SOLAR SALT WORKS

&

THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE

4TH JUNE 2014 ORGANISED BY EUSALT

Trapani, Sicily

2

European Salt Producers Association (EuSalt)

Proceedings of the International Conference on Solar Salt Works & The Economic Value of Biodiversity

ISSN

Proceedings of the International Conference on Solar Salt Works & The Economic Value of Biodiversity

(2015)

ISBN

Editing: Sandrine Lauret

Publisher: EuSalt

3

Proceedings

Of The

International Conference

On

Solar Salt Works & The Economic Value of Biodiversity

Trapani, Italy

4 June 2014

4

Contents

Preface .............................................................................................................................. 6

Thank you note to our sponsors ....................................................................................... 7

PART I: QUALITY AND THE SPECIFICS OF SALT ................................................................ 8

Biotechnological potential of solar salt works: focus on Squarebop I bacteriorhodopsin Angela Corcelli .............................................................................................................. 9

The presence of the green alga Dunaliella salina in crstallyzer ponds of salinas can appreciably affect the quality of NaCl crystals

Mario Giordano, Filippo Bargnesi, Simona Ratti ........................................................ 13

Microbial biodiversity in Bohai Bay Saltworks, China and their biotechnological utilization

Sui Liying ..................................................................................................................... 22

PART II: SOLAR SALT WORKS DIVERSITY AND DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES ............... 27

An integrated cycle for the production of fresh water, minerals and energy from sea Andrea Cipollina, Giacomo D’Alì Staiti, Giorgio Micale .............................................. 28

Solar Salt Works Integrated Management - SSWIM Ricardo Jorge Dolores Coelho, Mauro Rafael da Cunha Hilário and Duarte Nuno Ramos Duarte ............................................................................................................. 58

Solar salt works implementation in Ribeira de Aljezur, Portugal…………………………………66

Part 1 - An alternative solution for land rehabilitation Ricardo Jorge Dolores Coelho, Mauro Rafael da Cunha Hilário and Duarte Nuno Ramos Duarte ............................................................................................................. 66

Part 2 - Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services Value Mauro Rafael da Cunha Hilário and Ricardo Jorge Dolores Coelho ........................... 80

Thalasso Spa Lepa Vida inside the saltpans: the experience of Sečovlje Neli Glavaš & Nives Kovač ........................................................................................ 107

How do SMEs valorise solar salt works in Spain Katia Hueso ............................................................................................................... 113

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Solar saltworks: A Multi-exploitable and profitable wetland Nikoalos Korovessis, Socrates Pnevmatikatos, Georgios Georgiadis ....................... 127

Integrated salt and brine shrimp Artemia production in artisanal salt works in the Mekong delta in Vietnam: a socio-economic success story as model for other regions in the world

Nguyen Van Hoa and Patrick Sorgeloos ................................................................... 137

Peixe Rei Solar Salt Works Project: Ecotourism and Tourism Experience as Complementary Activities

Ricardo Jorge Dolores Coelho and Mauro Rafael da Cunha Hilário, Filipe José Nascimento Silva and Sandra Margarida Duarte Silva ............................................ 145

Biodiversity as a source of innovation and development: the Trapani and Marsala salt works

Andrea Santulli ......................................................................................................... 187

Turning ecological management into economic value: The case of the Aigues-Mortes salt-marshes, Camargue, France

Sonia Séjourné .......................................................................................................... 209

Saltworks management: A productive activity generating, supporting and protecting biodiversity

Ciro Zeno ................................................................................................................... 232

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PREFACE

The international community is becoming increasingly aware of the dangers associated with the degradation of biodiversity and ecosystem services. Such realisation has reached the point where the various actors concerned – governments, businesses, NGOs, and local communities – are willing and committed to join action in view of preserving, restoring, and creating biodiversity.

The European Union has put particular emphasis on conservation efforts and policy, encouraging a more sustainable approach to our economy, where environmental concerns are dutifully taken into account in economic and social activities.

Solar salt works play an important role towards such objectives for they create biodiversity and consist of protected areas for wetland-related plant and animal species to thrive on. However, despite of their unequivocal positive contribution to certain ecosystem services, profitability and economic viability may often be an issue for solar salt works. In an attempt to reconcile the three dimensions of sustainable development – economic, social, and environmental – different development strategies have been put to the test, very successfully for some.

This conference provided a coherent platform for solar salt businesses and related activities and researchers to share and exchange about their experience in building up a viable solar salt works project. The diversity of cases – both in development strategies and local challenges they aimed to address – hinted on the many resources and potential associated with solar salt activities.

EuSalt thanks all speakers and participants that helped make the conference a successful event. We hope that the outcome of the discussions and presentations will feed into further work on the matter. The added value of solar salt works to biodiversity conservation and creation deserves broader public attention.

Ir. Wouter Lox Giacomo D’Alí Staiti

Managing Director at EuSalt President of EuSalt

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THANKS TO OUR SPONSORS

EuSalt thanks the sponsors of the 2nd edition of the international conference on solar salt and biodiversity.

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Part I: Quality and the Specifics of Salt

9

Biotechnological potential of solar salt works: focus on Squarebop I bacteriorhodopsin

Angela Corcelli

Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Neurosciences and Sensory Organs. University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, Bari, Italy.

p.za G. Cesare, 70124 Bari, Italy. E-mail address: angela.corcelli@uniba.it.

The biomass of the hypersaline water of coastal saltern crystallizer ponds is constituted by red extremely halophilic microorganisms, rich of carotenoid derivatives, and is generally considered a renewable source of valuable bio-products [1-5].

Most of extremely halophilic microorganisms inhabiting the hypersaline saltern ponds belong to the Archaea domain.

Extremely halophilic archaea offer a multitude of actual or potential biotechnological applications, containing in their cells interesting metabolites, such as osmotically active substances (so-called compatible solutes), exopolysaccharides, special membrane lipids, proteins and enzymes.

For example, the compatible solutes play the role of maintaining a positive water balance in the cell and are compatible with the cellular metabolism in high intracellular concentration. These compatible solutes have been found to be excellent stabilizers for biomolecules [6-8]. Ectoine and its derivatives have been used as moisturizers in cosmetics [9] and the exopolysaccharide mannosylglycerate has showed a very high stabilizing effect on several enzymes subjected to heating or freeze-drying [10].

Among extremely halophilic Archaea, Halobacterium salinarum has been intensively studied in the course of the last four decades because it expresses the photo-activated membrane protein bacteriorhodopsin [11], which is an analogue of the rhodopsin of animal eye. Bacteriorhodopsin is a photo-activated proton pump, generating a proton gradient which is used by the organism to synthesize adenosine triphosphate; in brief, bacteriorhodopsin is used by the bacterium to directly convert sunlight into chemical energy. Due to its high thermal and photochemical stability, bacteriorhodopsin is considered a promising biological material for photonic device applications, such as holography, spatial light modulators, artificial retina, volumetric and associative optical memories.

Recently we have considered the possibility to use renewable resources of coastal salterns as starting material for the production of bacteriorhodopsin and we showed that, by starting from the concentrated biomass solubilized in detergent, we can collect pure fractions of a bacteriorhodopsin homologue after one-step affinity

10

chromatography (12). A microfiltration process has been designed to concentrate saltern biomass as starting material to isolate pure bacteriorhodopsin.

As regards the nature of the bacteriorhodopsin homologue isolated from the concentrated biomass of the saltern of Margherita di Savoia (Italy), we have been able to show that it corresponds to Squarebop I protein, the light-activated proton pump of the square halophilic archaeon Haloquadratum walsbyi [13-14]. No evidence for the presence of other bacteriorhodopsin-like proteins, such as archaerhodopsins [15-17] and cruxrhodopsins [18,19] was found in the environmental sample analyzed in the present study.

It is indeed well known that mature saturated brine (crystallizers) communities are largely dominated by these square halophilic microorganisms [20]. On other hand the peculiar morphology of Haloquadratum walsbyi (square flattened cells of 2–5 μm sides) could favor its enrichment by microfiltration; smaller rod and spiral-shaped cells might in part pass through a 0.2 μm pore size filter, while the square-shaped cells are mostly retained.

Environmental PCR and cloning techniques retrieved the genes encoding for the bacteriorhodopsin of Haloquadratum walsbyi in different saltern ponds of Alicante, in Spain , while similar metagenomic studies of the saltern of Margherita di Savoia, in Italy, are not yet available. Information on microorganisms present in that saltern community of brines has been obtained by lipidomic studies [21-22].

Interestingly, the lipid pattern of concentrated biomass showed lipid components not degraded after the long concentration process; in particular the lipid profile of concentrated biomass is very similar to that present in the biomass before the microfiltration process and to that of the membranes isolated from Haloquadratum walsbyi laboratory cultures also, as expected considering the abundance of this archaeon in the crystallizer ponds (23). Reported biochemical data clearly show that bacteriorhodopsin can be isolated from the concentrated biomass of salterns with its annulus of phospholipids and glycolipids; it is well known that the association with specific lipids is crucial for the functioning of an integral membrane protein. Finally the assay used to test the functionality of isolated and purified Squarebop I bacteriorhodopsin revealed that the final product of the concentrated biomass still retains its photoactivity; the photocycle of saltern bacteriorhodopsin is very similar to that of Haloquadratum walsbyi Squarebop I bacteriorhodopsin [13].

In conclusion, it is possible to concentrate saltern biomass by using a bioreactor; the final mud still contains many valuable biochemical components of cells of extremely halophilic organisms, similar to those isolated from fresh cell cultures. Despite the fact that the red water processing is quite long, we have shown that the functional Squarebop I bacteriorhodopsin and not degraded archaeal lipids are still present in the concentrated biomaterials and can be extracted at a reasonable yield.

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REFERENCES

1. Rodriguez-Valera F., Biotechnological potential of halobacteria, in: Danson M.J., Hough D.W., Lund G.G. (Eds.), The Archaebacteria: Biochemistry and biotechnology. Biochemical Society Symposium no. 58, Biochemical Society, High Holburn, London (1992) 135-147.

2. Ventosa A., Nieto J.J., Biotechnological applications and potentialities of halophilic microorganisms, World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 11 (1995) 85-94.

3. Oren, Diversity of halophilic microorganisms, environment, phylogeny, physiology and applications, J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 28 (2002) 56-63.

4. Schiraldi, Giuliano M., De Rosa M., Perspectives on biotechnological applications of archaea, Archaea. 1 (2002) 75-86.

5. Oren, Industrial and environmental applications of halophilic microorganisms, Environ. Technol. 31 (2010) 825-834.

6. da Costa M.S., Santos H., Galinski E.A., An overview of the role and diversity of compatible solutes in Bacteria and Archaea, Adv. Biochem. Eng. Biotechnol. 61 (1998) 117–153.

7. Welsh D.T., Ecological significance of compatible solute accumulation by micro-organisms: from single cells to global climate, FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 24 (2000) 263-290.

8. Santos H., da Costa M.S., Organic solutes from thermophiles and hyperthermophiles, Methods Enzymol. 334 (2001) 302-315.

9. Montitsche L., Driller H., Galinski E., Ectoine and ectoine derivatives as moisturizers in cosmetics, May 2000, US Patent 060071.

10. Lamosa P., Burke A., Peist R., Huber R., Liu M.Y., Silva G., Rodrigues-Pousada R., Le Gall J., Maycock C., Santos H., Thermostabilization of proteins by diglycerol phosphate, a new compatible solute from the hyperthermophile Archaeoglobus fulgidus, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 66 (2000) 1974–1979.

11. Oesterhelt, Stoeckenius W., Rhodopsin-like protein from the purple membrane of Halobacterium halobium, Nature 233 (1971) 149-152.

12. Lobasso S., Lopalco P., Angelini R., Pollice A., Laera G., Milano F., Agostiano A., Corcelli A. Isolation of Squarebop I bacteriorhodopsin from biomass of coastal salterns. Protein Expr Purif. 2012 Jul, 84(1):73-9.

13. Bolhuis H., Palm P., Wende A., Falb M., Rampp M., Rodriguez-Valera F., Pfeiffer F., Oesterhelt D., The genome of the square archaeon Haloquadratum walsbyi: life at the limits of water activity, BMC Genomics. 7 (2006) 169-180.

14. Lobasso S., Lopalco P., Vitale R., Sublimi Saponetti M., Capitanio G., Mangini V., Milano F., Trotta M., Corcelli A., The light-activated proton pump Bop I of the archaeon Haloquadratum walsbyi. Photochem. Photobiol., published online 9 Feb 2012, DOI:10.1111/j.1751-1097.2012.01089.x.

15. Mukohata Y., Ihara K., Uegaki K., Miyashita Y., Sugiyama Y., Australian Halobacteria and their retinal-protein ion pumps. Photochem. Photobiol. 54 (1991) 1039-1045.

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16. Li Q., Sun Q., Zhao W., Wang H., Xu D., Newly isolated archaerhodopsin from a strain of Chinese halobacteria and its proton pumping behavior. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1466 (2000) 260-266.

17. Ming M., Lu M., Balashov S.P., Ebrey T.G., Li Q.G., Ding J.D., pH dependence of light-driven proton pumping by an archaerhodopsin from Tibet: Comparison with bacteriorhodopsin, Biophys. J. 90 (2006) 3322-3332.

18. Sugiyama Y., Yamada N., Mukohata Y., The light-driven proton pump, cruxrhodopsin-2 in Haloarcula sp. arg-2 (bR+, hR-), and its coupled ATP formation, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1188 (1994) 287-292.

19. Tateno M., Ihara K., Mukohata Y., The novel ion pump rhodopsin from Haloarcula form a family independent from both the bacteriorhodopsin and archaerhodopsin families/tribes, Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 315 (1994) 127-132.

20. Anton J., Llobet-Brossa E., Rodriguez-Valera F., Amann R., Fluorescence in situ hybridisation analysis of the prokaryotic community inhabiting crystallizer ponds, Environ. Microbiol. 1 (1999) 517-523

21. Lattanzio V.M.T., Corcelli A., Mascolo G., Oren A., Presence of two novel cardiolipins in the halophilic archaeal community in the crystallizer brines from the salterns of Margherita di Savoia (Italy) and Eilat (Israel). Extremophiles. 6 (2002) 437-444.

22. Lopalco P., Lobasso S., Baronio M., Angelini R., Corcelli A., Impact of lipidomics on the microbial world of hypersaline environments, in: Ventosa A., Oren A., Ma Y., (Eds.), Halophiles and Hypersaline Environments: Current research and Future Trends, Springer, Heidelberg, 2011, pp. 123-13.

23. Lobasso S., Lopalco, G. Mascolo P., A. Corcelli, Lipids of the ultra-thin square halophilic archaeon Haloquadratum walsbyi. Archaea 2 (2008) 177-183.

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The presence of the green alga Dunaliella salina in crstallyzer ponds of salinas can appreciably affect the quality of NaCl crystals

Mario Giordano*, Filippo Bargnesi, Simona Ratti

Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita e dell’Ambiente, Università Politecnica delle Marche, via Brecce Bianche, 60131 Ancona, Italy;

Corresponding author: Mario Giordano, m.giordano@univpm.it.

Running title: Dunaliella and NaCl crystals

ABSTRACT Dunaliella salina is a halotolerant green microalga that inhabits the crystallizer ponds of salt works. Its cells are known to release organic matter and their presence has been associated with a lower quality of the NaCl crystals. The mechanistic connection between the release of organic matter and the low quality of crystals in the presence of Dunaliella salina is however missing. In this work we investigated the structure of the salt crystals in the presence and absence of D. salina, in the attempt to ascertain whether indeed the NaCl crystals were affected by the alga and, if this was the case, what was the molecular interaction between the organic matter released by D. salina and the NaCl. This paper is derived from the paper Giordano et al. 2014 Cryptogamie-Algologie 35 (3): 285-302, which the reader is invited to read for further details and additional data.

Key words: cell composition, FTIR spectroscopy, NaCl, saltworks, X-ray diffraction.

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1. INTRODUCTION

Dunaliella salina is a common inhabitant of salt crystallizing ponds of solar saltworks (Davis and Giordano, 1996). Its presence in these basins is the result of inadequate control in the nutrient fluxes upstream, although it is often considered inevitable. In the past, Giordano et al. (1994) demonstrated that live cells of D. salina release recent photosynthate to the external medium. The same authors also showed that the rate and amount of C released was affected by the N source and pCO2. Thus, poor biological management of saltworks (and thus increased amount of N, especially as NH4+) and global climate changes may increase the amount of C in the crystallizers and thus decrease the value of salt and the revenue of salt producers.

Deleterious effects of organic matter for salt production in ponds of low and intermediate salinity are well documented, and management procedures to control these substances are widely practised (e.g., Davis, 1978, 1990, 1993; De Medeiros Rocha and Camara, 1993; Sammy, 1983). However, the impact of the organic matter that originates in the concentrating ponds of highest salinity and in the crystallizers has received little attention.

The market value of NaCl depends, at least to some extent, on the characteristics of the salt crystals (whether they are hollow, solid, large or small) and by the amount of contaminants they contain. Premium prices are paid for large solid crystals (Butts, 1977) and for salt with contaminants not exceeding 0.03 to 0.05 % Ca, 0.02 to 0.04 % Mg, 0.11 to 0.16 % SO42-, and 0.01 to 0.02 % insoluble matter (Davis, 1990; although different local regulation may change the acceptable levels of contaminations). Furthermore, the liquid drainage from vehicles loaded with freshly harvested small and hollow salt crystals precipitated from mucilaginous brine may significantly increase losses in the course of transport from the crystallizers to the washing facility, and may damage the transport roads. Also the cost of washing salt crystals that are hollow and heavily contaminated, whether the contaminants are organic or inorganic, increases appreciably, due to the need for more effective machine, higher energy demand, increased maintenance and, not trivially, greater losses of salt during the process. Treatments to reduce contamination (e.g. use of caustic soda and centrifuges to remove magnesium from the crystals) my further increase the cost of salt production.

In this work we used state of the art techniques to determine if and how the organic matter released by Dunaliella affects the quality of salt crystal. The present paper is a brief compendium of our results, which will be published in a more complete form in a forthcoming paper in an international journal.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS - Analyses of cells 2.1. Cultures

Batch cultures of the green alga D. salina were grown axenically in 250 mL Erlenmeyer flasks containing 150 mL of AMCONA medium (Table 1), with either NH4+ or NO3- as the N-source and at a NaCl concentration of 3 M. Cultures were maintained at 20°C,

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under a continuous photon flux density (PFD) of 100 μmol photons·m-1·s-1, provided by cool white fluorescent tubes. The algae were allowed to grow at the above conditions for at least 4 generations, prior to any measurement. At that point, the cells were re-inoculated in the same medium, at an initial density of 2·106 cells mL-1. The growth was followed by daily counts with an automatic cell counter (CASY TT, Innovatis AG, Reutlingen, Germany): the measurements reported in this paper were obtained after 14 days since the inoculum, when the cultures were in stationary growth phase.

2.2. Contaminant determination

Crystal contaminants were determined by Fourier Transform InfraRed spectroscopy (FTIR, Giordano et al. 2001) and Total reflection X-ray fluorescence (TXRF). In both cases a drop of medium was allowed to dry on a sample holder (silicon for FTIR, crystal for TXRF measurements) and then analysed. The analyses were conducted with a S2 Picofox TXRF spectrometer (Bruker AXS Microanalysis GmbH, Berlin, Germany; Bruker, 2008); in order to reduce scattering and make the sample layer thinner and more homogeneous, the samples were resuspended in polyvinyl alcohol (0.3 g L-1) in a 9:1 volumetric ratio (v/v). Ga was used as internal standard. For FTIR measurements, a Tensor 27 FTIR spectrometer (Bruker Optik GmbH, Ettlingen, Germany) was used as described in Palmucci et al. (2011).

2.3. Crystal size

Two crystal dimensional classes were defined, based on the fact that upon crystallization, two groups of obviously different dimensions were observed. The crystallization was allowed to occur at room temperature on microscope slides, after the cells were separated from the medium by centrifugation. The number of crystals of each class was estimated under a stereoscopic microscope.

Medium without Dunaliella was used as a control for all measurements.

2.4. Crystal microstructure

The growth medium and the medium without algal cells (control) were dried. The NaCl crystals that formed were used for the measurements. The samples were irradiated with X-rays (λ = 1.54 Å), generated by a 1.6 Kw X-ray source (Philips PW1830, Philips, Almelo, The Netherlands) equipped with a Germanium monocromator. The deflection patterns of the beam were recorded on a photographic film and the diffraction image was use to describe the crystal structure according to Bragg’s law:

where λ is the wavelength, d is the distance between two planes of atoms laying on

the same geometrical space, Ɵ is the angle between the incident radiation and the

n·λ = 2·d·sinƟ

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plane, n is a natural positive number (Bragg et al., 1913). A tricosane standard of

known cells parameters was used as reference to identify the Ɵ value.

