Boston UniversityOpenBU http://open.bu.eduTheses & Dissertations Dissertations and Theses (pre-1964)

1949

Some basic crafts based on finearts standards for the elementarygrades

https://hdl.handle.net/2144/16640Boston University

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BOSTON UNIVERSITYSCHOOL OF EDUCATION

A Service Paper

SOKffl BASIC CRAFTS BASED ON FINE ARTSSTANDARDS FOR THE ELEMENTARY GRADES

Submitted byJulia Elizabeth Scamman

(B.S. in Ed. Boston University 1943)

In partial fulfillment of requirements forthe degree of Master of Education

1949

Boston Unrv^rslty

School of EdtiCdiion

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First Reader:

Second Reader:

Helen Blair Sullivan ,Professor of Education

Ida M. Johnston, Instructor in Education

1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER FAGS

I. STATEMENT OF PROBLEM 1

II. RESEARCH 6

III. /color 21

IV. DESIGN 31

V. BLOCKPRINTING 47

VI. i STENCIL 63

VII. BOOKBINDING 71

VIII. y PUPPETS 81

IX. POTTERY 93

BIBLIOGRAPHY 103

Digitized by the Internet Archive

. in 2016 .

https://archive.org/details/somebasiccraftsbOOscam

ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

COLOR 29, 30

DESIGN 36-46

BLOCKPRINTING 57 - 62

STENCIL 69, 70

BOOKBINDING 78 , 79,

PUPPETS 90, 91,

inclusive

inclusive

60

92

POTTERY 100 , 101,102

1

CHAPTER I

Statement of the Problem

Our children live in such a ready-made

environment that much of the thrill of crea-

tive living is denied them. There was a time

in the early days of our country when a child

was taught to be a craftsman first, and then

attended school in the time that did not inter-

fere with the problem of providing the family

with a living. Each member made a creative

contribution to the basic necessities of family

living. The girls learned to spin, weave, dye

and sew, while the boys learned to use tools,

wood, metals and to till the soil. As time

went on, it was necessary for the children to

do less and less for the upkeep of the home,

and gradually the school took up more and more

of their time. Then the school began to take

over more and more the responsibility of train-

ing the hands of the pupils.

V/hen a thing is no longer functional it

usually begins to deteriorate. In this case

what had been good functional handwork deteri-

orated into mere busy-work. After a while it

was overlooked that the child brought his hands

to school as well as his mind. Merely keeping

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To separate ^

the fingers busy and giving the mind a vacatio

for the time being does not solve the problem.

We recognize the fact now that the child’s

hands and mind must work together

one is an insult to the other,

Gropius said it in this way: ’’The medieval

artist functioned also as a craftsman. V/hen

the craft influence died, art went through a

period of artificiality.... Our modern facto-

ries are mechanized so highly and completely

that human imagination is stunted. The

machine’s function is to relieve man of manual

labor and drudgery and give vent to creative

impulse.

”

’’The student of the future needs both

training in thought and a familiarity with

materials and tools. These experiences provide

an understanding of the inter-relationships of

the world around him and a greater confidence.

I

The training needs to be broad enough to enable

every student to find something for him, and to

find his own way.... The theoretical learning

in the schools needs to be supplemented by

actual work. Theoretical knowledge must come

from needs created by handwork. A harmony of

hands and mind in all grades of development is

our most urgent need; our past training has

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separated them so that the result is confusion.

Schools especially need design workshops where

three dimensional building can be carried on...

experimental work with tools and materials.

The students need most to understand the aim

,1and essence of materials and tools,"

Our modern child is so saturated with

"things" that he has few desires. Therefore

the mere results are not always as important as

the process of accomplishing the result. John

Dewey said, "Art is a quality of doing and what

is done .

"

In carrying out a true craft process the

child enters into an environment that deals

with real things. He handles actual tools and

materials. it is not a play activity where he

imitates the real; he is actually producing

real things in a real situation, if a craft

activity is properly presented, the child is

brought into a problem solving situation.

IVhen a craft answers a life situation, it

is functional. Hundreds of years ago men pro-

duced craftsmanship that was of great artistic

merit because their articles were for actual

1. Excerpts from talks by Gropius given inN.Y., March, 1936 , at the Progressive Educa-tion conference

2, Art as Experience, john Dewey, page 214

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use, and the people of their time aemanded

and demonstrated good taste. it is possible

for the children of today to learn to make

craft articles that reflect the good taste of

their contemporary time. This will mean dis-

carding activities that deal with mere em-

bellishment of useless articles.

A true craft is one which can be reduced

to such simple terms that a young child can

grasp the function of the process and be

thrilled by its intrinsic fascination. These

same crafts have such a breadth of expression

and application that they can lead to a life

work or profession. A small child experiment-

ing with his pans of paint is using the same

elements of color that produce the world's

greatest painting, just the same as the child

learning to read is using the same alphabet as

that which produces the world's greatest

literature

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It is especially important for the teacher

to feel so secure in the area of the craft that

she can encourage the child to work simply and

directly to express himself. The teacher must

learn to lead the child into a field of experi-|

mentation rather than just dictate a lesson.

Sarah Tannahill said, "To be told step by step

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just what to do to draw exactly what forty

other children are attempting to draw at the

same time and in the same way requires little

thought or feeling. The whole process is me-

chanical, lacking any value from the point of

view of art. It is the teacher rather than

the children who derives the real benefit from

dictated work, for she plans it and in the

planning has all the real experience there is

in it."^

This paper will attempt to set up some

techniques and applications for a few basic

crafts that can be used by children in the ele

mentary schools. These techniques have been

cut down and made so simple that the possibili-

ty of failure has been eliminated for the

child. An effort has been made to give enough

details and applications so that the teacher

will feel secure and be able to give the child

sufficient freedom to express himself as

directly as possible.

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CHAPTER II

Areas Of Research

The research for this study was carried on

in three areas. The first area lay in discover-

ing a basic background philosophy for the pre-

sentation of the really good art programs that

are being carried on in our modern schools. The

second area was searching out some of the more

simple and specific techniques that are being

employed by experts in the various crafts.

These crafts were carefully selected to insure

their integrity as true art experiences. A real

craft demands a fine arts standard in design and

application. The crafts chosen were block-

printing, stenciling, bookbinding, puppetry and

pottery. As all these crafts employ color and

design, a chapter was included on these subjects

also. The third area came from actual experienc

in teaching these crafts to different groups of

children under varying conditions, and noting

their reactions to the craft, to the materials,

and most important to each other.

Part I

Backgrounds

In the first area the fundamental under-

standings were found to be the most fully

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expressed in the writings of John Dewey. His

’’Art As Experience’*^applied most specifically.

In this book he writes, ”We hear speech, but it

is almost as if we were listening to a babel of

tongues. Meaning and value do not come home to

us. There is in such cases no communication

and none of the result of community of experi-

ence that issues only when language in its full

import breaks down physical isolation and ex-

ternal contact. Art is a more universal mode of

language than is the speech that exists in a

multitude of mutually unintelligible forms.

The language of art has to be acquired. But the

language of art is not affected by the accidents

of history that mark off different modes of

human speech. ” ^

When one thinks of art expression and

children together, the first person who comes, to

mind is Prof. Franz Cizek. He was a great

teacher who put John Dewey’s philosophy into

practice in art. He was an artist with a great

love for children, and a supreme insight into

their way of working. Prom his wonderful school

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1. Art As Experience, John Dewey; Minton, Balchjand company, N, Y. , 1934

2. Art As Experience, John Dewey, page 335

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in Vienna came the first really beautiful works

of art with the complete integrity of childhood.

Later when he was made the head of all the schoo

art work in Austria, the world looked to him as

the leader to follow. In the foreword to Child

Art and Franz Cizek,^R. R. Tomlinson writes

"For many years he had to fight against both

criticism and ridicule. He did so with courage

and conviction, until the true value of his

teaching became fully appreciated by education-

ists the world over; a success few pioneers

have enjoyed during their lifetime."

I

When he was asked to explain his method of

teaching, he replied, "Die Arbeit ist der

richtigste und unschadlichs te Lehrer."— "Work

itself is the best teacher and one that does the

2least harm." Wilhelm Viola quotes Cezik as say-

ing, "When the child is used to drawing a tree,

|he masters his task as if it were play. When he

I is not used to doing it, he has to struggle for

it. However, I put before the child now and

then tasks to which he is not accustomed. Why?

1. Child Art and Franz Gizek, Wilhelm viola,Austrian Junior Red Cross, Vienna,American Distributor: The John DayCompany, W. Y. , 1926

2. From a clipping in a Viennese Newspaper atthe time of his death

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Because that vjhich is creative begins where the

child commences to struggle for the form, when

he must work to create the form, if he makes

the form without difficulty, the form will be

empty and artificial. Mere skill is very

dangerous. When I say to the child: 'Make a

design which you have never made before; then

the result is a really childlike design.

"All copied things are worthless. The

slightest thing produced which is the result of

inner experience, is worth more than the clever

est copying.^

When Rabindranath Tagore visited Cezik’s

school he wrote, "I stand in silent awe before

the children who like flowers bring to the

world the message of the immemorial seed that

carries within its core an eternal impulse of

truth.

