.

3.

Negative demographic trends and an aging labour force

Latvia is characterized by depopulation process. In recent years, the country is gradually improv-ing the demographic support policy, however, the population aging process takes place in Latvia, which is characterized by a systematic decline in the proportion of children and a growth of the number of older population simultaneously.

Inclusion of elderly people in the lifelong learning processes and the labour market shall be promoted, the work environment conditions shall be improved and the healthy years of life should be tried to increase. The social security and health care system shall be improved. An effec-tive system of support for young families should be developed.

4. Labour migra-tion

The Latvian labour force migration is character-ized by external-international migration and in-ternal migration-within the framework of Latvia related to the insufficient number of jobs in cer-tain regions, as well as the low level of wages in certain occupations. In this situation, the popula-tion movement to the more developed areas takes place, which further reduces opportunities of growth for the less developed areas by their loss of human resources and decrease in tax revenue that could be invested in the national and regional development.

It is necessary to promote business de-velopment, investment attraction and job creation in the regions that could increase the competitiveness of the regions and the effective functioning of the labour market.

Source: created by the author Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Latvia.

40

COMPETITIVE VOCATIONAL EDUCATION –THE MAIN INFLUENCING FACTOR FOR THE NATIONAL ECONOMIC …

When assessing the risk factors of the labour

market development, the authors raise the dispro-portion of labour force in Latvia, the people aging and urbanization process of the country as the main problem, as a result of which the regions of the country are becoming less inhabited and economi-cally retarded. In such a situation, the fundamental task of the EU regional development policy that none of the regions of the country should be lag-ging economically is not being implemented. As the urbanization process interacts with the population aging, a situation arises which requires new solu-tions. The implementation of the „silver” policy and economy in Latvia and in its regions is become acute. The increment in the number of old people imposes an inevitable challenge for the politicians and strategies in health for the sake of to satisfy its necessities and to offer them the possibility to live its last years with excellent quality of life [2]. An essential objective of the „silver” policy is to make the aging population a resource that could ensure the development of the national economy sectors, job creation, economic development and growth, which is essential at the national, regional, mu-nicipal, corporate and household levels, and which

is possible to be ensured by the implementation of effective vocational education in the country.

2. Analysis of the situation of vocational educa-tion in Latvia

One of the preconditions for economic develop-ment of a country is high-quality human resources, the creation of which is diversified and influenced by various factors. Professional education, as a means for solving many global problems in today’s world, must be of high-quality, competence-based, lifelong and creatively oriented, responding to the challenges of global competition and demography, and is one of the preconditions for the existence of a knowledge-based economy. Vocational education is education that practically and theoretically pre-pares individuals for activities in a certain profes-sion, for the acquisition and improvement of profes-sional qualifications. Vocational education is ac-quired in basic, secondary and higher education institutions or outside of them. (LR MES, 2016) In the Table 2, the authors have summarized the types of vocational education that are part of the formal education system.

Table 2. Types of vocational education in Latvia

Serial No.

Type of vocational education

Explanations

1. Vocational basic education

Basic level vocational education, which gives the opportunity to obtain a first-level voca-tional qualification

2. Vocational training Partial secondary vocational education, which gives the opportunity to obtain a second-level vocational qualification

3. Vocational secon-dary education

Medium level vocational education, which gives the opportunity to obtain a third-level vocational qualification

4. First level vocational higher education

Higher-level vocational education, which gives the opportunity to obtain a fourth-level vocational qualification

5. Vocational higher education

Higher-level vocational education, which gives the opportunity to obtain a fourth or fifth-level vocational qualification

6. Vocational continu-ing education

Special type vocational education for adults with pre-education and professional experi-ence gives the opportunity to obtain a certain-level vocational education

7. Vocational devel-opment

Special type vocational education, which enables individuals, regardless of age and pre-education or vocational qualifications, to acquire systematized professional knowledge and skills meeting labour market requirements

Source: The National Database on Learning Opportunities, 2017. The important role in the implementation of high-

quality and competitive vocational education is played by the centres of vocational education com-petences, implementing the functions of regional methodological centres, continuing education of teachers, cooperation with sectoral associations, continuing education of adults, retraining of the unemployed and evaluating the professional com-petence acquired outside the formal education sys-tem. Vocational education meets the requirements of national economy and becomes competitive if it is implemented in an efficient way and in a short

period of time that allows a quick response to changes in the labour market and eliminates dis-proportions in education and labour markets. The authors have summarized the main indicators char-acterizing the vocational education system in Ta-ble 3.

According to Table 3, it is seen that both the number of vocational education establishments and the number of students tend to decrease, reflecting the demographic trends in Latvia.

41


Table 3. The main indicators characterizing the voca-tional education system in Latvia, 2013–2016

Serial

No.

School year

Vocational education establish-

ments

Teach-ers of voca-tional

subjects

Num-ber of stu-

dents

1 2013/2014 66 3431 32 086 2 2014/2015 65 3329 31 055 3 2015/2016 63 3515 29 858

Data sources: [www.csb.gov.lv] The authors believe that this is not only a prob-

lem for Latvia but for the whole EU, however, this problem is particularly pronounced in Latvia due to the depopulation or decline in population. Youth unemployment is a significant problem in both Lat-via and many other places in Europe: in 2016, it was 25% in Latvia, 23% – average in the EU. One of the reasons is the inability of educated young people in the traditional, theory-based education system to immediately enter the labour market and start working full-time. Employers need to spend extra time and resources on their practical educa-tion, and therefore, rationally evaluating investment and benefits, its often advantageous to find other solutions for recruiting the required staff, rather than recruiting a young single student without the neces-sary skills [12]. Vocational education in Latvia should be as effective as possible in order to en-sure that the goals of national economy are achieved with the rational use of resources and the supply of educational programs must be in line with the requirements of the labour market in order to not cause a certain deficit or surplus of specialists of certain professions that hinders the country’s economic development. If we look at which Euro-pean countries are famous due to their industrial activities in various sectors, it must be recognized that besides a relatively large internal economy, affective investment strategy and well-understood, organized business environment, they also have a more systematic, long-term strategy for educating new sectoral specialists. In other words, coopera-tion at the national level between employers and educational institutions is organized, paying due attention both to promoting the prestige of voca-tional education among young people and day-to-day cooperation, providing practical, real-work-environment-based education [12]. The authors conclude that in order to solve the youth unem-ployment problems in Latvia, to not create a short-age or surplus of specialists of certain professions, which hinders the country’s economic development, it is necessary to implement effective work-environment-based vocational education.

3. The role of vocational education in the coun-try’s economic development

Sustainable development of Latvia is based on raising the productivity of human, economic, social, and natural, including location and space, capital in response to the challenges of global trends. It is important to not reduce the value of the human capital base and to increase its productivity, as the number of people is decreasing and the population is aging [1], on the basis of a competitive, efficiently functioning vocational education system that can meet the demands of national economy and labour market today and in the future. According to a gen-eral definition, competitiveness is the ability of a company, industry or government to successfully market its products or services. Applying this defini-tion to vocational education, it is necessary to cre-ate a situation in which trained specialists can ef-fectively enter the labour market, which is particu-larly important as a result of an aging population. According to the authors, as a result of the imple-mentation of competitive vocational education, dis-proportions in the labour market are eliminated, the state budget and EU funds directed to the educa-tion system are used more efficiently, the develop-ment of economic sectors and enterprises is stimu-lated, the economic development and growth of the country are ensured. The factors influencing the implementation of competitive vocational education are reflected in Figure 1.

Competitive vocational education

Modern education institutions

Highly-qualified

educators

Work-environment-

based learning

Sufficient funding

Retraining opportunities

Fig.1. The main factors influencing the implementa-

tion of competitive vocational education Competitive vocational education is essential

not only in the preparation of high-quality and knowledgeable human resources, but also at the company and national level as one of the main factors contributing to the country’s economic de-velopment. The most significant results of the im-plementation of competitive vocational education are summarized in Table 4.

The most important of the forecasted labour market risk factors until to 2030 are the population aging, the imbalance in labour supply and demand, which inhibits economic growth, that is, an increase in production over a period of time and flow of skilled labour to other countries (LR ME, 2016). The possible relationship between the competitive voca-tional education and the country’s economic devel-opment is reflected in Figure 2.

42

COMPETITIVE VOCATIONAL EDUCATION –THE MAIN INFLUENCING FACTOR FOR THE NATIONAL ECONOMIC …

Table 4. Results of the implementation of competitive vocational education At the level of households At the level of companies At the national level

Intellectual investment in the future Competitive salary options Higher mobility and competitive-ness in the labour market Higher socioeconomic security level Higher growth opportunities Higher self-assessment Higher quality of life

More efficient staff development and retraining of employees Higher company’s productivity and resource efficiency Higher business competitiveness Higher social responsibility Higher values Higher inner culture

The educational sector is an important national economy branch Increased tax revenue in the State budget More effective opportunities for the imple-mentation of employment policies Higher level of the society’s culture Safer public environment Higher technological adaptation to labour market requirements Economic development

Fig. 2. Relationship between the implementation of competitive vocational education and the country’s eco-

nomic development As a result of competitive vocational work-

environment-based education, high-quality human resources are prepared in the country, which con-tributes to increasing the productivity and competi-tiveness of enterprises. The companies get the opportunity to produce higher quality goods and services using more professional human resources and increase the ability to sell goods and services in the local, EU and global markets, achieving the country’s economic development, using other level human resources, namely using higher-quality hu-man resources.

Conclusions

1. Latvia is characterized by the disproportion of the labour market and the population ag-ing and urbanization processes, as a result of which the regions of the country are be-coming less inhabited and economically un-derdeveloped.

2. The process of urbanization, interacting with the population aging, creates a situation re-quiring new solutions. The implementation of the „silver” policy and economy is becoming more and more acute.

3. As a result of effective vocational education, it is essential to achieve that the aging popu-lation is a resource for ensuring the devel-opment of the national economy sectors, creation of jobs, and economic development.

4. Vocational education develops according to the requirements of the national economy and becomes competitive if it is implemented efficiently and in a short period of time, which allows to quickly respond to changes in the labour market and eliminate disparities be-tween the education and the labour market.

The authors have developed a set of recom-mended measures to be implemented in order to ensure that the situation in the supply of vocational education programs in the years of 2020–2030 would be in line with the requirements of the labour market and not lead to a deficit or surplus of spe-cialists of certain professions and promote the na-tional economic sectors and the country’s economic development:

1. To solve the unemployment problems in Latvia, to have no deficit or surplus of spe-cialists of certain professions, which hinders the country’s economic development, it is necessary to implement effective vocational work-environment-based education, based on the example of German dual education, where the objectives have been being suc-cessfully achieved by involving students in working environment for many years.

2. Vocational education meets the require-ments of national economy and becomes competitive if it is implemented in an effi-cient way and in a short period of time that allows a quick response to changes in the labour market and eliminates disproportions in education and labour markets.

3. It is necessary to promote the competitive-ness, attractiveness and prestige of the pro-fession of teacher in society in order to make the best of the school graduates mas-ter the profession of teacher, as it is inherent to Finland, where one of the most effective educational systems in the world has been functioning.

4. The professional competences of teachers and their compliance with the requirements of today’s education and labour market

43


should be improved, in order to be able to teach students to work with technologies that are „one step ahead” in the labour mar-ket.

5. The urbanization and population aging should lead to significant changes in the im-plementation of national key policies, which would contribute to the development of a fa-vourable socio-economic environment that would reduce a flow of skilled labour to other countries and regions.

References 1. Auers, D., Gubins, S. Latvian Demographic Portrait

Today… and Tomorrow. House CERTUS. Riga. June 2017. [http://certusdomnica.lv/wp-content/ up-loads/2017/05/Certus_LatvijasDemografiskaisPortrets_2017_LV-1.pdf].

2. Cornet, G. Europe's 'silver economy': A potential source for economic growth? International Society for Gerontechnology. Grenoble. 2015.

3. Cruz, R., Ones, D., Pena, M. Population agin gasch allenge of the science, the techniqu eand society. Universidadde Ciencias Medicas de La Habana. Cuba. 2015.

4. Klimczuk, A. Comparative analysis of national and regional models of the silver economy in the Euro-pean Union. International Journal of Ageing and Later Life. Warsaw. 10(2). 2016. 3159.

5. Kurek, S., Rachwal, T. Development of entrepre-neurship in ageing populations of The European Un-ion. Science Direct: Procedia Social and Behavioural Sciences. 2011. pp. 397–405. [www.sciencedirect.com].

6. Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Latvia. The Guidelines for the Development of Edu-

cation for 2014–2020. 22 May 2014. [http://www.lsa.lv/wp-con-tent/uploads/2013/03/Izglitibasattistibaspamatnostadnes.pdf].

7. Ministry of Economics of the Republic of Latvia. Informative report on medium and long-term labour market forecasts. June, 2016. [https://www.em.gov.lv/lv/nozares_politika/tautsaimnieci-bas_attistiba/informativais_zinojums_par_darba_tirgus_videja_un_ilgtermina_prognozem/].

8. Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Latvia. Higher Education. 2014. [http://www.izm.gov.lv/lv/izglitiba/augstaka-izglitiba].

9. National Database on Learning Opportunities. Edu-cation System in Latvia. 2017. [http://www.niid.lv/files/izglitibas-sistema.png].

10. Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Latvia. Overview of Latvian Higher Education in 2015. 2016. [http://www.izm.gov.lv/images/izglitiba_augst/Parskats_2015.pdf].

11. LR Saeima. Latvian Sustainable Development Strat-egy for 2030. 2010. [http://polsis.mk.gov.lv/documents/3323].

12. Mengelsone, L. The first puppies have proven to be viable – vocational work-environment-based educa-tion is possible in Latvia. Latvian Employers` Con-federation. 2018. [http://www.lddk.lv/viedoklis/pirmie-kuceni-izglitiba/].

13. Mikusova, J., Rasticova, M. Employment policy with focus on ageing population in the Czech Republic as a service of general interest. University in Brno. Brno. 26th International Business Information Man-agement Association Conference: From Regional Development to Global Growth. IBIMA. 2015.

44


PATTERNS OF PREPOSING OF SUBJECT-ORIENTED PREDICATIVE AND LOCATIVE COMPLEMENTS IN ENGLISH

Bilyana Ovcharova


Abstract

In English, subject-oriented predicative complements (PCs) and locative complements (Cloc) may occur in clauses with preposing. The paper focuses on the structural patterns that such clauses may have: preposed phrases followed by subject-verb order or by subject-verb inversion. Attention is also paid to preposed discontinuous phrases when depend-ent elements of the phrase occur postverbally.

Key words: preposing, English, subject-verb order, subject-verb inversion. JEL: I29.

Introduction Subject-oriented predicative complements (PCs)

express a property of the subject [3], and this se-mantics of the syntactic function allows them to be realized by AdjPs in contrast to objects which can-not be realized by adjective-headed phrases. Such predicative complements are termed subject com-plements [4] or subject predicatives [1]. A comple-ment of this type „tends to be more like a predicator than an ordinary complement such as a subject or object; syntactically a PC is a complement but se-mantically it characteristically has a predicative function”, expressing a semantic predicate [3].

In addition to PCs, a locative complement (Cloc) is a common element realizing the syntactic func-tion after the verb be as in The dog is in the kitchen. A conclusion can be drawn that the structural simi-larity between a predicative complement and a locative complement „suggests that assigning a location to something is comparable to assigning it a property” [3]. Thus „locative complements cover expressions associated with the roles of source, goal and location” which, in some cases, extend beyond the field of space and are applied to states and possession [3].

Examples (1)–(4) all show a preposed subject-oriented PC or Cloc, underlined by a single line. In (1) the preposed constituent is realized by an AdjP, in (2) by an NP, in (3) by an AdvP and a PP and in (4) by PPs. Examples (3) and (4) show locative complements: (1) Mick Jagger wore a dress at his Hyde Park

concert and very pretty he looked too. (BNC)1

(2) They all tried. Big lads they were and all. (BNC)

(3) This was more than a simple distillation of the man's thoughts on the current political situa-

1 BNC indicates that the example is obtained from the British National Corpus.

tion. Here, in its every detail, was the plan for that ‘War of Levels’ Shepherd had mentioned earlier. (BNC)

(4) Beside them was his bag, with more white linen spilling from it. On the seat of a chair were some coins from his pocket, a packet of cigarettes, and sealing-wax.

1. Patterns of preposing of subject-oriented predicative complements realized by AdjPs 1.1. Preposing without inversion (5) You should have been there when that woman

came leaping out at me. Horrid it was. (BNC) The clause in (5) shows the basic pattern of

preposed AdjPs in which the phrase is minimal and is followed by subject-verb order. Such preposed phrases aim at emphasizing the initial element, in these cases the property assigned to the subject, and are common in oral speech as they are typical of emotionally loaded speech.

A very common variation of this pattern is pre-posing of AdjPs which are expanded with pre-head modifiers as in (6) below: (6) Completely innocent they were, too, but it

made no difference. Still, Sir Emmanuel had the money. (BNC)

1.2. Preposing with inversion

‒ Triggered inversion with initial such and so English clauses with initial such and so are con-

sidered structures with triggered inversion [3] and are not regarded as information packaging con-structions. (7) He had never seen such a beautiful girl in all

his life. So unexpected was her appearance that, for a moment, until she'd moved and cried out, he'd wondered if she was real. (BNC)

(8) He had never seen such a beautiful girl in all his life. Her appearance was so unexpected that, for a moment, until she'd moved and

45

Bilyana Ovcharova

cried out, he'd wondered if she was real. (BNC)

In such clauses discourse-old inverted subjects are observed. In the examples above the subject her appearance (double underlined) is discourse-old and unstressed regardless of whether it is in-verted as in (7) or is in initial position as in (8). The PC so unexpected is stressed regardless of its po-sition, preposed or unmarked, but preposing it has the effect of emphazing it additionally. Such clauses in English contain a that-complement, i.e. a delayed phrasal constituent (see point 4 below for more ex-amples of such delayed constituents).

Here are two examples from scientific publica-tions: (9) Such was the heat of the fire that the ground

was burned to a depth of six inches. (10) So successful has the urban forest become

that the Department of the Environment and Transport has transformed the Black Country scheme into a National Urban Forestry Unit with 15 staff.

The clause in (9) shows the emphasis achieved by preposing, because the same clause without it would most likely be: The heat of the fire caused the ground to be burned to a depth of six inches, and would not include such at all.

‒ Locative inversion English clauses with preposed predicative or

locative complements may be followed by subject-verb inversion, and such a construction is often called locative inversion or also subject-dependent inversion [3]. It complies with the following con-straints: the subject in clause-end position is heavy and discourse less familiar than the preposed predicative or locative complement [3]. As the name locative inversion indicates, the structure is most frequent with a preposed Cloc (as in example (4)). Subject-oriented PCs may also occur in such con-structions but such clauses are of limited distribu-tion due to style specific requirements. (11) Happy are they who never saw me and yet

have found faith. (BNC) (12) Fortunate are those who are alone and cho-

sen, for you will find the kingdom. (13) About 11,000 years ago, the enormous

shaggy mastodons standing ten feet at the shoulder with outward curving tusks wan-dered into this part of Wisconsin (…) Equally enormous were the woolly mammoths, which had high-domed skulls, smaller ears, and shorter trunks than mastodons.

(14) Exceptionally dramatic was the rotunda of fac-eted black glass with its rotating globe, which attracted crowds of sightseers to the building. (BNC)

In (11) and (12) the clauses appear in religious context, and, as such, they are strongly rhetorically

marked. In (13) and (14) the style is that of scientific writing. The information packaging involves a dis-course-new, heavy, focused subject. There is a syntactic constraint that pronominal light subject, i.e. anaphoric, discourse-old subjects, cannot appear in such constructions. The NPs headed by pronouns in (11) and (12) are heavy as they are expanded by clausal postmodifiers

The preposed AdjPs in scientific context, as in (13) and (14), are almost invariably in a compara-tive or superlative form, or premodified as in the clauses above. The pattern is not infrequently used and should be studied by Bulgarian learners of English interested in writing scientific publications.

Here are two examples from scientific publica-tions. In both example the intensifier even is used, which shows that the structure should be used to communicate information which should be empha-sized in one way or another: (15) Even more remarkable is the fact that at a

point 120 feet in the air the trunk of General Sherman is still 17 feet in diameter.

(16) Perhaps even more concerning is that beetles are beginning to target novel species, such as the jack pine – found across wide swaths of Canada – that had escaped assault until now.

1.3. Preposing of AdjPs in subordinate clauses

In English, subordinate clauses with AdjPs in ini-tial position followed by the subordinators as and though are a case of preposing in subordinate clauses. Only AdjPs can occur in such construc-tions. For clarity the subordinate clauses in the ex-amples below are given in square brackets: (17) [Anxious as she was about the neighbours],

she couldn't help laughing as she hurried downstairs. (BNC)

(18) [Early though it was], his brain had fired up like the V12 engine in his Ferrari, Toni thought.