The mean size of the ordered crystalline domains (crystallites) was defined according to the Debye-Scherrer’s law:

Where τ is the mean size of the ordered crystalline domains, K is the shape factor (0.9) and β is the width of the peaks at half maximum intensity. The main peak present in the diffractogram (plane order 220) was used in this study.

2.5. Statistics

The data were expressed as the mean ± standard deviation of measurements obtained from at least three distinct cultures. The statistical significance of differences of means was determined by analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey’s post-hoc test. The level of significance was set at 95%.

3. RESULTS 3.1. Contaminants

The presence of D. salina determined an increase of the Zn content in the salt crystals and an even larger decrease of the Fe content (Table 2).

The analysis of FTIR spectra suggest that the crystal formed in the presence of D. salina contained larger amount of bound water than crystals formed in the absence of the alga.

Hints of absorption by amide and carbohydrate groups were detected in the FTIR data. However, the signal was too low for its difference from the control to be statistically confirmed.

3.2. Crystal structure

Under the stereoscopic microscope, the NaCl contained in medium obtained from D. salina cultures crystallized generating a higher proportion of large crystals. This was true regardless of the N source (see fig. 1 in Giordano et al. 2014).

X-ray diffractometry showed that the microstructure of the crystals was not affected by the presence of Dunaliella (data not shown). However, the crystallites were significantly smaller in the presence of the algae (Fig. 1).

τ = K · λ

β · cosƟ

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4. CONCLUSIONS

The presence of D. salina clearly affects NaCl crystals both in terms of their structure and of their contaminants:

1. The organoleptic properties of the salt are most likely affected by the modified Fe and Zn content.

2. At the resolution of a steroscopic microscope, the crystal formed from D. salina growth medium were overall larger than those obtained from the control medium.

3. The crystallites were instead smaller in the presence of D. salina. The smaller size of the crystallites unequivocally indicates that exogenous substances interfered with the expansion of the crystalline reticulum, when the algal cells were present in the medium.

4. The medium in which D. salina had been growing generated crystal that contained more bound water, which is suggestive of the presence of cavities.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to thank Prof. Paolo Mariani (Università Politecnica delle Marche) for his assistance for X-ray diffractometry.

Prof. Giordano thanks the “Assemble” project for facilitating part of this work.

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REFERENCES

1. Butts D.S. (1977), Solar evaporation chemistry of Great Salt Lake brines. In: D.C. Greer (Ed)

2. Desertic Terminal Lakes. Proceedings of the International Conference on Desertic Terminal Lakes, Weber State College, Utah Water Research Laboratory, Utah State University, Logan, pp. 125-129.

3. Davis J.S. (1978), Biological communities in a nutrient enriched salina. Aquatic Botany, 4, 23-42.

4. Davis, J. S. (1990), Biological management for the production of salt from seawater. Introduction to applied phycology. SPB Academic Publishing, The Hague, 479-488.

5. Davis J.S. (1993), Biological management for problem solving and biological concepts for a new generation of solar saltworks. Seventh Symposium on Salt, 1, 611-616.

6. Davis J. and Giordano M. (1996), Biological and physical events involved in the origin, effects, and control of organic matter in solar saltworks. International Journal of Salt Lake Research, 4, 335-347

7. De Medeiros Rocha R. and Camara M. R. (1993), Prediction, monitoring and management of detrimental algal blooms on solar salt production in north-east Brazil. In Proceedings of the Seventh Symposium on Salt, 6-9 April 1992 (pp. 657-660).

8. Franz H., Ciuchi F., Di Nicola G., De Morais M.M. and Mariani P. (1994), Unusual lytropic polymorphism of deoxyguanosine-5’-monphosphate: X-ray diffraction analysis of the correlation between self-assembling and phase behavior. Physical Review E, 50, 395-402.

9. Giordano M., Davis J.S., and Bowes G. (1994), Organic carbon release by Dunaliella salina (Chlorophyta) under different growth conditions of CO2, nitrogen, and salinity. Journal of Phycology, 30, 249-257.

10. Giordano M., Bargnesi F., Mariani P., Ratti S. (2014). Dunaliella salina (Chlorophyceae) affects the quality of NaCl crystals. Cryptogamie, Algologie, 35(3):285-302.

11. Giordano M., Kansiz M., Heraud P., Beardall J., Wood B. and McNaughton D. (2001), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy as a novel tool to investigate changes in intracellular macromolecular pools in the marine microalga Chaetoceros muellerii (bacillariophyceae). Journal of Phycology, 37, 271–279.

12. Palmucci M., Ratti S. and Giordano M. (2011), Ecological and evolutionary implications of carbon allocation in marine phytoplankton as a function of nitrogen availability: a Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy approach. Journal of Phycology, 47, 313-323.

13. Sammy N. (1983), Biological systems in North-Western Australian solar fields. Sixth International Symposium of Salt, 1, 207-215.

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Table 1. Recipe of the growth medium “Artificial Multi- purpose Complement for the Nutrition of Algae” (AMCONA).

Medium component Final concentration

NaCl 363 mM

Na2SO4 25 mM

KCl 8.04 mM

NaHCO3 2.07 mM

KBr 725 mM

H3BO3 372 mM

NaF 65.7 mM

MgCl2 41.2 mM

CaCl2 9.14 mM

SrCl2 82 mM

NaNO3 549 mM

NaH2PO4 21 mM

Na2SiO3 205 mM

CuSO4 40 µM

Metal mix I

FeCl3 6.56 µM

Na2EDTA 6.56 µM

Metal mix II

ZnSO4 254 nM

CoSO4 5.69 nM

MnSO4 2.42 µM

Na2MoO4 6.1 nM

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Na2SeO3 1 nM

NiCl2 6.3 nM

Na2EDTA 8.29 µM

Vitamine

Tiamine-HCL 297 nM

Biotine 4.09 nM

Vitamine B12 1.47 nM

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Table 2. Variation in the abundance of elements in NaCl crystals produced from medium in which Dunaliella was growing relative to the control medium. A “+” indicates that the abundance of an element in the NaCl crystal is stimulated by the presence of D. salina; a decrease is indicated by “-“, no change is indicated with “=”. The variations are significant with p < 0.05 (n = 3)

Element Variation

P =

S =

Cl =

K =

Ca =

Mg =

Fe -

Cu =

Cr =

Zn +

Br =

Sr =

Pb =

FIGURE LEGEND

Figure 1. The figure depicts typical measurements of crystallite size in NaCl crystal produced from medium in which D. salina had been growing for 14 days and from medium without algae. A single reading is representative of a very large number of crystallites. For theoretical reasons (Franz et al, 1994), although the measurements were conducted on triplicate cultures and various instrumental replicates, the standard deviation is usually not calculated. The data are derived from Giordano et al. 2014.

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Microbial biodiversity in Bohai Bay Saltworks, China and their biotechnological utilization

Sui Liying

College of Marine Science and Engineering, Tianjin University of Science and Technology

No. 29, 13th Avenue, TEDA, Tianjin 300450, China

Email: suily@tust.edu.cn

1. INTRODUCTION

The multi-pond solar saltworks consist of a series of conjunctive saltponds, with a gradient of salinities ranging from seawater to NaCl precipitation. Solar salterns inhibit diverse microbial groups. Along the salinity gradient, the majority of microflora changes from marine origins to moderately halophiles, and extremely halophiles (Antόn et al., 2000; Oren, 2002). In addition to being part of the food chain in hypersaline ecosystem (Toi et al., 2013; 2014), halophilic microorganisms also play an important role in water quality management such as reducing the nitrogenous elements and viscosity of brine water, through nitrification, ammonium assimilation and oxidation of organic matters. In crystallization ponds, the blooms of red halophilic bacteria and archaea ensure the increased heat absorption, ultimately resulting in an enhanced evaporation and an improved salt crystallization (Jones et al., 1981).

Apart from the ecological importance, the use of halophiles in biotechnology has been recently concerned. Halophilic bacteria and archaea are useful biological sources to produce bio-active compounds such as polyalkanoate, ectoine, extracellular polysaccharides and carotenoid pigments (Oren, 2002). Moreover hypersaline living conditions (usually >20% NaCl) are beneficial to the large scale production with less danger of contamination, and thus facilitate the industrial application of the halophilic microorganisms.

Bohai Bay coast is the major sea salt producing area in China, with dozens of saltworks covering 1500 km2 and a total annual yield of 20 million tons (data in 2012, China Salt Association). Even though being an important salt production site, the ecological study of the salt ponds, particularly the microbial diversity and their biotechnological exploration have not yet been characterized.

Recently we have studied the variation of microbial biodiversity corresponding with different salinities and seasons in Bobai Bay saltworks. A number of cultivable bacterial and archaeal strains were isolated and characterized from salt ponds. Moreover, the accumulation of biotechnological compounds such as poly-β-hydroxybutyrate and

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bacterioruberin were studied with specific strains. The aim of our studies is to provide useful information on the potential utilization of microbial resources in saltern ponds.

2. BACTERIAL BIODIVERSITY IN SALT PONDS

The bacterial diversity of brine water in different salt ponds and seasons in Hangu Saltworks were analyzed using PCR-DGGE method. The salinity of five sampled salt ponds ranges from 60 to 180, with an average difference of salinity 30 among each other. The average water temperature in May, July and October were 20°C, 28°C and 16°C, respectively. The phylogenic analysis on DGGE bands showed that the temperature had more effect on the bacterial community than the salinity. Corresponding with the complex band patterns observed on the DGGE gel, the range-weighted richness (Rr) were mostly higher than 30, indicating that the investigated saltponds were habitable environments with broad carrying capacity (Marzorati et al., 2008). Moreover Shannon-Wiener’s index in July (2.6-3.1) was generally higher than that of May (2.5-2.9) and October (2.6-2.9), and within the same month higher salinity usually resulted in a lower value, showing that the biodiversity of brine water decreased with increasing water temperature and salinities (Ma et al., 2014).

16S rRNA gene sequencing of DGGE bands revealed that, out of the 48 sequenced bands, 15 bands related to γ–proteobacteria, 6 bands to Bacillaceae, 2 bands to Bacteroidetes, 3 bands to Flavobacteriaceae, 1 band to Rhodothermaceae, 1 band to Micrococcineae and 1 band to α-proteobacteria, with similarity of 83%-100%. Most of sequences originated from salterns or saline environments, whilst a few related to the sequences from marine environment (Ma et al., 2014).

3. ISOLATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF HALOPHILIC BACTERIA AND ARCHAEA FROM SALT PONDS

Twenty-six isolates were obtained from the solar salt ponds at salinities of 100, 150, 200 and 250 in Hangu Saltworks through agar plate culture. Phylogenetic analysis of 16S rRNA gene sequence indicated that they were related to five bacteria genus Halomonas, Salinicoccus, Oceanobacillus, Gracibacillus and Salimicrobium, and one archaea genera Halorubrum (Deng et al., 2014).

It had been commonly assumed that the microbial biodiversity in moderate environments are mostly contributed by halophilic bacteria, while archaea are predominantly existed in crystallizers (Olsen, 1994). Nevertheless the recently published molecular data have indicated the presence of archaea in moderate environments, while bacteria seem to be widespread as archaea are (Antόn et al., 2000; Oren, 2002). In our study, only five bacterial genus were found at salinity of less than 200 and one archaeal genus were observed in crystallizer pond at salinity 250. Halomonas sp. was found to be predominant and wide-spread genus among the isolates, accounting for 30% of the total isolates. Moreover six colonies recovered from brine at salinity 250 were all identified as Halorubrum sp.

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Based on the genus and the original sampling salinity, eight bacterial isolates and two archaeal isolates were selected for further morphological, physiological and biochemical characterization. All the bacterial strains were found to be moderately halophilic with the optimal growth salinity 50 or 100, whilst two archaeal strains were extremely halophilic with the optimal growth salinity 200 (Deng et al., 2014).

4. BIOACTIVE COMPOUND ACCUMULATION IN HALOPHILIC BACTERIA AND ARCHAEA

Poly-β-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) is a lipid-soluble compound reserved in cells of prokaryotes. It has unique characteristics of being biodegradable, biocompatible and thermoplastic microbial polyester thus has a great potential of commercial application in the field of environmental protection, medicine (Lauzier et al., 1994) and aquaculture (Defoirdt et al., 2011). We have investigated the effect of increasing glucose supplementation on growth and PHB content of Halomonas sp. using basal culture medium containing 7.5 g/L acid-hydrolyzed casein. The results showed that glucose supplementation in the culture medium significantly improved the growth and PHB content of Halomonas sp. At a glucose concentration of 30 g/L, the cell dry weight and PHB content reached 8.60 g/L and 5.57 g/L (65 % cell dry weight) (Sui et al., 2014).

The red coloration of brine is mostly due to the abundant presence of C50 bacterioruberin and its derivatives in cell membranes of archaea (Oren, 2002). A number of biological functions, such as improving rigidity and fluidity of the cell membrane, protecting the cells against oxidation, strong light injury, and DNA damage have been reported (Litchfield, 2011). Bacterioruberin production through halophilic archaeal cultivation and its potential application have recently aroused interests from many scientists. We have studied the effects of salinity and pH on accumulation and composition of the pigments of two archaeal strains, namely Halobacterium Strain SP-2 and Halorubrum Strain SP-4. Their optimum salinity and pH for growth were 25% and 7, respectively. The pigment accumulation (OD490/mL broth) was the highest at pH 8. In addition, the data recorded in salinity range of 15%-30% revealed that increasing salinity conducted to a decreasing rate of pigment accumulation. The analysis of UV-Vis spectrum, TLC and HLPC chromatograms showed that C50 carotenoid bacterioruberin is the major pigment in both strains (Sui et al., 2014).

5. CONCLUSIONS

Solar salt ponds in Bohai Bay Saltworks inhibit diverse microbial flora verifying with season and brine water salinities. A number of halophilic bacteria and archaea strains were isolated and characterized from Bohai bay salt ponds. Studies of the bio-active compounds accumulation such as PHB and C50 carotenoid in specific halophilic bacteria (e.g. Halomonas sp.) and archaea (e.g. Halorubrum sp.) provided valuable data with respect of utilization of brine water biological resources.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The studies referred in this paper were supported by the International Cooperation Research Program of the Ministry of Science and Technology of China (2010DFA32300), Key Program of Tianjin Municipal Natural Science Foundation (13JCZDJC28700) and Training Program for Innovative Research Team in University (2013-373).

REFERENCES

1. Antόn J., Rossellό-Mora R., Rodríguez-Valera F., et al. 2000. Extremely halophilic bacteria in crystallizer ponds from solar salterns. Appl Environ Microbiol, 66: 3052-3057.

2. Defoirdt T., Sorgeloos P., Bossier P., et al. 2011. Alternatives to antibiotics for the control of bacterial disease in aquaculture. Current Opinion in Microbiology, 14: 251-258.

3. Deng Y.G., Xu G.C., Sui L.Y., et al. 2014. Isolation and characterization of halophilic bacteria and archaea from Hangu Saltworks, China. Chinese J Oceanol and Limnol, in press.

4. Jones A.G., Ewing C.M., Melvin M.V. 1981. Biotechnology of solar saltfields. Hydrobiologia, 81-82: 391-406.

5. Lauzier G.C., Revol J.F., Debzi E.M. 1994. Hydrolytic degradation of isolated poly-β-hydroxybuytrate (PHB). Polymers, 35: 4156-4162.

6. Litchfield C.D. 2011. Potential for industrial products from the halophilic Archaea. J Industrial. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 38: 1635-1647.

7. Ma G.N., Deng Y.G., Dong J.G., et al. 2014. Effects of salinity and temperature on bacterial biodiversity in Hangu Solar Saltworks, China. Proceeding of the 12th International Conference on Salt Lake Research, July 13th- 18th, Beijing, China: 224-225.

8. Marzorati M., Wittebolle L., Boon N., et al. 2008. How to get more out of molecular fingerprints: practical tools for microbial ecology. Environ Microbiol, 10: 1571-1581.

9. Olsen G J., 1994. Archaea, archaea everywhere. Nature, 731: 657-658. 10. Oren A. 2002. Diversity of halophilic microorganisms: environments, phylogeny,

physiology, and application. J Industrial Microbiol Biotechnol, 28: 237-243. 11. Sui L.Y., Liu L.S., Deng Y.G., 2014. Characterization of halophilic C50 carotenoid-

producing archaea isolated from Chinese solar saltworks. Chinese J Oceanol and Limnol, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00343-015-4033-x

12. Sui L.Y., Xu G.C., Deng Y.G., et al. 2014. Isolation and identification of Halomonas sp. from solar saltpond and study of PHB accumulation in its cells. Chinese J Mar Sci, in press.

13. Toi H.T., Boeckx P., Sorgeloos P., et al. 2013. Bacteria contribute to Artemia nutrition in algae-limited conditions: A laboratory study. Aquaculture, 388-391: 1-7.

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14. Toi H.T., Boeckx P., Sorgeloos P., et al. 2014. Co-feeding of microalgae and bacteria may result in increased N assimilation in Artemia as compared to mono-diets, as demonstrated by a 15N isotope uptake laboratory study. Aquaculture, 422-423: 109-114.

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Part II: Solar Salt Works Diversity and Development Strategies

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An integrated cycle for the production of fresh water, minerals and energy from sea

Andrea Cipollinaa, Giacomo D’Alì Staiti b,c, Giorgio Micale a a Dipartimento di Ingegneria Chimica, Gestionale, Informatica, Meccanica, università di Palermo, viale delle Scienze (Ed.6), 90128 Palermo. E-mail: andrea.cipollina@unipa.it b Dipartimento di Fisica, Università di Palermo, viale delle Scienze (Ed.18), 90128 Palermo c SOSALT SpA, Trapani, Italy.

ABSTRACT Seawater desalination is becoming an important source of fresh water in several different countries all around the world. One of the main drawbacks of desalination processes, however, is related to the disposal of large quantities of concentrated brine, which is an always-present by-product of the process, yet characterised by huge potentials of exploitation as a source of valuable raw materials and energy stored in the form of salinity gradient.

A first integrated production of fresh water and salts can be achieved using the brine produced from a desalination plant as a feed for conventional salt ponds, with the advantages of using brine more concentrated than seawater and, in the case of thermal desalination plants, warmer than seawater. By doing so, the process is faster as a consequence of the evaporation rate enhancement on the surface of ponds. The above concept has been investigated for several years, but only rare examples exist of real applications. A pilot-scale investigation has been performed in the last 5 years in Trapani (Italy), where a 36000 m3/d MED-TVC plant is operating very close to a traditional salt pond normally fed with seawater.

Furthermore, the use of fractionated crystallisation process, typically adopted in conventional salt ponds, allows for the easy separation of salts like Calcium Carbonates and Sulphates, Sodium Chloride and a final saturated brine which is extremely rich in Magnesium as a sole bivalent cation. Thus, the possibility of a further exploitation of such saturated brine has been experimentally analysed by laboratory tests in order to produce high purity Magnesium to be commercialised in the pharmaceutical, food and metal industries.

Finally, concentrated brines from any of the final stages of such processing cycle can be adopted within a Salinity Gradient Power generation process for the production of energy through the Reverse Electrodialysis technology, as demonstrated within the EU-FP7 REAPower project (www.reapower.eu).

A complete overview of the activities so far carried out in these three directions will be presented, highlighting the big potentials for the enhancement of salt pond production capacity, recovery of important raw materials from a non-conventional “mining” source and production of renewable, clean and safe energy from solar/wind generated natural salinity gradients.

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Key words: Environment; seawater desalination; brine re-use; sea salt; magnesium recovery; salinity gradient power

1. INTRODUCTION

In recent years, seawater desalination processes have been considered more and more suitable non-conventional water sources for the supply of high quality drinking water in areas affected by water scarcity and droughts problems.

However, several concerns have been raised regarding the environmental impact of desalination processes, mainly due to the production of a concentrated effluent (blow down brine) that must be accurately managed. In the case of sea-water desalination plants, installed nearby the coast, the brine is commonly discharged back to the sea.

In general, increasing the process Recovery Ratio will reduce significantly the volumes of brine to be disposed, but on the other side it will also increase the concentration of salts in the brine to be discharged. Moreover, the Recovery Ratio is strongly limited by the feed water salinity of and the features of the desalination process.

Typically Sea Water Reverse Osmosis plants produce waste brine with concentration in the range 65000-85000 ppm, while Thermal desalination plants (MED, MSF) usually discharge a more diluted brine, also due to the high consumption of cooling water, which is very often mixed with the brine before its disposal. In this case typical values of brine salinity are around 10-15% higher than feed seawater.