Pauline Granechstadten, one of his former

pupils who is producing beautiful silk screen

textiles, and teaching design in this country,

wrote of him, "He believed in what the soul had

to say in everything that came from the source

1. Child Art and Franz Gezik, page 37

2. From a Viennese newspaper clipping, dateunknown

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10

of life and was interpreted, as he put it in

the ’Technique of the heart'.”^

In the field of psychology Viktor Lowen-

feld has made a scientific study of a child’s

development in artistic expression. He divides

his graphic development into definite schematic

2periods. Some critics of modern art methods

assume that the art teacher sits back and just

lets the children "mess around" to their heart’s

content. To these people Lowenfeld gives a

definite answer. He gives precise explanations

of the children’s work during their different

periods of expressive development. He advises

the teacher what to expect and how to handle

the various situations so that the greatest

benefits may be derived. He writes, "Progress-

ive art education stresses all tendencies that

lie truly and sincerely in the development of

the child... it would be a misconception to say

there are no realistic tendencies in the child..

A work of art is not the representation of an

object itself; rather it is the representation

of the experience which we have with the

1. Everyday Art , American Crayon Company,Sandusky, Ohio, September 1947

2. Creative and Mental Growth, Viktor Lowen-reia. The iviacmllian Company, 1947

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11

particular object.”

These three authorities give us a solid

background upon which to build the understand-

ings of the other writers in the field of

modern art education, and to make judgments as

to their validity, Dewey gives us a philosophy

with the child gaining a gradual control over

his environment, and expressing himself in it.

Cezik tells us how to lead the child to express

himself in true childlike terms, and Lowenfeld

explains to us in a scientific manner why the

child uses the natural expression he does to

express himself.

In his delightfully informal little book

2’’Let The Children Draw”, Van Dearing Perrine

tells of his experiences with the neighborhood

children who came to his studio to draw. He

instinctively employed the methods and under-

standings previously set forth. In the fore-

word to his book he writes, ”Every child, whose

delight it is to scribble, draw, whistle, take

off another, dramatize, jest, or tell a good

story is the rich, raw material evolution

1. Creative and Mental Growth , page 72

2. Let The Children Draw, Van Dearing Perrine,Frederick A. stokes Co., N. Y.

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offers our Democracy for its own cultural

building. What are we doing with it?’*

In her foreword to ’’Art for the Schools

of America "^Fannie W, Dunn quotes, "The late

Frederick Bonser used to say that any elemen-

tary school teacher should be able to teach

what an elementary school pupil could learn."

Experience has shown us that elementary

school children delight in applied art skills

and show decided aptitude in them. Unfortu-

nately many teachers who apply the best peda-

gogical philosophy to other subjects strive to

satisfy the children with a starvation diet of

mere busy work in the applied arts. The more

insecure the teacher in this field, the more

she feels the need to cover her inadequacies

with embellishments of pseudo-artistic nature

which rob her work of integrity.

The American Council on Education made a

study of teachers' reactions to a modern art

program which is reported in "Teachers Enjoy

2the Arts". Their findings are summed up as

1. Art for the Schools of America, Harold(iregg. International TextbookCompany, Scranton, Pa., 1941

2. Teachers Enjoy the Arts, Ray N. Faulknerand Helen E. Davis, American Councilon Education, Washington, D.C., 1943

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13

follows: "First, the arts offer everybody the

means to a deeper and richer understanding of

life. They are essentially a means of communi-

cation by which the artist conveys his intui-

tions about experience to other people. The

arts are unique in that they express the

feeling aspects of life along with, or more

often rather than, the nature of objective

reality. For this reason they are particularly

useful in helping the individual to understand

the culture of which he is a part, and to feel

himself identified with it.... Second, the arts

sharpen and define an individual's awareness of

beauty and ugliness..,. People who have had

rich and varied experiences in the arts may be ^said to view the world with different eyes, to

hear and smell, touch and move with different

and vastly more communicative senses than those

of the aesthetically illiterate.... and thirdly,

the arts can be genuinely and significantly

useful in promoting mental health."

Part II

Specific Craft Techniques

Having accepted the findings of the first

area of research as a basis of understanding,

we are provided with definite criteria for

judging the material that will be acceptable in

the phase of technical presentation of the

crafts. Obviously any book or article that

allows the use of patterns, copying or material

that do not have integrity would have to be dis

carded.

it was surprising to discover that some

of the worst offenders in presenting "busy work

completely lacking in good techniques were in

publications aimed directly at teachers, in

some of the professional teacher's magazines,

the handwork presented was at the lowest

possible interest level, and the creative

element was completely lacking, in many cases

there were patterns offered merely to be multi-

graphed and used. To add insult to injury, not

only were there patterns, but there were bad

patterns. The drawing was poor and good design

was entirely lacking. However it would be un-

fair not to point out that the tendency is

definitely in the right direction, and there

has been a marked improvement in the last eight

to ten years.

The School Arts Magazine^ shows a strong

1. School Arts Magazine, Worcester, Mass.

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15

step toward excellent presentation of craft

experiences based on fine art standards, as

well as a wealth of background materials. A

list of helpful magazine articles will appear

elsewhere in this paper. In some instances

only a part of the article is useful, and that

will ba so noted.

Another source of disappointment was in

the advertising of craft materials. There are

many imitation materials on the craft market

today. We cannot offer these materials to the

child, if we expect to arouse in him an appre-

ciation of the directness and integrity of a

true craft. A good craftsman is an honest

craftsman.

An example of these imitation materials is

the non-firing clay that is offered in pottery.

The real meaning of ceramics is that a part of

the earth itself is made pliable with water,

dried in the air, and fired at a great heat

which causes it to become vitrified due to the

ensuing chemical process. It is a completely

natural process, and the firing is an essential

part of the understanding of pottery. As might

be expected this clay lacks some of the other

properties of true ceramic clay. Much of this

it '

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imitation pottery cannot hold water, cannot

he submitted to heat for cooking purposes, and

should not be used for food.

If real pottery ec^uipment is entirely out

of the question, and these imitation processes

are all that are possible, then let's be

honest in presenting them. By means of storie

lectures, illustrations, samples and demon-

strations tell the children the true story of

pottery. Then explain to them that due to

the conditions under which they work, it is

impossible for them to make real pottery, but

that you will give them the best substitute

you can. Find the properties the imitation

clay has in common with real clay. Perhaps it

is soft when it is wet and hard when it is dry,

or it may change color when it dries. Then

point out the ways in which it is different

from real clay. The glaze may be applied like

layers of paper, or it may just be finished

with paint. Let's be sure we are honest with

the children. One of the intrinsic fascina-

tions in crafts lies in its integrity.j

The books presenting definite craft tech-

niques were foimd to be valid, and books re-

lating actual teachers' experiences with crafts

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i,

offer a much brighter and more glowing picture

j

In her beautifully rich sharing of ex-

i 1'periences Natalie Robinson Cole lets us

li

actually watch her apply these basic beliefs

'in her own classroom. Her chapters on block-

jprinting and pottery are especially good.

2Victor D'Amico gives a full background

as to the teacher, the child, and the materials

used. He shows how the best in modern art

teaching may be accomplished. He deals with

1the child as an artist, painter, sculptor,

'I

; potter, designer and craftsman.

* Other good sources of how crafts should be

taught are "Art for the Schools of America” by

I 3 4Harold Gregg , Crafts for Children, Art in

5Elementary Education.

Part III

Experiences with Children

Actual experiences with children were used

1. The Arts in the Classroom, The John DayCompany, New York, 1$40

2. Creative Teaching in Art, Victor D'Amico,international Textbook Co. , Scranton, Pa.1942 .

3. Art for the Schools of America, Haro Id Gregg.International Textbook Co. , Scranton, Pa.1941

4. Crafts for Children, R .R .Tomlinson, StudioPublications Inc.,N.Y., 1935

5. Art in Elementary Education , Leon L. Winslow.McGraw Hill Book Co. Inc. ,M.Y. , 1942

•i'!

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18

in the third area of this research. A differ-

ent type of group vias chosen for each craft.

In this way different age groups, varying abilis

ties, varieties of previous art experience. 7Si '

and a wide range of materials and physical set-i^^^

ups could be presented.y J

Color is such a fascinating subject, and

one that brings out such strong emotional re-

actions, that it seemed impossible to choose

one single group upon which to report. There-

fore a brief report on three different groups

was used. The three groups were: 1, A first

grade group having their first conscious ex-

perience with color, 2. A report of some in-

formal conversations by sixth grade pupils who

were working on some large posters, 3. An in-

formal club group that started out to work on

some general craft projects, but ended in turn-

ing each presentation into a color problem.

In the field of design, a large informal

^ J

'\ *

t

Y.W.C.A. interest group in connection with their|

Younger Girl program was chosen. These girls of

about seventh and eighth grade age levels had

widely differing art experiences, and degrees

of inhibitions.

Stencils proved to be the craft program

that aroused the most interest in a community

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housing project group, and therefore was

selected to furnish material in this area.

One summer, a camp group became most

enthusiastic in their production of hand bound

books. This group seemed to be the logical

selection for this subject*\

f-A

A third grade in a public school that had —I

'

'a*"

their introduction to crafts through an interes|-‘

ing puppet experience furnished reporting

material for this craft.

Long after the teacher in a fourth grade

public school, considered a unit on pottery

finished, the children kept coming back and

asking for more. The enthusiasm of this group

more than made up for the very inadequate mate-

rials used and provided interesting material

for a report on pottery.

These groups offered an overview of dif-

ferent types of craft experiences, under varying

conditions, and with a wide range of background:

The equipment varied all the way from a beauti-

fully modern adequately equipped studio, to anj|

empty room where everything the group used had

to be brought each week by the teacher. The one

unifying aspect of these groups was that they

were all taught with the methods indicated by

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20

the background study for this paper, and re-

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21

CHAPTER III

Color

Part I

Background

The color spectrum extends from infra

red to ultra-violet. Physically there is

point on the spectrum where one color stops andV

another begins. These are manufactured and not

physical divisions. Daylight or white light con-

sists of a mixture of all the wave lengths of the vis ibid'

spectrum. A piece of cloth absorbs some of the wave lengti

and throws back the remainder. If a piece of cloth throws off

the blue wave lengths and absorbs the rest, it appears to be a

blue cloth. The more pure the color the smaller the range of

the wave length thrown back. if a piece of brilliantly colored

glass IS ground up it becomes apparently a white powder. This

is because there is not enoiagh depth for absorption to take

1place.