Both as and though are placed after the pre-posed AdjPs, anxious and early in the above ex-amples. It is the contrastive emphasis of the initial position that is sought in the placement of the sub-ordinator after the preposed predicative comple-ment [1]. 1.4. AdjP preposing in verbless clauses

Preposed AdjPs in English may appear in verb-less clauses. In the examples below, there is an ellipsis of the copular be. In Bulgarian such verb-less constructions are ill-formed. (19) She slithered along the muddy ruts of the

overgrown lane. Getting her sandals filthy but she didn't care. Delicious, the coolness of mud between her toes. (BNC)

(20) The Deputy Under Secretary had no one but himself to blame for the irritation that his

46


starched collar created just below the line of his neatly cut hair. Silly and stupid, the sort of thing he might have done as a child, pathetic for a man of his age.

It seems that the ellipsis of the copular be is predetermined by two constraints of preposing in English discussed earlier: (i) the copular be cannot be placed before the subject because clauses with preposed AdjPs and subject-verb inversion are only style-specific in English, and therefore with limited occurrence. And (ii) the copular be cannot be placed after the subject, in end-clause position be-cause in this position it occurs only with pronoun subjects or lighter subjects than the ones above. The above preposing accompanied by verb ellipsis is by no means frequent in writing, but it is an inter-esting „roundabout route” of the English language. It is observed, however, quite frequently in sports commentaries, i.e. in emotional speech in which the preposed AdjPs are focused.

2. Patterns of preposing of subject-oriented predicative complements realized by NPs 2.1. Preposing without inversion

Preposing of NPs, minimal and with phrasal premodifiers, occurs in clauses with subject-verb order in English as these examples below show: (21) A hairdresser she was, very classy, lots of

money. (BNC) (22) And very nice years they were.

In English it is possible for the indefinite articles of preposed NPs to be dropped: (23) I don't know much about art,' said Crocker,

sitting down and crossing one elegant lean leg over the other,' but there's one painting I would like to have. Rembrandt, The Anatomy Lesson. Lovely thing it is. (BNC)

(24) ‘No, I had a call yesterday afternoon from Paul... Leamington’ ‘Lexington.’ ‘Yes. Pleas-ant young man he sounded.’ (BNC)

2.2. Preposing with inversion

A clause with a preposed NP functioning as a subject-oriented PC and followed by subject-verb inversion has a structure of the type ‘NP + verb + NP’, and therefore its structure is iden-tical to that of a clause with an NP subject and a PC realized by an NP [3]. Such NP preposing with sub-ject-verb inversion is possible only with the ascrip-tive use of subject-oriented PCs, i.e. when the PC denotes a property, and the subject is ascribed this property as in Kim is beautiful/(such) a good per-son; it is not possible with the specifying use, when the PC denotes a variable, and the subject - a value as in The beautiful woman is Kim because chang-ing the order into Kim is the beautiful woman again constructs a clause with a subject-verb order and a PC [3].

NP-inversion is difficult to identify on purely syn-tactic grounds though syntactic evidence may be the use of an indefinite article or no article in the structure of the initial NP [2].

In English, clauses with NP preposing and sub-ject-verb inversion occur only with the copular be: (25) Such a grober is this boy. (26) Quite a guy is this boy. (27) When I arrived in Monrovia, the Ebola crisis

was escalating  – patients lay on the street outside treatment units waiting for a bed to open up. But, as I saw it, an equally serious crisis was the paralysis of the entire health system.

(28) We have put a lot of effort into improving the information which is available to our visitors, installing improved information boards at all our monuments. At the most visited monu-ments, of course, we have been doing much more. A fine example is the new visitor cen-tre at St Andrews Castle. (BNC)

In (25) and (26) the NPs in preposed position contain the adjectival predeterminer such and the peripheral premodifier quite, respectively, in their structure. The NPs in postverbal position are the context-familiar ones: in both cases the deictic pro-noun this is used as a determiner in the respective NP. These two clauses have the effect of exclama-tions, realizing non-contextually bound preposing. The structure of an exclamative clause as in What a grober is this boy is with an obligatorily preposed constituent.

Examples (27) and (28) can be considered cases of preposing for the following reasons. The preposed NP in (27) is premodified by the AdjP, equally serious, and, as we have seen, AdjPs of this type can appeared in preposed position in aca-demic style. By inference, when such AdjPs are premodifiers in NPs, these NPs in clause-initial po-sition function as preposed PCs.

In example (28) the post-verbal NP is the heavy NP bearing the clause focus while the preposed NP has the function to provide text cohesion and is an NP with an indefinite article as a determiner. It should be noted that such NPs as a fine example, a common example, a further example etc. are found in academic or formal style. In the example below, two such cases can be identified: (29) There are many subtypes of the argument

from authority, essentially referring to the im-plied source of authority. A common example is the argument ad populum – a belief must be true because it is popular, essentially as-suming the authority of the masses. Another example is the argument from antiquity – a belief has been around for a long time and therefore must be true.

47

Bilyana Ovcharova

Another reason to consider is when the NP fol-lowing the verb be is in the plural: (30) Another example is children with significant

emotional and behavioral problems. ‘Друг пример са децата със съществени емоционални и поведенчески проблеми.’

As the Bulgarian translation of (30) shows, the plural inverted NP agrees in number and person with the verb, which signals its subject status. Re-gardless of the fact that the plural inverted NP in English does not trigger plural verb agreement, it is not logical to assume that this NP’s syntactic func-tion is different in the two languages. The English clause in (30) is an example of preposing with a special type of agreement that might be a potential difficulty for Bulgarian learners of English.

3. Patterns of preposing of locative comple-ments realized by AdvPs and PPs

In English there are constructions beginning with here and there, followed by a subject, realized by a pronoun, and a form of be as in the examples be-low: (31) As long as you are in this shoddy squadron,

there are certain words you will not use. Here they are. Fair, sporting, honourable, decent, gentlemanly.

(32) Phoebe began to feel like a housewife. There she was, ably supported by active and intelli-gent people while she sat at home feeling cold and tired and guilty. (BNC)

However, the initial AdvPs do not indicate spa-tial location or rather denoting place is not the pri-mary objective of such constructions: they are a stylistic device of narration, with here and there „largely bleached of their locative meaning” [3].

The locative meaning may be quite transparent in certain cases: (33) Then he looked up, and a light flashed into his

eyes. There it was – the lighthouse, only three hundred metres away, to the north! (BNC)

Initial locative complements followed by subject-verb inversion realize the construction called loca-tive inversion discussed earlier. Spatial and tempo-ral locative complements can be preposed in such clauses: (34) In the wheelchair was a woman, wearing a

deep-crowned, wide-brimmed green felt hat, obscuring her face, and a paisley silk scarf at the throat of a caped loden coat. (BNC)

(35) Above the warehouse was the storeroom where there were shelves holding brightly coloured tin canisters decorated with Indian and Chinese letters. Here was also a coffee machine in which we ground the beans when a customer wanted freshly ground coffee. In

the storeroom was also the cheese rack. (BNC)

(36) Yesterday was also Arthur's 72nd birthday. (BNC)

In the above examples, there are five instances of preposing involving AdvPs (here and yesterday) and PPs (in the wheelchair, above the warehouse and in the storeroom). It should be noted that pre-posing of such constituents followed by subject-verb inversion does not occur only with the copular be. Intransitive verbs such as stand, come, lie, sit and etc., may form clauses with preposed locative complements and inverted subjects, with the most frequent type of preposed constituents being the locative PPs: (37) This path climbed to a stretch of wasteland,

barren, treeless and stony. In the middle stood a dark deserted tower. (BNC)

(38) I know which place I would have chosen. On the floor sagged his high leather boots, that he had scraped the mud from and shined. Beside them was his bag, with more white linen spilling from it. On the seat of a chair were some coins from his pocket, a packet of cigarettes, and sealing-wax.

(39) He froze with fear and the lamp fell from his trembling hand. There, in the Judge's chair, sat the rat. (BNC)

It should be noted that the copular be is the verb most often found in such structures in English. Also the situations expressed are static not dynamic [3]. One other requirement is that „the verb must not represent information that is new to the discourse” (ibid. 2002: 1386). The authors state that the verb be, the most frequent one in such constructions, has little semantic content, and with the other verbs, the information they represent must be evoked or inferred from the context.

Though preposed locatives in English normally occur with static verbs, the examples with preposed prepositional particles are a characteristic feature of the English syntax: (40) The hours burned by on the green screen, and

when they finally flopped in Lucy's living room, sipping brandy, a key turned in the lock and in came the charmingly dishevelled one and only son. (BNC)

(41) After a week of fevered speculation, John Ma-jor, Britain's prime minister, shuffled his cabi-net. Out went Norman Lamont, the unpopular chancellor. (BNC)

Preposed temporal expressions followed by the verb come in English also occur in clauses with locative inversion: (42) A few moments later came the smell of petrol

and exhaust. (BNC) (43) Now we have moved to Dulwich, my husband

has had another go at joining. He filled out

48


the form. Three weeks ago came the omi-nous phone call. ‘Are you a union member?’ (BNC)

(44) At some time after 1880 came a turning point in world history. (BNC)

4. Preposing of phrases with delayed constitu-ents 4.1. In AdjPs (45) Certain he was that Antonio wasn't going

anywhere, or warning anyone. (46) Then I usually end with how amazed I am that

I can survive in this crowd as a generalist… in such esteemed company.[internet]

(47) The more he reads, the more certain he is that it's garbage. (BNC)

(48) Whether or not there was a Mrs McWhirter was a matter of some debate at Burleigh. The general opinion was yes, but certain it was that no-one had ever seen her. (BNC)

(49) Interesting though it is to be aware of the way in which these various theological traditions bear fruit in the mystics' accounts of their ex-perience, it is important to remember that they can not fully account for this experience. (BNC)

All examples above contain discontinuous AdjPs, i.e. constructions with delayed phrasal comple-ments realized by subordinate that-clause comple-ments (wavy line). Example (45) is a clause with a preposed PC; (46) is an exclamative clause; (47) is a more-the-merrier clause; in (48) a clause with subject extraposition has a preposed adjective head preceding the dummy it subject and the that-clause complement; in (49) the preposed AdjP oc-curs in a though-subordinate clause. 4.2. In NPs (50) She couldn't quite locate the nature of that

terror, she didn't know exactly what evil it was that would occur, but she felt it tangibly. (BNC)

(51) It was Donald. Elinor was pleased to see him. She it was who opened the door and Henry heard a high-pitched giggle followed by a lengthy squawk of pleasure. (BNC)

(52) Lewis it was who broke the long silence be-tween them. (BNC)

In (50) the delayed that-clause is a postpodifier of an NP head occurring in a subordinate wh-clause. An interesting case of preposed NP with a delayed constituent in English is the it-cleft sentence as in (51) and (52). There is extra emphasis in such it-clefts.

4.3. In AdvPs In English an example with here and a delayed

postmodifier is observed in the it-cleft below, in which the AdvP is placed initially, before the dummy it subject: (53) The central focus of all this railway activity

was, however, the railway station. Here it was that Foxwell and Farrer’s ‘flag of Hope’ metaphorically waved. (BNC)

Conclusions

i. In English, predicative and locative comple-ments realized by AdjPs, NPs, AdvPs and PPs can occur in preposed position. Pre-posed AdvPs are very restricted in number, and preposed PPs are exclusively locative complements occurring in copular be clauses.

ii. Preposing of subject-oriented PCs occurs in clauses with and without subject-verb inver-sion. The clauses without inversion are the norm in preposing of subject-oriented PCs in English. The clauses with inversion occur in sentences with triggered inversion or locative inversion. Preposed locative complements in English trigger subject-dependent inversion.

iii. AdjPs occur in more varied patterns of prepos-ing in comparison to the predicatives or loca-tives realized by NPs, AdvPs or PPs.

iv. Interesting patterns of preposing are those with a delayed phrasal constituent. Phrasal post-head elements are most often left post-verbally in wh-exclamatives and more-the-merrier constructions. The structure is also observed in clauses with a dummy it-subject: clauses with subject extraposition and it-clefts.

v. Preposing of subject-oriented predicative complements occurs for emphasizing the preposed constituent when the preposed constituent is followed by subject-verb order; in clauses with locative inversion, pragmatic structures with unmarked topic-focus articula-tion in which the inverted subject is the fo-cused element are realized.

References 1. Biber, D., Conrad, S., Leech, G. Longman Grammar

of Spoken and Written English. Pearson Education Limited. Harlow. 1999. pp. 7, 909.

2. Dorgeloh, H. Inversion in Modern English: Form and Function. John Benjamins Publishing Company. Amsterdam. 1997. pp. 25–26.

3. Huddleston, R., Pullum, G. The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. 2002. pp. 96–97, 217, 257–58, 266, 1385–89, 1390.

49

Bilyana Ovcharova

4. Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., Svartvik. J. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language.

Longman. London. 1985. pp. 728.

МОДЕЛИ НА ПРЕДПОСТАВЯНЕ НА ПОДЛОЖНИ ПРЕДИКАТИВНИ И ЛОКАТИВНИ

КОМПЛЕМЕНТИ В АНГЛИЙСКИЯ ЕЗИК

Биляна Овчарова Лесотехнически университет, София

Резюме

В английския език е възможно подложни предикативни и локативни комплементи да се срещат в изречения с

предпоставяне. Фокус на доклада са структурните модели, които подобни изречения могат да имат: предпоста-вените фрази са в изречения с подредба подлог–сказуемо или изречението е с инверсия на подлога и сказуемо-то. Специално внимание е отделено на предпоставените разкъсани фрази, при които зависими елементи на фразата се поставят след сказуемото.

Ключови думи: предпоставяне, английски език, подредба подлог–сказуемо, инверсия.

50


STUDY ON DYNAMIC LOADS OF CUTTING MECHANISM’S DRIVE SHAFT OF THE CARVED VENEER MACHINES

Georgi Vukov


Abstract

This work presents a study on dynamic loads of cutting mechanism’s drive shaft of carved veneer machines in work regime. The variable torsional moments that form these loads are examined. These moments are caused by faults of the driving electric motor; inertial forces formed by the operation of the cutting mechanism; variable force from the cutting process. The applied variable moments form intense torsional vibrations in the drive shaft. They generate an extra dynamic moment that is superposed on the transmitted constant torque. A strategy is proposed and dependencies are derived for determining the extra dynamic moment. Determining the actual moment is a prerequisite for proper shaft dimensioning. Examining the dynamic load on the drive shaft is undoubtedly beneficial and assists in conducting research into the total work of the mechanism. The results of the study are applicable to the development, design and dimensioning of new machines of this type. They are useful in reconstruction and modernization of existing ones. These results can be used for analyzing and optimization of the operation of the machines with specific parameters for different operating regimes.

Key words: carved veneer machine, cutting mechanism. JEL: L73.

Introduction The drive shaft is one of the basic elements of

the cutting mechanism of the carved veneer machine. This shaft accepts the movement from the gear and transfers it to the flywheels and associated elements of the cutting mechanism. Some various constructions of drive shafts and associated elements are encountered in practice. The presence of significant dynamic loads in work regime is typical for all these constructions.

The dynamic loads of the cutting mechanism’s elements of the carved veneer machine are complicated and it is difficult to study. The studying of the dynamic loads is important because the loads directly affect the work ability of the machine and they often causes troubles. Dynamic loads are generated from inertial forces and their moments. These loads depend on the mass, elastic and velocity parameters of the mechanism. The forces of the knife and material interaction in the cutting process as well as the friction forces in the mechanism elements also affect the formation of dynamic loads.

Complex loads are formed on the drive shaft, and these loads are particularly dangerous in resonant regimes. The examination of these loads allows determining the maximum value of the torsional moment in the drive shaft. This is important for its proper dimensioning and for ensuring the workability and efficiency of machine's cutting mechanism.

The engineering practice of dimensioning shows that some dynamics coefficients (coefficients of work regimes) are used to take into account the dynamic moments in dimensioning. Their aim is to

take into account the dynamic moments in the construction. These coefficients are based on the experience gained in particular range. However, when creating new or more specific constructions, the lack of accumulated data makes it difficult to choose such a coefficient. Along with this, this approach may lead to incorrect dimensioning. One possibility is the choice of coefficient to result in insufficient shaft’s strength and its breakdown during operation. This inevitably leads to a serious damage in the machine. The other possibility is to dimension the shaft more than it is required. This unnecessarily makes the construction heavier and more expensive. Along with this, the over-dimensioned shaft is often the cause of a further increase in dynamic loads [3, 5]. Accurate determination of dynamic loads is a prerequisite for proper dimensioning of the drive shaft and ensuring the machine's workability and efficiency. For this purpose, it is necessary to examine the operation of the cutting mechanism of the veneer machine and to analyze the factors determining the considered loads.

The free torsional vibrations of the cutting mechanism of the carved veneer machine are modelled and investigated numerically in previous studies of the author [8, 12]. A model is developed and parametric torsional vibrations of the mechanism are investigated [9]. The amplitude frequency spectra are obtained [10]. Some possibilities for identification of typical defects in the mechanism are studied [11].

The influence of the inaccuracies and damages of the profile of the teeth of the gear on the torsional vibrations in the drive mechanism of veneer

51

Georgi Vukov

machine is investigated [13]. The formation of the variable forces of the tool slide has also been investigated and analyzed [14]. The conducted studies show that the components of the saw mechanism are subjected by intensive dynamic loads.

The aim of this paper is to investigate the dynamic loads on the cutting mechanism’s drive shaft of carved veneer machine in work regimes. For this purpose, it is necessary to study the influence of the different factors that form these loads. These factors are the variable torsional moments acting on the shaft. The earnest study of the dynamic loads on the drive shaft makes it possible to determine the maximum torsional moment in this shaft. This is a prerequisite for its proper dimensioning and for ensuring the machine's cutting mechanism workability and effectiveness.

Methodology and results of the researches

Fig. 1 shows a general view of a carved veneer machine, which is often used in practice. This ma-chine is the subject of the presented study.

Fig. 1. Carved veneer machine – general view

The general scheme of this kind of carved ve-

neer machines is shown in Fig. 2 [1, 4]. All its fun-damental components are included – the electric motor, the belt and gear drive, the drive shaft, the flywheels, the connecting rods and the tool slide.

Fig. 2. Scheme of a veneer machine

Legend: 1 – electric motor; 2 – belt drive; 3 – gear drive; 4 – drive shaft; 5 – flywheels; 6 – connecting rods;

7 – tool slide

Dimensioning of the drive shaft requires keeping

to the strength condition. This condition ensures safety about reaching dangerous stress in the shaft. It is [15]

][max , (1)

where max is the greatest torsional stress along the length of the shaft, [] – allowable tangential stress of the material from which the shaft is made. The allowable tangential stress [], analogous to

the normal stress [], can be found experimentally. It is obtained []=0.6.[] for tough plastic materials, and for fragile materials []=0.75.[]. Another way to determine [] is to apply one of the theories of strength.

Dangerous section along the length of the shaft is the section with maximum torsional moment max М. The strength condition can be written like this

][W

Мmax

C

. (2)

The strength dimensioning of the shaft requires

knowing the resisting modulus of torsion at its cross section. The resistance modulus of torsion for a dense circle cross-section is

16

d.W

3

С

. (3)

The resistance modulus of torsion for a circular

ring cross-section is

D

d),1(

16

D.W 4

3

С

. (4)

The strength dimensioning of a shaft with a

dense circle cross-section and a circular ring cross-section requires replacing the WC from (3) and (4) in (2). Therefore

3].[

Мmax.16d

(5)

34 )1].(.[

Мmax.16D

. (6)

Making the correct dimensioning requires finding

the maximum torsional moment M. The torsional vibrations that arise in the drive shaft during the operation of the veneer machine have a significant impact on that moment. These vibrations are a consequence of the applied variable moments. These moments are caused by: faults of the driving electric motor; the inertial forces formed by the

123567 4

52


operation of the cutting mechanism; the variable force from the cutting process.

The unavoidable deviation of the correct shape of the stator and the unbalance of the rotor lead to the occurrence of a variable torsional moment on the drive electric motor. This moment is modeled by adding two components that have the type MM1 sin

ω1t and MM2 sin 2ω1t to its constant part MM [11].

t2sinMtsinMMM 2M1MMM , (7)

where θ is the frequency of rotation of the electric mo-tor’s rotor; MM1 and MM2 – amplitudes of variable compo-nents. The variable inertial forces, formed during the

operation of the machine’s cutting mechanism, generate corresponding variable torsional moments. The conducted analysis shows that the greatest inertial forces are those from the tool slide. The reason is its large mass and its uneven rectilinear reciprocating movement. The other elements do a uniformly rotation movement and they are usually well balanced. That is why their inertia forces are not considered in this study. The inertial force of the tool slide is calculated as [14]

,aМФ HНН (8)

where МН is mass of the tool slide with connected components, аН – acceleration of the tool slide. The acceleration of the tool slide is determined

so

),t2cosB

Rt(cosRa 2

H (9)

where В is the length of the connecting rod, R – radius of the circle described by the end of the connecting rods attached to flywheels, ω – angular speed of flywheels. The variable inertial force of the tool slide is

transmitted via the connecting rods to the flywheels and thereby forms a corresponding variable torsional moments on the drive shaft.