In all cases, the continuous release of a reject stream, often characterised by high salinity and/or temperature, can be dangerous for marine life, especially in protected marine environments [Latteman, 2009; Peters and Pintò, 2008].

Normally the cost of brine disposal ranges from 5 to 33% of the total cost of desalination [Glueckstern and Priel, 1996], depending on: the amount of brine, the level of treatment before disposal, the nature of the surrounding environment and the disposal method. Thus, brine volumes minimisation is a fundamental target for reducing both potable water costs and at the same time the environmental impact of the desalination process.

The easiest way for reducing brine volume is the use of an evaporation process. To this regard, the use of evaporation ponds for brine disposal and/or concentration has several advantages compared with the other options listed above. Ponds are relatively easy to construct, require low maintenance and no mechanical equipment is required except for the pump conveying the brine to the pond. Of course, the main problem of evaporation ponds is related to the large amount of land required for the brine disposal, but also the potential of contaminating underground potable water sources by seepage from the pond [Truesdal et al., 1995]. The use of an evaporation pond for brine reduction is therefore feasible in dry and warm sites where land cost is low,

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evaporation rates are high and no risk of natural underground water sources is present.

In order to overcome some drawbacks of evaporation ponds Gilron et al. [Gilron et al., 2003] have worked on the development of a novel process: the WAIV (Wind Aided Intensified eVaporation). In WAIV process brine evaporation surface is increased by distributing the brine over vertical tissues, reducing in this way the evaporation device land requirements. A bench pilot unit with a footprint of 0.17 m2 and an evaporation area of 1 m2 has been tested by the mentioned research group and a rotating frame has been designed for positioning of the evaporation surfaces parallel to the main wind direction in order to further increase the evaporation rate [Katzir et al., 2010].

Another example of enhancing of natural evaporation is reported in the work of Arnal et al. [Arnal et al., 2005], who used capillary adsorbents for increasing evaporation rate, in order to improve the evaporation productivity of an evaporation pond.

The exploitation of brine potentials has been raising interest among scientific communities worldwide. The use of standard methodologies for salt (NaCl) production can be sometimes coupled with the recovery of brines from desalination plants and significant advantages can arise, as shown in some works recently presented in the literature [Ravizky and Nadav, 2007]. Moreover, the increasing cost of raw materials and continuous technological development of separation processes are also pushing towards the recovery of higher value minerals, such as Magnesium salts, in competition with the standard minerals sources related to mining facilities.

The present paper focuses on the description of an integrated approach to the solution of brine disposal problem and exploitation of brine potentials (Fig.1), which has been adopted and experimented in the Mediterranean site of Trapani (Sicily, south of Italy) [Cipollina et al., 2012]. The concept idea is that of using the brine exiting from a MED-TVC desalination plant to feed a small experimental saltworks. The saturated exhausted brine, eventually, exiting from the final basins of the saltworks can be used for extraction of magnesium salts, thus providing a further added value to the overall integrated process. Finally, very concentrated brines at the various stages of the integrated process, can be used for energy generation within Salinity Gradient Power Reverse Electrodialysis (SGP-RE) systems, as demonstrated within the EU-funded REAPower project.

Field investigation has allowed the characterisation of the new operating conditions within the experimental saltworks “Mariastella” after feeding with brine from the MED-TVC plant. At the same time laboratory tests have been performed for assessing the potential for Magnesium recovery from exhausted saturated brines also giving some ideas of the tremendous exploitation potentials of such approach. Finally, a prototype unit for Salinity Gradient Power generation has been installed and operated in the saltworks of Marsala (Trapani, Italy), being the first example of pilot system operating in such conditions.

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Fig.1 Schematic view of the integrated process for the production of fresh water, salts, minerals and energy from seawater.

2. THE SINGULAR FRAMEWORK OF TRAPANI MED PLANT AND SALTWORKS

Trapani is a small city in the west coast of Sicily (Fig.2), in the heart of Mediterranean Sea. Since the Roman times, it has been an important center for the production of salt from seawater, thanks to the natural presence of saltworks, which have been readapted and optimized for the production of large quantities of salt and still operating for more than 2000 years.

Nowadays, one of the major problems of Trapani and surrounding villages is the water supply, due to severe drought periods that occurred in the last decades. For this reason, a MED-TVC desalination plant was constructed in the ‘90s to provide about 36,000 m3/day of fresh water to be mixed with other conventional sources and distributed to the population.

A peculiarity of this site is the closeness of the desalination plant to the conventional Trapani’s saltworks, which has allowed the assessment of the integrated approach presented in this study, as it will be illustrated in the following paragraphs.

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Fig. 2 Google maps view of Trapani position with a zoomed view of the area hosting the MED-TVC desalination plant and the experimental saltworks "Mariastella".

2.1. Description of the MED-TVC plant

The desalination plant in Trapani, started-up in 1995 with the financial support of the Sicilian Regional Government (also owner of the plant), is constituted by 4 MED-TVC units with a capacity of 9,000 m3/day each [Cipollina et al., 2005]. Each unit consists of 12 with horizontal tubes evaporation effects, with parallel feed configuration, and a thermal vapour compressor (middle pressure steam ejector) as sketched in Fig.3 .

Inlet seawater undergoes a basic pre-treatment step with some screening and sand removal. Shock chlorination was performed at the intake, although recently no chlorination at all is performed. Pre-treated seawater reaches two plate-heat exchangers where it is pre-heated, while exiting distillate and brine (only in winter season) are cooled before storage and disposal, respectively. Then, the feed reaches the down condenser where it is further heated, while condensing part of the vapour exiting from the last stage, and eventually goes through the distributors of each stage.

Salt ponds ≈ 150,000 m2

MED-TVC plant

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Fig. 3 Sketch of a MED-TVC unit of the desalination plant in Trapani [Cipollina et al., 2005].

The plant has got a parallel feed configuration, with heat recovery exchangers positioned every two effects, where the feed is heated again before entering evaporation stages, by recovering heat from a mixture of vapour and non-condensable gases extracted from the effects. In each stage the feed is sprayed on the tube-bundle evaporator and the formed vapour leaves the chamber to enter in the tube side of the following effect.

The brine passes from each effect to the following one incurring in a sudden pressure reduction and flashing process which produces an extra amount of vapour. The distillate condensing inside the tube bundle of each stage is collected and eventually pumped to the post-treatment section.

Vapour produced in the last effect passes through a demister and, after being split, is partially sent to the down condenser, where it is condensed and cooled by the cold feed seawater, and partially re-compressed by a steam ejector with motive steam at 45 bar. In such a way, the re-compressed vapour can act as motive steam to the first effect, thus enhancing the GOR of the process.

The first evaporation effect operates at a maximum temperature of 62°C in order to minimize scaling problems in the tube bundle. Thanks to the optimised thermal integration of the plant and the high efficiency of the thermal vapour compression system, the nominal Gain Output Ratio of the unit is of 16.6 kg of distillate/kg of vapour, which is normally reached and sometimes exceeded during standard plant operation.

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2.1.1. Parameters of interest for the use of process brine to feed the saltworks

The process nominal Recovery Ratio is about 30%, with an inlet seawater salinity of 37 gr/lt. Thus the brine exiting from the last stage has got a nominal flow rate of about 21,000 m3/day (per each unit) and a salinity of approximately 53 gr/lt. Exiting brine temperature can vary of several Celsius degrees during the year, however values up to 35-38°C are common in summer season, thus being significantly higher than seawater temperature (normally below 24°C). Table 1 summarises the main operating parameters of interest for this study.

Table 1. Main operating parameters of the MED-TVC plant under study

As it concerns the use of chemical additives, only low temperature anti-scalant (Belgard EV2050) and anti-foaming (Nalco 131S) at very low concentrations are added to the feed seawater.

Feed disinfection was performed only as shock treatment at the seawater intake, but in the last years no disinfection at all was done. However, given the long path and the relatively high temperatures inside the evaporation units, residual effects in exiting brines can be normally considered negligible in thermal plants.

2.2. Description of “Mariastella” saltworks

Mariastella saltwork is a typical saltwork of the western Sicilian coast for sea salt production (Fig. 4). In such saltworks the salt density grows from the initial value of 3.5% (sea water) up to the saturation point of sodium chloride (25.7) by means of the evaporation induced by the sun energy. The water flows through several order of ponds within the saltwork while that the density grows. In the typical design of such a saltwork (reference is given to the Mariastella layout of Fig. 5 in what follows) there are four order of ponds, each order being characterized by a well-defined density range:

• 1st order, called “cold ponds” (FR1,2 in Fig. 5, with reference to the Mariastella saltwork): 3,5Bè to 5-6Bè, it covers 20-25% of the total saltwork surface, with a depth of 50-100cm;

• 2nd order, so called “driving ponds” (VAC, VG1,2,3 in Fig.5). The number of ponds depends from the saltwork design. The density grows in this kind of ponds from 5-6Bè to 10-12Bè. Their total surface covers 20-25% of the total saltwork surface. The pond depth is here reduced to <50cm;

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• 3rd order, (hot ponds, CSE1,2, SE1,2, CA1,2 in Fig. 5) made by several small and shallow (<40cm) ponds, covering 40-45% of the total saltwork surface. Here the pond segmentation is very fine. Each pond has a surface of 1000-2000m2. A sequence of four (not less than three) ponds is fed with the water coming from the “driving ponds” at a density of 10-12Bè. In the last pond of the sequence the water reaches the saturation point of sodium chloride (25.7Bè). The number of parallel sequences depends on the saltwork design and dimension. Each sequence of hot ponds feeds one or two crystallisation ponds with saturated brine, that represents the 4th and last order of ponds;

• 4th order, made by several crystallisation ponds (CR1,2. Each of them has roughly the same dimension as the hot ponds. They are very shallow (<25 cm) with very flat soil. The salt crystallises only in this order of ponds. During the hot season a crust of ~10cm is grown in 40-45 days in the crystallisation ponds, where it is harvested once or twice according to the season’s climatic behaviour. The crystallisation ponds cover not more than 15% of the total saltwork surface.

Fig. 1 View of a basin of "Mariastella" saltworks with the MED-TVC plant in the background.

The water flow, mainly driven by gravity through the ponds, and its correct distribution, are guaranteed by small canals connecting the ponds and, whenever needed, by small low prevalence pumps. The saltwork master regulates the water flux feeding the “cold pond” with fresh water and shifting the brine from one order of ponds to the other according to the evaporation rate. This ensures that each order of ponds represents, at any time, a storage of concentrated water with a well-defined density range. Moreover, salts other than sodium chloride precipitate in different ponds according to their own saturation point. The resulting NaCl content of the produced salt ranges from 97-98.5%.

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Fig. 2 Schematic process flow layout of "Mariastella" saltworks in the traditional configuration [Cipollina et al., 2012].

The production cycle is repeated with yearly frequency. Saltworks feeding normally starts at the end of April, when the evaporation rate starts to be important (it will stay between 1 and 1.5cm/day up to September, with peaks up to 2 cm) and the rainfall is correspondingly reduced (<100mm integrated rainfall from May to September). 12-15 cm of salt crust is grown every year with a typical figure for the production/ha of (1-1,2)×103 ton/104m2. Harvesting is done twice, or even three times a year, in case of very dry seasons.

As far as the Mariastella saltworks are concerned, Table 2 summarises the trend of salt production historical data in the period 2000-2007.

Table 2 Geometrical features and operating data of Mariastella saltworks

Production historical data of Mariastella saltworks

Year 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Prod. (ton)

2370 0 1941 1934 1694 1630 1765 1686 2000 2000

The saltworks yearly productivity can dramatically vary according to the meteorological conditions occurring during the productive season. Nevertheless, for Mariastella

Seawater inlet

Saturated brine to discharge

Produced lt

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saltworks in the 10 years from 1998 to 2007 the production has ranged from values of about 1600 tons/year to values of 2350, with an average production of 1700 tons/year.

3. Feeding the Mariastella saltworks with the MED plant brine: a three-year

experience 3.1. The new operating configuration of the experimental saltworks

In 2008 a novel feeding scheme has been adopted for testing the possibility of enhancing the production of salt in an experimental saltworks by using the brine from a desalination plant to feed the saltworks itself.

This has been done within the above described Mariastella saltworks, where the output flow of one of the four MED-TVC units has been intercepted and sent, through a 30m-long pipeline, to the Mariastella VAC pond, thus substituting the direct seawater intake. The saltworks feeding is thus made with a 5,5Bè brine instead of 3,5Bè fresh seawater. This allows the entire concentration process to be shortened and fastened. The logical process of the brine flow is, from now on, absolutely unchanged. The brine path through the ponds is instead adapted, as far as its first part is concerned, to the new intake point. As shown on Fig. 6, after the VAC pond the brine is sent to FR2 and, with the aid of the low prevalence pump M1, to FR1 (the first pond of the path in the former configuration) and from here to the VG1 pond. From this point on, the path is unchanged, repeating exactly the process layout of the traditional configuration.

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Fig. 6 Schematic process flow layout of "Mariastella"saltworks in the novel configuration, where brine from the MED-TVC plant is used as feed stream. Blue circles indicate sampling for IC analysis with the relevant basin identification number [Cipollina et al., 2012].

As it is obvious, since the density starting point is higher, and the path length the same, the saturation point of the brine is reached before (in terms of progressing basins) and in a shorter time. The production is therefore enhanced. This advantage can be in principle managed in two ways:

- Increasing the crystallisation surface, by adding some new crystallisation ponds. The main requirement to be respected for an efficient saltworks design is the ratio C/T between the crystallisation surface C and the total saltworks area T, which should be no larger than 15%, with an optimum value of 1/8. Since the so-called cold pond of a traditional saltworks covers a surface of >20% to let the density increase from 3.5Bè to 5.6Bè, this means that the effective saltworks area is de facto increased by a factor 1.25 when the process starts at 5.6Bè as it happens by feeding it with the outlet of the desalination plant. For the traditional Mariastella saltwork the ratio C/T was equal to 15.68%, which has been practically reduced to 12.54% if considering the (fictitious) basins area

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T’=T×1.25, also taking into account the first evaporation step occurred within the MED unit. This almost leads to the achievement of the optimum value of 1/8, thus indicating that a further increase of the crystallisation surface C would unbalance such optimal ratio.

- The second way to manage the enhanced evaporation process is to let a larger salt crust grow in a shorter time on the same crystallisation surface. This has been the preferred solution in the Mariastella case.

3.2. Benefits and problems of the new operating configuration

The first test season for the new method has been 2008, when exceptional climatic conditions allowed a 30% increase of salt production with respect to the average values registered in all the saltworks of the area. A production of raw salt of 2900 tons has been estimated in the Mariastella saltworks, to be compared with a mean value of 1815 tons over the last 10 years1, which means an increase of ~60%. At the beginning of 2009 harvesting season, a huge hurricane bet the Western Sicilian coast. Only 30% of the production has been saved in the Mariastella saltworks, which is obviously not significant and caused a strong depletion also on 2010 data. In 2010 in fact an estimated production of 1650 tons has been registered. This results is again a very poor one, that cannot be compared to the result of other saltworks in the area.

The hurricane of September 16, 2009, that has a repetition time, in the area, of less than 1 event/50years (last recorded event is of September, 3, 1965) was in fact very localised and affected Mariastella saltworks to a much larger extent than the other saltworks of the area both for its localisation and for the position of Mariastella, very close to public roads and less protected by guard rings canal than the others. This means that the usual concentrated water storage done by the saltworkers in the winter period was completely spoiled-out in the 2009-2010 winter and, despite the new feeding method, the 2010 production was also strongly depressed.

A normal situation was restored in 2011 and 2012, confirming a definite strong enhancement of the production. A total production of 2500 and 3000 tons has been registered, in 2011 and 2012 respectively, more than 60% larger than the 1997-2007 mean value1, to be compared with the results of other saltworks of the area, whose production showed a value 15-20%% larger than the mean value1 taken in the same reference period. Despite the relevant data concern only three years of production, and therefore only preliminary conclusions can be drawn, a benefit of 20-30% production increase turns out in using the outlet of the Trapani desalination plant.

As it concern possible drawbacks generated by the new configuration (both in terms of quality of the salt and possible effects of the chemical additives used in the MED-TVC plant pre-treatment stage), on the basis of similar past experience already presented in

1 The mean value is always calculated taking the last 11 years data and discarding the worst result, assuming that once every 10 years there is a singularity, which significantly affects the production of a single unit.

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the open literature regarding the use of desalination brine to enhance saltworks productivity, a number of different aspects were monitored during these three years of experiments in Trapani.

In particular Ravizky and Nadav in 2007 presented the experience of using a reverse osmosis brine for feeding a saltwork in Eilat. According to such experience, a number of problems may arise due for example to:

- The use of chemical additives within the desalination plant pre-treatment stages (particularly in the case of a RO brine, which may contain inorganic or organic flocculants, anti-scalant and anti-fouling agents), which may dramatically influence the biological growth within the saltworks basins;

- Different brine compositions (in the case of the Eilat plant, the RO unit treated a seawater/brackish water mixture with a composition fairly different from seawater, thus affecting the fractionated crystallisation steps normally designed for saltworks operated with seawater);

- Salt precipitation when brine has to be transported for long distances.

In the present case, most of the above presented concerns have been faced and solved before the field tests started in 2008.

The MED-TVC plant in Trapani has always operated with seawater, thus maintaining basically the same feed composition of traditional saltworks.

The lucky location of the MED plant, basically beside the Mariastella saltworks, has allowed the use of a simple 30 m long pipe for brine transportation.

As it concerns the presence of chemical additives present in the brine, pre-treatment in the MED-TVC unit is rather limited to the use of a discontinuous shock disinfection procedure at the seawater intake (which does not leave any residual chloride in the brine, and has been stopped in the last 2 years of operation) and the addition of very small quantities of commercial antiscalant and antifoam agents. Both of them are classified as “no environmental risk and food-grade” products, thus not representing a significant risk even if residual amounts would be entrained by the brine. Moreover, qualitative analysis have been performed by means of thermo-gravimetric measurements and no detectable amounts of these compounds have been found, also due to the large quantity of other small traces of organic matter normally available in sea-salt. Moreover, the possibility that traces of these compounds could be trapped during crystallisation process is very low, also given the washing procedure normally performed before packing the salt.

Finally, no effect has been observed in the biological parameters monitored in the saltworks. No algae bloom has occurred, while normal fauna (e.g. artemia salina) living in low and medium concentration basins still remained alive and active in promoting the correct operation of the saltworks, being this latter a real complex and delicate bioreactor.

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3.3. Monitoring of process water composition and potentials for further exploitation of brines

Process waters along the evaporation basins were also continuously monitored in order to check for possible variation from standard operating performances. Figs. 7 shows the trend of concentration of different cations in processed brines along the evaporating basins of the saltworks. It is clear how most cations concentrate progressively along the first 5 monitored points (i.e. until crystallisation basins), with the exception of Ca2+, which starts precipitating in the VG basins as calcium carbonate and sulphate salts. Na+ concentration is then stabilised in the crystallisation ponds, where NaCl starts precipitating. At the contrary K+ and Mg2+ concentration still rises up to values between 700 and 900% higher than initial values, i.e. up to concentrations of 8 g/l for potassium and more than 35 g/l for magnesium.

Given the above considerations, it emerges the huge potential for recovery of such materials, in particular magnesium. This is, in fact, significantly facilitated by the high concentration of Mg2+ achieved in the exhausted brine and by the almost complete absence of Ca2+ ions, which would be somehow competing in any process involving the separation of bivalent cations. Some experimental investigation has been performed by laboratory tests for precipitation of magnesium hydroxide, as it will be presented in the next section.

Another interesting application for brine exploitation potentials is the use of salinity gradients between brine and seawater for energy production. This topic has been recently addressed in the EU-FP7 funded project REAPower [www.reapower.eu], which aims at the development of a Salinity Gradient Power - Reverse Electrodialysis (SGP-RE) prototype installed and operated within the saltworks facilities in Trapani using seawater and exhausted brines as salinity gradient generating solutions.

Fig.7. Increase in cations concentration (expressed in g/l) along Mariastella basins. Basin identification numbers are reported in Fig. 8.

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4. Exploitation of saltworks exhausted brine for magnesium production

Given the above consideration on the large potential for exploitation of saturated brines from saltworks, some preliminary tests have been performed aiming at the feasibility assessment of performing magnesium recovery from brines by means of reactive precipitation induced through reaction with an alkaline solution. The final goal of such approach would be the quantitative recovery of magnesium salts (in this case mainly magnesium hydroxide) with high purity and with crystal sizes high enough to allow rapid separation of the precipitated phase by settling or fast filtration.

In the presented preliminary tests, the concentration and flow rate of the alkaline solution and the stirring rate of the reaction medium were changed to investigate their effect on the purity and nucleation/growth rates of magnesium hydroxide crystals. Experiments were performed at 25 and 40°C, the latter being a temperature easily accessible in saltworks just using solar irradiation.