To the primitive peoples color must have been a real dis-

covery. Just imagine the thrill it must have been to early man

when he found Juices and stains that would give him color. Think

of him noticing bright colored juice seeping from a berry, or

discovering colored mud, or finding a stain in the bark of a

tree, then experimenting with it, to discover if it could be

used to paint with on the walls of his caves, or to put designs

on his pottery, or to dye leather or a piece of roughly woven

Encyclopedia Britannica, page 55=t=

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fabric. The fragments we have in our

museums today bear witness to the artistry of

these early men in handling their natural

colors. The refinement of dyes and paints/^

is a fascinating part of the story of

civilization, and one which will enrich

the children’s enjoyment of it,

in the elementary school, there is probably

very little place in the art program for such

lectures on the background of color. The teacher must

have such information at her fingertips to bring forth when the

occasion calls for it. it may come from a discussion in the

science period, or it may come from some natural phenomenon,

A third grade child called out, "Look, i have a rainbow on my

desk.” The children crowded around. The source was discovered

in the sun shining through a glass vase on the window sill.

The children tried putting all different sorts of surfaces on

the aesk to see what would happen to the colors. They tried

white paper, black paper, gray cardboard, a clean handkerchief,

a dusty duster, a dark blue wool coat, a light blue silk scarf,

and even their own hands. A cloud passed over the sun and the

lesson was soon over, it was not a lesson that ever showed on

the teacher's plan book, but it was a real experience in color

background for those children.

When the social studies book introduces the Cave Men, the

Bsyptians or the Babylonians it probably will not mention much

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23

about color, but the teacher with under-

standing can expand upon the subject. When

a little fourth grade girl came tugging a

volume of an encyclopedia from home,

opened it on the teacher -s desk and point-

ing to an illustration of Egyptian art said

’’Look at them. I’ll bet they had as much fun

with color as we do"; she was really having as

much of an experience with color as she was with

social studies.

Part II

Techniques

There is some divergence of opinion as to how color should

be presented to children. Victor Lowenfeld^ feels that it

should be entirely and completely an exploratory experience on

2the part of the child. On the other hand Harold Gregg would

point out color to the child, and help them to discover differ-

ent ways of mixing the colors to reproduce what they see in

their environment. He would even go so far as to teach warm

and cool colors, and how to find opposite colors on the color

circle. He would not however use formal color charts.

The old fashioned color chart seems to have completely

disappeared from the elementary school. However the teacher

must have the knowledge to explain a chart to an older child

1. Creative and Mental Growth, Victor Lowenfeld, page 62

2. Art for the School of America, Harold Gregg, pages 75-77

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24

if he should ask questions about it.

The best method with very little

children is to give them a few colors and

let them experiment. We have to realize

that part of these small (childreEi’s

pleasure lies in the mere mechanics of

dipping the brush in the paint and transferr

it to the paper.

An easy method of introducing color to three

year olds is to use powder paint, mix it fairly thickly^

and put it in baby-food jars. The shape of these jars is'

such that if they are filled only about one third full, they do

not spill easily even if the child tips them over. Also the

jars are small enough that the child can hold them in one hand

while he paints with the other. It is best to use just red,

yellow and blue paint with these little people, and have only

as many jars as there are children. Then, if a child has red

paint and decides that he wants blue, he exchanges with a child

who has blue and wants red. Each jar has a large, inexpensive,

stiff-bristled brush that goes with it. It is interesting to

see that even very young children will see that the red brush

stays with the red paint and the blue brush stays with the blue

paint. This is also an excellent time to start to teach respect

for other peoples* property. When one three year old was told

he might exchange with another, he said, "If he wants to,"

1. See color chart in illustration, Figure 1

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25

This method works very smoothly when

there is only one teacher. If the teacher

has an assistant, extra paint may he kept

on the table and the children exchange

there, under supervision, instead of

with each other. There is no real

advantage to this second system.

The four and five year olds are capable

of handling more than one jar of paint and keep

the brushes separate. it is still best to have a

brush for each jar of paint and not attempt any washing

of brushes between colors. The teacher may give the child

different combinations of colors in his jars of paint, to en-

rich his experience, but there will still be very little con-

scious use of color. During this period the child may begin

to tell a story as he paihts, but at first his colors and forms

will have very little connection with what he is saying as far

as the average adult can see. However toward the end of this

period there will begin to be a slight color connection. He

will use red and yellow and say, ”This is a fire." It is too

bad if an unimaginative adult offers adverse criticism at this

time, and attempts to teach him the proper colors to use.

This robs the child of some of his discovery experiences.

If the child has had these informal color experiences be-

fore he enters the first grade, he is then ready for some con-

scious color work. If he has not had this experience, it is

best to give him the opportunity. He usually will not stay

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26

in this phase very long and may reject it

entirely.

The child in the first grade should know

the names of all the colors. The next step^

is to discover how to mix colors. "Can

you find any way to make green?" The chil

who has used paint freely will usually have

noticed this before, but now is the time to make'"^

him use it. "See how many different kinds of green

you can make." "What other pretty, new colors can

make ?

"

At this period the child's pictures begin to take quite

recognizable form rather rapidly and the colors begin to fall

into the right places. if he is helped to become aware of the

color in his environment, his summer trees begin to be green,

his fall trees red and orange, and his winter trees bare and

dark. If the child has had sufficient experience with the

handling and mixing of color first, he now has only the tech-

nique of representation to handle.I

'I

i!

From this point on there is very little change in the

actual teaching method as far as color is concerned, until the

more technical use of color comes, probably in high school.

However the teacher should have a good knowledge of the more

technical side of mixing colors so that she can help who has

not had sufficient experience and continues to get nothing but :

muddy colors. See the color charts at the end of this chapter.'

These charts are for teachers* use only,

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27

Poster and tempera colors are best

for the lower grade children. Urayons

should be introduced when the child begins

to be concerned with representation.

Transparent water color is more difficult

to handle and cannot be used with very-

great success below the third grade. Some

fifth and sixth grade pupils are capable of

using oil colors but usually the expense is pro-

hibitive. Large brushes as possible should always

be used.

Part III

Experiences with Children

A first grade was having its first conscious experience

with color. They were using large crayons, and blending one on

top of another trying to get different colors. They were very

much excited and kept showing their "new colors" with great

enthusiasm. There was one small boy in the group who definite-|

ly did not like school. His heme was on a lighthouse, and now

he had to leave his parents and board on the mainland. He was

the youngest of a large family and had been the only one at

home with his mother for a few years. He felt strange and

lonely and was not going to enjoy any part of school if he

could help it. During this lesson he was very belligerently

scrubbing one color on top of another. Suddenly the expression

on his face changed, and he called out, "Heyl I*ve made the

^most beautiful black." The colors had interested him in spitei

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28

of himself and he went on with the lesson

quite cheerfully.

A few sixth graders were staying after

school to finish some posters they were

making. One boy said, "I*m almost

finished; i just have to make some light

blue and i*ll be done,” One of the girls

spoke up, ”I have some of the most beautiful

blue you can use. I mixed it this morning and ^

didn't need it. It is so pretty that I have been

putting it on little pieces of paper all day, just to

look at it.” This is true color appreciation.

A girl*s club group elected to have a craft program.

These girls all came from a rather meager art background, and

therefore when they began to make their designs, it was the

first time they had ever used poster paints. They became

completely fascinated with color. It was difficult to get thenj

to attempt any designs as all they wanted to do was mix colors.

As the Christmas season was near, it was suggested that they

make gift boxes. Smooth substantial cardboard boxes were

painted with simple abstract designs using the lovely colors

the girls had mixed. Some of the smaller boxes were used for

packing Ch-ristmas gifts, and other by adding little sections

could be used to keep things neat in bureau drawers. The

colors in these boxes were unbelievably lovely, and seemed much|

more sophisticated than might usually be expected from girls

their age.

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31

’’Design is the arrangement of

which make up the plan of a work c

regard to the proportions, structn

beauty of line, of the whole. A d

Background

CHAPTER IV

Fart 1

Design

istic or wholly the abstract conception of the artist. A I

design may be successful which is incorrect in every detail of

anatomy.

”

”It is interesting that in certain areas only a certain

number of designs are possible and man has hit upon them in

every part of the world without communication. Scientists

have tried to prove the common origin of the race because of

the universal use of the swastika.”^

Design is a natural and universal expression with children

If their instinctive representation is not frustrated by ad-

verse criticism or unimaginative teaching, children handle

colors, shapes and lines in a way that denies imitation. This

does not mean that the teacher is not necessary; it does mean

that the teacher must encourage, admire and through clever

teaching and kindly criticism lead the child to repeat happy

Part II

Techniques

1. Encyclopedia Britannic

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successes, and adventure into new

design experiences. The teacher needs

to provide the child with new experienceT7

introduce him to new textures, and awaken him"

to an awareness of his environment.

A completely uninhibited child will not hesitats

to draw abstractions. A four year old boy was observec|

using a new big paint brush. He was making a fascinat-

ing border of wavy lines along the bottom of his paper.