The force of interaction between the knife and the material in the cutting process is also variable as a result of the fact that a working motion and a return motion alternate during the process of sawing. The sawing force is zero during the return motion. This force exists only during the time of working motion. The sawing force is not constant throughout the entire period of working motion [2]. It is zero at the beginning and at the end of the period. This is so called reserve motion xS. This motion is

necessary to ensure the safety exit of the knife from the processing prism.

Fig. 3 represents a diagram of the change of the cutting force during one rotation of the flywheels. The tool slide does a working motion xW and a return motion xr.

Fig. 3. Diagram of the change of the cutting force Legend: Р – cutting force; Рm – maximal cutting force;

хw – working motion; хr – return motion; хs – reserve motion; хv – motion with variable force;

хc – motion with constant force

The maximum value of the cutting force and the length of the separate parts in the diagram of the force’s change are determined according to the parameters, which are specific to the concrete case. These parameters include the type and condition of the treated wood as well as its geometric dimensions. Of course, all this inevitably takes into account the characteristics and capabilities of the particular machine. The variable cutting force is transmitted via the connecting rods to the flywheels and thereby forms a corresponding variable torsional moments on the drive shaft.

The applied variable moments on the drive shaft give rise to intense torsional vibrations. These vi-brations form additional dynamic loads and lead to the emergence of a dynamic torsional moment MD. The actual torsional moment in the shaft is obtained by adding the dynamic torsional moment MD to the

constant torsional moment M transmitted from the gear to the flywheels.

DMMM . (10)

Shaft’s loading significantly changes and

requires a careful study of the dynamic torsional moment MD.

The dynamic loading of the drive shaft of the carved veneer machine can be investigated by using the model shown in Fig. 4. It includes three discs connected to an elastic shaft. The drive torsional moment M1 is applied to disk 1 (the gearwheel). The resistance torsional moments M22 and M23 are applied on the other two discs (the flywheels). These moments are formed by the force of cutting (the force of the technological resistance), the force of the weight of the reciprocating moving

P

x O

Pm

xs xs xv xv xc

xw xr

53

Georgi Vukov

parts of the mechanism, the friction forces and the inertial forces. The mass inertia moments of the gear wheel and the flywheels are I1, I22, I23.

Fig. 4. Model of the drive shaft of a carved veneer

machine Legend: I1, I22, I23 – mass inertia moments of the gear

wheel and the flywheels; M1, M22, M22 – moments on the gear wheel and the flywheels

The considered three-mass system is easily re-

duced to two-mass due to geometric symmetry and forces symmetry. A conditional second disk re-places the two flywheels. Practice proves that the reduced mass inertia moments of the two flywheels are approximately equal and their loading does not differ significantly. Therefore, the parameters of the conditional second disk are I2=I22+I23, M2=M22+M23.

The equation that determines the searched loads of the shaft has the type [6]

)MIMI(ccM)II(MII 1221D21D21 . (11)

When the shaft has a dense circle cross-section,

the coefficient c is calculated as follows

a32

Gdc

4 , (12)

where d is the diameter of the shaft, G – the modulus of shearing. The two sides of dependence (11) are divided

into I1.I2 and there is a replacement

2

21

21 kII

c)II(

, (13)

this dependence gets the form

)MII

IM

II

I(kMkM 1

21

22

21

12D

2D

. (14)

The obtained equation provides a good oppor-

tunity for exploring and analyzing the formed dy-namic moment in the drive shaft. It is clear that the dynamic moment depends on the geometric dimen-sions of the shaft (the diameter d and the length a), the material from which it is made (the modulus of shearing G), the mass inertia moments of the fly-wheels and the gears. But the main factors influ-encing the formation of the dynamic moment are

the drive moment M1 and the resistance moment M2.

Concerning the mentioned facts about the op-eration of the carved veneer machine, these mo-ments are periodical with frequencies multiples of the rotational frequency and the inertia disturbance from the flywheels is proportional to the square of the rotational frequency ω. The searched dynamic moment obtained under these conditions is [7]

212

21

1221D

II)k()II(c

MIMIcM

. (15)

The obtained dependence allows the dynamic

moment in the drive shaft to be determined. The parameters of the considered mechanism are in-volved in this dependence and its work regimes are also taken into account. This dependence is useful in dimensioning both the drive shaft and the entire cutting mechanism. It allows to find appropriate val-ues of the parameters of the examined mechanism and to optimize both the dimensions of its elements and the machine's work regimes.

Conclusions and recommendations

Conducted study shows that during the work of the carved veneer machine complex dynamic loads on its cutting mechanism’s drive shaft is inevitably formed. The reason for the occurrence of these loads is the presence of variable torsional moments. These moments are caused by faults of the driving electric motor; inertial forces formed by the operation of the cutting mechanism; variable force from the cutting process. The applied variable moments form intense torsional vibrations in the drive shaft. They generate an extra dynamic moment that is superposed on the transmitted constant torque. The proposed strategy and the derived dependencies in this study allow determining the extra dynamic moment. Determining the actual moment is a prerequisite for proper shaft dimensioning. Examining the dynamic load on the drive shaft is undoubtedly beneficial and assists in conducting research into the total work of the mechanism. The results of the study are applicable to the development, design and dimensioning of new machines of this type. These results can be used for analyzing the work of the carved veneer machines in order to increase their reliability.

References 1. Filipov, G. Woodworking machines. Technics. Sofia.

1977. pp. 283–294. (in Bulgarian). 2. Grigorov, P. Cutting of wood. Technics. Sofia. 1985.

pp. 48–51 (in Bulgarian). 3. Marinov, B., Hristov, H., Vukov, G. Dynamic

dimensioning of multi-cylinder engine units reduced

a a

I22 I1 I23

M22 M23 M1

54


to a two-mass system. Mechanics of Machines. Varna. vol. 4. 1999. pp. 50–53. (in Bulgarian).

4. Obreshkov,. P. Woodcutting machines. Sofia. 1996. pp. 115–128. (in Bulgarian).

5. Pisarev, A. Mechanical vibrations. Technique. Sofia. 1989. pp. 60–69. (in Bulgarian).

6. Pisarev, A. Optimal dynamic design in machines, Mechanics – Sixth Congress. Varna. 1981. pp. 23–31. (in Bulgarian).

7. Vukov, G. On the Dimensioning of the Head Shaft of the Board Saw. Machinostroene. Sofia. 2001. pp.12–14. (in Bulgarian).

8. Vukov, G. Torsional Free Vibrations of the Driving Mechanism of a Carved Veneer Machine. Third Balkan Scientific conference. Sofia. vol. IV. 2001. pp. 305–312. (in Bulgarian).

9. Vukov, G. On the Parametric Torsional Vibrations of the Driving Mechanism of a Carved Veneer Machine, Proceedings of the 10TH Jubilee National Congress on Theoretical and Applied Mechanics. Varna. 2005. pp. 92–96.

10. Vukov, G. Torsional Vibrations of the Driving Mechanism of a Carved Veneer Machine. Amplitude-

Frequency Spectrum. Mechanics of machines. Varna 3 (75). 2008. pp. 13–16. (in Bulgarian).

11. Vukov, G., Marinov, B. Identification of the Typical Defects of the Driving Mechanism of a Carved Ve-neer Machines Using Vibrodiagnostics, Scientific and Technical Conference „Innovation in Forest In-dustry and Engineering Design”. Yundola. 2008. pp. 166–169. (in Bulgarian).

12. Vukov, G., Vlasev, V., Todorov, M., Marinov, B. Nu-merical Investigation of the Torsional Vibrations of the Driving Mechanism of a Carved Veneer Machine. Scientific conference „50 years LTU”. Sofia. 2003. pp. 167–171. (in Bulgarian).

13. Vukov, G. Influence of Inaccuracies and Faults in a Profile of Teeth of the Gear on Torsional Vibrations in a Driving Mechanism of a Carved Veneer Machine. DPM. Sofia. 2. 2009. pp. 8–12. (in Bulgarian).

14. Vukov, G. Study of the Variable Inertia Forces of the Tool Slide of the Carved Veneer Machines. Man-agement and Sustainable Development. 2(57). 2016. pp. 75–78 (in Bulgarian).

15. Vukov, G. Strength of Materials. Avangard Prima. Sofia. 2010. pp. 65–72 (in Bulgarian).

ИЗСЛЕДВАНЕ НА ДИНАМИЧНОТО НАТОВАРВАНЕ НА ЗАДВИЖВАЩИЯ ВАЛ НА

РЕЖЕЩИЯ МЕХАНИЗЪМ НА ХОРИЗОНТАЛНИ ФУРНИРНИ МАШИНИ

Георги Вуков Лесотехнически университет, София

Резюме

В настоящата работа се изследва динамичното натоварване на задвижващия вал на режещия механизъм на

хоризонталната фурнирна машина по време на нейната работа. Разглеждат се променливите усукващи моменти, формиращи това натоварване. Тези моменти се пораждат от: неизправности на задвижващия електродвигател; инерционните сили, формиращи се при работа на режещия механизъм; променливата сила от процеса на рязане. Приложените променливи моменти формират интензивни усукващи трептения в задвижващия вал. Те генерират допълнителен динамичен момент, който се наслагва с предавания постоянен въртящ момент. Предложена е стратегия и са изведени зависимости за определяне на допълнителния динамичен момент. Определянето на действителния момент е предпоставка за правилното оразмеряване на вала. Изследването на динамичното натоварване на задвижващия вал е от несъмнена полза и подпомага провеждането на изследвания на цялостната работа на механизма. Резултатите от изследването са приложими при разработване, проектиране и оразмеряване на нови машини от този тип. Те са полезни и при реконструкцията и модернизацията на вече съществуващи такива. Тези резултати може да се използват и за анализ и оптимизиране на работата на машини с конкретни параметри при различни работни режими.

Ключови думи: хоризонтална фурнирна машина, режещ механизъм.

55


FEM ANALYSIS OF DEFORMATION AND STRESSES OF UPHOLSTERED FURNITURE SKELETON MADE OF PINUS SYLVESTRIS L. AND PLYWOOD

Yancho Genchev, Nelly Staneva, Desislava Hristodorova


Abstract

3D geometric model of a skeleton for upholstered furniture was created by CAD system Autodesk Inventor Profes-sional. A linear static analysis was carried out with CAE system Autodesk Simulation Mechanical by the method of finite elements (FEM) simulating light-service loading of the skeleton. The orthotropic characteristics of pine solid wood (Pinus sylvestris L.) for the rails and plywood (PW) for the side plates are considered in the analysis. Two variants of corner joints – case butt joints and end to face butt joints in the skeleton were considered. FEA was performed with re-gard to laboratory derived coefficients of rotational stiffness of used staple corner joints – model A: staples and PVA; model B: staples, PVA and strengthening elements under upper rails of the seat. As result the distribution of linear and rotational displacements as well as von Misses stresses and principal stresses in the 3D model of upholstered furniture skeleton with staple corner joints is derived and analyzed.

Key words: upholstered furniture skeleton, staple joints, PW, Pinus sylvestris L., deformations and stresses, CAE,

FEM. JEL: L68, L74, O31.

Introduction The strength properties of the upholstered furni-

ture skeleton depend on the type of joints and on the mechanical and physical properties of the mate-rial used in their construction respectively. The frame of upholstered furniture is usually wood and/or wood-based products. Lately plywood is increasingly used in the construction of upholstered furniture frames.

There are limited number of references concern-ing the deformation and strength behaviour of up-holstered frames constructed with elements of ply-wood.

Erdil Y. et al. [4] have investigated the behaviour of 3-seat upholstered furniture frames constructed with ¾ inch thick plywood – Douglas-fir (hardwood plywood) and sweetgum (softwood plywood). They have concluded that these materials may be used in construction of upholstered furniture frames to meet specific design loads. Also in the result of previous researches (Erdil et al. [3], Eckelman et al. [2], Zang et al. [12], Zang et al. [13], the authors have established that most joints of the structural elements of the sofa frame, especially front rail to stump joints, top rail to back post joints, back post to arm joints constructed of plywood satisfy the stated design requirements for heavy service, whereas the same joints of OSB would satisfy the stated design requirements only for light service.

Most reported researches are for furniture joints made of different kind of plywood:

Zhang et al. [11] have determined the bending strength and stiffness of T-shaped joints with spi-rally striped dowels; Zang et al. [14] have investi-gated the edge lateral resistances of T-shaped through one or more staples of 19 mm thick 5-layer

plywood and confirmed that the number and depth of penetration of the staples influence the lateral resistances. They have established also higher lateral resistance at load perpendicular to the fas-tening member thickness direction than those at parallel load; Zang et al. [15] have established face lateral and withdrawal resistances of staple joints in Southern Yellow pine plywood. For joints with a single 45° orientation staple higher shear and ten-sile strengths have been observed compared to those parallel and perpendicular to the veneer of the plywood front layer, with the lowest values be-ing measured in the parallel orientation of the sta-ple; Zang et al. [16] have investigated T-shaped joints with metal-plated of Yellow pine plywood in bending fatigue and found out that failure in this type of joints occurs at 25 000 cycles, which ac-cording to the authors is about 46% of the maxi-mum static load strength; Simeonova [8], Sime-onova et al. [9], Simeonova et al. [10] have been investigated the most commonly used dismountable and non-dismountable corner joints of structural furniture elements made of beech plywood. They have determined the destructive bending moments and stiffness coefficients of the tested joints at load-ing in compression.

The aim of the presented study was to define and analyze the stress-strain behaviour of a skele-ton of upholstered furniture with staple joints and side plates of plywood in light-service loading using the method of finite elements (FEM) by CAD/CAE.

1. Materials and methods

3D discrete model of one-seat upholstered furni-ture frame (skeleton) with length 600 mm, width 680 mm and height 625 mm was created with

56


Autodesk Inventor Pro® – Fig. 1. The used rails are with cross section 25х50 mm.

A linear static analysis of 3D discrete model of the upholstered furniture skeleton was carried out

with CAE system Autodesk Simulation Mechanical® by the Finite Elements Method (FEM). The linear static analysis was performed with plate elements – Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. 3D skeleton models A and B and loading

Two discrete models were created and two de-

sign scenarios were performed - model A without and model B with strengthening details under the upper rails of the seat with a shape of triangle prism. The generated Midplane mesh has 5130 orthotropic finite elements and 33616 DOF's for model A and 5230 orthotropic finite elements and 34096 DOF's for model B.

Orthotropic materials type was used for con-struction elements of the skeleton:

Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) for rails and strengthening details with measured density 430.65 kg/m³ according to BDS EN 323:2001 and elastic characteristics: Ez=EL=9000.106 N/m2, Ex=ET=593.106 N/m2, GLT=554.5.106 N/m2, LT=0.027, TL=0.41, LR=0.03, RL=0.049.

Plywood (PW) boards with birch (Betula) with thickness 15 mm and 11 layers according to BDS EN 14279:2004+A1:2009 were used for side plates.

The characteristics of the plywood are: density 628.89 kg/m³, measured according to BDS EN 323:2001; modulus of elasticity in bending Ex=EL=7224.106 N/m2; Ey=E=5709.106 N/m2; bend-ing strength fm//=61.2.106 N/m2; bending strength fm=57.1.106 N/m2; Poisson ratios xy=0.030 accord-ing to Bodig et al. [1] and yx=0.237, calculated from equation 1:

y

yx

x

xy

E

v

E

v . (1)

Support boundary conditions were set: bottom

front rail – no translation on у direction and bottom rear rail no translation on х-, у- and z directions – Fig. 1.

In order to simulate semi-rigid connections be-tween rails and side plates of the skeleton two ac-tions were performed:

First – narrow zones in the place of joints in the discrete model with established via tests by FEM lower models of elasticity of the used materials perpendicular to the common edge of the corner joint were created.

Second – the laboratory determined by Hrisodorova [6] coefficients of rotational stiffness of the corner joints with 2 staples and PVA glue, load-ing under compression were introduced in the nodes of the respective corner joints – case butt joints (с=1788.18 N.m/rad) and end to face butt joints (с=1432.69 N.m/rad).

The both discrete skeleton models were loaded with a total load of 800 N, distributed as follows (Fig. 1):

‒ Seat: 80% were set as a remote force, dis-tributed between upper rails of the seat with application point of 100 mm in front of the upper rear rail, simulating upholstery base made of zig-zag springs;

‒ Backrest: 16% were set as equal nodal forces, distributed on the edges of the two sides of the backrest simulating elastic belts.

2. Results and discussion

The results for linear displacemets u, nodal rotations θ, stresess σvon Mises, maximum Principal stresses σ1, minimum Principal stresses σ3 and

equivalent strains ɛvon Mises, as well as the changed angle γ between the joint shouders at upper front and rear rails of the seat for both models A and B are shown in Table 1, Table 2 and Fig. 2 to Fig. 7 for the skeleton and for the side plates of the

57

FEM ANALYSIS OF DEFORMATION AND STRESSES OF UPHOLSTERED FURNITURE SKELETON MADE OF PINUS …

skeleton respectively. The visualizations of the deformed model are shown with a scale factor 3% of model size for the skeleton and with a scale fac-tor 5% of model size for the side plates.

Table 1. Maximal displacements and strains of the

skeleton Parameters and location model А model B ux, [mm] side plates 0.01 0.02

front upper rail -1.16 -0.81 uy, [mm]

rear upper rail -2.23 -1.52 uz, [mm] side plates 0.20 0.31 θx, [°] rear upper rail 0.68 0.44 θy, [°] side plates 0.10 0.09

front upper rail 1.52 1.26 θz, [°] rear upper rail -1.66 -1.35 ɛvon Mises, m/m side plates 0.0069 0.0042

front upper rail 89.83 89.95 , [°] rear upper rail 89.72 89.93

The distribution of resultant displacement is pre-

sented on Fig. 2. The maximal resultant displace-ments for both models are received in the middle of the upper rear rail of the seat and are determined

mainly by the y-displacement (uy) – Table 1. The resultant displacements are bigger in the rear upper rail than the same in the front upper rail of the seat for both models. This is due to the nature of the applied force with application point of 100 mm to the rear upper rail [5], which coincides with the application of the weight of the discrete model of the skeleton.

For both models in the side plates the maximum values of the resultant displacements determined mainly by z-displacements (uz) are received in the places of the base of the seat where dissolution of the side plates is observed – Fig. 2, Fig. 3 and Ta-ble 2. The strengthening of the upper rails of the seat leads to reducing of the resultant displace-ments of front and rear rails of the seat 1,4 times. In the side plates of model B maximal resultant linear displacements in the field of upper front and rear rails decrease 1.4 and 1.7 times respectively. In the base of the side plates however 1.47 times greater uz displacement (absolute value of 0.31 mm) was established in model B due to the redistribution of the load – Fig. 3.

Fig. 2. Distribution of resultant displacements for model A and model B

Fig. 3. Distribution of resultant displacements in the side plates for model A and model B

58


Fig. 4. Distribution of resultant rotational displacements for model A and model B

Table 2. Maximal displacements and stresses in the

side plates Parameters and location model A model Bux, [mm] front upper rail -0.022 -0.021

front upper rail 0.050 0.031 uy, [mm]

rear upper rail -0.058 -0.28

base of side plates 0.197 0.313 rear upper rail -0.034 -0.036 uz, [mm] backrest -0.073 -0.049 front upper rail 0.19 0.11

θres,[°] rear upper rail 0.35 0.26 front upper rail -0.18 -0.10

θx, [°] rear upper rail -0.35 -0.26 θy, [°] rear upper rail -0.1 -0.1

front upper rail 0.13 0.09 θz, [°] rear upper rail -0.08 -0.05 ɛvon Mises, m/m front upper rail 0.0042 0.0029

front upper rail 6.91 5.69 σvon Mises, [N/mm2]

rear upper rail 11.24 3.36 front upper rail 3.55 3.54

σ1, [N/mm2] rear upper rail 7.63 3.34 front upper rail -7.85 -3.78

σ3, [N/mm2] rear upper rail -12.88 -4.76

The maximal resultant nodal rotations for both

models are located in the rear upper rails and are determined mainly by the rotations around z-axis – Fig. 3.

The strengthening of the upper rails of the seat leads to decreasing of the resultant nodal rotations of front and rear rails of the seat 1.2 times com-pared with the same of model A.

In the side plates maximal values of resultant nodal rotations are received in the contact field with the rear upper rail and are determined mainly by rotations around х-axis – Table 2. The difference for the resultant nodal rotations θres is approximately 1.2 times for front and rear upper rails.

Expectedly, the deviation from angle 900 between the corner joint shouders at upper front and rear rails of the seat is also minor in the pres-

ence of strengthening elements (model B) – Ta-ble 1.