Finally, vacuum filtration was adopted instead of gravity sedimentation to assess in a faster manner the effect of operative conditions on the size of precipitated magnesium hydroxide grains since higher filtration time can be attributed to smaller average size of precipitated particles.

In the following paragraphs a detailed description of experimental apparatus and procedures is reported along with the results of laboratory tests performed.

4.1 Experimental set-up and procedures Experimental tests were carried out in an home-made bench scale reactive precipitation apparatus adopting two systems at different scales (mixed tank reactor volume of 0,5 l and 5 l).

In the smaller scale reactor, the system was simply constituted by a glass Becker (vol. 500 ml), mechanically stirred by a small marine impeller, that was loaded with a 50 ml of brine, with a composition reported in Table 3, diluted by a further addition of 50 ml of distilled water. The temperature of the solution was fixed by an electronically controlled thermostatic bath. A syringe pump was used to feed with controlled flow rate an over-stoichiometric (a 25% increase was used with respect to the stoichiometric quantity of NaOH required) amount of aqueous solution of NaOH used as co-reagent for the reactive precipitation. The sodium hydroxide used for the preparation of NaOH solutions was Aldrich analytical grade.

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Table 3. Composition of exhausted brine adopted for reactive precipitation tests.

Brine source pH Concentration of main cations and anions in solution [gr/lt]

Exhausted brine from Trapani saltworks

7.1 Na+ K+ Ca2+ Mg2+ Cl- SO42- Br-

48.30

8.62 0.46 36.06 166.1 52.32 1.76

Analysis performed using Ionic Chromatography, after dilution 1:4000 of sampled brine

The precipitated solid was separated from the residual aqueous phase by filtration under vacuum. The solid was carefully washed using deionized water and dried under vacuum overnight.

Both solid and liquid phases were analysed by Perkin Elmer Optima 2010 DV ICP. To this purpose a weighed amount of the solid sample was dissolved in a 1M HCl solution. The morphology of solid crystals was analyzed and imaged with a Philips scanning electron microscope (SEM). Samples were sputter coated with gold to a thickness of 200Å.

A schematic graphical description of the experimental procedure adopted for the solid precipitation and collection is reported in Fig. 8.

Fig. 8. Schematic description of the experimental procedure adopted for the reactive precipitation and solids separation steps.

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A slightly different procedure was adopted for the 5 l reactor [Cipollina et al, 2014], where the volume was kept constant during the precipitation experiment by continuously purging a volumetric flow rate of reacting suspension equal to the injected NaOH solution flow rate.

Finally, a continuous precipitation test was also performed with the 5 l reactor, in order to assess the process feasibility for a continuous industrial production [Cipollina et al, 2014].

4.2 Process performance parameters

In order to analyse process performances, three different performance parameters were taken into account, namely:

- filtration times; - purity of magnesium salts produced; - efficiency of the precipitation process.

As it concerns filtration times, they were simply measured during the vacuum filtration step of the final suspension obtained after reactive-precipitation.

Purity of magnesium salts was estimated starting from the composition of main ions measured by Ionic Chromatography in the solid samples and calculating the amount of magnesium salts likely present in the precipitate. The presence of potassium and calcium ions n the precipitate has been found to be negligible in all experimental runs. Moreover, as a simplifying assumption, the quantity of different salts has been estimated starting from the quantity of Na+ ions and associating a relevant stoichiometric quantity of ions Cl- and, when an excess of Na+ ions still remained, also to SO42- ions (as NaCl and Na2SO4, respectively). Eventually, the remaining quantities of Cl- and SO42- ions were associated with a stoichiometric part of Mg2+ (as MgCl2 and MgSO4, respectively). Finally, all the “non-associated” Mg2+ ions were considered to be precipitated as Mg(OH)2.

The efficiency of the precipitation process was estimated by IC analysis of filtered solution after precipitation. The amount of Mg2+ ions still present in the solution was compared to the amount initially measured in the exhausted brine and their ratio was considered as the complement of precipitation efficiency.

4.3 Results and discussion

Laboratory tests with the small scale system (0.5 l reactor) were performed varying operating conditions in the ranges reported below [Cipollina et al., 2012]:

- NaOH solution concentration: 0.5M and 1M; - NaOH solution injection flow rate: 1.5, 2.5, 3.5, 7 (ml/min);

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- Impeller speed: 400, 570, 710 RPM; - Thermostatic bath temperature: 25°C and 40°C.

Filtration time was significantly influenced by process parameters, thus indicating a strong influence of theses latters on crystals nucleation/growth kinetics. In particular, Fig.9 shows how the promotion of mixing (i.e. impeller rotational speed) significantly reduced filtration times, as it probably reduces the oversaturation of brine in proximity of the NaOH injection point and, therefore, it reduced the primary nucleation rate thus allowing an increase in crystals size.

Higher filtration times were always recorded when using concentrated NaOH solutions, while the increase in injection rate also increased filtration times likely causing a faster primary nucleation in proximity of the needle (Fig. 10). Finally, the effect of bath temperature led to an increase in filtration time when operating at higher temperature, as shown in Fig.11.

Fig. 9 Dependence of filtration time on impeller speed and NaOH solution concentration. NaOH solution injection rate 3.5 ml/min.

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Fig. 10. Dependence of filtration time on NaOH solution injection rate and concentration. Impeller speed 570 RPM.

Fig.11. Dependence of filtration time on NaOH solution injection rate and temperature. Impeller speed 570 RPM.

As it concerns the content of magnesium salts in the precipitate, quite high purity values (in all tests values higher than 90%) were found, with peaks of more than 98% in terms of Mg(OH)2.

Also in this case, operating conditions influenced the purity of precipitated product; however, the effect was not so relevant as in the case of filtration times (Figs. 12-14) and only slight increases of purity with the lower NaOH concentration (0.5M) and higher temperature (40°C) were found.

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Fig.12. Obtained magnesium salts purity varying impeller speed and NaOH solution concentration. Injection rate 3,5 ml/min, temperature 25°C.

Fig. 13. Obtained magnesium salts purity varying NaOH solution injection rate and concentration. Impeller speed 570 RPM, temperature 25°C.

Impeller speed

Injection rate

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Fig.14. Obtained magnesium salts purity varying NaOH solution injection rate and Concentration. Impeller speed 570 RPM, temperature 40°C.

The last performance parameter analysed for the characterisation of precipitation tests was the efficiency of reactive precipitation (i.e. the reaction yield). To this regard, very small quantities of Mg2+ were detected in the filtered solution and, in several cases, these were under the detection limit of the instrument (due to the very high concentration of sodium chloride in the solution, the dilution required before IC analysis did not allow the detection of Mg2+ concentration in the filtered solution below 10 mg/lt, corresponding to a precipitation efficiency higher than 99.7%) thus indicating an almost unitary efficiency of the process

Very similar achievements were found also operating the semi-batch experiments with the 5 l reactor (not reported here for the sake of brevity), for which detailed information can be found in a recent paper by the same authors [Cipollina et al., 2014].

Finally, the continuous crystallisation test have shown that Mg(OH)2 crystallisation can be performed in a CSTR reactor, though the smaller size of particles and long residence time in the reacting system would indicate that other types of continuous reactors (I.e. Plug flow reactors) may perform better in the same operating conditions [Cipollina et al., 2014].

On the basis of this first experimental campaign, it emerges how magnesium extraction from brine is feasible and can lead to the production of high purity magnesium hydroxide, which can then be sent to a further processing step for the production of metallic magnesium by thermal or electrochemical reduction [Friedrich and Mordike, 2006].

In order to give a rough idea of the economic potentials for the application of such idea in Trapani saltworks, some preliminary calculations have been made to estimate the quantity of magnesium obtainable from exhausted brine in a national area such as Italy or extending the area of interest to the whole Mediterranean basin.

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As a starting point it is necessary to consider that the total salt production in Italian saltworks is about 1,000,000 tons/year, with a relevant exhausted brine production of about 4,500,000 m3/year (assuming that about 50% of NaCl entering the saltworks with seawater is actually precipitated, while the remaining brine is discharged back to the sea). Assuming a Mg2+ concentration in the brine of 35kg/m3, and a 100% recovery of Mg(OH)2, it is possible to estimate a potential production of MgOequivalent of about 270,000 tons/year. Extending the calculation to the whole Mediterranean basin, with a total saltworks capacity more than 10 times large than the Italian one, a total potential production of almost 3,000,000 tons/year of MgOequivalent can be estimated, counting for about 30% of Magnesium world production (estimated to be around 11 million tons/year of MgO equivalent in 2011 [Bray, 2013]).

5. Energy generation from brines through the Reverse Electrodialysis process 5.1 The REAPower project

The final stage of the proposed integrated cycle, is the production of energy from salinity gradients generated by the use of concentrated brines/bitterns and sea or brackish water. With this respect, a cooperation research project, namely the REAPower project (www.reapower.eu), has been recently financed by the EU, with the final aim of developing an innovative system for power production by Salinity Gradient Power – Reverse Electrodialysis (SGP-RE) process, to be tested in the framework of Trapani saltworks, using sea (or brackish) water as diluted solution and brine as concentrate [Tedesco, Cipollina, et al., 2014].

As depicted in Fig. 15, a Reverse Electrodialysis unit is constituted by a number of anionic and cationic exchange membranes alternatively positioned into a stack, forming rectangular channels, in which saline solutions at different concentrations can flow. The concentration gradient between them forces the ions to move through the membranes. This ionic flux is regulated by ions mobility and membrane permselectivity, i.e. the selectivity towards cation/anion transport through Cation Exchange Membranes/Anion Exchange Membranes, respectively, which generate a net ionic current through the stack. Finally, this ionic current is converted into electric current by means of redox reactions at the electrodes, positioned at the two ends of the stack, and can be collected by an external load.

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Fig.15. Schematic view of the Reverse Electrodialysis (RED) process

Within the complex organisation of R&D activities of the REAPower project, the main task were focused on:

Development of new Ion Exchange Membranes for highly concentrated solutions

Selection of best conditions for redox couple/stack design Wide experimental investigation on lab-scale stack Development/validation of a predictive modelling tool for the design and

simulation of the project prototype. Construction and testing of a prototype to be operated with real brines Economic analysis & process sustainability on large scale

Fig. 16 gives a clear idea on the significant scale-up steps planned within the 4 years of activities. It is worth noting how the starting RED unit with a total cell pair area of 0.5 m2 has been scaled-up to a second generation stack with a cell pair area of about 5 m2, still adopted for laboratory testing and R&D. Passing to the prototyping phase, the single stack size passed from a small unit of about 25 m2 and, then, to the large stack equipped with about 100 m2 of cell pair area. Finally, the prototype equipped with three large stacks will count on a total cell pair are of about 300 m2, successfully achieving a scale-up of almost 3 orders of magnitude from the first generation laboratory RED stack.

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Fig.16 Technology development stages within the REAPower project.

In the following paragraph, an overview on the main achievements and perspectives relevant to the prototype installed and operated in Trapani saltworks will be presented.

5.2 Installation and testing of the REAPower prototype

Installation activities started in January 2014, within an old-restructured windmill located at the Ettore e Infersa saltwors in Marsala, TP, Italy (Fig. 17). The first installation phase was completed in April 2014 with the small prototype stack (44cmx44cm, 125 cell pairs) installed and operated.

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Fig. 16. The installation site of the REAPower prototype: the windmill at the Ettore e Infersa saltworks, Marsala (TP), Italy.

The prototype stack was positioned on a test bench (Fig. 18) equipped with all necessary auxiliary and measuring systems, such as circulation pumps, flow maters, pressure, temperature and conductivity controllers (positioned both at the inlet and outlet of the feed solutions), all connected with a data acquisition system able to monitor continuously the main operating parameters of the prototype.

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Fig. 18. View of the prototype installation, with the first operating stack equipped with 100 cell pairs of 22cmx22cm membrane area.

The first weeks of operation allowed to collect valuable information on the performances of the system, which has been so far the first and largest installed reverse electrodialysis prototype operating with real saline solutions and concentrated brines. For the sake of brevity, only the working ranges of the main operating parameters are reported in Table 4. Notably, the power output registered during these operations has varied in the range 40-60 W, with higher values achieved with the optimised artificial solutions. This figure has to be considered a milestone for the RED technology, being at least one order of magnitude larger than the power outputs so fare presented in the relevant literature.

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Table 4 Working range of the main operating parameters of the prototype system equipped with the small prototype stack (44cmx44cm with 125 cell pairs).

Feed streams Conductivity [mS/cm]

Flow rate [l/min]

Temperature [°C]

Power output [W]

Natural or artificial brine 180-230 6-12 25-30

40-60 Natural or artificial brackish water

1-6 6-12 22-25

Project activities will continue until September 2014, with the final goal of installing and testing the prototype system at its maximum provisional capacity, when equipped with three large prototype stacks (each one with 44cm x 44cm 500 cell pairs).

Simulations were performed, with a purposely-developed simulation tool, in order to optimise the layout and the operating conditions of the system [Tedesco, Mazzola, et al., 2014]. Model predictions indicate how the three different layouts analysed for the final prototype plant, will allow in principle the achievement of the target of 1kW power output.

However, it is worth noting that the first collected experimental results (with the small prototype stack) already indicate some reductions of the output power with respect to the predicted theoretical values, mainly due to parasitic phenomena related to the use of real solutions (containing a very heterogeneous ions mixture, instead of only NaCl) and to non-ideal flow distribution inside the stack, 8 times larger than the one tested in the lab and used for model validation.

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Fig. 19 Provisional gross and net power outputs of the final REAPower prototype [Tedesco, Mazzola, et al., 2014]. Simulations of 3 stacks (500 cells) equipped with Fujifilm membranes 44×44 cm

2 and 270 μm

woven spacers; CHIGH = 5 M (NaCl); QHIGH =29.4 lt/min; make-up of brackish water, QMU = 40 lt/min, CMU = 0.03 M (NaCl).

6. Conclusions

The problem of brine disposal from desalination facilities has recently been addressed by converting it into a potential resource for the recovery of raw materials and energy.

In the present work a case study for the design and application of a concept for the production of fresh water, salt and magnesium by means of an integrated cycle involving a desalination facility, traditional saltworks and a precipitation step for the final recovery of magnesium hydroxide.

The peculiar context of Trapani and Marsala saltworks (in Sicily, south of Italy), where a desalination MED-TVC facility already exists, has been chosen for an experimental campaign focused on the use of desalination brine as a feed solution for an experimental saltworks. A 4-year experience has demonstrated the feasibility of the concept also highlighting possible risks and the large potential for the enhancement of the evaporation-driven process for salt production.

At the same time, some preliminary tests were performed at laboratory scale, for the feasibility analysis of magnesium recovery from exhausted brines being discharged from saltworks. Also in this case, results have shown that the reactive-precipitation process is a viable solution for the recovery of high purity magnesium hydroxide with extremely high precipitation efficiency.

Finally, the potential for energy production through Salinity Gradient Power Reverse Electrodialysis technology have been explored within the EU-funded research project REAPower. After a complex and fruitful 4-years period of activities in the laboratories (for performing experimental and modelling analysis for the development of the RED

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technology), a prototype unit has been installed in Ettore e Infersa saltworks (Marsala-TP) and operated using saltworks brines/bitterns and sea or brackish water as feed solutions. Never explored potentials for energy generation from saltworks brine have been assessed. Moreover, the prototype size and the measured power output values are to be considered the highest ever achieved for the RED technology, thus making the prototype installation and operation a milestone for the development of salinity gradient power technologies.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Part of the presented activities have been financially supported by EU within the REAPower (Reverse Electrodialysis Alternative Power production) project (EU-FP7 programme, Project Number: 256736).

The authors would also like to acknowledge Siciliacque, with particular regards to Mr. Carmelo Mineo and Mr. Alessandro Scarpulla, for providing valuable advices and useful information on the MED-TVC plant operation.

REFERENCES

1. Arnal J.M., Sancho M., Iborra I., Gozàlvez J.M., Santafé A., Jora J., “Concentration of brines from RO desalination plants by natural evaporation”, Desalination 182, 2005, 435-439.

2. Bray E. L., Magnesium compounds, in: 2012 Minerals Yearbook, UCGS, U.S. Department of the Interior, September 2013.

3. Cipollina A., Bevacqua M., Dolcimascolo P., Tamburini A., Brucato A., Glade H., Buether L., Micale G., Reactive crystallisation process for magnesium recovery from concentrated brines, Desalination and Water Treatment, 2014, in press, doi: 10.1080/19443994.2014.947771.

4. Cipollina A., Micale G., Rizzuti L., A critical assessment of desalination operations in Sicily, Desalination 182, 2005, 374-379.

5. Cipollina A., Misseri A., D'Alì Staiti G., Galia A., Micale G., Scialdone O., Integrated production of fresh water, sea salt and magnesium from sea water, Desaliantion and Water Treatment 49, 2012, 390-403.

6. Friedrich H. E., Mordike B. L., Magnesium Technology - Metallurgy, Design Data, Applications, Springer – Verlag 2006

7. Gilron J., Folkman Y., Savliev R., Waisman M., Kedem 0., “WAIV - wind aided intensified evaporation for reduction of desalination brine volume”, Desalination 158, 2003, pp. 205-214

8. Glueckstern P., Priel M., “Optimized brackish water desalination plants with minimum impact on the environment”, Desalination, 108 (1996) 19.

9. Katzir L., Volkmann Y., Daltrophe N., Korngold E., Mesalem R., Oren Y., Gilron J., “WAIV – Wind aided intensified evaporation for brine volume reduction and generating mineral byproducts”, Desalination and Water Treatment 13 (2010) 63–73 January

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10. Latteman S., Protecting the marine environment, in Seawater Desalination, A. Cipollina, G. Micale, L. Rizzuti (Eds.), Springer-Verlag Berlin-Heidelberg, 2009.

11. Peters T., Pintó D., “Seawater intake and pre-treatment/brine discharge — environmental issues”, Desalination 221 (2008) 576–584.

12. Ravizky A., Nadav N., Salt production by the evaporation of SWRO brine in Eilat: a success story, Desalination 205, 2007, 374-379.

13. Truesdal J., Mickley P.M., and Hamilton R., “Survey of membrane drinking water plant disposal methods”, Desalination 102 , 1995, pp. 93-105

14. Tedesco M., Cipollina A., Tamburini A., Micale G., Helsen J., Papapetrou M., REAPower: use of desalination brine for power production through reverse electrodialysis, Desalination and Water Treatment, 2014, in press. Doi: 10.1080/19443994.2014.934102

15. Tedesco M., Mazzola P., Tamburini A., Micale G., Bogle D., Papapetrou M., Cipollina A., Analysis and simulation of scale-up potentials in reverse electrodialysis, Desalination and Water Treatment, 2014, in press. Doi: 10.1080/19443994.2014.947781

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Solar Salt Works Integrated Management - SSWIM

Ricardo Jorge Dolores Coelho1, Mauro Rafael da Cunha Hilário2 and Duarte Nuno Ramos Duarte3

1Independent Researcher in Universidade do Algarve. ricardojdcoelho@gmail.com 2Independent Researcher in Universidade do Algarve. mauro_lwt@hotmail.com 3Assistant Professor in Universidade do Algarve. dduarte@ualg.pt

ABSTRACT The SSWIM project aimed to ensure improved governance for solar salt works sustainable development. It should set the bases for a new production paradigm through marine salt production optimization, a relationship between integrated activities with bio-, environmental and market models. It should provide an ecosystem services evaluation and explore the role of such evaluation. Consequently, it should contribute to coastal and natural environmental protection, and heritage maintenance.

1. RESUME

In the middle of the 20th century, the marine salt production from solar salt works in Europe suffered a decline due to (i) high production costs in comparison with other salt productions styles, (ii) global competition with an increased market liberalization scenario [1], (iii) land pressures in a tourism driven demographic change context, (iv) lack of technological innovation, v) the appearance and development of semi-intensive and intensive aquaculture in the same areas, vi) changes in hydrological regimes and vii) the lack of the idea of environmental integration.