"I'm so happy, these are the shivers coming out," he said.

it is surprising how quickly a small child will acquire

inhibitions in expressing himself. An adult in an attempt to

entertain him will show him an easy way to draw some animal

by using certain prescribed lines. From here, it is but one

obvious step for the child to assume that there is a certain

prescribed way to draw everything. He will wait to be shown

how to draw everything, and will do less and less creative

work himself.

As most adults have quite fixed inhibition, and far too

many children have acquired them before they enter school,

there does have to be some definite plan to help reacquire as

much of this natural sense of design as possible. There are

many entrances to design.

One method is to use squares, circles and triangles and

see how many arrangements they can make. Vary the size, the

color; make them near, far and touching. Combine them with

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33

different kinds of lines, thick,

thin, horizontal, vertical, slanting

and curved. Then try to derive forms —

«

from these shapes, a house, a tree, a cat, a;

elephant.

A different scheme is to take a color,

a scribble with it; just a slow line that gO'

and add another color that the first color wi

have with it. Make some parts of these lines thick or solid.

These scribbles should be done large, and usually result in

very beautiful abstract designs.

Sometimes it helps to change the medium in which the group

is working. Paper folding and cutting will almost always re-

sult in enthusiasm and fascinating designs. Thin paper such as

old newspaper may be used but the scissors should be of good

quality and pointed. Try as many different folds as possible.

Boys are sometimes fascinated by trying to make nine or seven

fold designs. The mechanical difficulty of it interests them.

The next important element in design is learning to repeat

it. It is always a disciplined freedom in art. The child has

had complete freedom in creating his design but it must be re-

peated in a precise and orderly way to be attractive. If a

design is repeated in a straight line, it makes a border. If

it is repeated both vertically and horizontally, it becomes

an all-over pattern. Designs can be repeated with various

you feel as if your hand would like to go.

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34

alternations and vertical drops.

These will be illustrated at the end

of the chapter.

One scheme to keep the children in the

upper elementary grades from copying each other ^is to have a copyright book. When a child makes a

very good design, he copies it in the copyright book,

and then no other child may make one like it. This

appeals to them as fun and makes them work a little harder

to get a design in the book. Care must be taken that the bool!

does not become an end purpose, and all designs should be used

in some craft problem.

Part III

Experience

A craft interest group in a Y.W.C.A. made their own

designs for their craft projects. Many of these girls were

I*

quite able, but some of them always produced the inevitable

little lazy-daisy flowers that usually come forth from some

inhibited member of a group. Therefore we decided that we

would take fifteen minutes at the beginning of each lesson to

work on new designs. We worked in finger paint, poster paint,

||

cut paper and even twisted wire. The girls saved their designs|i

I

and usually had one ready when they started a new project,

ij There was one very large colored girl in the group. She

jj

came from a very understanding family with more than average

I

financial means and therefore had had many advantages. However

|, she resented being large. Whenever she made a design it was

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35

always so tiny that it was

practically lost when it was executed.

Finally through the scribble method

she produced a large design. This was

worked out in block print and made a very

attractive wall hanging for her room. When it was

finished she looked at it with pride and said, "I'll

never make small things again." It was said with great'

feeling and one- was quite sure that she had begun to

accept herself.

i

39

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47

CHAPTER V

Blockprinting

Part I

Background

"Just where or when blockprinting originated is not known

However it has been quite definitely established that the

Egyptians used the process thousands of years before Christ;

that the Chinese used it shortly after paper was invented, and

that they passed their knowledge on to the Japanese who in

their more cultural y<5ars developed it skillfully until it be-

came their national mode of engraving.^

Blockprinting on textile may have come from the Chinese,

but probably the Egyptians had an earlier knowledge, and India

undoubtedly made the first hand blocks. England used block-

printing for books in the fifthteenth century, but it was nqt

until the latter half of the seventeenth century that ^2

textile printing was used to any great extent.

Blockprinting is so very old that the records

are not clear as to where it was originated. How-

ever the craftsmanship and beautifully imagina-

tive and inventive designs make the remnants

we have of this early work museum pieces as

much for their art quality as for

their antiquity.

1. Elsie Duncan, School ArtMagazine , May 1^40, page”"b06

2. Encyclopedia Britannica, page

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Part II

Techniques

Blockprinting introduces one of the most basic processes,j

There is an intrinsic fascination in watching repetition.

Observe a very small child make his finger prints over and over

again. Even a simple unit when repeated with taste and pre-

cision may become an interesting pattern. The understanding of

the basic printing process is fundamental enough for a first

grade child to understand, yet it may lead to a very precise

and intricate profession.

A child's first experience with printing may oe quite

simple and direct. This may oe done through the medium of the

potato print. Materials needed: raw potato; paring knife;

block printing tool, Xacto knife, or inverted penpoint ;( choose

the tool in accordance with the child's age and muscular

development); brush; poster paint, or oil paint; paper; ^old newspapers.

Procedure: 1. Gut potato in half

2. With tool cut, gouge, or scrape

design from the potato. The

children will soon observe that

the part you leave will print,

and the part you cut aw

will not print.

Perfectly

good patterns may

- ^ be made by

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49

printing either the background or the design.

3. If the first attempts at design are not

satisfying they may be sliced off and started

over again.

4. Make a pad at least an inch thick of old neiss-

papers. Place a clean piece of paper on top.

5. With the brush apply the paint to the raised

surface of the potato.

6. Place the potato, paint side down, on the paper

and press firmly.

7. Repeat the design in an orderly manner on the

paper.

There are two elements to watch which will determine the

artistic success of the print. First, it is better if the

child can be encouraged to design directly on the potato, and

keep the design simple. The other element is that of

order. Some children have a natural sense of order

and will only need a few suggestions. Other chil-

dren will slap the print dom hit or miss anywhere

all over the paper. These children need to be

led to see the beauty in order. One method is

to fold the paper into sections and print a

design in each section. Then the,

can experiment with trying

grouping it in different

ways, or reversing in alternation.

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50

This is the beginning of registering the print which is of

course the most important part of printing.

Eraser prints.

These are done much the same as potato prints except that

it is adapted to older children.

Materials: Large soap erasers; Xacto knife; printer’s ink;

paper; old newspapers.

Procedure; 1, Make design on eraser; it may be painted on with

India ink, or it is better if it is cut directly.

These designs will tend to be more geometric, due

to the definite shape and size.

2. Cut away the unwanted part with the Xacto knife.

3. Roll the printers ink on a glass slab, and

either apply the ink with a brayer or tap the

eraser on the ink until the printing surface

is covered.

4. Make paper pad and arrange papers as

for potato print. i

5. Place eraser on paper and press

firmly.

This is particularly well suited for arrang-

ing in a checkerboard pattern. It has the

advantage over the potato print

in that it can be used on a

textile

.

.V

: -if t'.'

Block printing with linoleiim.

This is the more advanced way of printing and is the one

used by professionals. This is better suited to the older

pupils, but can be used by slightly younger pupils than are

sometimes allowed to use this medium. Children of seven or

eight have made quite charming and naive prints. This does not

mean that it could be handled successfully by all children this

age in a classroom situation. It depends far more on the

child’s muscular development and experience than his age or

grade level.

Many teachers hesitate to allow children to use the sharp

tools necessary for this work. However, from experience, there

are really fewer accidents with children, who are well taught,

than there are with adults who are not used to using tools.

A blockprinting tool must always be pushed away from the l

body. It is easy to see that if the hand not using the ^tool is in the way of the sharp tool an accident is

sure to result. If the hand not using the tool is

always used to cushion the wrist of the hand using

the tool, it is impossible to have an accident.

When the child is starting this craft, it

should be done under very close supervision

of the teacher until this working

position is firmly established.

The child will need to be

reminded a few times, '’Keep the hand

Boston UnKwrttySchool of Education

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behind the blade". After a few repetitions the habit is

established. The important thing is to do this calmly and

with a light touch so that the process will still be fun.

The most creative beginning procedure is to just let the

child draw or scribble directly on the linoleum with his tool.

If an all over print is the desired outcome, then definite

repeat lines may be set up where the motif must begin and end.

Just the difference in the width of the tools will offer

interesting texture and will lead to an interesting pattern.

It must be kept in mind that in this process we have to

deal with positive and negative.. The child may understand

this if he just sees that his design turns over. About the

time this is very important is when lettering is involved in

the design. The best way to do a lettering problem is to

have the child make his design of lettering on a piece of

paper. Then place a piece of carbon paper, face up,

under the design. Go over your design. It will come

out backwards on the reverse side of the original

paper. Now place this paper reverse side up, on

a piece of carbon paper and then on the linoleum

and trace through. The lettering should

appear backwards on the linoleum.

As most ordinary linoleum

is brown a white carbon should

be used, or the linoleum

may be painted with a thin

_fioat of white post

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It is possible to purchase mounted white linoleum fairly

inexpensively. Try to cut the block smoothly. Do not cut too

deep and be sure ttere are no imdercuts.

The most direct method of printing is to build up a pad of

newspapers on the floor and have the child exert the pressure

by standing on the block. If a single print is to be used,

such as a Christmas card, then a definite place should be

marked on the printing pad for the placement of the paper.

Then there should be some guide markings to help in placing

the block on the paper. In this way an evenly placed design

will result. If the desi^ is to be printed on textile then

the placement should be very carefully estimated before any

blocking is done. Markers for the corners of the block shoul

be arranged on the cloth. These markers may be common pins,

threads or fine string stretched taut on the cloth. .