The distribution of von Mises stresses, maxi-mum principal and minimum principal stresses in the discrete models is presented on Fig. 5, Fig. 6 and Fig. 7.

For model A the maximal values of von Mises stress, the maximum principal stresses (tension stresses) and minimum principal stresses (com-pression stresses) are located in the side plates, in the field of joining with the rear upper rail of the seat and are from 1.2 to 1.5 times greater than these for model B, located in the strengthening details of the upper rear rail – Fig. 5 to Fig. 7. Higher values of von Mises stress are also established in the middle of the rear upper rail for both models with difference of 1.25 times. In the front upper rail of both models the maximum von Mises stresses are almost equal and located in the field of the joining – Fig. 5.

For both models the tension stresses (maximum principal stresses) have high values located at the bottom of the upper rails of the seat, the compres-sion stresses (minimum principal stresses) – on the top of the upper rails with differences of about 1.2 to 1.3 times.

In the side plates of model A the maximal values of von Mises stress, tension and compression stresses are located in the field of joining with the rear upper rail of the seat, while for model B the maximal values are redistributed in the strengthen-ing elements of rear upper rail. Conclusions

As a result of the static linear analysis by FEM of one-seat upholstered furniture skeleton with side plates of PW the distribution of linear and rotational displacements, von Misses and principal stresses is received. The most loading construction part of the skeleton is the rear upper rail of the seat where the maximum values for linear and rotational displace-ments and stresses are received due to the nature of the applied force.

59

FEM ANALYSIS OF DEFORMATION AND STRESSES OF UPHOLSTERED FURNITURE SKELETON MADE OF PINUS …

Fig. 5. Distribution of von Mises stresses for model A and model B

Fig. 6. Distribution of maximum Principal stresses for model A and model B

Fig. 7. Distribution of minimum Principal stresses for model A and model B

The additional strengthening detail in the corner

joints of the upper rails of the seat significantly im-proves the deformation characteristics of the skele-ton side plates made of PW. In the field of the up-per rear rail the resultant linear and rotational dis-placements are reduced approximately with 77% and 35%, in the field of upper front rail – 42% and 72% respectively. In the upper front and rear rails of the skeleton seat for model B displacements de-crease about 43% and 46% respectively.

The strengthening of the upper rails of the seat improves the strength characteristics of the skele-ton. The maximal values of stresses in the field of rear upper rail of the side plates for model A are relocated in the strengthening elements of rear upper rail of the seat in model B and are reduced about 29% for von Mises stresses, 20% for tension and 56% for compression stresses.

In the upper rear rail of the skeleton seat stresses in model B decrease about 25% (von

60


Mises and compression stresses) and 33% (tension stresses), because they are concentrated in the rails of the seat made of pine solid wood.

Reference 1. Bodig J., Jayne, B. Mechanics of wood and wood

composites. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. Inc. New York. 1982.

2. Eckelman C., Erdil, Y., Zhang, J. Withdrawal and bending strength of dowel joints constructed of ply-wood and oriented strand board. Forest Products J. 52 (9). 2002. pp. 66–74.

3. Erdil, Y., Eckelman, C. Withdrawal strength of dow-els in plywood and oriented strand board. Turkish J. of Agriculture and Forestry. 25. 2001. pp. 319–327.

4. Erdil, Y, Kasal, A., Eckelman, C. Theoretical analysis and design of joints in a representative sofa frame constructed of plywood and oriented strand board, Forest Products J. 58. 7/8. 2008. pp. 62–67.

5. Genchev, Y. Special productions and wood prod-ucts. Production of upholstered furniture. Publ. house. University of Forestry. Sofia. (in print).

6. Hristodorova, D. Stiffness coefficients in joints by staples of skeleton upholstered furniture. Innovation in woodworking industry and engineering design. (in print).

7. Мarinova, А. Methodology of stress and strain furni-ture structure analysis. Proceeding of International Science Conference „Mechanical technology of wood”. Sofia. 1996. pp. 257–267. (in Bulgarian).

8. Simeonova, R., Study on bending strength of end corner detachable joints of structural elements made of plywood. Innovation in woodworking industry and engineering design. 1(6). 2014. pp. 93–101.

9. Simeonova, R., Jivkov, V., Marinova, A. Bending strength under compression test of glued joints of frame structural elements made of plywood. 25th In-ternational scientific conference „New materials and technologies in the function of wooden products”. 17th of October. Zagreb. Croatia. 2014. pp. 75–83.

10. Simeonova, R., Marinova, A., Jivkov, V. Study on stiffness coefficients under bending test of end cor-ner detachable joints of structural elements made of plywood. Innovation in woodworking industry and engineering design. 1(7). 2015. pp. 59–66.

11. Zhang, J., Quin, F., Tackett, B. Bending strength and stiffness of two-pin dowel joints constructed of wood and wood composites. Forest Products J. 51 (2). 2001. pp. 29–35.

12. Zhang, J., Quin, F., Tackett, B., Park, S. Direct with-drawal strength of single-staple joints in pine ply-wood. Forest Products J. 52 (2). 2002. pp. 86–91.

13. Zhang, J., Erdil, Y., Eckelman, C. Torsional strength of dowel joints constructed of plywood and oriented strand board. Forest Products J. 52 (10). 2002. pp. 89–94.

14. Zhang, J., Quin, F., Chen, H. Edge lateral resistance of staple joints in furniture-grade pine plywood. For-est Products J. 54 (7/8). 2004. pp. 85–95.

15. Zhang, J., Maupin, M. Face lateral and withdrawal resistances of staple joints in furniture-grade pine plywood. Forest Products J. 54 (6). 2004. pp. 40–46.

16. Zhang, J., Yu, Y., Quin, F. Bending fatigue life of metal-plate-connected joints in furniture-grade pine plywood. Forest Products J. 56 (11/12). 2006. pp. 62–66.

17. Autodesk Simulation Mechanical. User manual. 2015. [www.autodesk.com].

АНАЛИЗ НА ДЕФОРМАЦИИТЕ И НАПРЕЖЕНИЯТА НА СКЕЛЕТ НА ТАПИЦИРАНА

МЕБЕЛ ОТ БЯЛ БОР И ШПЕРПЛАТ ПО МКЕ

Янчо Генчев, Нели Станева, Десислава Христодорова Лесотехнически университет, София

Резюме

Създаден е 3D геометричен модел на скелет за тапицирана мебел с CAD системата Autodesk Inventor

Professional. Проведен е статичен анализ със CAE системата Autodesk Simulation Mechanical по метода на крайните елементи (МКЕ), симулирайки натоварването на скелета. В анализа са взети предвид ортотропните характеристики на бял бор (Pinus sylvestris L.) за фризовете и шперплат за страниците на скелета. Два варианта на ъгловите съединения в скелета са изследвани. Анализът по метода на крайните елементи е проведен отчи-тайки лабораторно получените коефициенти на ротационна коравина на използваните съединения с кламери – модел А: кламери и лепило PVA; модел Б: кламери, лепило PVA и укрепващи елементи под горните фризове на седалката. В резултат е получено разпределението на линейните и ъглови премествания и на напреженията фон Мизес и главните напрежения в 3D модела на скелета на тапицираната мебел с ъглови съединения с кламери, които са презентирани и анализирани.

Ключови думи: скелет на тапицирана мебел, съединения с кламери, шперплат, деформации и напрежения,

CAE, FEМ.

61


GENERAL REGULARITIES IN THE HEIGHT STRUCTURES OF NORWAY-SPRUCE, SILVER-FIR AND OTHER DENDROCOENOSES

Roumen Petrin

Forest Research Institute, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria

Abstract

The height structures of natural, relatively even-aged Norway-spruce and silver-fir dendrocoenoses of the Rhodope Mountains (Velingrad, Devin, Belovo, Tsigov Chark, Chepelare and Shiroka Luka) and the Rila Mountains (Govedartsi and Kostenets) have been investigated in the present study. A total of 71 sample plots have been laid out, 44 of these being in spruce forests and 27 – in fir ones. The purpose of the study is to analyse the height structures of the natural dendrocoenoses of both tree species with a view to model their volumes and assortment structures. Yurdan Douhov-nikov’s method of natural indicators (MNI), developed in the Bulgarian science of forest mensuration, has been used for investigating the positions of the curves, and their steepness in particular, towards the abscissa. The availability of three groups of curves according to steepness levels has been found for both tree species: slanting curves, characteristic of the dendrocoenoses of a zero natural indicator SHo,n≥1.1, semi-steep curves, of 0.86≤SHo,n≤1.09, and steep curves of SНo≤0.85. The distribution according to types of steepness has been investigated for two groups of sample plots in two scenarios – separately, for each of them, and totally, for both. In this investigation, close distributions have been obtained in both scenarios. This provides a reason for investigating the dendrocoenoses’ height structures together, regardless of the tree species. In the second part of the investigation, the average, relative, height curves (or the average curves of normal numbers (quality indicators)) of the spruce and fir dendrocoenoses, as well as those of Scots-pine and common-beech ones, have been compared with Tyurin’s uniform, average curve of relative heights, and a statistically realistic proximity in their forms has been found. As Tyurin’s curve has been found for all tree species, this proximity proves the possibility of creating common, average, order curves of heights for spruce, fir, Scots pine, common beech and other tree species.

Key words: dendrocoenoses, height structure, natural indicators, steepness of curves, types of steepness. JEL: Q20.

Introduction It is substantially important to perfect perma-

nently as the normative-and-reference base of for-est estimation so the respective models and tables. For this reason, it is always necessary for scientists to improve their knowledge of the regularities in the growth and structures of forest dendrocoenoses. In connection with this have the height structures of natural, mainly mature and middle-aged, dendro-coenoses of Norway spruce and silver fir been studied in the present investigation.

Forests of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) dominate in the coniferous-forest altitudinal belts in the mountains of Bulgaria. The largest ar-eas under such forests are in the Rhodope Moun-tains, the Rila Mountains and the Pirin Mountains, and not so large ones occur in the Western and Central Balkan Mountains, as well as in Vitosha and Ossogovo Mountains. Spruce dendrocoenoses grow mainly at altitudes between 1,500–1,600 and 1,900–2,100 m. Fir ones occur mainly at altitudes between 1,000 and 1,800 m. Their largest forma-tions in Bulgaria are mostly in the Central Rhodope Mts. and the total area under silver fir (Abies аlba Mill.) amounts to about 30,000 ha.

The forests of spruce and fir are important as for timber production so for water conservation and recreation, health improvement, and amenity be-

cause they occur mainly under mountain condi-tions, and have specific peculiarities of their growth and productivity in accordance with site conditions.

A number of authors have carried out studies of the structures of forest stands [2, 4–7, 13–14, 16–17]. The more important inferences the above and other authors have made from their studies of stand structure according to height are as follows:

Tyurin [17] used in his studies not the absolute heights for the particular thickness levels but the relative ones, which are obtained by dividing each particular height by the average one, and he also introduced the natural levels of thickness instead of the absolute ones. During his studies, the author found out that the height curves for homogenous, pure, even-aged growing stocks resembled one another in their forms and were not influenced by tree species and site conditions; only age and eco-nomic activity were found to have some influence. This gave him the reason for calculating a uniform average curve of relative heights for all tree spe-cies.

Tretyakov [15] based on data of his own and data taken from Weise, Kuntze and others, carried out a detailed study of the regularities in the struc-ture and variation of some dendrobiometric charac-teristics in pure even-aged stands and in mixed uneven-aged ones of complex forms. He estab-

62

Roumen Petrin

lished that forest structure always has a constant nature, regardless of spacing index, age, tree spe-cies and growth conditions, even though these might pertain as to normal stands so to complex mixed ones. Thus he formulated the Law about the Uniformity of Stand Structure.

Dimitrov [2] has pointed out that the relative heights, alias reduction numbers, in Tyurin’s uni-form curve of relative heights need to be specified.

Mihov [4] shows the necessity of approximating the height curves by means of a parabola equation while using a polynomial rose to a certain power, or a logarithmic function. This approximation has suc-cessfully been applied into the present study.

Tonchev [14] comparing the average curve of relative heights for the coppice common beech growing stocks he has investigated with Tyurin’s uniform average curve, has found differences in-dicative of a specificity proceeding from the tree species and the origin of dendrocoenoses.

We have carried out an investigation of the height structures of natural, beech dendrocoenoses [10]. Using the natural indicators’ method, we have investigated the steepness of height curves and found that dendrocoenosis height structure does not depend on tree age and that it is possible to create common, order curves of the heights for more than one tree species.

The investigations of the above-mentioned and other authors have provided the methodic instruc-tion for our investigation.

The Purpose of the Study was:

1. To analyse the height structures of natural dendrocoenoses of Norway spruce and silver fir.

2. To compare as the average curves of the normal numbers for spruce and fir dendro-coenoses so those found for natural beech and Scots-pine dendrocoenoses with A. V. Tyurin‘s uniform average curve of the normal numbers for all tree species.

On the basis of Points 1 and 2, to find methodi-cal prerequisites to be used as the basis of creating generalised systems of order curves and improved models for estimating volumes and assortment structures.

Objects and Methods of Investigation

The present investigation pertains to natural spruce and fir dendrocoenoses in regions of the Rhodope Mountains (Velingrad, Devin, Be-lovo,Tsigov Chark, Chepelare and Shiroka Luka) and the Rila Mountains (Govedartsi and Kostenets). A total of 71 sample plots have been laid out, 44 of these being in spruce forests and 27 – in fir ones. The people who have laid out the sample plots and delivered them to us to use are Prof. Ivan Mihov, a

lecturer of Forest Mensuration at the University of Forestry, in Sofia, and Senior Research Associate Dr. Konstantin Shikov, at the Experiment Station for Coniferous Forests, near Velingrad.

Methods

The natural indicators‘ method of Yurdan Dou-hovnikov [3], which makes it possible to judge on the basis of only one number – the zero natural indicator (SHo,n) – about the curve‘s form, has been assumed as the main method of investigation. For each sample plot, natural levels of thickness (NLT) have been calculated after Tyurin [17] by dividing the absolute levels of thickness by the av-erage diameter, thus obtaining the relative, not round levels of thickness, or relative diameters, e. g. 0.56, 0.67, 0.76, etc., up to 1.43. Height curves are further on expressed graphically, and for round, relative levels of thickness, which are called natural levels of thickness, the absolute heights are re-ported while choosing a reliable interval of curve investigation. In our investigation, it is from 0.5 up to 1.6. The absolute values of heights are con-verted, in their turn, to relative heights by dividing these by the height where the average level of thickness, 1.0, which corresponds to the average diameter, is. The curves of the relative heights, in this aspect of theirs, have been called in our method „normal numbers” alias „quality indicators”. The normal numbers’ curves are used for calculat-ing the average curve of normal numbers (qxav) for the particular aggregates of curves according to the tree species. Further on, each curve of normal numbers (qxi) is divided by the average one (qxav) and the straight lines of natural numbers are ob-tained (y=a.x+b). The coefficients of the obtained straight lines are calculated through the least-square method by working-out and solving a sys-tem of two equations with two unknown values, and just these coefficients are the so-called natural indicators – the angular one (a) and the zero one (b). There is a rectilinear relationship between the two coefficients, which can probably be found. For the purposes of our investigation, however, only the zero natural indicator (Coefficient b) is used; it is presented as SHo,n, where „S” means structure, „H” – height, 0 reveals that it is zero and n – that it is natural.

According to their values, we have arranged the zero natural indicators (ZNI) of height structure (SHo,n) in three groups, namely: SHo,n≤0.85, 0.86≤SHo,n≤1.09 and SHo,n≥1.1. Then, the influ-ence of tree species upon the distribution of the investigated height curves according to types of steepness was investigated. The investigated spruce and fir stands were distributed according to types of steepness depending on the values of the zero natural indicators (ZNI), while using the above

63

GENERAL REGULARITIES IN THE HEIGHT STRUCTURES OF NORWAY-SPRUCE, SILVER-FIR AND OTHER …

scale, and this distribution was done for two scenar-ios of calculating the zero natural indicators – sepa-rately for spruce and fir, and while considering these as a total aggregate. So we have obtained average curves of the normal indicators (qxav) separately for the spruce and fir dendrocoenoses, and a common average curve has been calculated regardless of the tree species.

Results and Discussion 1. Types of Height Structure according to the Slope (or Steepness) of the Height Curves

The performance of height curves is investi-gated while using the curve’s slope (declivity) to-wards the abscissa. The less acute the slope angle is, the steeper the curve is, hence, we have intro-duced the notion ‘steepness (declivity) of the curve’. The steepness of the curves suggests the differ-

ence in the heights for two levels of thickness, and this difference is bigger when the curves are steeper. The steeper curve reveals a higher incre-ment in average height between two thickness lev-els within a dendrocoenosis, or growing in height, and the opposite – less steep curves reveal lower increment. Therefore, under all conditions equal, the larger volume of the dendrocoenosis, in this case, will be provided by the thicker and taller trees, i.e. by assortments of higher quality. Such dendro-coenoses eventually yield higher volumes and bet-ter assortment structures.

Through the above method, the zero natural in-dicators have been obtained for the investigated sample plots, which are used for characterising the height-structure curves (or height curves) of the natural spruce and fir dendrocoenoses by steep-ness, and these have been presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Values of the Zero Natural Indicators (SHo,n) of Height Structures of the Spruce and Fir Dendrocoe-noses according to Sample Plots, Depending on the Average (Separate or Total) Curve of the Normal Numbers

Separate Total No Separate Total No Separate Total No Separate Total No

Spruce Fir 1 0.80 0.75 23 0.79 0.74 1 1.28 1.37 23 1.06 1.15 2 0.89 0.84 24 0.76 0.72 2 1.17 1.26 24 0.83 0.90 3 1.06 1.01 25 0.59 0.54 3 1.13 1.22 25 0.90 0.98 4 1.12 1.08 26 0.61 0.57 4 0.72 0.78 26 1.03 1.11 5 1.34 1.28 27 1.27 1.22 5 0.94 1.02 27 0.85 0.93 6 0.89 0.84 28 0.95 0.90 6 1.10 1.19 7 1.07 1.02 29 1.46 1.40 7 1.01 1.09 8 1.05 1.00 30 1.16 1.11 8 0.84 0.92 9 1.08 1.03 31 1.09 1.04 9 0.89 0.97 10 1.01 0.96 32 1.02 0.97 10 1.18 1.28 11 0.78 0.74 33 0.81 0.77 11 0.91 0.99 12 1.00 0.95 34 0.92 0.87 12 0.91 0.99 13 1.36 1.31 35 1.09 1.04 13 1.16 1.25 14 1.16 1.10 36 1.10 1.05 14 1.12 1.21 15 1.19 1.14 37 0.95 0.91 15 0.89 0.96 16 0.89 0.85 38 1.02 0.97 16 1.10 1.18 17 0.99 0.94 39 1.11 1.06 17 0.82 0.90 18 1.09 1.04 40 0.89 0.84 18 0.85 0.93 19 1.18 1.13 41 1.01 0.96 19 0.96 1.04 20 0.96 0.92 42 0.90 0.85 20 1.08 1.16 21 0.90 0.85 43 0.88 0.84 21 1.00 1.07 22 1.04 0.99 44 0.77 0.73 22 1.25 1.33

As seen in Table 1, the zero natural indicators’

values vary for the whole aggregate, regardless of the tree species, within the range from 0.54 up to 1.46. Exact correspondence has been found be-tween the natural indicators’ values and the steep-ness of height curves, namely: steep curves corre-spond to low natural indicators, slanting curves – to high ones, and three types of height curves are actually available in accordance with the differenti-ated intervals – steep, semi-steep and slanting. These three types of curves, and the correspon-dence between them and the natural indicators’ values (SHo,n), can be seen in Figure 1.

It can be seen from Fig. 1 that a steep curve corresponds to the low values of SHo,n, a slanting curve – to the high ones, and a semi-steep one – to the natural indicators whose values amount to about 1. The steeper the curve is, the higher the elevation between two thickness levels, or height increments, is between two thickness levels in a dendrocoenosis. Therefore, though of equal aver-age heights, dendrocoenoses of steeper height-structure curves can be expected to yield higher volumes and have better assortment structures.

64

Roumen Petrin

heig

ht, [

m]

Slanting SH0, n=1,28

Semi-Steep SH0, n=1,08

Steep SH0, n=1,28

natural degrees of thickness Fig. 1. Three Types of Height Curves according to

SHo,n: Semi-Steep (0.86≤SHo,n≤1.09), Steep (SHo,n≤0.85) and Slanting (SHo,n≥1.1)

This inference coincides with the better interpre-

tation the thickness-structure curves of a right-hand-side asymmetry, to which, again, correspond

the low values of the zero natural indicators (SNo) characteristic of dendrocoenoses of higher vol-umes, with equal average diameters [12].