Some of these factors turned the land more expensive and inaccessible for solar salt works exclusive use. In consequence a coastal heritage is being lost, followed in some cases by the anthropic degradation of the surrounding natural environmental areas. However, new projects based in biological production, the concept of ecosystem services and land rehabilitation, environmental education and other integrated activities could generate higher profits to solar salt works [2] and consequently their sustainability and their development. For that there is a necessity to articulate traditional know-how with scientific knowledge as well as to match research capabilities with technology and product demands. The SSWIM project should set the bases for a new paradigm of production models and ultimately for successful sustainable development of the solar salt works. The project intends to develop a solar salt works integrated management, with the following objectives: (i) to describe exactly what has happened and is happening in the specific case area; (ii) to provide

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background research and join producers and stakeholders for the development of policies at different levels aimed at achieving solar salt works sustainable development through conservation value, taxes and production regulation; (iii) to consider solar salt works in the context of ecosystem service evaluation (economic and non-economic) and to explore the role of such evaluation in ensuring improved governance for sustainable development; (iv) to describe autochthonous species with market value which can be produced in solar salt works as complementary activities which are able to raise the profitability of solar salt works; (v) to quantify the production of these species according to environmental parameters and the areas of the involved solar salt works through laboratory and field bio-essays; (vi) To analyze the relationship between experience tourism/ecotourism and the specific solar salt works; (vii) to elaborate models of marine salt production optimization; (viii) to provide seasonal models to marine salt production and complementary activities in order to change from un-qualified to qualified work.

2. PROJECT BACKGROUND

Coastal solar salt works activities are normally present in wetlands, more specifically in salt marshes rich in biodiversity and represent unique biological systems [3,4], which make them environmentally relevant [5]. Many species live, feed and reproduce in a salt marsh and in a solar salt works area [6]. They provide biological diversity, including plants, birds, reptiles, fish and invertebrates and contribute to flood prevention and improved water management [6,7]. Usually, even salt producers do not appreciate their activity as an environmental friendly one, ignoring its ecological value, which is difficult to estimate in economic terms. The presence of solar salt works tempers the hydrological regime, promotes environmental preservation, controlling natural and anthropic factors and increase water quality [8]. One successful example of environmental protection is the case of the solar salt works of Margherita di Savoia (South of Italy), where an artificial solar salt works located in a protected area with natural interest, belonging to the Natura 2000 and Ramsar lists, became the home to rare endangered species able to proliferate there. Migratory species make the area a "stopover" for food and shelter. There is an integrated management, species inventories, naturalistic, biological, microbiological and geological studies and all the stakeholders agree with the role it plays in conservation, due to the lack of negative impacts [9]. Other examples of Ramsar areas, with traditional solar salt works are the cases of Ria Formosa (Portugal), Songor Keta lagoon (Ghana) [10], Yucatan (Mexico) [11] and Rajasthan (India) [12].

However, without integrated activities small solar salt works are sentenced to transformations or decline. Provided by the appearance of semi-intensive and intensive aquaculture, the constant increase of coastal tourism, the changes in hydrological regimes and the idea of environmental integration turned the land to be more expensive and legally inaccessible exclusively for solar salt works. Also there is a lack of scientific knowledge and available research on integrated activities. Existing

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ones are not being transferred to practice and solar salt workers are scarcely receptive to changes. So, there is a need to connect stakeholders and research centers, as well as to gather more information through structured fieldwork.

3. PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION

The project combines several tasks attached by stages. The first stage should produce a global overview over all the topics to be worked and collect global information about the area to start to build the project draft. Similar activities in the area should also be located for comparisons through available data in the next stages.

At a second stage solar salt works history should be collected and the analysis of policies should be done in cooperation with the regulators and stakeholders. Geographical location and altimetry will be a natural consequence of mapping to produce precise ponds surface areas and volumes numbers.

Figure 1: Subjects to have into account in the planning of the SSWIM in a specific solar salt works.

At a third stage an ecosystem services evaluation should be carried out. These ecosystems provide a range of services which can be used by humans that include food production, wood production, soil protection, water quality regulation and hydrological control, carbon sequestration, natural and cultural landscape value, recreation and tourism. At the base of all these services is biodiversity and so, part of the process is to make an identification and quantification of biodiversity and ecological relationships.

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Figure 2: Ecosystems Services and variants.

At a fourth stage, the risks should be evaluated through a tide characterization to understand the salinity profile variations, statistical analysis from environmental data to predict effective evaporation rates, coastal and river (if it is the case) sediment transport to realize the possibility of water collection and (if it is the case) inlet closure, water analysis to know the content of heavy metals and develop water management pressure, calculating the risk of flooding to design or re-design the structure and the height of the ponds.

Figure 3: Solar Salt Works Risks Evaluation.

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As for the fifth stage the analysis of the marine salt qualification and quantification should be performed and for that physical-chemical, hydrological and biological parameters will be monitored. The approach will not take into account all the factors that are related with marine salt production with the objective of simplification. Not only to simplify estimated production but also to simplify future values in a production optimization approach.

Figure 4: Marine Salt Production

A relationship between ponds surface areas and volumes with effective evaporation should be done to understand the marine salt production in the solar salt works specific case. To develop an optimization of production fluctuations in the surface areas and volumes should be promoted to achieve different amounts of marine salt production and different types of marine salt taking into account the size of water columns, different crystallization layers and organism populations.

Figure 5: Relation between Surface Areas, Volumes and Effective Evaporation for Salt Production Optimization

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At a sixth stage the analysis of the potential integrated activities should be done. For that markets will be analyzed always with a focus on their needs in a global market and what is possible to insert in local and regional markets through innovation. Then laboratory experimental cultures will be conducted and environmental studies involving field monitoring of physical-chemical, hydrological, biological parameters and local species in the specific solar salt works case. These will be followed by the transfer from laboratory cultures to the solar salt works area case to model their functioning. The potential for ecotourism and other complementary activities will be explored through document analysis and interviews with local actors and example cases.

4. EXPECTED RESULTS

The following specific results are expected: i) development of policies to support marine salt producers, at local, regional and state levels; ii) development of social history and the impact of solar salt works in the social development and in the landscape as a traditional and eco-friendly activity and heritage ; iii) development of the concept of ecosystem service in solar salt works in an economic and non-economic level; iv) development of marine salt production optimization to increase marine salt production; v) prediction and quantification of risks; vi) identification of the main integrated activities; vii) elaboration of bio-models to calculate biological mass production; viii) description of the potential of eco-tourism and tourism experience for a solar salt works itinerary.

5. INNOVATIVE ASPECTS OF THE PROJECT

The establishment of the project SSWIM will provide know-how and scientific knowledge transfer between producers, research institutions and stakeholders, thus achieving not only a theoretical but also a practical knowledge to apply in solar salt works and adjacent areas. SSWIM tasks will contribute to the description of ecosystem services provide by solar salt works and promote the concept of sustainable development of this industry. There is scientific material describing some potential uses of solar salt ponds for limited integrated activities, most of them theoretic and generalist. SSWIM will establish their feasibility through field assays and optimization of biomass production as well as their impact on salt production.

The concept of integration developed will be a complete modern and unique support to solar salt works in Europe, in order to incorporate integrated activities with potential market with marine salt production.

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REFERENCES

1. Bastos MR: No trilho do sal: Valorização da história da exploração das salinas no âmbito da gestão costeira da laguna de Aveiro. Revista da Gestão Costeira Integrada, 9, 2009: 25-43.

2. Hortas F, Pérez-Hurtado A, Neves R and Girard C: Interreg IIIB sal project “salt of the Atlantic”: Revalorization of identity of the Atlantic salines. Recuperation and promotion of biological, economic and cultural potential of coastal wetlands. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006: 272-276.

3. Kavakli Z, Tsirtsis G, Korovessis N, Karydis M: A comparative analysis of the ecological systems of two Greek seasonal saltworks (Mesolonghi and Kalloni): Implications for salt production. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006: 95-102.

4. Afkhami M, and Karimian A: A survey on solar saltworks potentials in Shadegan wetland, south west of Iran. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006: 157-163.

5. Dardir AA, Wali AMA: Extraction of salts from lake Quaroun, Egypt: Environmental and economic impacts. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006: 44-51.

6. Moosvi SJ: Ecological importance of solar saltworks. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006: 243-248.

7. Sundararaj TD, Devi MA, Shanmugasundaram C, Rahaman AA: Dynamics of solar saltworks ecosystem in India. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006: 122-128.

8. Sovinc A: Secovlje salina nature park, Slovenia – new business model for preservation of wetlands at risk. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006: 254-258.

9. Zeno C: The ecological importance of the Margherita Di Savoia saltworks. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006: 15-24.

10. Quashie A, Oppong D: Ghanaian solar saltworks: promoting and protecting the ecology. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006: 174-181.

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11. Ortiz-Milán SM: Project of recovery the biological conditions of the production system in saltworks of industria salinera de Yucatan S. A. de C. V. (ISYSA) damaged by the hurricane isidore in September of 2002. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006: 25-30.

12. Sundaresan S, Ponnuchamy K, Rahaman AA: Biological management of Sambhar lake saltworks (Rajasthan, India). Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006: 199-298.

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Solar salt works implementation in Ribeira de Aljezur, Portugal – Part 1

An alternative solution for land rehabilitation

Ricardo Jorge Dolores Coelho1, Mauro Rafael da Cunha Hilário2 and Duarte Nuno Ramos Duarte3 1Independent Researcher in Universidade do Algarve. ricardojdcoelho@gmail.com 2Independent Researcher in Universidade do Algarve. mauro_lwt@hotmail.com 3Assistant Professor in Universidade do Algarve. dduarte@ualg.pt

ABSTRACT Ribeira de Aljezur is a rich ecological area located in Parque Natural do Sudoeste Alentejano e Costa Vicentina and belongs to the Natura 2000 network. It is classified as an ecological target area that requires specific conservation actions. Part of the area is not natural due to the existence of ponds belonging to an old semi-intensive aquaculture, whose activity stopped in 2010. Before the area was used to rice and marine salt production although with an uncertainty of when were active for the last time. The fact is that the disappearance of these activities had an impact on the landscape, biodiversity, water regime and local economy. Actually there is a transformed landscape without natural biological settlement and human use. However the area rehabilitation is possible through a solar salt works implementation that can lead to a positive impact on the landscape, increase the biodiversity, increase of water management, and can stimulate the local economy.

The arguments described are not sufficient in Portuguese political and social reality so there will be no state involvement. As for private investors, there are three challenges described as production quantification, bureaucratic approval and risks.

So, legal aspects of solar salt ponds implementation and the risks, described as flooding and coastal inlet closure were analyzed, and the annual production of marine salt was estimated in an average of 2427.349 tons, according to effective evaporation rates average from the last eight years, ponds surface areas and volumes.

Concluding that it is possible to develop an economical and eco-friendly activity as an alternative solution to land rehabilitation in Ribeira de Aljezur.

Key words: Solar salt works, Land rehabilitation, Ecosystem services, Marine salt production, Wetlands, Ribeira de Aljezur, Portugal

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1. BRIEF BACKGROUND OF RIBEIRA DE ALJEZUR

Ribeira de Aljezur is located in Parque Natural do Sudoeste Alentejano e Costa Vicentina (PNSACV) in the Algarve southwest coast. It is a 33.7 km water channel [1] and drains an area of 182.9 km2 [2]. During the dry season, the stream has almost no freshwater flow, but is influenced by tides [3]. The coastal inlet is adjacent to Amoreira beach and shows an unexpected morphologic resilience resulted from a dynamic equilibrium between tide and wave action. This state is only altered when high magnitude external conditions occur, associated to tide increase forced by extreme fluvial discharges [4]. It is not a real estuary, but a transition system that from an ecological point of view can be classified as a lagoon-estuarine environment [5]. History tell us that Ribeira de Aljezur had several uses, however today almost all of them disappeared taking with them most of its potential and leaving abandoned land.

Figure 1: (A) Location of Ribeira de Aljezur in Portugal; (B) Location of the area to rehabilitate (Y) and the inlet (X); (C) Aerial photograph of Ribeira de Aljezur with the area to rehabilitate (Y) and the inlet (X).

2. SPECIFIC AREA OF REHABILITION

The target area of this study is the area behind the dunes of Amoreira beach. The area is not natural due to the existence of ponds belonging to an old semi-intensive aquaculture, whose activity stopped in 2010. The area surrounding was used to rice and salt production back to the year 1318 [6] and it is possible to observe activity marks in the ground although with an uncertainty of when were active for the last time. The fact is that the disappearance of those three activities had an impact on the landscape, biodiversity, water regime and local economy.

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3. ECOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE AREA

The area is a specific intervention river area, type I and type II with partial protection and belongs to Natura 2000. The location results, that any rehabilitation activity must follow rules from Plano Especial do Parque Natural do Sudoeste Alentejano e Costa Vicentina Natural (PEPNSACV). This plan aims the insurance of ecosystems equilibrium, the promotion of economic, social and cultural development [7]. The area also belongs to the Public Water Domain [8], National Ecological Reserve (REN) [9] and National Agriculture Reserve (RAN), each with specific management guidelines [10].

4. SOLAR SALT WORKS PRESENCE AND CONSERVATION VALUES

The solar salt works activities are normally present in wetlands, more specifically in salt marshes rich in biodiversity and represent unique biological systems [11], which makes them environmentally relevant activities [12]. Many species live, feed and reproduce in a salt marsh and in a solar salt works area [13]. They provide to the environment biological diversity, including plants, birds, reptiles, fish and invertebrates, prevent flooding and improve water quality [14]. This is why the presence of solar salt works in Ribeira de Aljezur could be an ecological solution for land rehabilitation. Without negative impacts and stimulation of sustainable development.

Usually, even salt producers do not give great importance to its ecological value and it is difficult to estimate an economic value, but it is possible to list the arguments in favor of solar salt works as an environmentally-friendly activity. The presence of solar salt works can control the hydrological regime, promote the area preservation, controlling natural and anthropogenic factors and can also control water quality [15-18].

One example of successful protection is the case of the solar salt works of Margherita di Savoia (South of Italy). An artificial solar salt works located in a protected area with natural interest, belonging also to Natura 2000 and Ramsar list. However, even rare species considered endangered are proliferating there. Migratory species make the area a "stopover" for food and shelter. There is an integrated management, species inventories, naturalistic, biological, microbiological and geological studies and all the stakeholders agree with the role that plays in conservation, due to the lack of negative impacts [19]. Other examples of Ramsar areas, with traditional solar salt works are the cases of Songor Keta lagoon in Ghana [20], Yucatan in Mexico [21] and Rajasthan in India [22].

In the specific case of Ribeira de Aljezur, solar salt works implementation could play an important role in conservation, promoting new biological relationships, biodiversity increase, possible qualification of the water, the regulation of water flow, and a major positive impact on the landscape level.

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5. IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS

Ribeira de Aljezur includes spaces with heritage value, natural and cultural, actual or potential, in need of recovery, backup, rehabilitation or retraining, including areas where the dynamics of the changes that were reversed and should be subject to recovery-oriented. The high biodiversity and nature conservation needs led to the designation as a special protection area and included it on SACVNPSP. The plan was approved in order to ensure proper management safeguarding the natural resources, promoting sustainable development and populations life quality, has also the legal administrative and regulation guidelines and must confront the municipal plans. Guidelines with the aim to ensure the development of activities compatible with the equilibrium of ecosystems and the promotion of economic, social and cultural context of a protected area. It was also stipulated that the PNSACV would have responsibility for creating a terrestrial and aquatic interpretive path, and stimulation of environmental awareness activities for the entire domain and therefore to Ribeira de Aljezur [23]. With the solar salt works conservation values, approval and implementation steps will be easily overcome. However Portuguese public institutions do not have the financial capacity to support a large-scale project like this one and therefore there is the need to convince private investors to fund the project. For that it is necessary to analyze the activity risks and estimate the production of marine salt, which later through a business plan will result into a business opportunity for investors.

6. METHODS

Ponds area topographical lifting and mapping: It was made a topographical lifting, with a DGPS (Differential Global Position System) (Trimble 5800) in Ribeira de Aljezur ponds. The data was interpolated on ArcGis 9 through tin function, with Geographic Datum IPCC.UTM and was projected.

Solar salt ponds surface areas and volumes: Solar salt ponds surface areas and volumes in Ribeira de Aljezur were projected, through the ratio between solar salt pounds areas and volumes in a real case in Olhão, Algarve, Portugal. To reservoir, evaporators, crystallizers and barriers the areas ratio were 11,9%, 68,7%, 17,4% and 2% respectively. The volumes ratio were 26,1%, 70% and 3.9% respectively. There is no volume ratio to barriers.

6.1. Estimate marine salt production

6.1.1. Effective evaporation

According to evaporation and precipitation rates from Ribeira de Aljezur (data provided by Direcção Regional da Agricultura do Algarve), between the years 2004 (February) and 2012 (December) were calculated the effective monthly evaporation averages using the following equation: Ee = Ev – P [24]; Where Ee is the effective

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evaporation (mm), Ev is the evaporation (mm) and P is the precipitation (mm) per square meter.

6.1.2. Estimate marine salt production mass

To calculate the mass of salt crystallized the following mass of salt crystallization equation was used [25]: ms = Ew * 0.035; Where ms is the salt crystallized mass (kg), Ew is the volume of evaporated water (dm3), and 0.035 is the salt mass (Kg*dm-3) in the water. The Ew used were the monthly averages, minimums and maximums.

6.2. Solar salt works risks

6.2.1. Tide characterization

The tidal was characterized through the tide form number (Nf) and the Mean High Water Spring (MHWS), Mean High Water Neap (MHWN) and the High High Water Spring (HHWS), were calculate [26], according to Sines fundamental harmonic constants and the Portuguese Hydrographical Zero (data provided by Instituto Hidrográfico Português).

6.2.2. Extreme flooding height prediction

The flooding risk height was predicted through the sum of extreme environmental physical factors heights: Frh = HQf + ST + HHWS; River discharge height (HQf) according to the most extreme precipitation rates (December, 2010) in the last eight years and a 105 m2 section (stream width in front of the implementation area), through the equation in Miranda et al., 2002. Storm surge (ST) with 1 m maximum height to the Portuguese coast line [27] and high high water spring (HHWS).

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7. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 7.1. Ponds area topographical lifting and mapping

Figure 2: Actual Ponds 3D survey with Elevation (m) in Ribeira de Aljezur.

After a topographical lifting, it is possible to observe that the actual ponds are typical ponds from a semi-intensive aquaculture. The ponds are differentiated to promote fish development in different stages and the seawater collection is functional. Any future projection should take into account these facts minimizing the use of energy and consequently the management cost.

7.2. Solar salt ponds surface areas and volumes

Through the relationship between solar salt works case in Olhão, the ponds areas and volumes in Ribeira de Aljezur solar salt works were calculated, taking into account the area limitations, 106300 m2. So, reservoir, evaporators, crystallizers and barriers were projected with areas of 12649.7 m2, 73028.1 m2, 18496.2 m2 and 2126 m2 respectively. The volumes for reservoir, evaporators and crystallizers were 18974.55 m3, 51119.67 m3 and 2774.43 m3 respectively. It was assumed that the differences between effective evaporation rates in Ribeira de Aljezur and Olhão, would not influence the relationship between the surface areas or volumes; however an optimization of the areas and volumes according to effective evaporation should be done.

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7.3. Estimate marine salt production 7.3.1. Effective evaporation

Figure 3: Chart with effective evaporation month average, maximum and minimum from February, 2004 till December, 2012 in Ribeira de Aljezur.

According to Ribeira de Aljezur’s average effective evaporation rate, it is possible to produce marine salt between March and September, with the total effective evaporation average of 874.9 mm. Through the maximum effective evaporation values, the estimated production is maintained in the same set of months, with a total effective evaporation of 1105.5 mm. Through the minimum effective evaporation the estimated production will be reduced, between May and September with a total effective evaporation of 563.2 mm. This difference between maximums and minimum values leads to a difference between marine salt estimated productions.

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0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

Total

Mon

ths

Estimated Production (tons)

Average MinimiumMaximum

7.4. Marine salt and Fleur de sel Production

Figure 4: Chart with the annual average, minimum and maximum estimated marine salt production (tons).

Marine salt was estimated according to projected solar ponds surface areas, volumes and the effective evaporation averages, minimums and maximums for each month in Ribeira de Aljezur. With a total estimated production for the average, minimum and maximum of 2427.349 tons, 1555.9 tons and 3067.132 tons respectively.

7.5. Solar salt works risks

7.5.1. Tide Characterization

Nf = 0,099; Z0 = 2.12 m; MHWN = 2.758 m; HHWS = 3.584 m; MHWS = 3.452 m

The tide is a semi-diurnal tide and it means that has a tidal regime with a 12h42min frequency, characterized by two high tides and two low tides in each period or tidal cycle. The high water spring is regular with a two-week frequency, which means that it sustains all the effective evaporation and consequently the marine salt production.