The important points that will lead to an attrac-

tively finished print are: 1. A simple Jesi gh-

2. A carefully cut block. 2. Precise registering.

As to tools, if the strong professiional

ones can be purchased, it is a help as they are Cvery lasting - veiners, gouges, and a chisel

are excellent to have in stock. Boys will

do beautiful cutting with their

own knives or safety razor blade

and some direction. Old ^pens can be used for gouges

by reversing them in

1

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54

their holders and shaping the blunt ends slightly. A four-inch

piece of an old umbrella rib (pushed into a wooden handle) can

be used for a veiner.^

Part III

Experience

A group of girls from the third and through the sixth

grades thought they would like to spend part of their special

interest time during a vacation school program working on

block prints. This was an informal group of about thirty girls

As a group their art experience had been quite limited, but

they were active and enthusiastic.

As the craft was entirely new to most of them, we started

at the very beginning. The tools were introduced and explained

very carefully. It was pointed out that the tools had to be

very sharp to cut through the linoleum smoothly. Then they

examined the linoleum and compared it with the texture

of their own hands. They decided that their hands

would cut much more easily than the linoleum, and

it was quite clear to them that their hands were

to be kept out of the way of the blade. They

then discussed designs and what they would ^ ?

like to make.

As we had been given some square

1. Linoleum Block Printing,Alice S. Bishop, SchoolArts Magazine ,Dec^ T9T6,page 144

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The girls used large crayons, hut their designs were not too

free at first. The next day we tried cut paper and these were

j

fairly successful although a little geometric. We than went

back to crayon design and with the experience of paper cutting

fresh in their minds, the results were quite good. By the end

of the second period, most of the girls had their designs

traced on their blocks. As our linoleum was brown, we used a

bright yellow carbon paper. As the girls began to cut and

print their own aesigns they began to get the feel of the craft

Most of these were single paper prints, such as stationery

headings or note paper covers. When they uame to their second

designs they were ready to work directly on the block, and

let the medium dictate the trend of the design. Their

patterns improved and some of their prints were quite out-

standing. »

These second designs were printed on textiles

using repeats. Their projects were quite success-

ful as well as ambitious. They made skirts.

aprons, kerchiefs, place mats and napkins, and

Just where the idea came from first no one

was quite sure, but suddenly

bags were quite the thing to

have. They made them to

use for dancing slippers.

one unexpected article, draw-string bags.

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bathing suits or as small pocketbooks. The leader was able to

get a piece of heaven blue duck that had been incorrectly dyed.

Half of it was dark blue and the other half was light blue.

V/e cut the bags so that the division came in the middle

horizontally. By having the darker blue plain at the top, and

the lighter blue printed in dark blue at the bottom, a very

pleasing result was achieved. Rings were attached to the top

and cords were woven to draw them up. As most of them were

used as beach bags, the design motif was marine in most cases.

The finished bags would have done credit to much more mature

craftsmen.

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CHAPTER VI

Stencil

Part I

Background

The discovery of stencil printing, we may say, was almost

inevitable; holes caused by insects’ boring through leaves may

have suggested the stencil method to primitive man. A study of

the early history of the Fiji Islands brings to light one of

the first uses made of the stencil method in printing textiles.

The islanders made stencils by cutting perforations in banana

leaves and then applying vegetable dyes through these openings

onto bark cloth. As civilization progressed, those interested

in spreading religious dogmas employed the stencil for quantity

printing of all sorts of religious pictures and psalms. The

teachings of Buddha were thus spread with stenciled image|

prints. When the Japanese adapted stenciling to their own

uses for robes and decorative backgrounds, they improved it a

good deal. It is difficult to comprehend how the Japanese,

even with their skill and patience, could cut stencils so

uncannily and with such fine detail. Their stencils were

cut from specially treated paper and waterproofed to

make them impervious to dyes. The Japanese

craftsman cut his stencils in duplicate

sheets of thin paper. The centers or

loose parts of the stencil were held

in permanent suspension by ties of

superfine strands of raw silk

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or human hair glued to the centers and to the stencil paper.

Stencil craft thrived even during the dark period of the

Middle Ages. The closer communication and understanding be-

tween the East and West as a result of conquests and crusades

spread the art of stenciling through Europe, from Germany to

Spain, Italy and France.^

Mr. Biegeleisen goes on to tell wallpaper was stenciled

I

in England in the seventeenth century, and by 1797 the stencil

was being used extensively in New England.

"The idea of using a silk fabric as a screen or ground to

hold a tieless stencil is generally credited to Samuel Simon of

Manchester who was granted a silk screen process patent in

England in 1907."^

Part II

Technique

The application of the stencil is one of the most simple

and functional decorations we have at our disposal. When a

child cuts a hole in a piece of paper, he has made a stencil,

and that is all it is necessary for a small child to do. \

Little children love to fold a piece of paper and cut a

snape from it. There is an element of surprise in

the way the design will look when the paper

is unfolded. The thinking child will soon

or

1. Silk Screen Stenciling as a Fine ArtjJ. I .Biegeleisen and Max Arthur GoJMcGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc. ,N .Y. 1942Pages 7-9

2. Silk Screen Stenciling as aFine Art, page 10

•> •> •> >

learn to control the shape of the hole he cuts out, and try toj

prophesy how the design will look when he opens it. By simply

placing these cut paper designs on another piece of paper and

filling in the holes with crayons, the child finds he has re-

produced his design on the second paper. He can then go on and

repeat his design in a border or an all over pattern.

For the older child the process is only slightly more

complicated, but to make an involved print the process does

demand precision.

Any type of design or picture can be reproduced in this

way. Very attractive stencils can be made using these chil-

dren’s informal drawings as patterns. Supposing a child made

a drawing of a little girl and a cat. The cat, girl’s hair,

shoes and belt are brown. The girl’s sweater, sox, hair ribbon

and cat’s collar are red. The girl’s skirt and some grass

are green. To reproduce this picture, a piece of tracing

paper would be placed over the drawing and all the brown

items would be traced on that paper. Then another piece of

stencil paper exactly the same size would be placed on the

drawing in the same position; this time the red items

would be traced on the stencil paper. Then

another identical stencil paper would be

used to trace off the green items. To

print, the brown stencil would be placed

in position, and the position marked,

then the opening in the stencil

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would be filled in with brown. The red stencil would be placed

according to the marks made for the brown cstencil, and the

openings filled in with red. Lastly the green stencil would

be placed in the same position and filled in with green. If

this is done carefully the result will be a duplicate of the

first drawing, which can now be reproduced as many times as

desired until the stencil wears out.

The materials are quite simple; stencil paper is quite

inexpensive, but a heavy bond paper may be painted over with

turpentine and used, or some of the smooth cardboards such as

cereal boxes are made from may be used, ^n Xacto knife has

been found to be best, but other tools may be substituted.

Textile paint or crayon may be used. It is wise to purchase a

good quality stencil brush in a large size. Be sure the brush

is always left clean at the time you finish using it. It may

look as if you scrub it just as clean the next day, but your

brush will not last as long. Always be sure you have some

cleaner that goes with the paint on hand. A good rule to

follow is that the medium that is used to mix the paint willi

clean it.

The process of cutting is

printing. In this case the kn

toward the body, and the hand

the knife is kept farther away

the body than the hand holding

knife. If this hand is always

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used to hold to stencil at the top, it is kept out of the way|

of the blade. The teacher should watch the child very care-;

fully until the correct position is well established. !

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stencil and blot. The openings may be filled in solid or by !l

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making one side darker it may be shaded. The more practice,ij

the more beautiful the results. The applications and variation!;

of this craft are numberless.

Part III

Experience

A small group of children in a housing project group had

a few lessons in stencil. Most of the group were experienced

in craft work and picked up the stencil method quite readily.

One girl made a whole kerchief as her very first experience.

The boys used lacquer and applied theirs to wooden footstools.

In the group there was one little girl who did seem to be all

thumbs. Her mother said she was hopeless, and would never

be able to draw. True, when she attempted to draw a design,

the result was rather dismal. However it was noticed that

she looked with longing at the stencil knives. It was

suggested that she might like to draw directly

with the knife. She brightened immediate-

ly and proceeded to make a quite charm-

ing house. She added trees and

flowers very easily, and when her

mother stoDOed in to see how"

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she was getting along, she was busy applying her design to a

bib for her baby sister. "Look, mummie , I can draw with a

knife", she said. This is a very easy medium with which to

give a child confidence.

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CHAPTER VII

Bookbinding

Part I

Background

Bookbinding began in the Christian era when writing changed

from the continuous roll to a volume made up of separate sheets]

Early books were made up of single sheets of vellum folded oncej

I

and collected into sections of convenient size; the leaves were|

held together by sewing through a central fold. The sections ’

were held in right order by sewing them to flexible bands.

These early books were kept flat by placing them between boards^

Soon it was found more convenient to fasten these boards to the J

I;

binding. Later these books were decorated. In the early days

they were made very beautiful with rich ornamentation and*

amount of

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good functional precision. The parts must fit, to hold to-

gether, and the two covers must be alike if the finished

product is to be usable and attractive.

These are limits as to how far an elementarj child can go

in this craft, but they can do a very creditable job with a

loose leaf folder even before they are very proficient with a

ruler.

The materials required to make such a notebook are:

decorated papers (finger paint, block print, stencil, marbled

or crackled papers) vellum straight edge, scissors, paste

brush and paste, i^uch of the success of the article depends

upon the paste. The very best is made by the group, so that

it will be fairly fresh each time. If there are not the

facilities, then a good quality library paste may be used. It

must be a thin paste. Wallpaper paste may be used as a last

resort. Procedure: 1. Decide on the size of the book

and cut two covers from cardboard, cutting them

quarter inch narrower than you wish the finished

book to be. 2. Cut a strip about one inch

wide from the binding edge . This is

make the binding and the

hinge so the proportion

can be judged

according^

3. Fold^

a piece of

newspaper

,

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73

and place the narrow strip of cardboard against the fold.