Based on the above-differentiated intervals for the different types of height-curve steepness, the distribution of the sample plots where these types occur has been obtained in the two scenarios of investigation through the method of natural indica-tors – separately and totally. The difference pro-ceeds from the average relative curves used for the particular aggregates according to tree species. For the separate investigations, we have used particu-lar average curves, and for the total one – one av-erage curve. The results of the distribution of the sample plots have been presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Distribution of the Sample Plots (SP) according to the Steepness of the Height Curves with the Different

Aggregates in Both Scenarios of Investigation Separate Investigation Total Investigation Height-Curve

Steepness Spruce, n Fir, n Total SP, N

% of SP Spruce, n Fir, n

Total SP, n

% of SP

Slanting 10 9 19 27 4 11 15 21 Semi-steep 26 12 38 53 24 15 39 55 Steep 8 6 14 20 16 1 17 24 Total 44 27 71 100 44 27 71 100

It is seen from Table 2 that almost one and the

same tendency of the distribution of sample plots according to types of steepness is observed as a whole for both tree species with both studies – as separate aggregates and as a total one. The in-crease in the sample plots under spruce trees of steep height curves is on account of the diminution of those under fir trees of such steep curves; the increase and diminution occurring at the same rate. In both cases, for both of the tree species – spruce and fir – the semi-steep curves prevail as a whole; with the separate investigations, semi-steep curves have been found with 53% of the dendrocoenoses, and 55% of the dendrocoenoses have been found to have semi-steep curves while investigating the two species as a whole. Also, for both species, there is almost the same overlapping of plots char-acterised by slanting (27% and 21%) and steep curves (20% and 24%). It follows from the obtained results that it is possible to make a total and an average models of height structure for both aggre-gates of curves for spruce and fir dendrocoenoses, as well as to assume a common type of intermedi-ate or semi-steep curves for both aggregates. This result is confirmed also by the fact that both tree species have almost equal ecological-and-geographic natural ranges of distribution and growth, as well as similar biological characteristics.

2. Comparing the Average Curves of Relative Heights (the Curves of Normal Numbers /Quality Indicators/) of Natural Spruce, Fir, Scots-pine and Beech Dendrocoenoses with Tyurin’s Uniform Curve of Heights

In Table 3, we have presented the comparison between our average relative curves of the heights of the spruce and fir dendrocoenoses, as well as those of the previously investigated Scots-pine [11] and beech ones [10], and Tyurin’s uniform average curve of relative heights, which pertains to all tree species.

As one can see in Table 3, our curves for spruce, fir, Scots pine and common beech are very close to that of Tyurin [17], which is seen also from the calculated statistical indicators: coefficient of correlation, standard deviation, coefficient of varia-tion, and error of the arithmetic mean.

The coefficient of correlation is almost 1 and, re-spectively, the standard-deviation values are of the order of hundredths of the unit. Besides, the close proximity of the particular values of the normal numbers (quality indicators) for the particular natu-ral levels of thickness is clearly seen. This is an important proof of the correctness of Tyurin’s uni-form average curve of relative heights, and it sug-gests a real possibility of developing average height-order curves for spruce, fir, Scots pine and seed-tree common beech. Height-order curves are known to form the basis of finding timber volumes

65

GENERAL REGULARITIES IN THE HEIGHT STRUCTURES OF NORWAY-SPRUCE, SILVER-FIR AND OTHER …

Table 3. Average Curves of Normal Numbers (qxav) Compared with Tyurin’s Uniform Average Curve of Normal Numbers

Natural Levels of Thickness Precision Indicators The

Curve Belongs

to 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4

Coeffi-cient of Correla-tion [R]

Stan-dard

Devia-tion [S]

Coeffi-cient of Varia-tion [V]

Error of Arith. Mean [m]

Spruce 0.71 0.79 0.87 0.94 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.14 1.17 1.000 0.075 7.542 0.025 Fir 0.76 0.83 0.89 0.95 1.00 1.04 1.08 1.11 1.13 0.999 0.044 4.483 0.015 Scots Pine

0.79 0.86 0.91 0.96 1.00 1.03 1.05 1.08 1.09 0.994 0.025 2.492 0.008

Com-mon Beech

0.78 0.85 0.91 0.96 1.00 1.03 1.07 1.09 1.12 0.998 0.031 3.113 0.010

Tyurin’s Average Curve

0.85 0.89 0.93 0.97 1.00 1.03 1.06 1.08 1.10 1 - - -

and their assortment structures, and this is a pre-requisite for developing a common model of such volumes and structures. Inferences and Conclusions

The more important inferences and conclusions from the investigation are the following ones:

‒ In the natural spruce and fir dendrocoe-noses subjected to our investigation, the availability has been found of three types of height-structure curves: steep curves, semi-steep curves and slanting curves; low val-ues of the zero natural indicators (SHo≤0.85) correspond to steep curves, in-termediate values (within the range 0.86≤SHo,n≤1.09) – to semi-steep curves, and high values of ZNI (SHo,n≥1.1) – to slanting curves.

‒ There is obvious prevalence of dendrocoe-noses of height curves of the average or semi-steep type (over 50%), as well as bal-anced overlapping of those of slanting and steep curves, which is a reason for consid-ering the investigated dendrocoenoses’ height curves as total and average when developing models.

‒ The detailed distribution according to height-structure curve steepness of the investi-gated spruce and fir dendrocoenoses, when these are investigated as separately accord-ing to tree species so as a total aggregate, leads to the inference that the height struc-tures of these dendrocoenoses do not de-pend significantly on the tree species, and they can be studied as an entire whole.

‒ The average relative curves of heights (or the average curves of normal numbers /quality indicators/) for spruce, fir, Scots pine and seed-tree common beech, as well as Tyurin’s uniform average curve of relative heights, are very close in their forms.

‒ The results obtained prove the possibility of creating common average height-order curves for spruce, fir and beech, which is a prerequisite for developing common models of their timber volumes and assortment structures.

Acknowledgement

We wish to express our gratitude to Prof Ivan Mihov, at the University of Forestry, in Sofia, and Dr Konstantin Shikov, at the Experiment Station for Coniferous Forests, near Velingrad, for allowing us to use its sample plots, thus making the carrying-out of our investigation possi-ble.

References 1. Dimitrov, E. Using Mathematical Modelling for Ana-

lytical Expression of the Relationship between the Height and Thickness of Spruce Trees. Gorskosto-panska Naouka. 2 1978. pp. 27–32. (in Bulgarian).

2. Dimitrov, E. Modelling the Structure, Volume and Assortments of Middle-Aged and Maturing Dendro-coenoses of Scots Pine, Norway Spruce and Silver Fir. Simolini 94. Sofia. 2003. pp. 13–22. (in Bulgar-ian).

3. Douhovnikov, Y. The Morphological Classification as the Basis of Increasing Forest Productivity. Zemiz-dat. Sofia. 1966. pp. 25–40. (in Bulgarian).

4. Mihov, I. Forest Mensuration. Litera Publishing House, Sofia. 2005. pp. 101–111. (in Bulgarian).

5. Mihov, I., Poryazov Y., Dobrichov, I. Height-Order, Tapering and Assortment Tables about Hungarian Oak, Durmast and Turkey Oak of the Re-Growing (Transformation) Class. NIS /Unions of Scientists and Researchers, University of Forestry. 1993. pp. 3–5. (in Bulgarian).

6. Nedyalkov, S. Basic Principles of the Organisation of Forestry in Mountain Forests. Zemizdat. Sofia. 1964. pp. 80–92. (in Bulgarian).

7. Nedyalkov, S. Organisation of the Forestry in Nor-way-Spruce Forests. Publishing House of the Bul-garian Academy of Sciences. Sofia. 1967. pp. 68–78. (in Bulgarian).

8. Petrin, R. Investigations of the Structure according to Thickness of Common-Beech Dendrocoenoses. Di-

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Roumen Petrin

gest „145 Years since the Establishment of the Bul-garian Academy of Sciences”. Vol. 49. 2014. pp. 76–81. (in Bulgarian).

9. Petrin, R., Markoff, I., Mihov, I. Structures of Natural Seed-Tree Common-Beech Dendrocoenoses in Bul-garia according to Thickness and Height. Manage-ment and Sustainable Development. 43(3). 2013. pp. 82–87. (in Bulgarian).

10. Petrin, R., Markoff, I., Mihov, I. Comparative Investi-gations of the Structure according to Height of Ma-ture and Middle-Aged Natural Common-Beech Den-drocoenoses. Management and Sustainable Devel-opment. 49(3). 2014. pp. 76–81. (in Bulgarian).

11. Petrin, R. Height Structure of Scots-Pine Stands. Forestry Ideas. vol. 21. No 2 (50). 2015. pp. 241–249.

12. Petrin, R., Markoff, I. Thickness Structure of Norway-Spruce and Silver-Fir Dendrocoenoses. Manage-ment and Sustainable Development. 55. 2015. pp. 97–102. (in Bulgarian).

13. Sirakov, G. Improved Permanent Curves of Heights, Form-Factor Tables and Volumetric Tables for Scots Pine in Our Country. Digest of the CGI Institute. 3. 1947. pp. 20–25. (in Bulgarian).

14. Tonchev, T. Studies of the Structure and Growth of Coppice Common-Beech Stands in the Balkan Mountains. PhD Thesis. Sofia. 2007. pp. 49–60. (in Bulgarian).

15. Tretyakov, N. Law about the Unity of Stand Struc-tures. New Village. Moscow-Leningrad. 1927. pp. 26–34. (in Russian).

16. Tretyakov, N. Some Principles of Soviet Forest Men-suration. Reference Book for the Forest-Mensuration Specialist. Moscow-Leningrad. 1952. pp. 5–15. (in Russian).

17. Tyurin, A. Forest Mensuration. Goslestehizdat Pub-lishing House, Moscow. 1938. pp.13–15. (in Rus-sian).

ОБЩИ ЗАКОНОМЕРНОСТИ В СТРОЕЖА НА СМЪРЧОВИ, ЕЛОВИ И ДРУГИ ДЕНДРОЦЕНОЗИ ПО ВИСОЧИНА

Румен Петрин

Институт за гората, Българската академия на науките, София

Резюме В настоящето изследване е проучен строежа по височина на естествени, относително едновъзрастни, смър-

чови и елови дендроценози от района на Родопите (Велинград, Девин, Белово, Цигов чарк, Чепеларе и Широка лъка) и Рила планина (Говедарци, Костенец). Общо бяха заложени 71 броя пробни площи, от които 43 броя в смърчови и 27 броя в елови гори. Целта на изследването е да се анализира строежа на естествените дендроце-нози от двата дървесни вида по височина с оглед съвместно моделиране на запаса и сортиментната им структу-ра. За изследване поведението на кривите и по-точно стръмността на кривите по отношение на абсцисната ос, беше приложен разработения в българската таксационна наука метод – метода на натуралните показатели (МНП) на Ю. Духовников. За двата дървесни вида е установено наличието на три групи криви според степента на стръмност, а именно: полегати криви, характерни за дендроценозите с нулев натурален показател (ННП) SHo,n≥1,1; полустръмни криви с 0,86≤SHo,n≤1,09; и стръмни криви с SНo≤0,85. За двете групи пробни площи беше изследвано разпределението им по типове на стръмност в два сценария на изследване – поотделно за всяка от тях, и съвместно. При това изследване бяха получени близки разпределения в двата сценария. Това дава основание строежа по височина на дендроценозите да се изследва съвместно независимо от дървесния вид. Във втората част на изследването бяха сравнени средните относителни криви на височините (или средните криви на нормалните числа) на смърчовите, елови, а също така и на бялборови и букови дендроценози с Един-ната средна крива на относителните височини на Тюрин и беше установена статистически достоверно голяма близост в техния ход. Тъй като Единната средна крива на Тюрин е установена за всички дървесни видове, тази близост доказва възможността за създаване на общи средни разредни криви на височините на смърча, елата, белия бор, бука и други дървесни видове.

Ключови думи: натурални показатели, стръмност на кривите, типове на стръмност.

67


STUDY OF THE DIMENSIONS OF THE CELLS OF THE CORE BEAMS

Nikolai Burdarov University of Forestry, Sofia, Bulgaria

Abstract

Core rays are defined in tangential cross-sectional dimensions and density and provide a large amount of diagnostic

information on the structure of the wood. The work investigates the degree of variation in the dimensions of the cells of the core rays. The tangential size of the ray cells is expressed as mean diameter „g” is determined. The influence of the type of rays, their dimensions and density on this indicator is studied. Dependence between the density of the wood and „g" is sought. Its variation, both in individual taxonomic units (in particular the family) and in individual structure sub-groups, has been investigated.

Key words: wood, wood rays, ray cells. JEL: Q23, Q29.

Introduction According to their type, the rays are homogene-

ous (ie made up of one type of cell) and heteroge-neous (ie made of different cell types). However even cells of one type have differences in cross-sectional dimensions. No matter how persistent these metrics are for the individual species, the cells are probably different not only for individual tree species but also depending on the location, the position in the stem, etc.

The dimensions of the cross-section are rela-tively easy to find in a tangential section. Such measurements have already been made with most industrially used species [6]. However, the pub-lished values are most likely arithmetic mean. And here comes the question: If measurements are

made on a heterogeneous core beam, what cell does the resulting average mean? The cells meas-ured at the top and at the base of the core beam are usually much larger than the rest. For rays with fewer cells, such as the narrow ones, it may be that the resulting mean value is a non-existent cell. Reg-istered minimum and maximum values will not be enough to orientate. Obviously, there will be a need similar to mode. Moreover, people who make such measurements know that there are species with very similar in size ray cells and those with very different. That is, for these measurements, we will need the dispersion. Here, we have to point out that it is possible for species with different rays to have the same size cells (Fig. 1).

a) b) Fig. 1. Wood rays of Fagus silvatica (a) and Castanea sativa (b) with the same average cell size (9.5 μm)

For any correct conclusions to be drawn in these

measurements, the variation between the tree spe-cies must be greater than the variation between the individual test sites and the variation between the individual stems is greater than the variation in the values in one stem. It would be very useful if there were variations in dimensions in different directions of the world. Surely the sunshine has affected the cambium and the formation of the rays. Therefore, it is expected that there will be differences in cell

size in the south and southwest, and those in the north.

The purpose of the work is to investigate the degree of variation in the cross-sectional dimen-sions of the cells of the core beams.

Methods and materials

The studies were conducted on microscopic photographs of the most widely used commercial tree species provided by H. G. Richter and M. J.

68

Nikolai Burdarov

Dallwitz [5]. The subject of the survey is 111 tropi-cal and locally growing tree species.

The tangential size of the radiant cells and its basic statistical metrics are determined – mean arithmetic „g”, dispersion and variation coefficient. The boundary (minimum and maximum) values of these dimensions are also defined. This is because the mode does not exactly serve the purpose of pointing out those cells that are most common. In most cases, however, a microscopic photo is not sufficient to achieve a 5% indicator of accuracy. In this case, several consecutive shots should be taken in the longitudinal direction.

Factors that affect the size of the radiant cells are the height and width of the rays, the density of their location. The relationship between density and cell size using the tabular value of the species for this property is sought.

Let's look at Beech's rays, Chestnut and Horse-tail (Fagus silvatica, Castanea sativa and Celtis australis). Obviously, rays have nothing to do with it, not only because of their width but also because of their size. But exactly the values of the average arithmetic for cell size are very close. Then there must be a mathematical metric, according to which these three tree species may differ. The maximum and minimum values can also highlight the differ-ences, but in this case not so categorically.

Such an indicator is the value of the dispersion. Here, as if the differences became obvious. But if we assume that they are similar, then there should be another analytical indicator to show us the dif-ference. It is important to emphasize that compari-sons in these studies may be either with the same indicator of accuracy (P=5.0%) or with the same number of measurements.

However, in wood research, we can not always find as many cells as we can to provide the same precision indicator (for example 5.0%). Then, for sample comparison, we can provide at least the same number of measured cells or use the Man-Whitney test. It takes into account the number of tests, the arithmetic mean and the dispersion. When two different species of wood approximate very much on the values of the radius cell dimen-sions, this is a way of proving the presence or ab-sence of differences in the values of the indicator.

It is also important to determine the frequency of occurrence of individual cells. In the heterogeneous rays formed by lying and standing cells, there is a very large difference in the dimensions of the cells at both ends and inside the beam. There can be two ways here: one is to examine the frequency of encountering cells of different sizes. The other is to use Interval Variation Order.

In order to compare the variance of the values in the different samples, both the dispersion and the variance coefficient can be used. The variation

coefficient can be used to compare the variance of the values in the various samples as a whole, and this is probably more accurate because it does not depend on the size of the cells. The dispersion can only be used at the same average beam size, i.e. if two tree species are in a group according to the average cell size, the differences can be searched for in the dispersion.

However, the accuracy of these measurements, as well as the correctness of their conclusions, will require very little variation within a study. That is why it is particularly important here that a micro-scopic preparation can provide a sufficient number of cells so that the measurement is within the toler-able limits of the precision indicator.

Influence of beam width on the dimensions of the radiant cells

Typically, the rays of tree species have the same categories – low and narrow, medium to me-dium and high, wide and high. Few species deviate from this trend (for example, lime). Therefore, this dependence can be considered as the influence of the beam size on the dimensions of the radiant cells.

In the measurements made, the following trend was formed. Single-beam rays have slightly larger cells than narrow and medium-wide rays (Fig. 2). Then, with increasing the width of the rays, the size of the radiating cells also increases.

Fig. 2. Sampling averaging and variation of the mag-nitude of the radiant cells depending on the width of

the rays It is important to know if the deviation from these

values is the result of the difference between the species or another indicator (for example location or location of the timber examined in the stem).

We should point out that oak wood is not in-cluded in these studies, which have both uniform and wide rays. This is because it is not correct to average the cell size of the different types of rays (as shown in the figure). That is why they will be the subject of a separate study.

It would be interesting to consider separately the dimensions of the rays of different widths when they are present simultaneously in a particular wood (for

69

STUDY OF THE DIMENSIONS OF THE CELLS OF THE CORE BEAMS

example maple or other elm). Here, however, their values are averaged by placing them in the appro-priate category depending on the maximum width of the rays.

Influence of beam density on the dimensions of the rays

This indicator is somewhat linked to the upper one, because the larger-sized rays are of lesser density. Therefore, the largest size of the radiant cells is expected here in the first group (Fig. 3). The other different value is the highest density rays. These are values determined to a large extent by the presence of single-beam core beams that have a larger size.

Fig. 3. Sampling averaging and variation factor of the

size of the radiant cells according to the density of the rays

Previous research has found that habitat affects

the density of the rays. It is also possible to influ-ence the location of the studied specimen in the different parts of the stem. This is why it is impor-tant here to determine whether the habitat affects cell size.

Influence of the density of the wood on the di-mensions of the radiant cells

Another indicator that affects the cells is the density of the wood (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Sampling averaging and variation of the mag-nitude of the radiant cells depending on the density

of the wood

Density is a complex quality parameter, strongly

dependent on the construction of the wood. Low density does not necessarily mean more or larger rays. The fact is, however, that the lowest density species have the largest cell size. It is known that species having light wood are usually fast-growing. This may also require larger cells of the core rays.

The average value of all tested species is 13 mm. When examining the factors that affect cell size, the samples are of varying size. Various de-viations from this average for individual factors can be explained by the size of the samples. Therefore, in the present study, no dependence was also sought between the affiliation of tree species to the botanical family. In most families, the surveyed representatives were one or two, which could not be an indicator for the whole family.

Conclusions

Because most of the groups have similar values, each group can be subdivided into subgroups (for example, three), regardless of the research factor. So each species will fall into a certain category. The deviation of each subsequent tested wood can contribute to the analysis of factors affecting cell size.

Deviation of the values of each species from the displayed values may also indicate the effect of the site or location of the timber examined in the stem on the cell sizes.

Knowledge of these values could be used as an important sign (eg diagnostic).

References 1. Bardarov, N. Determination of tree species accord-

ing to the anatomical markings of wood. Publishing house at University of Forestry. Sofia. 2014.

2. Core, H., Cote, W., Day, A. Wood – structure and identification. Syracuse University Press. New York. 1979

3. Greguss, P. Identification of living Gymnosperms on the basis of xylotomy. Akademiai Kiado. Buda-pest. 1955.

4. Grosser, D. Die Holzer Mitteleuropas. Springer-Verlag. Munchen. 1977.

5. Richter, H., Dallwitz, M. Commercial Timbers: De-scriptions, Illustrations, Identification, and Informa-tion Retrieval. [http://delta-intkey.com/wood/en/index.htm].

6. Wagenfuhr, R., Scheiber, C. Holzatlas. VEB Fachbuchverlag. Leipzig, 1996.

7. Wagenfuhr, R. Anatomie des Holzes. VEB Fachbuchverlag. Leipzig. 1984.

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ИЗСЛЕДВАНЕ НА РАЗМЕРИТЕ НА КЛЕТКИТЕ НА СЪРЦЕВИННИТЕ ЛЪЧИ

Николай Бърдаров Лесотехнически университет, София

Резюме

Сърцевинните лъчи се определят в тангенциален разрез като размери и гъстота и дават голямо количество

диагностична информация за строежа на дървесината. В работата се търси степента на вариране на размерите на клетките на сърцевинните лъчи. Определена е големината на тангенциалния размер на лъчевите клетки, представени като среден диаметър „g”. Изследвано е влиянието на вида на лъчите, техните размери и гъстота върху този показател. Потърсена е зависимост между плътността на дървесината и „g”. Изследвано е вариране-то му както в отделните таксономични единици (в частност семейството), така и в отделните подгрупи строеж.