7.5.2. Extreme Flooding Risk Height Prediction

HHWS = 3.584 m; HQf = 1.7485 m; Portuguese Coast ST = 1 m; Frh = 6.3325; BH > 6.3325 m

The flooding risk was calculated based on the external events that may occur in the area. Water peak discharges (1.7485 m) were calculated with precipitation data from December 2010, the high precipitation level in the last eight years and the respective

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month average temperature. It is possible that a bigger data set could give higher precipitation values, however the only dataset available for the Aljezur area goes back to 2004 values. High tides (3.584 m) were calculated from the port of Sines fundamental harmonic constants. Storm surge (1 m) as maximum value to storm surge in the Portuguese west coast. This cross resulted on the value at which the salt ponds barriers heights must overcome 6.3325 m (BH > 6.3325 m). An error might have occurred, due to the fact that the increase of sea water level in narrow estuaries was despised. However Ribeira de Aljezur channel presents a longitudinal profile with a constant width, up to ponds, so this effect can be neglected. It is a controlled risk managing during the barriers projection.

7.6. Coastal inlet closure

Another risk is the coastal inlet closure that lead to salinity longitudinal profile changes and in case of total closure, the marine tide doesn’t reach the solar salt ponds. Which consequently stops marine salt production. Thus the closure bar danger is minimal and temporary, leading then to a natural opening [28] or artificial opening such as in Lagoa de Santo Andre, southwest Portugal [29]. So it is an uncontrolled risk but with practical solution.

8. CONCLUSIONS

The rehabilitation of the old semi-aquaculture area in Ribeira de Aljezur could be possible through an implementation and development of solar salt works.

To achieve legal implementation it is necessary to present the project to the Aljezur Council, which in turn meets with the entities that regulate Ribeira de Aljezur area, including the SACVNP, REN, RAN, all controlled by Ministério da Agricultura, do Mar, do Ambiente e do Ordenamento do Território. The constraint about ecological classification is only surmountable by the argument that the area of the old semi-intensive aquaculture could be rehabilitated to an economical eco-friendly activity. Solar salt works in Ribeira de Aljezur will exert water management, promote hydrologic control and ecology studies in the surrounding area, promote land rehabilitation and consequently will improve the landscape and local economy. However this was a theoretical approach using secondary literature, there is no statistical proof for this specific area that biodiversity, water and local economy will be positively impacted by this technology.

For investors the most important comes with the marine salt production and risks analyses. Environmental and tide characteristics make the area a very good and well-controlled area for solar salt works implementation. Through traditional methods it is possible to achieve an average of 2427.349 tons of marine salt production, which would be a massive production for Portuguese artisanal production reality. The most important risks described as flooding and coastal inlet closure have different perspectives of analyses. Flooding is a minimum risk that should be managed during

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the solar salt works barriers high projection, never less than 6.3325 m and coastal inlet closure is a minimum risk with practical solution through an inlet artificial opening. With the approval steps described, the marine salt production quantification and the risks analyzes of this project could be a solution to Ribeira de Aljezur land rehabilitation.

9. The future

Apart from the physicochemical process of marine salt production, through a vision of complementary and an extended attitude to the plurality of man's dimension, solar salt works are much more than marine salt production. Solar salt ponds can be used to inorganic and organic production, to be visited and fundamentally to research. The two most observable groups of organisms to be produced are Salicornia spp. [30]; and Artemia spp. [31, 32], however there is no optimized systems to produce them. In the other hand the fact that solar salt works being eco-friendly activities could be used to attract tourism and diffuse products [33, 34, 35].

Regarding to research, solar salt works have a great potential. The relationship between time of crystallization and different types of marine salt, the production optimization through a higher wind effect over the water surface or different solar salt ponds structure constituent materials. It is interesting also to develop an economic and social study to show the impacts arising from the tradeoff between aquaculture and solar salt works. All of this research development can increase the transfer of scientific knowledge and traditional know-how as can provide other arguments to Portuguese solar salt works facing globalized markets.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

To Direcão Regional da Agricultura do Algarve, Instituto Hidrográfico Português and Instituto de Meterologia Português by provided data. To CIMA, UALG, Câmara Municipal de Aljezur, Bombeiros Voluntários de Aljezur and Associação de Defesa do Património Histórico e Arqueológico de Aljezur due to their logistical availability and disposable data. To EU Salt for promoting part of this work.

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11. Kavakli Z, Tsirtsis G, Korovessis N, Karydis M: A comparative analysis of the ecological systems of two Greek seasonal saltworks (Mesolonghi and Kalloni): Implications for salt production. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006: 95-102.

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12. Dardir AA, Wali AMA: Extraction of salts from lake Quaroun, Egypt: Environmental and economic impacts. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006: 44-51.

13. Moosvi SJ: Ecological importance of solar saltworks. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006: 243-248.

14. Sundararaj TD, Devi MA, Shanmugasundaram C, Rahaman AA: Dynamics of solar saltworks ecosystem in India. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006: 122-128.

15. Sovinc A: Secovlje salina nature park, Slovenia – new business model for preservation of wetlands at risk. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006: 254-258.

16. Mottershead R, Davidson P: The Yannarie solar project: design of a solar saltfield in Western Australia to safeguard the natural environment. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006: 133-141.

17. Evagelopoulos A, Spyrakos E, Karydis M, Koutsoubas D: The biological system of Kalloni saltworks (Lesvos Island, NE Aegean Sea, Hellas): Variations of phytoplankton and macrobenthic invertebrate community structure along the salinity gradient in the low salinity ponds. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006: 85-94.

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19. Zeno C: The ecological importance of the Margherita Di Savoia saltworks. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006: 15-24.

20. Quashie A, Oppong D: Ghanaian solar saltworks: promoting and protecting the ecology. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006: 174-181.

21. Ortiz-Milán SM: Project of recovery the biological conditions of the production system in saltworks of industria salinera de Yucatan S. A. de C. V. (ISYSA) damaged by the hurricane isidore in September of 2002. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006: 25-30.

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22. Sundaresan S, Ponnuchamy K, Rahaman AA: Biological management of Sambhar lake saltworks (Rajasthan, India). Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006: 199-298.

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Solar salt works implementation in Ribeira de Aljezur, Portugal – Part 2

Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services Value

Mauro Rafael da Cunha Hilário1 and Ricardo Jorge Dolores Coelho2

1 Independent Researcher. mauro_lwt@hotmail.com 2 Independent Researcher. ricardojdcoelho@gmail.com

“Nowadays people know the price of everything and the value of nothing”

Oscar Wilde

ABSTRACT Ribeira de Aljezur is a rich ecological area located in Parque Natural do Sudoeste Alentejano e Costa Vicentina and belongs to Natura 2000. It is classified as an ecological target area that requires specific conservation actions. Part of the area is not natural due to the existence of ponds belonging to an old semi-intensive aquaculture, whose activity stopped in 2010. Before the area was used to rice and marine salt production although with an uncertainty of when were active for the last time. The fact is that the disappearance of these activities had an impact on the landscape, biodiversity, water regime and local economy. Actually there is a transformed landscape without natural biological settlement and human use. However the rehabilitation of the area is possible through a solar salt works implementation that can lead to a positive impact on the landscape, increasing the biodiversity, water management and can additionally stimulate local economy. As analysis, a biological survey for flora, birds and other animals was made, questionnaires were elaborated to study the natural status and the perception of local people in a rehabilitation of the area through an implementation of solar salt works in Ribeira de Aljezur and ecosystem services were discussed with socio-economic groundwork. In conclusion, theoretically, this implementation will bring positive impacts to the local population and will increase natural and economic values of Ribeira de Aljezur.

Key words: Solar salt works, Land rehabilitation, Ecosystem services, Biological survey, Wetlands, Ribeira de Aljezur, Portugal

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1. BRIEF BACKGROUND OF RIBEIRA DE ALJEZUR

Ribeira de Aljezur is located in Parque Natural do Sudoeste Alentejano e Costa Vicentina (PNSACV) in the Algarve southwest coast. It is a 33.7 km water channel [1] and drains an area of 182.9 km2 [2]. During the dry season, the stream has almost no freshwater flow, but is influenced by tides [3]. The coastal inlet is adjacent to Amoreira beach and shows an unexpected morphologic resilience that results from a dynamic equilibrium between tide and wave action. This state is only altered when high magnitude external conditions occur, associated to tide increase forced by extreme fluvial discharges [4]. It is not a real estuary, but a transition system that from an ecological point of view can be classified as a lagoon-estuarine environment [5]. History tell us that Ribeira de Aljezur had several uses, however today almost all of them disappeared taking with them value and leaving abandoned land.

Figure 1: (A) Location of Ribeira de Aljezur in Portugal; (B) Location of the area to rehabilitate (Y) and the inlet (X); (C) Aerial photograph of Ribeira de Aljezur with the area to rehabilitate (Y) and the inlet (X).

The area to be concerned and the focus of this study is the area behind the dunes of Amoreira beach. The area is not natural due to the existence of ponds belonging to an old semi-intensive aquaculture, whose activity stopped in 2010. The area surrounding was used to rice and salt production back to the year 1318 [6] and it is possible to observe activity marks in the ground although with an uncertainty of when were active for the last time. The fact is that the disappearance of those three activities had an impact on the landscape, biodiversity, water regime and local economy.

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2. ECOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE AREA

The area is a specific intervention river area, type I and type II with partial protection and belongs to Natura 2000. The location results, that any rehabilitation activity must follow rules from Plano Especial do Parque Natural do Sudoeste Alentejano e Costa Vicentina Natural (PEPNSACV). This plan aims the insurance of ecosystems equilibrium, the promotion of economic, social and cultural development [7]. The area also belongs to the Public Water Domain [8], National Ecological Reserve (REN) [9] and National Agriculture Reserve (RAN), each with specific management guidelines [10].

3. SOLAR SALT WORKS PRESENCE AND CONSERVATION VALUES

The solar salt works activities are normally present in wetlands, more specifically in salt marshes rich in biodiversity and represent unique biological systems [11], which makes them environmentally relevant activities [12]. Many species live, feed and reproduce in a salt marsh and in a solar salt works area [13]. They provide the environment for biological diversity, including plants, birds, reptiles, fish and invertebrates, prevent flooding and improve water quality [14]. This is why a presence of solar salt works in Ribeira de Aljezur could be an ecological solution for land rehabilitation. Without negative impact and stimulate sustainable development.

Usually, even salt producers do not give great importance to its ecological value and is difficult to estimate an economic value, but it is possible to list the arguments in favor of solar salt works as an environmental friendly areas and activities. The presence of solar salt works can control the hydrological regime, promote the area preservation, controlling natural and anthropogenic factors and can control water quality [15-18].

So, the question is: How do we give a value to something that is already priceless? Identifying and quantifying is the normal answer. And that it is only possible with biological surveys and ecosystems services descriptions through natural, social and economic evaluation.

4. METHODS

A biological Survey with three specific groups of organisms was made: plants, birds and other animals. Was also described the possible role of them in the ecosystem with the identification of the location and behaviors.

4.1. Plants

Plants were identified by direct observation at the study area through a plant guide [19] and by samples collected and analyzed in laboratory. It was sampled both leaves and flowers with shears.

4.2. Birds

Bird species were identified by direct observation with binoculars, with a bird guide [20] and by sound.

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4.3. Other Animals

Other animals were identified by direct observation.

4.4. Ecosystems Services

Was made an identification of biodiversity values based in the biological survey. Was predicted what could happen with a solar salt works implementation in terms of biodiversity and ecosystem. Was made an identification of socio-cultural values based on Aljezur economic information and cultural perceptions through a questionnaire. The information was bonded to promote a global view [21, 22] about Ribeira de Aljezur ecosystem values.

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1. Biological Survey

Given the example of this list of species (Annex 2) regarding the type of ecosystem and the type of activity that should be introduced, one can conclude that, theoretically it seems a good strategy to rehabilitate the former aquacultures in Ribeira de Aljezur into traditional solar salt works.

First of all, if the area is going to be used sustainably by man, it is going to be studied and cleaned, not only improving the landscape but also increasing the knowledge of the Ribeira de Aljezur biodiversity. Second, if well taken care of, and therefore ensuring good water quality, it is also a certainty that the solar ponds will attract birds. Why the certainty? One should consider the main reason why all animals including our own species move, in two words, food and water. But what makes us migrate from place to place, the search for a steady food supply. And mainly birds will find small aquatic invertebrates in the ponds, including Artemia spp. For some species this is a crucial food source, attracting many individuals not only to feed, but also to rest and mate. For example, Falco peregrinus that preys upon birds will also be appealed by the number of increasing birds in the area. Third, if the ecosystem is healthy, flowers and vegetation will grow, attracting insects that will attract small mammals, reptiles and amphibians. The food web will evolve in a vigorous way. Ultimately the positive evolution of the biodiversity of Ribeira de Aljezur will raise awareness and attract tourists and environmental researchers.

5.2. Ecosystem Values

Ecosystem goods and services together are known as ecosystem services that represent functions directly related to the habitat, biological or system properties or processes of ecosystems and the benefits for human populations, directly or indirectly, from ecosystem functions. [23]. There are diverse methods of ecosystem services evaluation [24]. However it is hard to quantify the variables of real ecosystems goods

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or function and consequently ecosystems services. Recent ecosystem services research has highlighted the importance of spatial connectivity between ecosystems and their beneficiaries. Despite this need, a systematic approach to ecosystem service flow quantification has not yet emerged [25, 26]. So the best way to do an approach in Ribeira de Aljezur is to proceed with the identification of intrinsic values and an identification of connections between man and the ecosystem, always in a perspective that man is part of the ecosystem with the clarity that a multi- and interdisciplinary research in this area is relatively rare so far [27]. That can lead to a clash between science and metaphysics in the moment to make valuation and decisions [28, 29].

This first identification of particular services, opens the door to new approaches in managing Ribeira de Aljezur. Rather than planning just to protect ecosystems which appear to provide services, ecosystem service science begins to support more holistic conservation and development planning [26].

It is possible to identify the following services promoted by the ecosystem in Ribeira de Aljezur: landscape beauty, recreation, biodiversity, riverline flood regulation, subsistence for fish and for birds, research, carbon sequestration, environmental education and water quality.

It is clear that there are also direct connections between human activities and the ecosystem as agriculture and animal production. It is easy to show a single piece of demonstrative information but behind that there is a complex system to quantify. This happens due to the lack of numerical data in order to make a capital value of the ecosystem, just being possible by enumerating and evaluating through argumentation how these relationships are important and how they will improve the quality of the area not only for Man but also for Biodiversity. And that would be a consequence of the implementation of a solar salt works and would result in an improvement of all these connections and consequently a greater appreciation of the area.

Considering that this implementation connects the ecosystem and the population, it is necessary to have a view in the socio-economic data (Figure 2). And the data shows that the population of Aljezur is small and that only half are active workers. Of these workers, which belong to a small number of firms or are liberals, there is a high percentage represented by doing part-time jobs in Aljezur and with it the need for individual billing.

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Population 5288

Economically Active Population 2289

Companies 85

Liberal Workers 1516

Figure 2: Table with Aljezur´s Population [30], Economically Active Population [31], Companies and Liberal Workers.

With a small population, the opinion and perception of values within that population are important, because the population has its own perspectives and passes it on into the practice and management of their lives. This is why we need to build a questionnaire and try to understand people according to their realities.

5.3. Questionnaire Results

The questionnaire (Annex1) covered 10 inhabitats from Aljezur aged between 40 and 66 years old and exposes opinions on (1) water quality of Ribeira de Aljezur, (2) biodiversty in Ribeira de Aljezur, (3) the former aquaculture and about the landscape, (4) the rehabilitation of the area through a solar salt works implementation, (5) and other comments.

1) All of them are unaware of the chemical quality of the water, but they all say that is relatively good because of the fact that Sewage Treatment Plant (STP) is fully functional and cover the population living near the Ribeira de Aljezur. However some do not use the Ribeira de Aljezur for recreational activities for thinking that it has dubious quality due to fertilizers that are used on agricultural land. Others respond that the quality of the water from the headspring to the village is good but after it the quality is uncontrolled. Other sewage is treated completely and the increased control on fertilizers and pesticides used in agriculture or animal production decreased organic and chemical compounds in Ribeira Aljezur, still the same people who claim that there is more control, would like that there was even more control and that will promote a more integrated and comprehensive management in Ribeira de Aljezur and consequently increase the water quality.

2) Almost all people mentioned that there is a lot of biodiversity (birds, fish, jackknife clam and clams), that the Ribeira de Aljezur works as a maternity for fish and a place for nesting for birds. The most reported group of organisms was Birds, followed by Fish. Generally people were unaware of the salt marsh concept and its ecological features, but some mentioned that it used to be a place to catch crayfish. Many people refer to the fact that there is a proliferation of algae without knowing that eventually

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has a negative effect promoting the eutrophication in the waters of the Ribeira de Aljezur. Some despise the existence of fish but almost all consider important to coastal fisheries that fish use the Ribeira de Aljezur as maternity. Many people refer to the fact that there exist many amphibians and insects and remembered the plagues of insects at the time when Ribeira de Aljezur had rice paddies.

3) People had mixed reactions when talking about the old aquaculture. Some people highlighted that it was good because it provided employment, because it was an innovative activity and consequently brought dynamism, fostering the economy of Aljezur. However even those said that the activity was dirty and they never had contact with the locals. Regarding the landscape, everyone thinks that is very beautiful, but with degrading aspect and that the cleaning of all land from the inlet till the center of Aljezur is urgent.

4) Almost all people think that the implementation of a solar salt works would be a good solution for job creation (perhaps because Portugal is facing a big financial and social crisis) and the possible retention of young because Aljezur has an aged population. Some highlighted the fact that rehabilitation would use land that is abandoned with stagnant waters that clashes with the landscape. Some also mentioned the beauty that solar salt works can lead to in an environment in which it operates and the use of marine resources. Also it would be an interesting activity that can keep a balance between the environment and economic development.

5) Previously people used more land for crops and took care of their land and adjacent areas, cleaning them. But currently the land is abandoned, whether it is private or public. Often the PNSACV is blamed for the abandonment and the lack of activities due to the amount of regulation and the difficulty in obtaining projects approval. There is even aggressiveness from people talking about the regulators that prevent them from carrying out activities that they used to perform in the past with less bureaucracy.

With the information on current values from observation, literature or from the questionnaire, it is possible do to a comparison with the actual values and the potential values coming with the solar salt works implementation as shows Figure 4.

Ecosystem Services Actual Perception

Value After SSW Implementation

Perception Value

Landscape beauty No good ↗

Recreation No good ↗

Biodiversity Medium ↗

Riverline flood regulation Medium ↗

Subsistence for fish Medium ↗

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Subsistence for birds No good ↗

Research No good ↗

Carbon sequestration Good →

Environmental education No good ↗

Water quality Medium ↗

Figure 3: Table with the Ecosystem Services, Actual Perception Value and After the Solar Salt Works (SSW) Implementation Perception Value in Ribeira de Aljezur.

We predict that there will be an increase in all the ecosystem services. Regarding the landscape, the area will be improved and beauty will increase, as a result from going from an abandoned land with stagnant waters and garbage to a maintained solar salt works. Recreation will increase as a consequence from almost all of the other services. Biodiversity will increase particularly for birds that will find a place to feed on and better adjacent places to nest, as other organisms will adapt into their own habitats, also a consequence from the increase of water quality. River line flood regulation, subsistence for fish and for birds will increase with the transformation, because at the moment the area almost does not have a biological settlement and it contains garbage. So this implementation will clean the area and manage/protect the adjacent areas. The research will increase because solar salt works at the moment is a hot activity not only because of new products but because in the last years we saw an increase of published papers about the topic. Carbon sequestration will be stable, and will probably decrease at a first stage because of the implementation, but after it will also increase. Environmental education will grow but it will be an option for activity promoters. Finally the water quality that is supposed to be one of the first services to be mentioned will experiment an increase. It is observed that there is eutrophication in the aquaculture ponds area and in some adjacent areas, where the water has no dynamics, and with an activity as solar salt works there will be a water flow every week, in fact every day. Also the water management and the chemical analysis will be one of the focus in the management of the solar salt works, so it obvious that a supervision and more control will be done regarding the water quality.

This results, in a significant increase of possibilities after the solar salt works implementation, resulting from all the effects on adjacent areas and even across the Ribeira de Aljezur.

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6. CONCLUSIONS

Ribeira de Aljezur has a big potential to receive an implementation of solar salt works, however there are doubts if it is functionally feasible with the surrounding ecosystem and if the impacts will be positive or negative. Theoretically through the biological survey, the identification of the ecosystem services and the questionnaire, the project has what it takes to apply a growing of biodiversity and promote more ecosystem services because the former aquaculture has no purpose now. Neither the local human, animals or plants population takes any advantages from it. So far, there are only benefits from the transformation into solar salt works; either to the local community or to the environment and all the improvements are connected. All of them regarding jobs, the landscape, recreation, river line flood regulation, research, environmental education, improvement of the water quality, carbon sequestration and subsistence of fish and birds. However there were no natural value or ecosystem services translated into capital value. The surrounding area has an incredible biodiversity, but could be improved specifically the area of the ponds can be integrated into the rest of the environment. However the area is inserted in the PNSACV and although it makes it harder for the project’s implementation, it is definitely an asset to the Park and an improvement considering the current conditions. Since the Park was created for Nature’s protection, maintenance and development an improvement of the area through solar salt works is largely a good contribution. The recognition of the importance of this project through enhanced status can provide an incredible improvement of the area and the development of a eco-friendly human activity, and Portugal, being a country with such historical tradition in producing and trading salt for centuries deserves more from the available and abandoned land.