Allow about three quarters of an inch at the top, bottom and

side and cut the newspaper, 4. Open this piece of newspaper

and slash from the top and bottom down as far as the cardboard,

5. On the left side cut from the side to the lower end of the

top slash starting about one quarter inch below the bottom of

the slash and slanting upwards. 6. On the right side of the

slash cut from the bottom of the slash to the top slanting out

about one quarter of an inch. This cuts out a small triangle;[

cut a reverse of this triangle from the top right corner.

7. Fold this top section down and use it as a pattern to cut

I the bottom exactly like it. (Follow the diagram in the illus-

trations at the end of this chapter.) 8. From the vellum cut

two pieces like the pattern just made. 9. Cut a piece of the

decorated paper one inch larger than the cardboard on the

[

top, bottom and one side, then make another just like it.

10. Cover one of the pieces of cardboard smoothly

with paste, and quickly place the cardboeard, paste

side, against the wrong side of the pape]

so that the cardboard projects about

I

quarter inch on one side,'

and the paper projects

,beyond the card-

board

on the

jother three

sides,

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74

with the space evenly divided between the top and bottom,

(See diagram) 11. Put paste on the top and bottom corners of

the projecting paper and fold them back onto the cardboard,

making a right angle. 12. Put paste on the edges and fold

those back also; use a straight edge to help in the folding so

that the edges will be clean cut. Be sure all the pasting is

absolutely smooth. 13. Now put paste on the narrow strip of

cardboard, and place it on the vellinn so that it rests against

where the fold was in the newspaper pattern, and extends onto

the side with the tabs projecting vertically (see diagram).

14. Put paste on the narrow strip of vellum projecting beyond

the cardboard. 15. Place the paper covered cardboard, wrong

side up, on this pasted area allowing about one quarter inch

space between the two cardboards to make the hinge. 16. Put

paste on the top and bottom tabs and fold them back onto the

cardboard. 17. Put paste on the large vellum projection

on the side and fold that back on the cardboard.

18. Press down firmly into the space between tl

cardboards from both sides so that a strong

hinge is formed. 19, Cut a piece of

lining paper one half incl

smaller than the larger

cardboard, and past^

this

evenly over

the wrong side

of the cardboard

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to make an attractive lining. 20. Place the finished cover

in a press, and leave it at least forty-ei^t hours. 21. Make

another the exact reverse of this for the back.

To assemble book: 1* Cut the pages about one half inch

smaller than the cover. 2. Punch the pages and the bindings

with an uneven number of holes, usually three. 3, Run a piece

of cord down through the covers and the pages, in order, using

the middle hole, come up through the bottom hole, go down again

through the top hole and up again through the second hole.

4. Tie the ends allowing it to be loose enough to open easily.

If any illustrations are to be pasted in the book, be sure that

a correspondingly thick piece of paper is laced into the bind-

>i| ing so that the book will not spread (see binding of this paper]

Part III

Experience

When a councillor plans for a sximmer camp progr

she must have many types of crafts ready for when th

need arises. There is no real prediction as to what

will prove most popular with the cappe

One year at a certain camp the interes

was bookbinding. It may

have started with an

enthusiasm for auto-

graph

books , but

the need for

novof- axUr " '

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all kinds of books soon arose, rule books for camp games,

favorite recipes from camp meals, story books from the creative

writing group, song books and others.

A loose leaf note book type of binding was used. The

girls planned the dimensions that would be most functional for

each use. All types of decorated papers were used. One day

an exhibition of all the books was arranged on the porch and

the results were amazing as to quantity, quality and variety.

One evening the craft councillor was surprised to see the

workshop lighted during evening program. Investigation re-

vealed two campers doing a little craft work on their own.

They were the type of camper every councillor knows; first on

the diving board, first to sign up for the tennis tournament,

a good sport on an over-night hike, but never seen at a "sissy”

activity like crafts.

However they wanted books so they just thought

would make them. As they had never been in the worl

shop, they didn't know where anything was. By usin^

up as much material as might have been

to make twenty books, they achieved a

surprisingly fair book,

considering the complete

lack of preciseness.

The

finishing

touch came

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I

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. aaenaaxj/^'xq lo zIobI.

when they decided to paint designs on the covers. Knowing

nothing about paints, they got out textile paints and soft

camel’s hair brushes. Anyone who has used these knows that

they were not able to do much painting; however they did geti

results. As well as being one of the most insidious paints,

their prime asset is that they are absolutely indelible.

Seeing some of their difficulty, one of them went into the

photography dark room to try to scrub it off with cold water,

and managed to smear the equipm.ent quite well. The other

attempted to wipe it up with someone’s luncheon cloth that was

drying. When the councillor arrived, they were quite disturbed

and very much relieved to see anyone. During quite some time

spent in scrubbing they learned much of the properties of

different types of paint.

The morale of this camp was such that they did come into*

the workshop’s group not because they were told to, but mbecause they did want books and they had discovered

it was b(

TV • I !/•

; m.-'r

:-,niwon> .aievoo erij n-? Gnn.c'n>f> .tfiL,.-T >* ‘

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Making brnding joattern_

80

81

||

CHAPTER VI

Puppets

Part I

Background

Puppets are a very old craft

They were one of the earliest

forms of entertainment. The earlies

form probably may have come from the

Jarvanese carved puppets and shadow

plays. The Chinese also made shadow

plays using puppets constructed cleverly from'

colored transparent Water Buffalo skin. Another form

used in early times in the eastern countries were the stick

puppets. They were much larger than the puppets as we know then)

today, and were manipulated by means of sticks attached to their

arms and legs.

The portable theater was one of the more popular forms of

amusement during the Middle Ages. The lords of the manor often

had their own puppeteers as well as the wandering artists.

The traditional form with which we are more familiar is

the Punch and Judy show and its French counterpart. The puppet

Theater has long been a source of amusement as well as a tradi-

tional craft, displaying great skill. The "Little People" and

their theater were often handed down from father to son, and

their arrival was looked forward to as an annual event in many

small country villages.

t

«»Tr-

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.njaij-a^ ^ni'idtf.cw ee && H'Xa^Jaqqjjq iv/o liad# tro'

si ‘i^xlxia'i o'rxg 0*ia sir Hoxiia friCl I snoXv?xI,ii*x? €nT

r^eqoi' :>HT . ^•^q'tdjnijor *i'T f>nn «'0-:'r *:bx;'C bnr iloiui l cr-^i

Part II

Technique

Puppets introduce a slightly

different aspect of crafts. They

are three dimensional and offer

great opportunity for correla-

tion with other school subjects.

They are made from very inexpensive

materials, and except that they do

make some rather interesting clutter

in the room they can be carried on in a

situation that has very few craft facilities. Also I

there are no sharp tools or anything that demands super- *

vision for safety, so they are a craft that can be done when

the children have to work independently.

The materials needed are; sawdust, cardboard, cloth for

clothes, and some plain cloth such as an old sheet for the neck

hair material such as fur, yarn or crepe hair, and paste made

by this recipe:

1 cup flour6 cups water1 tbls. powdered alumFew drops of formaldehyde, oil of wintergreen,or any preservative. If the children are smallenough to put their hands in their mouth, theformaldehyde should not be used.

Mix the flour, alum and water until smooth.Place over heat and cook until the consistencyof thick cream, stirring constantly. Cool andadd the preservative.

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Cut a piece of card-

board about eight

inches long and the width

of the child’s index

finger

.

Roll this cardboard

around the index finger

tie with string or narrow

strip of the cloth.

Cut a piece of cloth about

eight inches wide and eleven

inches long.|

Roll this cloth the long way and slip it through

the cylinder of cardboard.

Turh the end of the piece of cloth back until it

covers the cardboard, and arrange it carefully so that

it completely covers the cardboard neatly. (See illus-

tration)

Roll up the long end of the cloth so that it makes a

thick roll at the base of the cylinder. (See illus-

tration)

Sew this roll down neatly.

Make a piece of cloth about eight inches square into a

wad, and sew it to the opening in the cylinder oppo-

site to the end with roll. This may be fastened down

with a long strip of cloth rather than sewing.

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To make Head:

1. Smear the neck

liberally with paste.

2. Mix sawdust and the paste

together until the mixture

is firm enough to hold

its shape but so dry

it will crack.

5. Make a ball of the sawdus

about the size of your fist

4. Force this ball down onto the

cylinder, being sure to leave the roll at

the bottom free. It is much better if two I

people do this, one to hold the neck and the other to

push the sawdust down.

5. The general shape of the head is egg shaped. It should

be placed on the neck so that the small end of the egg

forms the chin.

6. Model the features. The first instinctive method is

to poke holes into the sawdust for the eyes, nose and

mouth. It will have to be pointed out that the nose

is a piece put on, and if they look at eyes carefully,

they will see that they too are not holes. The mouth

can best be made by adding lips. It is a good plan to

give the puppet ears, just in case he does turn out to

be a man and won’t be covered up with hair. The hair

also may^^ h^e modeled on if one wishes.

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7. Let these heads dry

thoroughly.

8. Cut ci*epe paper into

pieces about one half

inch square.

9. Put paste on the puppet’

face and paste on little

pieces of the crepe paper.

Build up about three layers.

If this is done quite wet, the

paper may be smoothed with the

I ifingers and made quite smooth,

.I

10. When this has dried, paint on the face. Match the

flesh color to their hands and remember to blend in

the cheeks.

11. V/hen the paint is thoroughly dry apply an even coat

of shellac.