Ключови думи: дървесина, сърцевинни лъчи, лъчеви клетки.

71


A STUDY OF THE STATISTICAL INDICATORS OF THE SIZE OF THE WOOD RAYS

Nikolai Burdarov University of Forestry, Sofia, Bulgaria

Abstract

The characteristics of the xylem rays are most often defined easily and accurately. Although they are small (only in

size and density), they give detailed information about the structure of the wood in a tangential section. However, the tree species are too many, and only by these characteristics cannot be determined the affinity of the studied wood for particu-lar tree species. In addition, there are often many differences between the literary values and the measured values in the specific case. The article seeks the degree of variation in the dimensions of the core rays. The rays are grouped accord-ing to their width. A statistical analysis of the values of the dimensions of the core beams was made. By comparison, the Man-Whitney method is used. The frequency of occurrence of rays of different sizes is determined.

Key words: wood, wood rays. JEL: Q23, Q29.

Introduction The wood rays are transverse radial elements

that perform a conductive and essentially backup function. They encounter a wide variety of shape, structure and location. However, these characteris-tics are relatively constant in each individual tree species. There is some variation in trees growing in different habitats, in individual trees in a given habi-tat and in the different parts of the stem from which the sample is taken.

The wood rays sizes (in this case, only the width is shown) are recorded relatively simply – (1–)2–3 (in Canarium schweinfurthii Engl.), (1–)2–4(–10) (in Avicennia officinalis L.), (1–)2–3(–4) (in Albizia procera Benth.) and so on. (Fig. 1). According to this record, the displayed pictures should be almost the same, but this is not the case. Here, it is not clear how statistically how many of the rays are uniform, how many are two-rows, and so on. More-over, it does not make it possible to understand the rays' variation in the above three cases.

a) b) Fig. 1. Wood rays at Canarium schweinfurthii (a) and Albizia procera (b)

Very often there is a difference between the de-

scribed dimensions and the measured real ones. For example, on the figure shown, most of the rays of the Canarium schweinfurthii are 4-row, and the record shows 2–3. It is unclear how many meas-ured beams this recording is made of. It is possible to obtain different records depending on the author who publishes them or depending on where the sample was taken.

Even if it has an accurate average, it is not enough. It is also worth range of variation of differ-ent species. Probably, for many species with the same mean values, there will be a difference in the range of variation (except for one- rows). Further-more, a measured dispersion will show up us how many individual beams are close or not (at the same or near average).

However, even with these values, it is not clear what exactly the rays are most common. For many

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Nikolai Burdarov

rays with the same (or close) mean values and close variation values, there are cases where a given class size is predominant in one type and another size class for the other species. From what has been said so far, it is clear that only detailed measurements with correct statistics can describe the characteristics of the rays of a given species the most complete and accurate.

The analysis of the statistical indicators also makes it clear another thing. In order to use the variance for some conclusions, it must be larger than the variation between the different habitats, and the variation between the individual stems is greater than the variation in the values in one stem. Before making any conclusions, it is a good idea to study the variation in the beam size in the different parts of the stem.

In addition, the variation in the dimensions of the rays (and eventually of the rays cells) in different directions of the world should be researched. This is related to the effect of sunshine on the formation of backup tissue. This would help to solve a very important anatomical question: Can the quantitative indicators of a microscopic preparation state which part of the stem (north or south, sharply or shaded) is the timber to be studied.

The purpose of the work is to create a method-ology for the comparison of the wood rays accord-ing to their size.

Methods and materials

The studies were conducted on microscopic photographs of the most widely used commercial tree species provided by H. G. Richter and M. J. Dallwitz [5]. The subject of the survey is 87 tree species. The dimensions of the rays (width and height) and their basic statistical metrics - mean arithmetic, dispersion and variation coefficient are determined. The boundary (minimum and maxi-mum) values for this indicator are also determined.

The frequency of occurrence of rays of different sizes is determined

During the measurement the width and height of each ray were determined. The exception is only the largest rays that come out of the field of view. The width is measured in the widest part of the ray and the maximum reading is recorded. When the rays are connected to each other in height, they are assumed to be two separate beams and are meas-ured separately. Some species are better to meas-ure in µm rather than in cell numbers due to very small and unclear rays, but they are not the subject of this study.

When the rays are made up of a single row but have only one place, two cells one next to each are considered to be one- row (not two-row). In most cases, however, a microscopic photo is not suffi-cient to achieve a 5% accuracy indicator. In this case, several pictures must be taken in the longitu-dinal direction.

The work is not intended to rewrite or change the theory of core rays. It simply tries to show that when working with sets, the same record can be used twice in exploring diagnostic information.

Analysis of the recording of the dimensions of the core rays

Unlike the classic record, the description of the statistical metrics of the core rays allows us to ex-tract some more information. While the classical record relies more on the limits of variation of the respective size and the frequency of occurrence, when recording the statistical indicators, the record presents in a uniform way all types with the mean arithmetic and the range of variation. The new here is the variable width and height variation. Even if the accuracy limit is not reached (this is 5%), these values are indicative and will allow the division of the species into separate groups.

Fig. 2. Record of the dimensions of the core rays

Recording of the beam sizes in this way will al-

low the distribution of species in separate groups and work with multitudes. It should be emphasized

that this grouping is only valid when the 5% accu-racy indicator is reached.

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A STUDY OF THE STATISTICAL INDICATORS OF THE SIZE OF THE WOOD RAYS

Rays width (Mean arithmetic and maximum value)

By examining this indicator, according to the width of the rays, we can divide the species into five groups (Table 1). According to the height of the rays, the species can also be divided into 5 groups [1]:

‒ very low – they reach up to 5 rows of cells (50 to 100 μm);

‒ low – they reach a height of 5 to 15 rows of cells (101 to 300 μm);

‒ medium high – they reach a height of 15 to 25 rows of cells (301 to 500 μm);

‒ high – they reach a height of 25 to 50 rows of cells (501 to 1000 μm);

‒ very high – they reach a height of more than 50 rows of cells (more than 1000 μm).

However, the record may take into account the arithmetic average or, as of now, the maximum achieved value. Of course, these are the leading indicators that we divide the species. In the first separation, the second indicator is the arithmetic mean of the height, and the third is the variance coefficient. Variable boundaries are shown with informative value only.

Table 1. Distribution of species according to their

width

Category width

According to the arithmetic

mean, number/%

According to the maximum reached value,

number/%

Species having only single-rows rays

37/43 35/40

Species having narrow (2-3 rows) rays

33/38 14/16

Species having an medium-wide (4-5 rows) rays

14/16 26/30

Species having an medium-wide (6-8 rows) rays

3/3 10/11

Species having wide (more than 9 rows) rays

0/0 2/2

In the second separation, the second indicator is

the maximum reached height, the third is the vari-ance coefficient. Following them is the arithmetic mean value of the width and height. By using these diagnostic categories, however, it may happen to miss a possible assumption of the species we rec-ognize. It is therefore necessary to use both ways of separation of the species.

According to the variation coefficient, we can also divide the species into five groups (Table 2).

Table 2. Separation of species according to the val-ues of the variation coefficient of the width and the

height of the rays

Degree of variation Variation in

width, number/%

Variation in height,

number/%

Very slight variation (V<2.0)

36/41 0/0

Slight variation (V=2.1–5.0)

19/22 19/22

Medium variation (V=5.1–8.0)

24/28 41/47

High variation (V=8.1–12.0)

6/7 18/21

Very high variation (V>12.0)

2/2 9/10

The values shown for species with the same

variation coefficient are common to all species, regardless of their width or height.

The survey data show that there are species with very close statistical indicators – a total of 14 groups of two or more species. Of these, 18 spe-cies are distributed in 9 pairs, and the rest are of three or more species. These groups are in the narrow and mainly in the single-row wood rays. It is therefore necessary to include more statistical indi-cators to better differentiate between species. The following indicator, which is examined, is the fre-quency of encountering rays with a specific height (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Distribution of rays of different heights in

three species with close statistical indicators

If we look at the records of the species repre-sented in the figure (Duabanga moluccana 1x7(2–18), 6.3; Lophopetalum spp. 1x7(2–18), 6.2; Termi-nalia spp. 1x9(2–19), 5.1), we will not find a quanti-tative difference between them. The distribution of rays (frequency of occurrence) of different heights shows very significant differences between the three types. While at Duabanga the highest amount is the rays of 6 cells (15 pieces), then at Terminalia such a beam is only one. Conversely, rays highest

74

Nikolai Burdarov

of 9–10 cells are only 4 at Duabanga, while in Ter-minalia there are a total of 19. This extreme distri-bution of these two species of Lophopetalum occu-pies an average position and also differs a lot from them.

Quantitive estimations used to identify species

When grouping the studied species in both ways, in a single group, where several tree species fell. With very close characteristics, to the extent that they are not statistically distinct, there are two (very rarely three) species. These groups are ob-tained in this form in one division (for example, on average). In the second division, however, such species differ sufficiently that they are not close in our assumptions.

In the specific situation we accept all tested species for tabular. This is because we do not have such wood in stock (like most labs) and do not fall in our measurements at 5% accuracy indicator. When we have to recognize a pattern, we compare it to them.

In some cases, the available statistics may not be sufficient. Then, besides grouping, you can use the Man-Whitney test. Of course, in the complete analysis of the construction of the wood, the marks of the other incisions are also included.

Conclusions

Using the existing principles of categorization and the new way of recording the dimensions of the wood rays, much more information can be ex-

tracted, which can also be used in the diagnosis of species.

Preparations should be photographed in several longitudinal directions in order for the number of rays to be sufficient to fit the accuracy indicator to the required 5.0%. In addition, some of the rays are very high and cannot fit into one preparation. Therefore, such measurement requires more measurement material than it can allow (i.e show) single picture. This also requires continuing work with species that have wide and high rays and where a microscopic photograph is not enough. When dividing groups add the size of the cross section of the radiant cells. References 1. Bardarov, N. Determination of tree species accord-

ing to the anatomical markings of wood. Publishing house at University of Forestry. Sofia. 2014.

2. Core, H., Cote, W., Day, A. Wood – structure and identification. Syracuse University Press. New York. 1979

3. Greguss, P. Identification of living Gymnosperms on the basis of xylotomy. Akademiai Kiado. Buda-pest. 1955.

4. Grosser, D. Die Holzer Mitteleuropas. Springer-Verlag. Munchen. 1977.

5. Richter, H., Dallwitz, M. Commercial Timbers: De-scriptions, Illustrations, Identification, and Informa-tion Retrieval. [http://delta-intkey.com/wood/en/index.htm].

6. Wagenfuhr, R., Scheiber, C. Holzatlas. VEB Fachbuchverlag. Leipzig, 1996.

7. Wagenfuhr, R. Anatomie des Holzes. VEB Fachbuchverlag. Leipzig. 1984.

ИЗСЛЕДВАНЕ НА СТАТИСТИЧЕСКИТЕ ПОКАЗАТЕЛИ НА РАЗМЕРИТЕ НА

СЪРЦЕВИННИТЕ ЛЪЧИ

Николай Бърдаров Лесотехнически университет, София

Резюме

Характеристиките на сърцевинните лъчи най-често се определят лесно и точно. Макар да са малко (само

размери и гъстота), те дават подробна информация за строежа на дървесината в тангенциален разрез. Дървес-ните видове обаче са твърде много и само по тези характеристики не може да се определи принадлежността на изследваната дървесина към определен дървесен вид. Освен това често има много разлики между литературни-те стойности и измерените в конкретния случай. В работата се търси степента на вариране на размерите на сърцевинните лъчи. Лъчите са групирани в зависимост от широчината им. Направен е статистически анализ на стойностите на размерите на сърцевинните лъчи. За сравнение е използван методът на Ман-Уитни.

Ключови думи: дървесина, сърцевинни лъчи.

75


ИННОВАЦИИ, ИНФОРМАЦИОННО-КОММУНИКАЦИОННАЯ СФЕРА И НЕМАТЕРИАЛЬНОЕ ПРОИЗВОДСТВО КАК СОСТАВЛЯЮЩИЕ РАЗВИТИЯ

ЭКОНОМИК СТРАН МИРА

Наталья Скоробогатова, Сергей Войтко Национальный технический университет Украины „Киевский политехнический

институт имени Игоря Сикорского”, Киев, Украина

Резюме

В данной статье исследована динамика изменения структуры валового внутреннего продукта в разрезе промышленность, сельское хозяйство, услуги и др. Выявлена тенденция роста удельного веса нематериального производства в масштабе мировой экономики, экономики стран ЕС и Украины. Доказано, что на формирование объемов и структуры валового продукта каждой страны влияют свои специфические факторы. На основе исполь-зования методов математической статистики выявлены определяющие факторы формирования национального производства. Доказано, что в условиях современной экономики все большую роль в материальном и нематери-альном производстве влияют информационно-коммуникационные услуги, что вызывает повышенный риск кибе-ругроз. Выявлено отсутствие единого подхода к формированию кибербезопасности стран-лидеров инновацион-ного развития.

Ключевые слова: структура ВВП, экономическое развитие, добавленная стоимость, нематериальное произ-

водство, инновации, кибербезопасность. Key words: GDP structure, economic development, value added, intangible production, innovation, cybersecurity. JEL: E20, F29, O13.

Введение Проблема разработки и реализации страте-

гии экономического развития государства явля-ется актуальной в любой исторической эпохе. Вопросами формирования эффективной эконо-мической стратегии на макроуровне занимались такие ученые, как Л. Довгань, Ю. Каракай, Л. Артеменко [5], Я. Жалило [6], М. Портер [7], а также другие ученые. Однако, реалии совре-менной экономики накладывают специфические условия на развитие и благополучие той или иной страны.

Ограниченность природных ресурсов способ-ствует усовершенствованию существующих технологий, разработке новых, а также посте-пенному переходу от первичных отраслей про-изводства к высокотехнологичным, активному развитию нематериального производства.

При этом все большее значение в современ-ном обществе занимают информационно-коммуникационные технологии, которые позво-ляют повысить производительность и эффек-тивность производства. А это, в свою очередь, приводит к перераспределению структуры вало-вого произведенного продукта, как в мировом масштабе, так и в разрезе каждого государства. Изучение факторов и предпосылок формирова-ния структуры валового продукта с целью пов-ышения конкурентоспособности национальной экономики позволяет разработать эффективную стратегию развития государства.

Целью данного исследования является выявление влияния инноваций, информацион-ного-коммуникационной сферы и нематериаль-ного производства на развитие экономик стран мира. Для достижения данной цели были пос-тавлены и решены следующие задания: выя-вить закономерности формирования структуры валового внутреннего продукта стран мира в абсолютном и относительном измерении; оце-нить влияние инноваций и информационно-коммуникационных технологий на благосостоя-ние разных стран.

Объектом исследования является процесс формирования валового внутреннего продукта разных стран с учетом различных определяю-щих факторов. Предмет исследования – теоре-тико-методические и практические аспекты оце-нивания влияния инноваций, информационно-коммуникационных технологий и нематериаль-ного производства на развитие экономик стран мира.

В процессе исследования были использо-ваны общенаучные и специальные методы, ос-новными из которых являются следующие: ком-паративного динамического анализа (использо-ван для выявления зависимостей формирова-ния структуры валового внутреннего продукта различных стран), факторного анализа (исполь-зован для идентификации факторов, определя-ющих структуры валового внутреннего продукта), корреляционного анализа (использован оценки влияния инноваций, информационно-

76

Наталья Скоробогатова, Сергей Войтко

коммуникационных технологий на экономику стран мира, а также для оценивания влияния киберугроз на экономику страны). Результаты исследования, выводы и рекомендации обосно-ваны на основе комплексного подхода.

1. Анализ структуры валового внутреннего продукта мировой экономики

Выходными взяты данные Всемирного банка [1]. Авторами проанализирована структура ва-лового внутреннего продукта (ВВП) в динамике за период 1991–2016 гг. в разрезе: мировая эко-номика, Европейский Союз, Украина. Графичес-кое изображение результатов представлено на фиг. 1.

Как показывают результаты проведенного динамического анализа макроэкономических показателей, в течение 1991–2015 гг. наблюда-ется рост добавленной стоимости всех состав-ляющих ВВП: промышленность, сельское хо-зяйство, нематериальное производство (фиг. 1). Данная тенденция наблюдается как на уровне глобальной экономики, так и среди стран Евро-пейского Союза (ЕС), Украины. Следует отме-тить, что если рост указанных составляющих ВВП в масштабах глобальной экономики имеет более поступательных характер, то в странах ЕС присутствуют колебания значений макроэко-номических показателей.

а) б)

в)

Источник: [1]. Фиг. 1. Динамика структуры ВВП в дол. США

а) Динамика ВВП – мировая тенденция, б) Динамика ВВП – Европейский Союз, в) Динамика ВВП – Украина Особенно нестабильной в анализируемом

периоде является экономическая ситуация в Украине (фиг. 1в): кризисные 1998–1999 гг. и 2007–2008 гг., военная агрессия Российской Фе-дерации и аннексия Крыма 2014 г. и по сегод-няшний день приводят к резкому снижению ВВП в разрезе всех его составляющих. Однако, нес-мотря на влияние негативных факторов, в це-

лом в экономике Украины наблюдается положи-тельная линия тренда (фиг. 1в).

В целях исключения влияния фактора инф-ляции, колебаний курса национальных валют была также проанализирована структура ВВП в относительных показателях (фиг. 2).

Что касается удельного для веса каждой из составляющих (промышленность, сельские хо-

77

ИННОВАЦИИ, ИНФОРМАЦИОННО-КОММУНИКАЦИОННАЯ СФЕРА И НЕМАТЕРИАЛЬНОЕ ПРОИЗВОДСТВО КАК …

зяйство, услуги и т.д.) в ВВП, то тут прослежи-вается четкая тенденция роста нематериально-го производства как в разрезе глобальной эко-номики, так и среди стран ЕС и Украины. Анализ

структуры ВВП в процентном соотношении так-же демонстрирует определенную волатильнос-тью экономического развития Украины.

а) б)

в)

Источник: [1]. Фиг. 1. Динамика структуры ВВП в %

а) Структура ВВП – мировая тенденция, б) Структура ВВП – Европейский Союз, в) Структура ВВП – Украи-на

2. Влияние инноваций на экономическое развитие государства

Ежегодный рейтинг инновационного развития, который составляется для 127 стран мира на основе Глобального индекса инноваций [3], поз-воляет определить позицию того или иного го-сударства в данном направлении в сравнении с другими. Так, согласно данных [3], в десятку ли-деров инновационного развития за 2017 г. вош-ли Швейцария (67,7), Швеция (63,8), Нидер-ланды (63,4), США (61,4), Соединенное Коро-левство (60,9), Дания (58,7), Сингапур (58,7), Финляндия (58,5), Германия (58,4), Ирландия (58,1). Если учитывать распределение лидеров по регионам, то картина выглядит следующим образом:

‒ Северная Америка: США, Канада; ‒ Латинская Америка и Карибский бассейн:

Чили, Коста-Рика, Мексика; ‒ Европа: Швейцария, Швеция, Нидер-

ланды; ‒ Юго-Восточная Азия, Восточная Азия и

Океания: Сингапур, Республика Корея, Япония;

‒ Центральная и Южная Азия: Индия, Иран, Казахстан;

‒ Северная Африка и Западная Азия: Из-раиль, Кипр, ОАЭ;

‒ Страны Африки к Югу от Сахары: Южная Африка, Маврикий, Кения.

78


Группы стран по уровню дохода представ-лены следующими лидерами инновационного развития:

‒ страны с высоким уровнем дохода: Швей-цария, Швеция, Нидерланды;

‒ страны с уровнем дохода выше среднего: Китай, Болгария, Малайзия;

‒ страны с уровнем дохода ниже среднего: Вьетнам, Украина, Монголия;

‒ страны с низким уровнем дохода: Танза-ния, Руанда, Сенегал.

Анализ представленных данных позволяет сделать вывод о том, что страны с большим

удельным весом нематериального производства в структуре ВВП являются одновременно и бо-лее инновационными. Поскольку сфера услуг имеет большую добавленную стоимость, чем сельское хозяйство и промышленность, то и макроэкономические показатели таких стран будут лучше, чем у других стран соответствую-щей группы. Данное утверждение подтверждает корреляционный анализ статистических данных, представленных в базе Всемирного центра данных по геоинформатике и устойчивому раз-витию [2] (табл. 1).