The Author’s Message

Do we want to teach our children about the world and nature without having that pristine nature to show them? That is precisely why the maintenance of sites like solar salt works need to be preserved and developed, to serve as examples of man-made activities that still respect and keep nature intact. Where birds nest while just beside them, men work and plants still grow strong with the input of that work.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

To EuSalt for promoting part of this work.

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Annex1 - Questionnaire

Person

Age and Profession?

Water quality of the Ribeira de Aljezur?

Biodiversity of the Ribeira de Aljezur?

What do you know about the former aquaculture?

What do you think about the current landscape?

What do you think about rehabilitating the area with Solar Salt Works?

What do you think the community would gain with the Solar Salt Works?

What do you remember from 20/30 years ago??

Annex 2

Birds

[1] Ardea cinerea

Portugal’s biggest egret, with 90-100 cm in length. It has a big body, grayish and darker on the upper body. The head is black and white, the neck is long and the bill is straight and yellowish. The feet and legs are yellowish. The breeding season occurs between February and July, usually in colonies. It inhabits fresh or brackish waters. It feeds on fish, amphibians and small mammals.

[2] Ardea purpurea

Can reach up to 75-90 cm in length. Its plumage varies between grayish and pinkish tones. The underwing has purple spots, visible in flight. The head and neck are brown. It is present a spring and summer visitor in Portugal. It can be seen in estuaries and shallow lagoons. It preys upon fish and insects.

[3] Egretta garzetta

Medium sized egret, up to 55-65 cm in length, it has white plumage, black bill and legs and yellow feet. In Portugal it has a long breeding season. It is gregarious while nesting. I tis easily seen in wetlands and feeds on fish, crustaceans, amphibians and small mammals.

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[4] Ciconia ciconia

It has white plumage, with black primary feathers. The bill and legs are red, mostly in adults and reaches up to 100-110 cm in length. It is a migratory species that may nest solitarily or in colonies, sometimes in urban settlements near agricultural fields and wetlands. It feeds on many preys, including aquatic organisms, small mammals, amphibians and insects.

[5] Charadrius hiaticula

A wader with 18 cm in length. It has a complete black collar and during summer adults have orange legs and bill. It has a broad black band on top of the head and the back is brown. It can be found in open areas, beaches, saltmarshes and intertidal areas. Worms and crustaceans are the main part of its diet.

[6] Calidris minuta

A small wader, reaching 14 cm in length. It has a short straight bill and black legs. The back is gray in winter and brown in summer. It passes through Portugal mostly in autumn. It occurs in estuaries, rice paddies and coastal lagoons. It feeds on small aquatic invertebrates.

[7] Limosa lapponica

Around 38 cm in length. During winter it is mainly brownish and in summer, males get more reddish and females cream. The bill is quite long and narrow. It occurs in estuaries, solar saltworks and intertidal areas. It’s a winter migrant and it feeds on small invertebrates.

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[8] Tringa totanus

It has 27 cm in length, the legs and base of the bill are bright red. In winter the back is brown, and in summer is darker. The belly is white streaked with brown. It is seen in several wetlands and brackish saltmarshes. It eats small invertebrates and polychaetes.

[9] Tringa nebularia

A wader with about 32 cm in length. It has greenish legs and a long bill, slightly curved upwards. During summer its back is gray with a bit of black, and the lower body is whitish. It inhabits coastal wetlands, saltmarshes an flooded fields. Its diet consists in small aquatic invertebrates and small fish.

[10] Pandion haliateus

It reaches 50-55 cm in length and 160 cm in wingspan. The dorsal area is dark brown and the lower part of the body is white with dark bands. The head is white with a black ocular stripe. It does not nest in Portugal anymore. It prefers cliffs, estuaries and lagoons to be able to hunt for medium sized fish, in both salt and freshwater.

[11] Hieraatus fasciatus

This is a large eagle, with 70 cm in length and 145-165 cm of wingspan. It has a light body and dark wings. It has a white spot in the back and while soaring the edge of the wings look white. The nuptial parade starts in November. It prefers valleys with big rivers in which to live, building the nest in cliffs, hunting mammals and reptiles in agricultural areas and woods. Can also nest on big trees in the south of Portugal.

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[12] Falco peregrinus

The biggest falcon in Portugal, 45 cm in length and 115 cm of wingspan. It has broad pointy wings and short tail. The back and head are grayish and the belly is whitish and with black stripes. It can be seen near rocky areas, where it also nests. It preys upon other bird species.

[13] Falco tinnunculus

A falcon with 67-80 cm length and 67-80 cm of wingspan. The male has a gray head and tail and the back is brownish. The chest has many small spots. Females are all brown. It’s a common species seen in many habitats like fields, parks, coastal areas and city centers. It breeds from March until June. It feeds mainly on small mammals.

[14] Alcedo atthis

It has 17 cm in length, with the head and back blue-green and the belly Orange. It has a long and strong bill and short legs. It is present in a great variety of freshwater habitats, from rice paddies to dams and lakes. It feeds mainly on small fish and aquatic insects and crustaceans. The breeding season goes from April to June. It nests near freshwater.

[15] Merops apiaster

A quite colorful species with 28 cm in length. The body is yellow, reddish and greenish –blue. The tail is long and the bill slightly curved down. Found in forested areas, plains and open areas. Builds the nest in holes in sandy walls or in the ground. It’s a spring migrant and breeds in May. It preys mostly bees and beetles.

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[16] Cisticola juncidis

Small bird with 10 cm in length. It has short round wings and tail. The back is striped, the throat is white and pale around the eyes. It occurs in riparian biotopes, fields and saltmarshes. The breeding season is from March to September. It feeds on insects.

[17] Sylvia melanocephala

It has about 13 cm in length. The male has a black head and a red orbital ring. The belly is white and the back is gray. The female is similar but brownish and duller. It is common to see this species in riparian areas, woods and fields. The breeding season is between March and July. During summer it east mostly insects and in winter add to the diet berries and fruits.

[18] Cettia cetti

Small bird with 13 cm in length. Its back is reddish-brown with a supercillar gray stripe. The lower body is white. It occurs in wetlands, seen in riparian vegetation. It feeds mainly on insects.

[19] Galerida theklae

Small with 17 cm in length. It bears a crest and is mostly brown with a white belly. It can be seen in rocky fields, arid terrain and agricultural areas. It feeds on insects and seeds.

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[20] Cecropis daurica

A swallow with 17 cm in length. With bluish color, a rufous band on the back of the head, a cream rump, and long tail. They prefer valleys with streams or springs, nesting on bridges. It comes to Portugal in Spring and Summer. It feeds on invertebrates.

[21] Saxicola torquata

Bird with around 12 cm in length. The males in summer have a black head with a white collar. The wings are dark brown and the chest is orange. Females are duller than males, being light brown. It can be seen near wetlands, agricultural areas and dunes. The breeding season goes from February until July. It feeds on insects, barriers and seeds.

Salt marsh Plants

[22] Suaeda vera

Quite branched, up to 1 m. Leaves of 4-10x1 mm, fleshy, normally green and sometimes red. Flowering occurs between March and October; the flowers are have vertical seeds. Habitat: Saltmarshes, salty soils and coastal cliffs.

It can be found in saltmarshes, solar salt works, ocean cliffs, salty and sandy soils near the coast somewhat disturbed. It has edible leaves. May be used as ornamental.

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[23] Atriplex halimus

[24] Arthrocnemum macrostachyum

Flowers between April and September. Present in halophyte woods, saltmarshes and estuaries.

[25] Halimione portulacoides

Inhabits estuaries, salt marshes and solar salt works. When present on salty soils it can be flooded periodically.

[26] Sarcocornia perennis

Shrubby perennial halophyte. Flowers with equal height in the cymes. Adapted mostly to upper part of saltmarshes.

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[27] Cistanche phelypaea

Yellow, present in salt marshes and estuaries. A parasite in roots of other salt marsh plants.

[28] Limonium ferulaceum

Perennial, it has pink flowers. Present in halophyte woods, alkaline soils, saltmarshes, cliffs and coastal rocks.

[29] Limonium lanceolatum

Perennial. Grows on salty soils, rocky shores and salt marshes. Flowering occurs between April and September. Endemic to Portugal.

Other animals

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[30] Platichthys flesus

Common length 50 cm. With a small mouth, rough skin and with a straight lateral line. Green-olive colored. Adults occur on mud and sand bottom in shallow water, at sea and brackish. Juveniles live in coastal waters. Juveniles feed on plankton and larvae of insects, adults feed on small fishes and invertebrates.

[31] Solea Vulgaris

Common length 35 cm, with an oval body and rounded head. Eye side grayish-brown, with diffuse dark spots. It burrows into sandy and muddy bottoms, retreating to deeper water in winter. Juveniles inhabit the first years in coastal nurseries before migrating to deeper waters. Adults feed on worms, mollusks and small crustaceans.

[32] Anguilla anguilla

Elongated, anguilliform body. Lower jaw slightly longer and projecting with elongated dorsal and anal fins and green-brown colored. Inhabits all types of benthic habitats from streams to shores of large rivers and lakes. They enter the estuaries and colonize rivers and lakes; some individuals remain in estuaries and coastal waters to grow into adults.

[33] Squalius aradensis

Small Fish, endemic to Portugal, up to 13 cm with a rounded snout. Inhabits small to medium sized streams with Mediterranean water regime. May be restricted to very small pools during summer. Breeds in shallow riffle habitats in fast-flowing water.

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[34] Discoglossus galganoi

Adults vary between 5 and 7,5 cm in length. Wide head and pointy snout, Shiny and smooth skin. The hind legs are long with dark stripes. With a brownish back with different coloration patterns, being the belly white. Quite dependent on water. Nocturnal, feeding on slugs, worms and other invertebrates. The breeding season is in autumn.

[35] Hyla meridionalis

Maximum length of 5,5 cm. The eyes are big and brown and the legs are long with adhesive disks on the fingers. The belly is white and the skin bright green with a dark stripe from the nostril to the shoulder. The skin color may vary. It preys upon insects and reaches sexual maturity at 3 years.

[36] Alytes cisternasii

Maximum length 3,5-4,5 cm. It feeds on small invertebrates. The male protects the eggs from humidity and dryness, by carrying them on its back. A small toad, with a short and wide head, the back is brown with reddish warts and a white belly.

[37] Mauremys leprosa

Brown, gray or greenish oval shell. Orange lines along the neck. Yellowish plastron and strong nails. Females larger than males, reaching 21cm. Diurnal, inhabiting fresh water ponds or streams with high vegetation cover. The breeding season is during spring. Feeds on invertebrates, plants and fish.

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[38] Lacerta schreiberi

A lizard that reaches 12,5 cm (head and torso) and the tail can be as long as its body. Yellow and greenish body with many small black spots. Males have blue heads during breeding season. It is diurnal, hibernating in winter. Eats mainly small invertebrates. Prefers damp places with high vegetation cover. Its sensitive to the water quality.

[39] Lutra lutra

Reaches 60-90 cm in length. Long and slender body, with a brown back and white belly. It has a thick and silky fur. Paws with interdigital membranes. Rounded snout, small ears and eyes. Mainly nocturnal having one litter per year. Feeds mainly on fish. Lives in family groups along streams and rivers.

[40] Erinaceus europaeus

Reaches 24 to 31 cm in length. Its body is covered with spines. Brownish in color with short legs. Pointy snout and small ears. Essentially nocturnal, breeding in spring. Feeds upon invertebrates that roam the ground. Inhabits forests, meadows and also suburban areas. Can disperse in search of food.

[41] Oryctolagus cuniculus

Reaches 35-50 cm in length. Ears with an inferior length than the head. Brownish fur. Mainly nocturnal breeding from October to June having several litters per year from 3-6 juveniles. Lives in family groups. Feeds mainly on leaves, grass and bulbs. Inhabits open fields, woods and farm lands.

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REFERENCES

[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21]. Catry P, Costa H, Elias G, Matias R: Aves de Portugal. Ornitologia de território continental. Assírio & Alvim, Lisboa, 2010;

[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21]. Costa H, Juana E, and Varela J: Aves de Portugal incluindo os arquipélagos dos Açores, da Madeira e das Selvagens, 2011;

[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21]. Gooders J: Guia de campo das aves de Portugal e da Europa. Círculo de Leitores. 1994;

[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21]. Atlas das aves nidificantes em Portugal. Assírio & Alvim, 2008;

[22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29]. http://almargem.org/biodiv/taxonomia/viridiplantae/

[22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29]. http://www.flora-on.pt/

[34, 35, 36]. Anfibios do Algarve, lmargem, 2002;

[30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41]. Cabral MJ, Almeida J, Almeida PR, Dellinger T, Ferrand de Almeida N,Oliveira ME, Palmeirim JM, Queiroz AI, Rogado L and Santos-Reis M: Livro vermelho dos vertebrados de Portugal. 2ª ed. Instituto da Conservação da Natureza, 2005, Assírio & Alvim. Lisboa. 660 pp;

[39, 40, 41]. Macdonald D and Barret P: Mamíferos de Portugal e Europa – Guia Fapas, 1993;

[39, 40, 41]. Amaro F: Levantamento das espécies de mamíferos existentes na zona terrestre do P.N.R.F, 2002;

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[34, 35, 36, 37, 38]. Lavinas C: Reserva Natural do Sapal de Castro Marim e Vila Real de Santo António, uma contribuição para a sua gestão. Instituto da Conservação da Natureza / Centro de Zonas Húmidas, 2004;

[39, 40, 41]. Amaro F: Pequenos mamíferos associados aos sítios classificados da Rocha da Pena e Fonte Benémola, 2000;

[34, 35, 36]. http://www.charcoscomvida.org/

[34, 35, 36, 37, 38]. Almeida N, Almeida P, Gonçalves H, Sequeira F, Teixeira J, Almeida F: Anfíbios e Répteis de Portugal – Guias Fapas, 2001

[34, 35, 36, 37, 38]. Loureiro A, Almeida N, Carretero M, Paulo O. Atlas dos Anfíbios e Répteis de Portugal, 2010;

[41]. Lopes A: Estudo da dieta do Coelho-Bravo e Lebre-Ibérica em Trás-os-Montes: Influência da alimentação na estratégia reprodutora. Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, 2012;

[26]. Yaprak AE: Sarcocornia obclavata (Amaranthaceae) a new species from Turkey,2012, Phytotaxa 49, 55-60;

[30, 31, 32, 33]. Bristow P: The illustrate encyclopedia of fishes, 1992, Chancellor Press, London. 303p;

[30, 31, 32, 33]. Frimodt C: Multingual illustrated guide to the word s commercial fish 1995, Fishing News Books, Osney, Mead, Oxford, England. 215p;

[30, 31, 32, 33]. Kottelat M and Freyhof J: Handbook of European freshwater fishes, 2007, Publications Kottelat, Cornol, Switzerland. 646p;

[30, 31]. Bos AR, Aspects of the life history of the European flounder (Pleuronectes flesus L. 1758) in the tidal River Elbe, 2000, Dissertation de Verlag im Internet GmbH. Berlin. 129 pp;

[30, 31]. Cooper JA and Chapleau F: Monophyly and intra-relationships of the family Pleuronectidae (Pleuronectiformes), with a revised classification, 1998, Fish Bull, 96, 686-726;

(The online references were accessed between 1st March and 30th March)

Photography References (online), (accessed between 1st March and 30th March):

[1] http://photo.jamescook.nu/?p=269

[2] http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Purple_Heron_(Ardea_purpurea)_in_Hodal_W_IMG_6600.jpg

[3] http://www.cusufai.it/om/om06_CA/slides/Garzetta%20%20(%20Egretta%20garzetta%20)%202.html

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[4] http://ibc.lynxeds.com/photo/european-white-stork-ciconia-ciconia/white-stork-near-lake-kirkini-northern-greece

[5] http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Charadrius_hiaticula_He1.jpg

[6] http://ibc.lynxeds.com/photo/little-stint-calidris-minuta/adult-winter-lake-shore

[7] http://www.luontoportti.com/suomi/en/linnut/bar-tailed-godwit

[8] http://www.biopix.com/common-redshank-tringa-totanus_photo-95576.aspx

[9] http://ibc.lynxeds.com/photo/common-greenshank-tringa-nebularia/migrant-visitor

[10] http://nathistoc.bio.uci.edu/birds/falconiformes/Pandion%20haliaetus/Pandion%20haliaetus.htm

[11] http://ibc.lynxeds.com/photo/bonelli039s-eagle-hieraaetus-fasciatus/male-bonelli-eagle7

[12] http://ibc.lynxeds.com/photo/peregrine-falcon-falco-peregrinus/flying-along-coast

[13] http://ibc.lynxeds.com/photo/common-kestrel-falco-tinnunculus/male-road-sign

[14] http://humbertophoto.com/home/2012/08/25/guarda-rios-common-kingfisher-alcedo-atthis/

[15] http://www.treknature.com/gallery/photo259345.htm

[16] http://schoolnet.gov.mt/tanti/Birds9.html

[17] http://ozdensaglam.com/?page_id=581

[18] http://aves.team-forum.net/t1833-cettia-cetti

[19] http://ibc.lynxeds.com/photo/thekla-lark-galerida-theklae/searching-food-feeding-caterpillars-flowers

[20] http://www.birdskorea.org/Birds/Birdnews/BK-BN-birdnews-2009-04.shtml

[21] http://images.nikonians.org/galleries/showphoto.php/photo/178098/size/big/ppuser/131871

[22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29] http://www.flora-on.pt/

[30] http://www.biopix.dk/skrubbe-platichthys-flesus_photo-40587.aspx

[31] http://www.superstock.com/stock-photos-images/1566-397331

[32] http://www.biopix.com/european-eel-anguilla-anguilla_photo-41960.aspx

[33] http://naturlink.sapo.pt/Natureza-e-Ambiente/Sistemas-Aquaticos/content/Reproduzir-para-Preservar--Conservacao-de-Especies-Piscicolas-Ameacadas/section/3?bl=1

[34] http://www.hylawerkgroep.be/jeroen/index.php?id=55

[35] http://elaniorapaz.blogspot.pt/2013/08/ranita-meridional-hyla-meridionalis.html

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[36] http://calphotos.berkeley.edu/cgi/img_query?enlarge=0000+0000+0411+1847

[37] http://www.herpfrance.com/reptile/spanish_terrapin_mauremys_leprosa.php

[38] http://www.treknature.com/gallery/Europe/Portugal/photo161209.htm

[39] http://ruisoares65.pbworks.com/w/page/34348190/Lutra%20lutra

[40] http://www.aphotofauna.com/mammal_hedgehog_erinaceus_europaeus.html

[41] http://portugalatp.blogspot.pt/2013/07/coelho-bravo-oryctolagus-cuniculus.html

Thalasso Spa Lepa Vida inside the saltpans: the experience of Sečovlje

Neli Glavaš1, 2 & Nives Kovač1

[1] Marine Biology Station, National Institute of Biology, Fornače 41, 6330 Piran, Slovenia

E-mail: glavas@mbss.org, kovac@mbss.org

[2] SOLINE Pridelava soli d.o.o, Seča115, 6320 Portorož, Slovenia

E-mail: neli.glavas@soline.si

ABSTRACT In Sečovlje Salina the use of saline mud (peloid) for healing purposes dates back to the 13th century. Although the therapeutic effects of the saline peloid have been exploited for centuries, its current use is still based mainly on experience and long tradition of spa tourism. In 2013 the company SOLINE Pridelava soli d. o. o. (Salt Production Co. Ltd.) which is producing the salt in the traditional manner and thus protecting and preserving the natural and cultural heritage within Sečovlje Salina Nature Park, decided to bring thalassotherapy and therapeutic medical treatments directly to the healing source by creating the Lepa Vida Thalasso Spa Center inside the saltpans. The complex is inserted in the natural reserve and designed as a minimal intervention in a protected cultural and natural landscape. The open space facilities for a variety of therapeutic purposes cover an area of around 4000 m2 and include: sunbathing, swimming, massages, medical gymnastics in the seawater, knaiping, brine baths, salt scrubs and therapies with saline peloid. Visitors can continue the treatments at home with a line of several beauty products which include brine, bath salts and salt peelings. In parallel with the development of spa centre an experimental ‘maturation basin’ was established, where a pilot study of peloid composition and transformations during maturation (with brine) is still ongoing. The results confirm that

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the quality of the therapeutic saline peloid depends on the composition of the saline mud and brine characteristics in the process of maturation. The findings of the pilot study will be used in the establishment of controlled production of saline peloid in Sečovlje Salina. By taking into account the nature conservation regulations and respecting the nature park the Lepa Vida Thalasso Spa in Sečovlje Salina is a good example where an economic activity and environmental protection collide.