12. Arrange and glue on the hair.

To make body:

1. Cut a pattern for the body from old newspaper to fit

the child’s hand. Make a neck large enough to fit

over the roll at the bottom of the cardboard neck.

Plan for shoulders and arms. Be sure to make the

sleeve that will fit over the thumb a little lower thaii,

the one that fits over the middle finger. (See illus-

tration)

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2. Make a pattern from

mittens, large enough

to fit over the thumb.

3. Cut the dress from an old

piece of sheeting or some

other soft cloth.

This answers as a foundation

4. Cut fo\ir mittens from a flesh

colored outing flannel or

felt.

5. Sew up both of these.

6. Sew the foundation to the roll at the neck.

7. Sew the mittens to the end of the sleeves.

8. From the colored cloth make any type of costume

desired to make the character needed. It is wise to

make these clothes quite full as the puppets appear

more graceful on the stage.

Manipulat ion

:

The hand is fitted into the puppet so that the index

finger controls the head and the thumb and middle finger make

the arms. The other two fingers curl up to help give body to

the figure. A slight bobbing motion as the puppet moves along

the stage gives the appearance of walking. The puppet should

always enter the stage from the side. Children will sometimes

make them come up from the bottom of the stage which gives a

queer effect. A good rule to follow at first is to only have

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the puppet that is walking,

move. It is best to have the

child who is manipulating the

puppet do the talking.

The most simple stage is a

blanket stretched across the

bottom of a doorway. If a stage

is possible, it is just a three fold \rV

V

screen with the opening for the stage

cut from the middle section. The

addition of curtains adds a great deal

to a performance.

Part III

Experiencej

'j

The puppet experience of a third grade was chosen mostlyI

due to their enthusiasm. This was in a public school with no *

facilities for craft work whatsoever, i

l|

There are two schools of thought as to the procedure of!

I

introducing puppets. One group believes that you select your

play and make just the puppets for that specific play. The

other group believes that you make puppets just because you likei

to make puppets and then use them in any play you wish to. Forj

this group we decided to follow the second point of view.

As this group would only have time to work on the puppets

on Friday afternoons, and the teacher was not going to be able

to give all her time to it then as she would be carrying on

regular classes with the rest of the children, this plan was _

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I

worked out. The teacher gave a

complete demonstration of every

step of making the puppet. Then

all the children all made their

necks at their seats.

On the second week, a table

in the corner had been arranged for

work. A sheet was spread on the floor

and the table was covered with oil-

cloth. A large pan of sawdust mixture

was prepared. The teacher selected twoC>

pupils who were quite skilful with their hands. With |j'

i

all the children watching she helped these two make their

puppet heads. Then they were left in charge of the table and

helped the other children, two at a time, to make their heads.

In this way only four children at a time were working.

The next week the heads that had been made the week before

were dry so the other end of the table was set up for ^plying

,

the bits of crepe paper. There were still some children work-

ing on the heads.

By the third week the first group were ready to paint, so

that material was added to the table. The paper pasting and

the modeling continued. All that had to be added the fourth

week was the shellac. As each child made at least two puppets

this process continued for some time. The sewing of the clotheii

and gluing of the hair could be done at the desks without any

ups et of the neatne ss of the room. . ,

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As usual these puppets

acquired personalities and most

of them were named before they had

left the wet sawdust stage. As

these were unusually imaginative

children, there were always

original plays in process. They

dramatized the stories in their read-

ing books, and any problems that came

up in the room were usually referred to

the puppets. A group would get together and

a play would result. Puppets made suggestions as to

picking up papers in the school yard, finishing work on time

or taking care of pets.

These children's enthusiasm never waned; they were still

asking to do more work with them the next year.

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90

91

r

93

CHAPTER IX

Pottery

Part I

Background\

Pottery is probably our oldest craft. The discovery of

pottery made a real change in the lives of the early men, as it

enabled them to cook and preserve food for the first time,I

Pottery has been a fine art as well as a utilitarian craft.I

I

The Egyptians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Chinese, Greeks and|

Romans in early times, and the English, French and Germans more,:

recently were great artists in the field of pottery, or ceramicjli

I!

as it is more correctly called.

The pieces in our finest museums really tell the story of

civilization. Pottery was used to build their cooking dishes,

adorn their religious temples, and as articles of trade.

The basic understanding for the children to realize

is that pottery is a part of the earth. It must be

dried carefully in the air and then by applying

very great heat it becomes solid. When it

has been fired once it is called biscuit

ware, and it is still porous. The second'

firing is called a glaze firing. Before the

piece goes into the kiln the second time it

is covered with a coating of glaze

Glaze is also a part of the

earth and when it is fired

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it gives a glossy colored finish to the pottery.

Part II

Techniques

The most important beginning for the children as potters

is for them to understand that clay is a part of the earth. !

These basic beginnings can be taught quite easily without tooI

I

much equipment, but when we get past that point, we really do

run into trouble as far as materials are concerned. It is not

just the materials themselves but the care of them that must be

considered. The basic material of course is the clay, but

there must also be large covered tins to store the clay and to

keep the pottery pieces damp while they are being worked on.i

Even when the children keep their clay in a tin can, they should

know what a real clay bin and a damp closet are like. Plaster

for making the bats and the tools are comparatively easy to

obtain. Tools can be made from popsicle sticks, old

dentist's tools, nails, paring knives and small

saw blades. The greatest problem naturally is

the kiln. Some schools have one, but if

not, then the firing will have to be done

outside, which is not so interesting for

the children.

All the children who work on a

I

pottery unit should have theI

opportunity for visiting a

pottery and seeing real

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equipment

.

As far as the actual pottery process is concerned, almost

all the procedures that can be used for adults, can be adapted

for children.

The first experience the children should have is that of

wedging. If a piece of clay is cut on a wire, tiny air holes

can be seen. The children can understand, from their science.

that when the aic gets hot in the kiln, it will expand and make

their piece crack. Therefore the air must be forced out. This

is done by throwing the clay down onto a board, very hard, many

times. If there is no wedging board, a large board on the flooij

protected with newspapers beneath it, will do very well.

To learn the feeling of clay a little modeling of figures

is good. These should not be too large unless they are made

hollow, as they will break in the firing. The children can

experiment to see how hard they have to push, or how

gently they may need to work on it, depending

upon their hands and muscular strength.

Making a piece with coils is a step

which requires a real skill that seems to

be more easily acquired by children then

adults. Start with a ball of clay about

as large as a good sized egg would be, if

it were round. Roll it between

the hands until it looks

like a croquette.

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Then place it on the table or desk covered with a cardboard,

and roll it back and forth gently, gradually stretching it out

like a snake. The hands must be as light as a butterfly or the

coil will not stay round. Roll it until it is about as thick

as your thumb. Roll another ball of clay and flatten it out to

about about one half of an inch thick on a plaster bat. Be

sure it is nice and round and then make little scratches on the

edge with a tool. Moisten the coil and place it on the scratch-

es. With the thumb pull some of the clay from the coil down

and fill in the crack between the coil and the base. Do this

with an up-and-down smoothing motion. Continue to build up the

wall of the piece in this way. Smooth the outside with a saw

blade, first the rough side to take off the big bumps, and then

the straight side to finish it carefully. Scrape the inside

smooth with a spoon. Let dry and fire.

The mold method is another that can be used with

children. First, a solid form is made of the

shape you wish the finished piece to be. A

small simple bowl is best.

‘

Be sure there

are no undercuts. Place this form with the

bottom up in a firm cardboard box slightly

larger than the piece. Mix sufficient

plaster to fill the box. Pour the plas;^

over the form and fill the box.

When the plaster is dry,

tear off the cardboard

and remove the clay form. A hole will be left the shape of theI

clay form. Mix some clay thoroughly with water until it is

like heavy cream. Strain this several times to be sure it is

very smooth. This is called slip. Fill the mold with slip and

let it stand. The plaster will absorb the water from the part

of the slip that touches it. From time to time more slip will

have to be added to keep the mold full, and take the place of

the water that is absorbed. When a thick coating of the slip

II

has formed on the mold, the liquid slip in the center is poured

j

out, thus leaving the middle of the bowl hollow. The clay will

I

shrink as it dries and soon the bowl will be loose enough to

turn out of the mold. Care must be taken to allow the slip to

stay in long enough to make it fairly thick as otherwise it

will warp in drying.

The children should be able to see their pieces packed in

I

the kiln and drawn from the kiln, but

I

possible. Such pieces should be made

' used in the biscuit stage. Glazing i

process with children unless the grop

small and they work in a well equippe

workshop. The biscuit ware may be wa

1 but it is never within the limits of

pottery to use paint on it in place o

glaze.

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Part III

Experience

A fourth grade in a public school v/as chosen because it

illustrates what can be done without equipment. The only real

thing we had to work with was the enthusiasm of the children.

(^uite a bit of time was taken at the beginning to build up

good understandings and to appreciate the real story of pottery

When it came time to introduce the real clay, it was dis-

covered that the children thought it was plastercine. So a

block of work was done to prove that real clay was a part of

the earth and plastercine was not. To the teacher's surprise

the children began to bring in samples of earth that they

thought looked like clay. We approximated the clay refining

process as nearly as we could. We sifted the samples and let

them soak in water and then strained them into plaster. Most

of their samples proved to be just the garden variety

of earth, but some did prove to be fairly work-

able clay. The real thrill came when one of the

other teachers gave them some clay she had

brought from Montecello, It was a beauti-

ful red clay and proved very successful to

use for slip decoration.