Табл. 1. Корреляционный анализ основных показателей стран-лидеров инновационного развития и Укра-

ины

Страны (позиция в рейтинге)

Глобальный ин-декс инноваций

[3]

Коэффициент кор-реляции между І1 и

І2 (*)


І3 (*)


І5 (*) 1. Швейцария 67,7 0,536 0,679 0,729 2. Швеция 63,8 0,226 0,418 0,652 3. Нидерланды 63,4 0,176 -0,146 0,787 4. США 61,4 0,782 0,903 0,962 5. Соединенное Коро-левство

60,9 0,101 0,363 0,698

6. Дания 58,7 0,523 0,281 0,679 7. Сингапур 58,7 0,965 0,984 0,930 8. Финляндия 58,5 0,264 0,462 0,355 9. Германия 58,4 0,000 0,405 0,295 10. Ирландия 58,1 0,222 0,862 0,697 .... … ... ... ... 33. Латвия 44,6 0,518 0,597 0,922 34. Словакия 43,4 0,667 0,724 0,981 35. Объединенные Арабские Эмираты

43,2 … … …

36. Болгария 42,8 0,123 0,744 0,960 37. Малайзия 42,7 0,768 0,840 0,968 38. Польша 42,0 0,426 0,718 0,906 ... … ... ... ... 50. Украина 37,6 0,588 0,981 0,159 ... ... ... ... ... 127. Йемен 15,6 -0,785 -0,792 -0,735 (*) – рассчитано авторами на основании данных [1].

Для анализа было выбрано 141 государство,

математической обработке подлежали данные за период с 2004 по 2016 годы, а именно:

‒ валовый внутренний продукт на душу на-селения (І1) – сумма валовой добавлен-ной стоимости всех производителей-резидентов плюс налоги на продукты и минус субсидии с учетом численности населения;

‒ сельское хозяйство, добавленная стои-мость (І2) – включает в себя лесное хо-зяйство, охоту и рыболовство, выращи-вание сельскохозяйственных культур и животноводства. Добавленная стоимость учитывает только чистый результат сек-тора. Данный показатель позволяет оп-

ределить взнос сельского хозяйства в ВВП;

‒ промышленность, добавленная стои-мость (І3) – включает добавленную стои-мость в горнодобывающей промышлен-ности, производстве, строительстве, электроэнергии, воде и газе. Аналогично предыдущему показателю, учитывает чистый результат и определяет взнос промышленности в ВВП;

‒ количество пользователей интернета (І4) – данный показатель позволяет оценить степень распространенности и доступ-ности ИКТ, интернета в частности;

‒ индекс развития ИКТ (І5) – показатель, характеризующий достижения стран мира

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ИННОВАЦИИ, ИНФОРМАЦИОННО-КОММУНИКАЦИОННАЯ СФЕРА И НЕМАТЕРИАЛЬНОЕ ПРОИЗВОДСТВО КАК …

с точки зрения развития информационно-коммуникационных технологий (ИКТ), ко-торые являются полем внедрения инно-ваций в современной экономическом пространстве;

‒ глобальный индекс кибербезопасности (І6) – оценивается уровень кибербезопас-ности государств по пяти основным пока-зателям: законодательная база, техни-ческие данные, организационные воп-росы, повышение качества и кооперация. Поскольку в настоящее время каждый субъект хозяйствования, государствен-ные органы, домохозяйства и др. так или иначе связаны с глобальной сетью, вели-ка важность защиты от киберугроз и ки-бератак. Чем более инновационные тех-нологии внедряют компании, тем больше риск влияния данных негативных факто-ров. Для оценки кибербезопасности в разрезе отдельных стран предлагаем ис-пользовать данный индекс.

Анализ данных, представленных в табл. 1, показывает, что в странах, являющихся лиде-рами в сфере инноваций, связь между сельским

хозяйством и ВВП на душу населения не сущес-твенна (коэффициент корреляции меньше 0,5). В этих странах промышленность оказывает большее на ВВП, что свидетельствует о высо-ком уровне индустриального развития. Исклю-чения составляют США и Сингапур, которые сохраняют баланс между промышленностью и сельским хозяйством, которые одинаково су-щественно влияют на ВВП этих стран. Экономи-ческий уклад Нидерландов имеет свою специ-фику, что проявляется в отсутствии взаимо-связи между ВВП и сельским хозяйством, пром-ышленостью.

В то же время, практически во всех странах, находящихся в первой трети по уровню иннова-ционного развития, прослеживается существен-ная связь между индексом развития ИКТ и ВВП. Такая ситуация свидетельствует о высокой сте-пени зависимости социально-экономической сферы от информатизации общества. К сожале-нию, несмотря на активизацию внедрения ИКТ в Украине в течение последних лет, данные тех-нологии не являются определяющими при фор-мировании ВВП нашей страны.

Табл. 2. Корреляционный анализ показателей распространения ИКТ и кибербезопасности Страны

(позиция в рейтинге) Глобальный индекс

инноваций [3] Коэффициент корреля-

ции между І5 и І4 (*)

Коэффициент корреля-ции между І5 и І6 (*)

1. Швейцария 67,7 0,948 0,743 2. Швеция 63,8 0,789 -0,569 3. Нидерланды 63,4 0,878 0,961 4. США 61,4 0,872 0,966 5. Соединенное Королев-ство

60,9 0,981 0,822

6. Дания 58,7 0,895 -0,693 7. Сингапур 58,7 0,922 0,961 8. Финляндия 58,5 0,954 -0,600 9. Германия 58,4 0,967 -0,829 10. Ирландия 58,1 0,958 0,890 .... … ... ... 33. Латвия 44,6 0,959 0,693 34. Словакия 43,4 0,981 -0,960 35. Объединенные Араб-ские Эмираты

43,2 … …

36. Болгария 42,8 0,978 0,951 37. Малайзия 42,7 0,940 0,903 38. Польша 42,0 0,960 0,896 ... … ... ... 50. Украина 37,6 0,945 0,945 ... ... ... ... 127. Йемен 15,6 0,967 0,254 (*) – рассчитано авторами на основании данных [1].

Как показывают данные табл. 2, практически

во всех странах, принимающих участие в нашем исследовании, прослеживается сильная взаи-мосвязь между количеством интернет-пользо-вателей и развитием ИКТ, что соответствует

реальности. С изобретением смартфонов любой пользователь мобильной связи имеет практи-чески постоянный доступ в интернет.

В то же время, как уже упоминалось ранее, повсеместное распространение ИКТ вызывает

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высокий риск киберугроз. Согласно данных Международного союза электросвязи (ITU), еже-годно публикуется рейтинг – „Глобальный ин-декс кибербезопасности” [4]. По результатам опроса оценивается уровень кибербезопасности государств по пяти основным показателям: за-конодательная база, технические данные, орга-низационные вопросы, повышение качества и кооперация. В 2017 году индекс включал 193 страны. Первое место в „Глобальном индексе кибербезопасности” занял Сингапур, далее сле-дуют США и Малайзия. На последнем месте рейтинга находится Экваториальная Гвинея [4].

Проведенное исследование показало, что в данном направлении отсутствует однозначная точка зрения. Так, например, часть стран-лидеров среди инноваторов имеет существенную прямую взаимосвязь между развитием ИКТ и ки-бербезопасностью (Швейцария, Нидерланды, США, Соединенное Королевство, Сингапур, Ир-ландия), другая же половина, наоборот, абсо-лютно противоположное влияние (Швеция, Дания, Финляндия, Германия). Очевидно стратегия ки-бербезопасности каждой страны разрабатывает-ся с учетом индивидуальной специфики и не имеет единого правила. Что же касается Украины, то тут несущественное влияние ИКТ на ВВП, од-нако, согласно официальных рейтингов, присутс-твует тесная взаимосвязь между ИКТ и кибербе-зопаснотью.

Выводы

Результаты проведенного исследования сви-детельствуют о том, что в мировой экономике растет удельный вес нематериального произ-водства, которое имеет большую добавленную

стоимость, чем промышленность и сельское хо-зяйство.

Развитие материального и нематериального производства неразрывно связано з развитием ИКТ, особенно сильно данная взаимосвязь прослеживается среди стран-лидеров иннова-ционного развития.

Вместе с проникновением ИКТ в экономичес-кую систему стран повышается уровень кибер-угроз. Но в мировой практике не существует единого подхода к формированию политики ки-бербезопасности стран, не зависимо от уровня развития страны и распространения в ней ИКТ.

Дальнейшие исследования предполагают систематизацию принципов и методов разра-ботки стратегии кибербезопасности Украины.

Литература 1. Всемирный банк. Официальный сайт.

[http://www.worldbank.org/] 2. Всемирный центр данных по геоинформатике и

устойчивому развитию. [http://wdc.org.ua]. 3. Глобальный индекс инноваций.

[https://www.globalinnovationindex.org/analysis-indicator].

4. Глобальный индекс кибербезопасности. [https://digital.report/globalnyiy-indeks-kiberbezopasnosti-ot-itu-gruziya-i-rossiya-voshli-v-top-10/].

5. Довгань, Л., Каракай, Ю., Артеменко, Л. Страте-гическое управление: учебное пособие. Изд. „Центр учебной литературы”. Киев. 2009. 440 стр.

6. Жалило, Я. Экономическая стратегия государ-ства: теория, методология, практика. Изд. НИСИ. Киев. 2003. 368 стр.

7. Портер, М. Стратегия конкуренции: перевод с англ. Изд. „Основа”. Киев. 1998. 236 стр.

INNOVATIONS, INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION SPHERE AND NON-MATERIAL PRODUCTION AS THE DEVELOPMENT COMPONENTS OF THE

ECONOMY OF THE WORLD'S COUNTRIES

Natalia Skorobogatova, Sergii Voitko National Technical University of Ukraine „Igor Sikorsky Kyiv Polytechnic Institute”, Kyiv,

Ukraine

Abstract

In this article, the dynamics of changes in the structure of the gross domestic product in the context of industry, agri-culture, services, etc. has been studied. The tendency of growth in the relative importance of intangible production on the scale of the world economy, the economies of the EU and Ukraine has been revealed. It is proved that the formation of the volumes and structure of the gross product of each country is influenced by its specific factors. Based on the use of methods of mathematical statistics, the determining factors for the formation of national production have been identified. It is proved that in the conditions of the modern economy information and communication services play an increasingly important role in material and non-material production, which causes an increased risk of cyber threats. The lack of a unified approach to the formation of cybersecurity of the countries-leaders of innovative development is revealed.

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МОДЕРНИЗАЦИЯ АЭРОВОКЗАЛЬНОГО КОМПЛЕКСА МОСКОВСКОГО МЕЖДУНАРОДНОГО АЭРОПОРТА ДОМОДЕДОВО

Евгений Сафонов1, Сергей Кирсанов1, Галина Паламаренко1, Бо Ванг2

1 Российский государственный гуманитарный университет (Домодедово), Московская обл., Российская Федерация

2 Технологический университет, Нингбо, Китай

Резюме

В настоящее время совершенствование системы управления по предоставлению услуг является ключевым фактором в борьбе за потребителя, что в полной мере относится к аэропортовой деятельности. В статье рас-смотрена деятельность „Аэровокзального комплекса „Домодедово””, которое создано в целях реализации прог-рамм развития и совершенствования процессов, связанных с обслуживанием пассажиров, а также эффективного использования и модернизации аэровокзального комплекса московского международного аэропорта Домодедо-во. Развитие аэропортового комплекса Домодедово происходит темпами, значительно превышающими средние показатели по отрасли. На сегодняшний день Международный аэропорт Домодедово является вторым по вели-чине аэропортом в Восточной Европе по пассажиропотоку и ведущим аэропортом в московском авиационном узле по грузообработке. Стоит отметить, что аэровокзальный комплекс Домодедово стал первым пассажирским терминалом аэропорта в России, получившим сертификат ISO 9001:2000. Достижение столь значительных ре-зультатов стало возможным благодаря активной инвестиционной политике АПК Домодедово, направленной на реконструкцию и переоснащение аэропорта на базе передовых мировых технологий (например, была завершена реконструкция вышки контрольно-диспетчерского пункта, которая позволила повысить качество и безопасность управления авиалайнерами в зоне аэродрома). Среди технологических конкурентных преимуществ аэропорта отметим: высокую пропускную способность аэродромного комплекса: Домодедово – единственный аэропорт МАУ с двумя независимыми параллельными ВПП, обеспечивающими одновременное и независимое приземление; высококачественное покрытие обоих ВПП обеспечивает возможность принимать любые типы и модели ВС; цен-трализованную систему подачи топлива на 31 место стоянки ВС; новый реконструированный пассажирский тер-минал Домодедово – современный комплекс для обслуживания пассажиров. Наиболее актуальная проблема в деятельности по обслуживанию пассажиров в аэропортах России – отсутствие общих инструментов оценки уров-ня качества аэропортовых услуг. Успешное развитие аэропортов в части качественного оказания услуг может быть достигнуто за счет разработки единой модели и методики для оценки уровня качества оказываемых услуг. Отметим, что в последние годы, несмотря на проблемы развития аэродромной сети гражданской авиации Рос-сии, рынок аэропортовых услуг Московского авиационного узла, и в первую очередь, аэропорта Домодедово, динамично развивался. Необходимы дальнейшие последовательные действия по созданию инфраструктурных условий и повышению конкурентоспособности на международном рынке аэропортовых услуг с целью удовлетво-рения потребностей пассажиров в воздушных перевозках.

Ключевые слова: аэровокзальный комплекс, аэропортовые услуги. Key words: air terminal complex, airport services. JEL: М21.

Введение Стремительное формирование рынка услуг и

усиливающееся конкурентное давление со сто-роны других фирм делают вопросы развития системы управления на предприятиях сферы услуг особенно актуальными, поскольку их ус-пешное решение становится важным фактором, во многом определяющим конкурентоспособ-ность и выживание предприятия на рынке.

Проблемы теории управления, подходы к формированию управления в сфере маркетинга, проблемы формирования имиджа предприятий разрабатывались многими учеными и практика-ми, в числе которых С. Блэк, Ж-П. Бодуан, Г. Брум, Ф. Буари, А. Вайсман, Дж. Вернет, В. Глу-хов, М. Кастельс, Ф. Котлер, Ю .Красовский, Ж.-Ж. Ламбен, М. Мескон, С. Мориарти А. Сентер,

В. Спивак, В. Томилов, Ф. Хедоури, М. Шишкина, Дж. Эванс, И. Яковлев и др.

Необходимо продолжение исследований комплекса внутренних и внешних систем управ-ления организацией, образующих неразрывное коммуникативное пространство фирмы и сос-тавляющих „материю” управления предприяти-ем.

В работе использованы методы проектного управления, системного анализа и управления, прогнозирования и моделирования экономичес-ких процессов. Развитие аэропорта „Домодедово”

Развиваясь бурными темпами, Домодедово стал крупнейшим аэропортом России и Восточ-ной Европы, лидером пассажирских перевозок.

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Евгений Сафонов, Сергей Кирсанов, Галина Паламаренко, Бо Ванг

Стратегия активного развития позволила Домо-дедово предложить авиакомпаниям-партнерам и пассажирам широкий спектр услуг, качество которых соответствует высочайшим европейс-ким стандартам. В современном высокотехноло-гичном терминале созданы максимально ком-фортные условия для предполетного пребыва-ния пассажиров. Инфраструктура аэропорта находится в постоянном развитии, открываются новые кафе, магазины, рестораны, кинотеатры. Аэродромный комплекс аэропорта Домодедово сегодня является одним из лучших в России по своему оснащению и уровню развития инфраст-руктуры. Он рассчитан на прием всех типов пас-сажирских и грузовых самолетов, включая и таких гигантов, как A-380 и Ан-124. Домодедово

оснащен самым современным радиотехничес-ким и светосигнальным оборудованием, что позволяет аэропорту принимать и отправлять воздушные суда практически в любую погоду. Аэропорт Домодедово, единственный в России, имеет две параллельные взлетно-посадочные полосы на расстоянии двух километров друг от друга, что делает возможным их одновременное независимое использование. Обе ВПП серти-фицированы по категории ICAO CAT IIIА – это высшая категория сертификации [26].

Отметим, что аэропорты, имеющие две и бо-лее ВПП, позволяют более эффективно исполь-зовать возможности по увеличению пассажиро-потока. В табл. 1 приведены данные по неко-торым крупным аэропортам мира [20].

Табл. 1. Информация по пассажиропотокам, количеству взлетно-посадочных полос и др. по некоторым

аэропортам мира Итоги 2002 г.

Наименование аэропорта, страна Пассажиров, млн. Грузов, тыс.т. ВПО, тыс.

Количество ИВПП

Площадь, га

Атланта, США 76,8 734 890 4 (паралл.) 1518 Чикаго, США 65,1 1436 922 7 2832 Орландо, США 26,7 218 288 4 (паралл.) 5869 Нью-Йорк, США (им. Дж. Ф. Кеннеди) 29,9 1914 287 4 1995 Хитроу, Англия 63,4 1234 461 3 1200 Мюнхен, ФРГ 23,3 н/д 319 2 (паралл.) 1500 Шарль де Голль, Франция 71,5 1750 709 4 3100

С вопросами нехватки пропускных способ-

ностей взлетно-посадочных полос уже столкну-лись в ряде базовых узловых аэропортов. Воз-можности строительства новых ВПП жестко ограничены законами об окружающей среде и отсутствием соответствующих зарезервиро-ванных площадей. В этой ситуации расширение пропускной способности других аэропортовых объектов, например, пассажирских терминалов и других, становится бессмысленным. С такими проблемами столкнулись ведущие аэропорты, такие как Хитроу (Лондон), Орли, Шарль де Голль (Париж), Амстердам, Франкфурт, Нарита (Токио) и др.

Благодаря транспортной доступности, удобным стыковкам, широкой маршрутной сети и множеству уникальных направлений Домоде-дово привлекателен для клиентов не только как конечный аэропорт своего путешествия, но и как крупный стыковочный узел, через который мож-но улететь более чем по 200 направлениям России, стран СНГ и мира.

Сегодня аэропорт Домодедово – лидер по объему пассажирских перевозок среди аэропор-тов России, его доля в общем пассажиропотоке московского авиационного узла составляет бо-лее 47%. На сегодняшний день из Домодедово совершают полеты 78 перевозчиков: 36 – иност-

ранные, 28 – российские, 14 – из стран СНГ. Маршрутная сеть аэропорта включает 211 нап-равлений по всему миру. Если в 2008 году услу-гами международного аэропорта Домодедово воспользовалось около 20 миллионов пассажи-ров, то в 2016 г. уже более 28 миллионов.

Так, Московский аэропорт Домодедово летом 2017 года обслужил более 10 млн пассажиров, что на 6,2% превышает показатель аналогично-го периода прошлого года. Пассажиропоток на внутрироссийских рейсах за этот период соста-вил 5,3 млн человек. В числе наиболее востре-бованных маршрутов – Сочи, Санкт-Петербург, Новосибирск, Краснодар и Анапа. На междуна-родных направлениях самые высокие показате-ли пассажиропотока зафиксированы в Анталью. В числе самых популярных зарубежных марш-рутов также Тиват, Барселона, Бургас, Ларнака, Франкфурт, Дубай.

Международное рейтинговое агентство Fitch Ratings подтвердило кредитный рейтинг Мос-ковского аэропорта Домодедово на уровне „ВВ+”, присвоив „стабильный” прогноз. Fitch Ratings отмечает, что структура выручки аэро-порта диверсифицирована, что придает бизнесу Группы DME устойчивость. Домодедово обла-дает наиболее разветвленной маршрутной сетью в Московском авиационном узле и пре-

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доставляет авиакомпаниям-партнерам широкий спектр услуг, что выражается в устойчивой структуре доходов [16].

На направлениях внутренних воздушных ли-ний с начала 2017 года также наблюдается ус-тойчивый рост. За восемь месяцев число путе-шествующих по стране через аэропорт Домоде-дово составило 11,6 млн человек, что на 2,2% больше чем в 2016 году. Из них в августе было обслужено 1,9 млн пассажиров. Среди самых быстрорастущих направлений последнего лет-него месяца – Краснодар, Калининград, Уфа, Махачкала, Сабетта.

В январе–августе 2017 года также зафикси-ровано увеличение грузоперевозок через аэро-порт Домодедово. За восемь месяцев грузопо-ток составил 98 509 тонн, что на 12,4% больше, чем в аналогичный период прошлого года [25].

Московский аэропорт Домодедово подвел итоги ежемесячного конкурса пунктуальности среди авиакомпаний-партнеров. Самыми точн-ыми перевозчиками в августе 2017 года стали: S7 Airlines, „РусЛайн”, „Северсталь”, ЮВТ АЭ-РО, Aegean Airlines, British Airways, Singapore Airlines, Etihad Airways. Пунктуальность авиа-компаний оценивается в восьми категориях, на которые перевозчики делятся в зависимости от частоты выполнения рейсов и максимальной взлетной массы воздушного судна. Кроме того, Московский аэропорт Домодедово принял учас-тие в World Routes Forum 2017 – форуме по раз-витию авиамаршрутов для представителей аэ-ропортов, авиакомпаний и туристических орга-низаций, который состоялся в Барселоне. Деле-гаты от Домодедово провели ряд встреч с пред-ставителями авиакомпаний и аэропортов из разных стран. Итоги переговоров подтвердили положительную динамику рынка междуна-родных авиаперевозок [16]. Анализ деятельности „Аэровокзального комплекса „Домодедово””

„Аэровокзальный комплекс „Домодедово”” создан в целях реализации программ развития и совершенствования процессов, связанных с обслуживанием пассажиров, а также эффектив-ного использования и модернизации аэровок-зального комплекса Московского международно-го аэропорта Домодедово.

Основные виды деятельности акционерного общества:

‒ организация и обеспечение полного ком-плекса работ по обслуживанию авиаком-паний и пассажиров и обработке багажа на внутренних и международных воз-душных линиях;

‒ эксплуатация торговых площадей и зда-ний, сооружений, инженерно-технических

систем и коммуникаций аэровокзального комплекса;

‒ предоставление помещений в зданиях аэровокзала и комплекса деловой авиа-ции в аренду;

‒ предоставление в аренду рекламных но-сителей в здании аэровокзала и на при-легающей территории, включая феде-ральную автодорогу.

Для решения этих задач предприятие приме-няет передовые технологии, многие из которых были внедрены впервые в России и Московском авиационном узле, в частности.

В 2004 году была начата реализация широ-комасштабной программы по расширению пло-щадей и увеличению пропускной способности аэровокзального комплекса. В результате реа-лизации этой программы, площадь аэровокзала была увеличена до 123 000 кв. м., а к концу 2008 г. достигла 220 000 кв. м, количество стоек ре-гистрации возросло с 64 до 132 единиц.

Аэровокзальный комплекс Домодедово первым в России предложил авиакомпаниям технологии трансферных перевозок, основан-ные на рекомендациях ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization – Международная органи-зация гражданской авиации) и IATA (International Air Transport Association – Международная ассо-циация воздушного транспорта). Эффективное осуществление трансферных стыковок стало возможным благодаря тому, что обслуживание международных и внутренних рейсов произво-дится в Домодедово в рамках единого термина-ла.

В аэропорту Домодедово, впервые среди аэ-ропортов Московского авиационного узла, при обслуживании международных и внутренних рейсов стали использоваться телескопические трапы (телетрапы). На сегодняшний день аэро-порт располагает тремя десятками телетрапов, включая мосты с двумя телетрапами, предназ-наченными для обслуживания воздушных судов большой вместимости (типа В-747, B-767, B-777, A-340, A-330 и т.п.).

Интеллектуальная система управления зда-нием BMS (Building Management System) в авто-матическом режиме контролирует около 30 000 точек внутри аэровокзального комплекса Домо-дедово (по завершении реконструкции пасса-жирского терминала их число увеличится до 60 000). Основная функция BMS – мониторинг и управление инженерными и технологическими системами аэровокзального комплекса (отопле-ние, вентиляция, кондиционирование, освеще-ние терминала, перрона, парковок, привокзаль-ной площади, система транспортировки багажа, лифты, эскалаторы), а также мониторинг пере-мещений пассажиров в пределах терминала.

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Кроме того, применение BMS позволяет макси-мально использовать возможности энергосбе-режения.

В рамках программы по развитию информа-ционного обслуживания пассажиров в Домоде-дово внедрена и функционирует Система авто-матических объявлений (САО). Система, явля-ющаяся уникальной разработкой, созданной в результате совместного сотрудничества рос-сийских и зарубежных компаний, с помощью специальных программ осуществляет формиро-вание речевых объявлений для пассажиров аэровокзала голосом профессионального дик-тора о событиях, связанных с регистрацией авиабилетов, оформлением багажа и изменени-ем статуса рейса. Уникальность системы обус-ловлена многопотоковым вещанием (одновре-менная подача до 16 объявлений в различные зоны аэровокзала) и повышенной надежностью. В настоящее время, объявления подаются на русском, английском азербайджанском, армянс-ком, иврите, испанском, итальянском, киргизс-ком, китайском, немецком, норвежском, тайском, узбекском, украинском, французском, хинди, японском и других национальных языках стран отправления и прибытия рейсов. Система поз-воляет организовать вещание на неограничен-ном количестве языков.

Высокое качество услуг аэровокзала подт-верждено международными сертификатами. Терминалу присвоена категория „С” по класси-фикации (IATA). Аэровокзальный комплекс До-модедово первым в России получил междуна-родный сертификат Системы менеджмента ка-чества предприятия ISO 9001:2000 (International Organization for Standardization – Международ-ная организация по стандартизации), что свиде-тельствует о высокой степени организации уп-равления в компании, профессионализме сот-рудников, а также о наличии четко отлаженной процедуры контроля выполняемых работ.

На территории аэровокзального комплекса действует круглосуточный интернет-центр, пре-дусмотрена возможность выхода в сеть интер-нет с использованием технологии беспроводно-го соединения (wi-fi).

В зоне ожидания действует DVD-кинотеатр, оборудованный одно-, двух- и четырехместными мини-залами с широкоэкранными телевизорами, DVD-плеерами, наушниками и удобными крес-лами. К услугам пассажиров – более 500 филь-мов различных жанров.

Аэропорт Домодедово является лидером в Московском авиационном узле по обслужива-нию туристического сегмента авиационного рынка. Для повышения качества обслуживания пассажиров чартерных и регулярных рейсов и создания благоприятных условий для работы

туроператоров в аэропорту Домодедово дейст-вует туристическая зона, оснащенная 25 стой-ками.

Для верующих на втором этаже аэровокзала действуют православная часовня во имя Архан-гела Михаила и мечеть Сафар, что в переводе с арабского означает „Путешествие”.

Кроме того, свои услуги предлагают бизнес-залы авиакомпаний British Airways, Swiss International Air Lines, Austrian Airlines, Трансаэ-ро, S7 Airlines, AirUnion, а также UTG Travel Club (для пассажиров авиакомпаний UTAir, Когалы-мавиа, Волга-Авиаэкпресс и Белавиа).

Аэропорт связан со столицей железнодо-рожным сообщением. Комфортабельный ско-ростной электропоезд „Аэроэкспресс” доставля-ет пассажиров из аэропорта до станции „Паве-лецкая”. Гарантированное время в пути от аэро-порта до центра Москвы составляет 40 минут. Терминал на Павелецком вокзале оборудован 8 стойками регистрации и 23 авиакассами. Таким образом, пассажиры имеют возможность заре-гистрироваться на рейс и оформить багаж, а также приобрести билеты на все направления. Для удобства пассажиров, следующих из аэро-порта Домодедово в различные районы Москвы или другие регионы страны, также организовано движение „Аэроэкспресса” до ключевых транс-портных пунктов столицы – станций „Курская”, „Каланчевская” и „Белорусская”.

Кроме того, совместно с авиакомпаниями-партнерами реализуются интермодальные программы, позволяющие пассажирам макси-мально сократить маршрутное время поездки из центра Москвы в другой город.

В рамках программы по повышению качества обслуживания в Аэровокзальном комплексе Домодедово внедрена новая технология – элек-тронные стойки обратной связи, при помощи которых клиенты аэропорта могут высказать свои замечания, комментарии и предложения по поводу предоставляемых в аэропорту услуг. Стойки расположены в общей зоне аэровокзала и в галерее вылета международных воздушных линий.

Последние годы рынок аэропортовых услуг Московского авиационного узла динамично раз-вивался. Основными факторами, оказывающи-ми влияние на состояние в отрасли, являются:

‒ набор предлагаемых клиентам услуг; ‒ уровень развития аэропортовой инфрас-

труктуры и сервиса; ‒ уровень цен, устанавливаемый аэропор-

том. Для отрасли в целом в последние годы было

характерно значительное увеличение доли аэ-ропорта „Домодедово” в общем объеме переве-зенных пассажиров. Прогнозируется, что в бли-

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жайшие годы „Домодедово” обгонит „Шере-метьево” по размеру доли рынка и станет лиде-ром Московского авиационного узла, так как „Шереметьево” работает на пределе своих про-пускных способностей, а у „Домодедово” имеет-ся ресурс для наращивания объема переве-зенных пассажиров.

Конечно, есть в работе аэропорта недостатки по обслуживанию авиапассажиров, среди ко-торых следует отметить: невысокую пропускную способность притерминальной развязки; дли-тельное время прохождения пассажирами пунк-тов контроля; отсутствие доступной информа-ции об общественном транспорте и др.

Московский аэропорт Домодедово планирует построить притерминальную развязку, которая разделит транспортные потоки „на вылет” и „на прилет” и повысит транспортную доступность аэропорта. Сооружение первой очереди двуху-ровневой транспортной развязки синхронизиро-вано со строительством нового сегмента пасса-жирского терминала Т2. Оба объекта будут вве-дены в эксплуатацию к началу Чемпионата мира по футболу в 2018 г. Кроме того, для удобства пассажиров будет построена пешеходная гале-рея, которая соединит многоуровневый паркинг и Т2. Также предусмотрено расширение цент-рального подъездного участка федеральной

трассы А-105 и создание зон для стоянки об-щественного транспорта.

Среди географических конкурентных преи-муществ аэропорта Домодедово можно выде-лить:

‒ удачное расположение ВПП – по направ-лению господствующих ветров – дает на-именьшее время закрытия по метеоусло-виям;

‒ удобство стыковочных рейсов: обработка транзитных пассажиров и грузов произ-водится в одном терминале;

‒ существует план строительства прямой автотрассы к аэропорту;

‒ к аэропорту прилегает незастроенная территория в 125 800 га земли. Она отно-сительно равнинная и свободна от каких-либо значительных застроек.

На фиг. 1 представлена действующая струк-тура управления „Аэровокзальным комплексом „Домодедово””. Она представляет собой иерар-хическую структуру и характеризуется линейно-функциональными связями между работниками аппарата управления. Руководство предприяти-ем осуществляет генеральный директор, в ли-нейном подчинении к нему находятся замести-тели по функциональным направлениям, конт-ролирующие соответствующие функциональные блоки.

СОПП

Коммер- ческий склад

Профила-кторий торий

Директор по

перевозкам


производ- ству

ПДСП

СПАСОП

ССТ

ИВЦ


эксплуата- ции

Главный инженер

ЭСТОП

Аэродром

ТиСТО

АХО

РУ

Техотдел

ОЭНС

Директор по ПТ

СПТ Инспек-ция

по БП

ГСМ

1-й заместитель генерального директора

Секретарь

Зам.ген. директ. по АНО

УВД

База ЭРТОС

Штур- манс- кая

группа

АМСГ

Зам. ген. директора

по АБ

Отряд ВОХР

Группа досмот

-ра

Спец- отдел


экономике

ПЭО

ООТ и ЗП

ЦСВ

Комме- рчески

й

ОМТС

ОНД

ТАВС

Главный бухгалтер

ОБУФ


кадровой и

социаль- ной

политике

Отдел кадров

Здравпункт

ДТУ

Канцелярия

Культбыт

Общежитие

База отдыха

Библиотека

СОК

Ревизор

Зам. ген. директора по экономике и финансам

Секретарь референт

Сменные зам. ген. директора

Договорно- правовой

отдел

Помощник

ген. директо

ра по ОВ и

ЛП

ВАП

Генеральный директор

Фиг. 1. Структура управления „Аэровокзальным комплексом „Домодедово””

Для осуществления основных функций по

оказанию услуг в организации создан коммер-ческий отдел, который параллельно ведет и

функции маркетинговой деятельности организа-ции.

Руководством компании функции маркетинга

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разделены на две части: стратегические и теку-щие. Выполнение первых взяло на себя высшее руководство компании, вторые функции испол-няются непосредственно коммерческим отде-лом.

Сбытовая стратегия „Аэровокзального комп-лекса „Домодедово”” разрабатывается гене-ральным директором и предоставляется для обсуждения на общем собрании учредителей общества. Им же утверждаются основные нап-равления маркетинговой деятельности предп-риятия и бюджет коммерческого отдела.

В соответствии со стратегией „лидера на рынке” руководство компании и строит свою сбытовую стратегию. Во главу угла поставлена основная стратегическая цель – достижение максимальной прибыли путем наиболее полного удовлетворения потребностей потенциальных клиентов. Совершенствование системы управления „Аэровокзального комплекса „Домодедово””

Наиболее значимыми для высшего руководс-тва факторами, которые напрямую оказывают воздействие на деятельность предприятия в сфере услуг, является развитие маркетинговой и рекламной деятельности.

Среди недостатков в организации управлен-ческой деятельности выделим отсутствие еди-ного методологического подхода к маркетинго-вой концепции компании; а также отсутствие единой службы маркетинга на предприятии и целенаправленной деятельности в области уп-равления маркетинговой деятельностью.

С методологической точки зрения, причиной всех выше приведенных недостатков и упуще-ний является недопонимание персоналом ком-пании роли и места маркетинга в управлении предприятием, так как с точки зрения нижнего уровня управления эти факторы не являются первостепенными.

На наш взгляд, комплекс мероприятий по преодолению сложившейся ситуации должен быть направлен на формирование единой службы маркетинга, состоящей из высококва-лифицированных специалистов–маркетологов.

При подборе специалистов во вновь форми-руемую службу маркетинга, следует уделить достаточно большое внимание профессиональ-ной подготовке и универсальности навыков новых сотрудников. Созданной службе марке-тинга кроме чисто маркетинговых проблем при-дется решать вопросы, связанные с перерасп-ределением функциональных обязанностей и структурных взаимоотношений внутри компании, вести разъяснительную работу среди сотрудни-ков о роли и месте маркетинга в современной рыночной экономике.

Первым шагом на пути создания службы маркетинга на предприятии является определе-ние ее системы организации. Наиболее полно современным требованиям отвечает организа-ция службы маркетинга, представленная на фиг. 2.

Директор по маркетингу

Группа маркетингового планирования и

контроля

Группа маркетинговых исследований

Группа экономического

анализа и ценовой политики

Группа рекламы и стимулирования

сбыта

Группа разработки новых услуг

Группа управления товарными марками

Фиг. 2. Организация службы маркетинга „Аэро-вокзального комплекса „Домодедово””

(департамент маркетинга) Основные принципы, которые предлагается

заложить при создании службы маркетинга, следующие:

‒ служба маркетинга организуется в виде самостоятельного подразделения (де-партамента);

‒ департамент маркетинга имеет в своем составе группы (отделы), которые плани-руют, организуют и контролируют выпол-нение определенных маркетинговых функций компании;

‒ в процессе своей деятельности департа-менту маркетинга в специальном (функ-циональном) отношении подчиняются со-ответствующие подразделения компании; т.е. департамент маркетинга выполняет роль своеобразного „интеллектуального штаба” компании.

Предложенная структура департамента мар-кетинга и уровень полномочий его сотрудников максимально адаптированы к особенностям и потребностям „Аэровокзального комплекса „До-модедово”” на данном этапе деятельности. Не исключено, что в процессе внедрения данного предложения, понадобится пересматривать функции отдельных подразделений или вводить дополнительные группы в сам департамент. Заключение

В статье показано, что высокий уровень ка-чества аэропортовых услуг в аэропорту Домо-дедово обеспечивается путем повышения уров-ня сервиса и культуры обслуживания пассажи-ров.

Принятие менеджментом аэропорта управ-ленческих решений по повышению и поддержа-нию уровня качества обслуживания пассажиров

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должно осуществляться с учетом нормативов, то есть законодательно закрепленных стандар-тов качества, а также общественно-значимых услуг, выявленных на основании анализа теку-щих потребностей пассажиров. Основная зада-ча для менеджмента аэропорта состоит в удов-летворении потребностей авиапассажиров и качественном оказании услуг. Проводимые ис-следования позволяют руководству аэропорта Домодедово принимать обоснованные решения для повышения качества обслуживания клиен-тов и конкурентоспособности аэропорта.

Одним из путей совершенствования системы управления предприятием является введение нового структурного подразделения – единой службы маркетинга. Предложенная в статье структура департамента маркетинга и уровень полномочий его сотрудников максимально адап-тированы к особенностям и потребностям „Аэ-ровокзального комплекса „Домодедово”” на дан-ном этапе деятельности.

Практическая значимость исследования сос-тоит в возможности использования предложе-ний, выводов и разработанных в ходе исследо-вания рекомендаций в качестве инструментария по обеспечению эффективного функционирова-ния системы управления предприятием сферы услуг в современных условиях хозяйствования.

В заключении необходимо подчеркнуть, что проведение изменений в системе управления может служить серьезным механизмом разви-тия предприятия сферы услуг в целом. Источники 1. Федеральный закон от 08.01.1998 N 10-ФЗ О

государственном регулировании развития ави-ации.

2. Федеральная целевая программа „Модернизация транспортной системы России (2002–2010 годы)”, подпрограмма „Гражданская авиация”. [http://pandia.ru/text/77/191/17688.php].

3. Федеральный закон (проект) „Об аэродромах, аэропортах и аэропортовой деятельности”. Aviation Explorer – Содружество авиационных экспертов. [http://www.aex.ru/docs/3/2010/7/13/1085/].

4. Быков, Ю. Процессный подход при внедрении систем менеджмента качества в соответст-вии со стандартами ИСО серии 9000. Учебное пособие. TEM Consulting. Москва. 2007. 54 стр.

5. Гайноченко, Т. Аэропорты России: состояние и перспективы развития. Вестник транспорта. На-учно-практический и информационно-аналитический журнал. 1. 2009. стр. 24–32.

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8. Крупнейшие по пассажирообороту авиационные узлы мира. [http://expert.ru/expert/2013/28/stalo-tesno-dazhe-v-nebe/media/201528/].

9. Манжурова, О. Повышение конкурентоспособ-ности аэропортовых комплексов на междуна-родном рынке авиатранспортных услуг. Дис. канд. экон. наук: 08.00.05. Москва. 2008. 21 стр.

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18. Буравин, А. Приложение 1 к концепции развития аэродромной (аэропортовой) сети Российской Федерации на период до 2020 года. [http://wizinfo.ru/text/77/224/22185.php].

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22. Аэропорт Домодедово выступил за регулирова-ние правил доступа к деятельности на террито-рии аэропорта. [https://www.aviaport.ru/digest/2017/10/03/486249.html].

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[https://www.aviaport.ru/digest/2017/09/21/483277.html].

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MODERNIZATION OF THE AIRPORT COMPLEX OF THE MOSCOW DOMODEDOVO INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT

Eugene Safonov1, Sergei Kirsanov1, Galina Palamarenko1, Bo Vang2

Russian State Humanitarian University (Domodedovo), Moscow Region, Russian Federation Technological University of Ningbo, China

Abstract

At present, the improvement of the management system for the provision of services is one of the most pressing fac-

tors in the struggle for the consumer, which fully relates to airport activities. In connection with the need to continue re-search into the complex of internal and external management systems of the enterprise, forming an inseparable commu-nicative space of the company and making up the „matter” of management, the article examines the activities of the Domodedovo Air Terminal Complex, which was created for the effective use and modernization of the airport complex at Domodedovo International Airport, as well as the implementation of programs for the development and improvement of processes related to passenger service. The methods of project management, system analysis and management, fore-casting and modeling of economic processes were used in the work. The development of the Domodedovo airport com-plex is at a pace much higher than the industry average. Today, Domodedovo International Airport is the second largest airport in Eastern Europe for passenger traffic and the leading airport in the Moscow aviation hub for cargo handling. It should be noted that the Domodedovo airport terminal became the first passenger terminal of the airport in Russia, which received the ISO 9001: 2000 certificate. Achievement of such significant results became possible due to the active in-vestment policy of the AIC Domodedovo aimed at the reconstruction and re-equipment of the airport on the basis of advanced world technologies (for example, the reconstruction of the tower of the control and dispatching station that allowed improving the quality and safety of airliner management in the terminal area) was completed. Among the techno-logical competitive advantages of the airport are: high capacity of the airfield complex: Domodedovo is the only UIA with two independent parallel runways providing simultaneous and independent landing; high-quality coverage of both run-ways provides the ability to accept any types and models of aircraft; a centralized fuel supply system for 31 aircraft seats; Domodedovo new renovated passenger terminal – modern passenger service complex. Thus, the most actual problem in the service of passengers at airports in Russia is the lack of common tools for assessing the level of quality of airport services. The successful development of airports in terms of quality service delivery can be achieved through the devel-opment of a unified model and methodology for assessing the level of quality of services provided. It should be noted that in recent years, despite the problems of the development of the airfield network of Russian civil aviation, the market of airport services of the Moscow aviation hub, and primarily of Domodedovo airport, has been dynamically developing. Further sequential actions are needed to create infrastructure conditions and increase competitiveness in the interna-tional market of airport services in order to meet the needs of passengers in air transportation.

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CONTENTSoldweb.ltu.bg/jmsd/files/volumes/msd_69.pdf · sonal qualities of a person. Investments in the professional development of the quality of human capital give a longer integral