Some experiments were conducted to

prove that clay was not plaster-

cine. Three small flower

pots were placed on the

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window sill, one was filled with garden soil, another with

: clay and the third with plaster cine. Beans were planted in all

I three. The beans came up and grew in the first two pots, but

remained hard and dry in the third. Also balls were made of

:both clay and plastercine; one of each was dropped in water.

The clay ball dissolved and became slip; the plastercine

remained unchanged. A ball of each was placed on the window-

sill in the sun; the clay grew hard and dry; the plastercine

became warm and soft.

After they seemed to really understand some of the proper-

ties of clay, it was explained to them that as they did not

' have much to work with, the things would have to be small.

They wedged their clay on a board on newspapers on the floor

and kept their pieces in thin cans to dry slowly. First they

made small figures, then they made small coil pieces. The

ipold process was the most interesting as they came

to having all they needed to work with. They made

little flowerpots and saucers.

It was unfortunate that these children

were not able to visit a pottery, or see

the kiln where their things were fired, but

nevertheless they did get a real understand-

ing of the clay process.

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r

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Art Annual, Art Education Today . New York, Bureau of Publica-tions, Teacher’s College, Columbia University , 1935-1943,

Bane, Charlotte D, , Linoleum Block Printing for Amateurs .

Boston, Mass,, The Beacon Press Inc., 1936.

yBiegeleisen, J.I., Silk Screen Stenc il as a Hobby . New York,

Harper and Brothers Publishers, 1939.

Biegeleisen, J. I., and Cohn, Max Arthur, Silk'

Screen Stencilas a Fine Art . New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company"^ 1949

.

Binns, Charles Fergus, The Potter’s Graft . New York, D. VanNostrand Company, 1922.

Browne, Sybil, Art and Materials for the Schools , New York,Progressive Education Association, 1943.

Cole, Natalie Robinson, The Arts in the Classroom . New York,The John Day Company, 1940.

Corbin, Thomas J. , Hand Block Printing on Fabric . London,Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons Ltd., 1934.

Cox, George J. , Pottery . New York, The Macmillan Company, 1927.

D'Amico, Victor, Creative Teaching in Art. Scranton, Pa.,International Textbook Company, 1942

.

D’Amico, Victor, Theater Art . Peoria, Illinois, The Manual ArtsPress, 1931.

DeSager,Walter A., Making Pottery. London, The Studio Limited,

1943.

Dewey, John, Art as Experience . New York, Minton, Balch andCompany, 1934.

104

Dewey, John, Construction and Criticism . New York, ColumbiaUniversity Press, 1930.

Divine, J. A. F.,and Blackford G. ,

Pottery Craft . London,Frederick Warne and Company LtdTi 1939

.

Duncan, Julia Hamlin, and D’Amico, Victor, How to Make Potteryand Cerami c Sculpture. New York, Simon Schuster, 1^48

.

Faulkner, Ray, Ziegfeld, Edward, and Hill, Gerald, Art Today .

New York, 1941.

Faulkner, Ray and Davis, Helen E. , Teachers Enjoy the Arts .

Washington, D.C., American Council on Educ at ion, T94^.

Gregg, Harold, Art for the Schools of America . Scranton, Pa.

,

International Textbook Company, 1941.

Hoben, Alice, The Beginner's Puppet Book. New York, Barns andNoble, 193BT

Honey, 'William Bowyer, Ceramic Art o f China and Other Countriesof the Near Has t ,

London, Faber and Faber Ltd., 1945,

Johnson, Randolph, The Country Craft Book , Weston, Vt.

,

The Country Man Press Inc., n.d.

Leach, Bernard, A Potter's Book. London, Faber and Faber Ltd.,1944.

Lowenfeld, Viktor, Creative and Mental Growth . New York,The Macmillan Company, 1947,

Major,Charlotte R, , Teaching Art in the Elementary Schools .

New York, Progressive Education Association, 1941,

Mathias, Margaret E.,The Beginnings of Art in the Public

Schools. New York, Charles' Scribner's Sons , 1542.

J

ji! Oi.t '^v. .•x

' b "< •

V,.i

o‘i- O' r : I

'\". o 0 I'/j Ort

- Vf -

s

iC

!f:'. r:'. Lr. t'l ii'ro.'cj,

0 ' \rir. j

t ? tr ( A . 0 i , . {

. 'O; Jl

^ : r‘; ,

’

y * f T"-'

5 <

C

•J'

? • t

1 '1C .

lO

105

Mills, W.W, and Dunn, L.M. ,Marionettes ,

Masks and Shadows .

Garden City, N.Y., Doubleday Doran and Company, 1928.

Moholy, Nagy L. , Vision in Motion . Chicago, Illinois, PaulTheobald Company, 1947.

Parker, Arthur, The Indian How Book . New York, the MacmillanCompany, 1927.

Pearson, Ralph, The New Art Education. New York, Harper Brothers1941.

I Perrine, Van Peering, Let the Children Draw . New York, Frederick|l A. Stokes Company, 193 6.

Perry, Evalna K. , Art Adventures with Discarded Material

s

.

New York, Noble and Noble, Inc. 1935.

Perry, Raymond W.,Block Printing Craft . Peoria, Illinois,

Manual Arts Press, 193S.

Progressive Education Association, The Visual Arts in GeneralEducation . New York, D. Appleton Century Company, 1940

.

Read, Herbert, Education Through Art. London, Faber and Faber,1942.

Schultz, Harold A. and Shores, J. Hanlan, jh*t in ElementarySchools , Vol.46, Number 16, Urbana, Illinois , Universityof Illinois Bulletin, College of Education, n.d.

Shaw, Ruth, Finger Painting . Boston, Mass. Little, Brown andCompany"^ 1934

Stiles, Helen, Pottery of the American Indians . New York,E. P. Dutton and Company, 1939.

Studio Publications Inc., 20th Century Ceramics. New York, 1935.

-

i

106

Tannahill, Sally B.,Fine Arts for Public School Adminis trators i

New York, Teacher's College Bureau of lublications,

1932.

Tomlinson, R, R., Crafts for Children . New York, Studio Pub-lications Inc . , 1935.

Tomlinson, R. R. Picture Making by Children . London, The StudioPublications Inc., 1934.

Viola, Wilhelm, Child Art and Franz Cezik . Vienna, AustrianJunior Red Gross, 1936.

Warren, Francis, The Ragamuffin Marionettes . New York,Houghton, Mifflin Company, 1932.

Weinberg, Louis, Color in Everyday Life. New York, Dodd, Meadand Company, 193S.

Wheeler, Ida, Playing with Clay . New York. The MacmillanCompany, 1927.

Whipple, Guy M. ,Art in American Life and Education . Fortieth

|

Yearbook of the National Study of Education, Bloomington,Illinois, Public Schools Publishing Company, 1941.

Winslow, Leon Loyal, Art in Elementary Bducat ion . New York,McGraw-Hill Book Company^ Inc. , 1942

.

Ziegfield, E.,and Smith, M.E. Art for Daily Living . The Owa-

tonna Art Education Project, Minneapolis, iiinnesota,The University of Minnesota Press, 1944.

107

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Periodicals

Barr, Gertrude, Rhythm and the Child, School Arts ,45:192-5,

February 1945.

Cantroll C. and others. Acquainting the public with its Schools |'

Through its Cultural Aspects, National Elementary Princi-||

pal

,

25:25-7, October 1945. j'

Cueta, Lola and Lago, Robert, Origin and History of Puppetry inMexico, School Arts, 48:311-3, May 1948

deLemos, Pedro, Creative Block Printing, School Arts,44:87-9

November 1947 (Uses Chinese method of application)

Ellison, L.W. Art as Enriched Living in Ereathitt County,Kentucky, Childhood Education, 2:212-7, January 1947.

Gillis, Iris, Creating by Scribbling, School Arts , 44:179-80January 1944 (Good approach but too stilted results)

Green, H.B. Fine Arts; A Nuisance, Educational Forum 11:93-8,November 1946.

Hazel, Irene, Three-dimensional Fun, American Childhood ,

32:8-9, February 1947.

Helms, Grace M., When in Doubt Block Print, School Arts .

44-106-8, November 1944.

Kalb, Dorothy B.,South American Designs, School Arts . 44:35-6,

September 1944.

Malm, M. B. ,Mathematics and Beauty, Chicago School Journal ,

26:77-8, January 1945.

»

Merrick, N.L., Unified Art Experiment, Elementary School Prin-cipal , 52:413-9, September 1944.

106

Otterness, Jume, Learning about Clay, School Arts , 44:222-5,December 1944.

Feck, G. and others Experiment in the Correlation of the Arts,National Elementary Principal

,23:164-73j July 1944.

I

Preston, E.E., Role of the Art Department in the Public Schools,Education, 65:368-73, February.

Randolph, Nell, Hobby Tiles, School Arts , 46:196-7, February,1947. (good except that it suggests not firing the clay)

Sell, Plyrtle E.,Leaves Stimulate Design, School Arts

,45:140-1,'

December 1944.

Smith, J.L., Art is forL^agazine

,

40:24-6,All of Us, National Parent TeacherMarch 1945.

Sutcliff, D. , Art and the Answers, School and Society, 63:283-5,April 20, 1946.

Tiffany, M.B.,Where does Art Begin? Education , 66:364-7,

February 1946.

Tilles, Mae Soloman, Creative Activities in Primary and NurserySchools, School Arts

,46:291-93.

Vaughan, J.,Things Unseen, Teacher * s College Jo-urnal , 17:17,

September 1945.

Wardsworth, Beula M., A Writing Case, School Arts , 45:132-3,

December 1944.

Winks, Lucile, Felt Printing, School Arts 47:102-4, November1947.

J

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