Key words: Sečovlje Salina, thalasso spa, peloid, geochemical analysis

1. SEČOVLJE SALINA

Northern Adriatic has been in the past an important area for the production of sea salt. Today of the many saltpans only the ones in Sečovlje and Strunjan remain active. In terms of size and production Sečovlje Salina is the most important and geographically speaking the northernmost Salina in the Adriatic Sea and one of the few in the Mediterranean where salt is still produced in the traditional way (Figure 1). The first records date back to the year 804, while the biggest expansion and salt production was under the rule of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In addition to the economic role, the Salina is extremely important from the naturalistic point of view as it gives shelter for rare and special plant and animal species. That’s why in 1989 the salina was declared as Sečovlje Salina Nature Park and from 1993 is also a Ramsar locality. Today the production of salt and conservation of natural and cultural heritage is managed by company SOLINE Pridelava soli d. o. o.

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Figure 1: Sečovlje Salina location.

Salt is recovered from seawater by solar evaporation, a process that leads to the fractional crystallization of different salts. First to crystallize are the less soluble salts (calcium carbonate, gypsum), followed by halite and finally magnesium salts. The sea water is taken by the high tide and channelled into a system of shallow basins, which are divided into four groups. A special characteristic of salt-making in these saltpans is »petola«, a microbial mat which forms the bottom of the fourth group of shallow basins, where the salt crystallizes (crystallizing pans). The culturing of this artificial microbial mat originated in the 14th century, when this new technological procedure was introduced from the nearby island of Pag (central Adriatic) (Pahor and Poberaj, 1963; Žagar, 1992; Geister, 2004) and continued unchanged until the present days. This just a few millimeter thick layer of minerals and microorganisms prevents the mixing of the muddy floor with the seawater and salt, contributing to the production of very white marine salt (Faganeli et al., 1999; Schneider and Herrmann, 1980; Herrmann et al., 1973).

2. NATURAL HEALING PRODUCTS FROM THE SEČOVLJE SALINA

In Sečovlje Salina during the process of salt production two side products with healing properties are produced: saline mud (fango) and brine (aquamadre). The healing properties of these products are well-known since the Middle Ages and are still used today (Brglez et al., 2005; Pupini, 1910). The area of Portorož is a known Slovenian health resort with more

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than a century of tradition in wellness tourism. Brine (aquamadre) is a by-product in the production of salt with a high concentration of mineral substances, containing magnesium, calcium, potassium, iron, bromide, sulphides, etc. in addition to sodium chloride. It can be up to ten times denser than sea water. The healing properties base on the chemical effect, whereby the mechanical effects are also important since water builds up pressure on the body from all directions and acts similar to lymph drainage therapy. Buoyancy is also essential in baths, which facilitates the movement of affected and damaged limbs. The temperature at which brine is effective and has therapeutic effects is around 38 °C. The saline mud (peloid) is formed from the nearby marine or land sediments from the area of the salina, which are then gradually matured with the highly concentrated brine under natural conditions in open maturation pans. In contact with the mineral rich brine the saline mud undergoes biological and biochemical changes that result in the formation of healing saline peloid. In 2013 the Ministry of health of the Republic of Slovenia declared both saline peloid and brine as natural remedies for specific indications. The saline peloid can be used for the treatment of chronic and inflammatory rheumatic diseases; chronic gynecological diseases of a non-malignant character, sterility; chronic urological diseases, impotency and incontinence and skin diseases (mainly psoriasis, acne and other chronic changes in the keratotic character of the skin). Similar the brine (aquamadre) is indicated for: inflammatory and degenerative rheumatic diseases; progressive internal rheumatic diseases; skin diseases (mainly psoriasis and exacerbations of the disease, keratotic changes in the skin, chronic eczemas and other chronic changes on the skin) and gynecological diseases (chronic inflammatory processes of the urogenital system, dysmenorrheal complications and conditions following operations for non-malignant conditions, primarily sterility). It must be emphasized that before using the saline peloid or the brine for medical purposes, a medical examination is required on the condition of the cardiovascular system, skin changes and the psychophysical condition. Both saline peloid and brine are also widely used also for relaxation and beautifying purposes.

3. LEPA VIDA THALASSO SPA

The use of saline mud (peloid) for healing purposes dates back to the 13th century, when Portorož became known as a health resort. At that time Benedictine monks from the Monastery of St. Laurence treated some diseases with sea water and saline mud from the nearby salt pans. Today the healing products from the salina are still used in several local hotel and spa centers. Nevertheless in 2013 the company SOLINE Pridelava soli d. o. o. decided to bring thalassotherapy and therapeutic medical treatments directly to the healing source by creating the Thalasso Spa Lepa Vida inside the Nature Park. The complex is inserted in the natural reserve and designed as a minimal intervention in a protected cultural and natural landscape (Figure 2 and 3). The open space facilities for a variety of therapeutic purposes cover an area of around 4000 m2 and include: sunbathing, swimming, massages, medical gymnastics in the seawater, knaiping, brine baths (in 10-15 % or 20 % brine concentration), salt scrubs and therapies with saline peloid. Lepa Vida Thalasso Spa is

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open from May to October and since it is open-air spa, its operation depends on the weather conditions. In accordance to rules which apply to the natural park the Thalasso spa can accommodate a maximum of 55 guests. Visitors can continue the treatments at home with a line of several beauty products which include brine, bath salts and salt peelings.

Figure 2: Aerial view of the Thalasso Spa Lepa Vida complex (photo by: I. Škornik, KPSS)

Figure 3: Thalasso Spa Lepa Vida (photo by: Soline d.o.o.)

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4. PILOT STUDY OF PELOID COMPOSITION AND TRANSFORMATIONS DURING MATURATION

Although the therapeutic effects of the saline mud and brine are being exploited for centuries, its current use is still based mainly on experience and long tradition of spa tourism. Until recently, there were no large-scale targeted studies on this issue. That why in 2012 we begin with a pilot study of marine sediment maturation into saline peloid. We determined peloid composition and transformations during maturation with brine in open maturation basins with several physicochemical analyses including: FT-IR spectroscopy, CHNS analysis (organic carbon and total nitrogen content), mineral compositions by XRD, multielemental compostition by XRF and granulometry. The analysis revealed that the saline peloid is composed mainly of inorganic constituents: carbonates, silicates (quartz) and clay minerals. Total organic carbon (TOC) and total nitrogen (TN) concentrations ranged from 1.46 to 3.03 % and from 0.15 to 0.25 % respectively. Mineralogical analysis confirmed calcite, quartz, halite, muscovite, manganese oxide and clay minerals as the major components (Ogorelec et al., 1981; Ogorelec et al., 2000). The particle size analysis showed that samples were mostly composed of silt size particles (83 %).

The preliminary results revealed that during one year of maturation the mud underwent in changes regarding organic matter content and multielemental composition. Maturation with highly concentrated brine in summer months resulted in a decrease in organic matter content and also affected the elemental composition especially the heavy metal content. Our results confirmed that the saline peloid in summer time included lower concentrations of potentially toxic elements like Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn, Cr, Co and As. This is very important for the balneological application of the saline peloid as the potentially toxic elements can be absorbed through the skin during the application the peloid (Veniale et al., 2007; Carretero et al., 2010). The results confirm that the quality of the therapeutic saline peloid depends on the composition of the marine sediment and brine characteristics in the process of maturation. The findings of the pilot study will be used in the establishment of controlled production of saline peloid in Sečovlje Salina. Thalasso Spa Lepa Vida located in the lee of the salt fields in Sečovlje Salina Nature Park represents a good example where an economic activity and environmental protection collide.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to thank the company SOLINE Pridelava soli d. o. o. for their assistance and financial contribution to the study of the natural healing products from the Sečovlje Salina.

REFERENCES

1. Brglez A, Gale M, Pagon P, Auer J (2005) Portorož, zgodovina turizma in hotela palace, Inštutut za civilizacijo in kulturo, Ljubljana.

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2. Carretero MI, Pozo M, Martín-Rubí JA, Pozo E, Maraver F (2010) Mobility of elements in interaction between artificial sweat and peloids used in Spanish spas. Applied Clay Science, 48, 506.

3. Faganeli J, Pezdič J, Ogorelec B, Dolenec T, Čermelj B (1999) Salt works of Sečovlje (Goulf of Trieste, northern Adriatic)-a sedimentlogical and biogeochemical laboratory for evaporite environments. RMZ-Materials and Geoenvironment, 46, 491-499.

4. Geister I (2004) Sečoveljske soline / Sečovlje saltpans, ČZD Kmečki glas, d.o.o., Ljubljana.

5. Herrmann AG, Knake D, Schneider J, Peters H (1973) Geochemistry of modern seawater and brines from salt pans: main components and bromide distribution. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, 40, 1-24.

6. Ogorelec B, Mišič M, Faganeli J (2000) Sečoveljske soline-geološki laboratorij v naravi. Annales Series historia naturalis, 10.

7. Ogorelec B, Mišič M, Šercelj A, Cimerman F, Faganeli J, Stegnar P (1981) Sediment sečoveljske soline. Geologija, 24, 179-216.

8. Pahor M, Poberaj T (1963) Stare Piranske soline, Mladinska knjiga, Ljubljana.

9. Pupini O (1910) Portorose in Istrien : klimatischer Kurort, See- und Solbad, A. Hartlebens Verlag, Wien; Leipzig.

10. Schneider J, Herrmann AG (1980) Saltworks-natural laboratories for microbiological and geochemical investigations during the evaporation of seawater. In: 5. Symposium on Salt, (eds Coogan AH, Hauber L). The Northern Ohio Geological Society, Ohio, pp. 371-381.

11. Veniale F, Bettero A, Jobstraibizer PG, Setti M (2007) Thermal muds: Perspectives of innovations. Applied Clay Science, 36, 141-147.

12. Žagar Z (1992) Solinarstvo na severovzhodni obali Jadranskega morja / L'attivita salinaria lungo la costa dell'Adriatico nord-orientale, Muzej solinarstva / Museo delle saline.

How do SMEs valorise solar salt works in Spain

Katia Hueso

Institute of Saltscapes and Salt Heritage, IPAISAL (former Association of Friends of Inland Salinas) Apartado de Correos 50 - 28450 Collado Mediano – Spain Tel. +34 678 896 490, salinasdeinterior@gmail.com ABSTRACT Salt making is an ancient activity that has shaped history, cultures and landscapes all over the world. There are many methods of producing salt, the best known being rock salt mining and solar evaporation. But within the latter category, many differences exist, depending on location, climate, topography, local know-how…. Often, a distinction is made between artisanal versus industrial salt making, although this

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oversimplified dichotomy may be a fallacy, as will be argued in this contribution. Rather than drawing a line between these two methods, reality shows that there is a continuum between the two and that they may even be found combined or mixed in the same salina. In this context, at IPAISAL we prefer to use the term strategy rather than method since we believe that the key question here is not a matter of salt making method but of authenticity and sustainability. Authenticity as a means of being honest to our customers, providers and society in general and sustainability as a means of being self-sufficient on the long run without depleting resources. Hence, another point of debate that will be tackled is which salt making strategies may be more sustainable, from the points of view of economic profitability, environmental protection and social awareness. To this end, the model of sustainable management of salinas proposed by the Association of Friends of Inland Salinas will be discussed and three examples of (partial) success with respect to sustainable salt making strategies will be presented. Key words: salinas, sustainability, authenticity, artisanal, good practices 1. INTRODUCTION: SALT MAKING METHODS Salt has always been an essential commodity for humans. Not only for our survival, from a physiological point of view (Denton 1982, Schulkin 1991), but also for allowing the settlement in larger communities and even improving our ability to conquer new territories, thanks to its food preservative properties (Kaufmann 1956, Multhauf 1978). Several factors have influenced accessibility to salt, some of which were more efficient than others in terms of effort and energy input. In coastal regions with seasonal droughts and good ventilation, solar evaporation salinas were the obvious choice to obtain this mineral. In inland regions, salt could either be mined or produced via the evaporation of brine. This brine could be obtained by solution mining, as is being done today in vacuum facilities. It could also be formed naturally and pumped or collected at the surface, where it could be concentrated in solar evaporation facilities, graduation towers or by forced evaporation techniques with the addition of fuel (Carrasco & Hueso 2006, Weller 2002). A less efficient salt making technique was sleeching, by which sand rich in salt is washed and the resulting brine is evaporated. Even less efficient was selnering or other similar techniques, by which peat, algae or other salt containing plants were first burned and the ashes subsequently washed to extract the brine from them (Williams 1999, Leenders 2004, van Geel & Borger 2005, Fielding & Fielding 2006). From the point of view of saltscapes, Spain is probably the most rich and diverse country in Europe, hosting almost 1,000 salinas and saline wetlands (Carrasco & Hueso 2008, Hueso & Carrasco 2009, see also Table 1). Thanks to its climate and geological features, most of these saltscapes are (former) solar evaporation salt making sites (71%), many found on saline grounds away from the sea (53% of all saltscapes are thus inland sites). The vast majority (97%) of the solar evaporation salinas are now abandoned and many even have disappeared

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altogether. Of the sites that remain active, there are over twenty inland salinas and more or less the same amount of coastal ones. Inland salinas are usually smaller in size, as they feed on brine with a relatively high concentration of salt that does not need much further evaporation. Besides, the amount of brine is usually limited to the flow capacity of the spring, which also constitutes a limitation of size. Climate in inland sites can be also a limiting factor, as the salt making season is usually shorter than at the coast due to frequent late-summer thunderstorms that may spoil the harvest. Due to their small size, short productive season and subsequent low profitability, few of these sites had been upgraded to an industrial scale and were gradually abandoned in the past. Coastal salinas are usually much larger, as they need huge surfaces to evaporate the seawater. On the other hand, their limiting factor is the availability of flat ground rather than the brine, which made an upscaling to industrial size feasible, at least before the advent of mass tourism and its associated competition for land. Smaller coastal salinas have rarely survived due to this strong competition of land use. On the other hand, the loss of salt mines has been less dramatic, although only one fourth remain active today. Besides the salt making facilities, Spain offers a great diversity of other saline wetlands, such as salt marshes and meadows, plus saline streams, springs, lakes and lagoons. Of the latter, some have been used in the past to obtain salt, albeit in a rather primitive manner and are not considered to be salt making sites within the context of this contribution. Table 1: Estimated number of saltscapes and salinas in Spain, according to their scale of operation

Type of Saltscape

Nr sites

Industrial scale

Artisanal scale

Aban- doned

Total

Salt mines 7 NA 25 32

Inland salinas 3 18+ ca. 500 516

Coastal salinas 12 8+ ca. 150 173

Saline wetlands NA NA NA 244

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Total saltscapes 23 25-30 ca. 680 965 Sources: Carrasco & Hueso 2008, Hueso & Carrasco 2009, IGME 2011,

ISAL 2014, IPAISAL unpublished data When focusing on solar evaporation salt making, the diversity of specific techniques is also appalling. From a geographical point of view, two main groups can be distinguished, namely Atlantic salt making and Mediterranean salt making, each with distinct features. Atlantic-style salt making relies on the natural force of the tides to let the seawater into the salina, which is usually built on clay ground that needs annual repair or even reconstruction. Due to more unstable climatic conditions in this region, with higher air humidity, the crystallizers are fed by sprinkling brine to ensure rapid evaporation, and the salt is collected and stored as soon as possible. Harvest takes thus place at a continuous pace. The act of salt harvesting has a more artisanal character and therefore is more labour intensive (Petanidou 1997, Hocquet et al. 2001). Mediterranean-style salt making shows significant differences, due to the more stable climatic conditions and the smaller tidal amplitude. Therefore, the seawater needs to be pumped into the salina, as it usually cannot enter it by itself. On the other hand, the crystallizers are fed by flooding them, and the brine is allowed to almost completely evaporate before harvesting the salt. Since the amount of brine to be evaporated is relatively large, harvesting takes place at a discontinuous pace. Often a layer of salt is left on the ground, to act as insulation, to create a solid stone-like basis and to prevent contamination from soil particles. The ground is therefore more solid and allows the use of heavier machinery to harvest the salt, and the salina does not need yearly reconstruction. This allows to increase the production of salt with relatively less labour intensive methods (Petanidou 1997, Petanidou & Dalaka 2009, Rodrigues et al 2011). Form the point of view of management (see Table 2), two main categories may be distinguished: Industrial saltworks and artisanal salinas. Industrial saltworks are usually run by large companies, often linked to the mining sector, which can be translated in a more or less homogeneous, corporate-style commercial strategy. On the other hand, the management of artisanal salinas is very heterogeneous due to the different nature of the institutions that run them (from SMEs to NGOs, local authorities, individual salt makers and cooperatives or often a combination of these via land stewardship or similar agreements) (ISAL 2014, pers. obs.). Typically, the production of salt in industrial sites is five times higher than in artisanal sites, although variability in production figures is very high in both types of salinas (IGME 2011, ISAL 2014, IPAISAL unpublished data). Of the total production, less than 4% of industrial salt is targeted towards the culinary salts market (ISAL 2014), but it is probably a very relevant segment due to the much higher profitability. No figures exist for the end market of artisanal salt but most producers seem to target the culinary segment (pers. obs.). On the other hand, salt making sites, whatever their location or scale of production, have always been attractive locations for ecocultural tourism (Hueso & Petanidou 2011a), a reason why many of these sites are happy to welcome visitors and increase their income with this activity. However, the implementation of tourism is much more widespread in artisanal sites than in industrial ones. Several reasons may explain this:

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the broader formal diversity of artisanal salinas, the higher visibility of their associated natural, cultural and human values and the management priorities of the site’s owners. Table 2: Some features of artisanal and industrial salinas in Spain

Scale Industrial Artisanal

Nr sites 23 25-30

Type of managing body Corporate: Producers Transformers Distributors

SMEs NGOs Cooperatives Authorities Private owners

Open for tourism ca. 15% ca. 90%

Mean annual production ca. 4,5 MT ca. 0,5 MT

% for human consumption 4% unknown - variable Sources: Carrasco & Hueso 2008, Hueso & Carrasco 2009, IGME 2011, ISAL 2014,

IPAISAL unpublished data Having said this, the dichotomies of salt making (inland vs, coastal; Atlantic vs Mediterranean, industrial vs artisanal) described above are a rough generalisation of the reality found in Europe. Many salt making sites present in fact mixed situations. Microclimate is for instance an important factor determining the choice of salt making method. Hence, sites in the Algarve region, despite facing the Atlantic, have a Mediterranean climate and can show mixed features between the two regional styles. Soil can also be determinant: Canarian salinas lie on volcanic rock and although they are located in the Atlantic coast, the construction of their pans is very different than the prototype of Atlantic salinas described above. Another important factor is the micro-topography of the coast. In absence of large, flat areas, some Mediterranean sites cannot develop further than small primitive, almost spontaneous, salt harvesting sites located in rocky hollows, such as those found the Peloponnese, Malta or Croatia, and despite their favourable climate cannot be developed into large sites. Another important factor is the structure of the property of the salina, which can be represented by one large management body –the usual case in industrial and semi-industrial sites– or rather have a horizontal management among salt makers, such as many of the Atlantic sites now organised in the form of cooperatives (Luengo & Marín 1994, Petanidou 1997). Inland salinas, especially those found in continental Spain and Portugal, are a case apart, too. Their relatively small size and limited production have curtailed their development and can now be considered a window to the past with respect to production methods and management structures (Carrasco & Hueso 2008). 2. KEYS TO SUCCESS AT SMALL SCALE SALT MAKING: SUSTAINABILITY AND AUTHENTICITY

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Having concluded that the variability of salt making methods cannot be classified into discrete categories, but should rather be considered a blend of features unique to each site, it seems more appropriate to speak of salt making strategies rather than methods. From a managerial point of view, a strategy implies having a vision, a mission and certain lines of action within specific time frames. It is logical that salt making companies will have salt making as their main mission. However, a vision can be narrow or broad; short-term or long-term. Do we concentrate on salt making or do we include other products and services? Do we specialise in one kind of product or customer or do we offer a broad range of products and target an equally broad audience? Do we envision our future on the long run and work towards it or do we adapt ourselves to the day-to-day situation of the market? Whatever strategy one wishes to choose, it is obvious that the sound use of any natural resource implies that it should not be depleted or destroyed, but rather be either renewable or at least durable. Hence, a key feature of a sound salt making strategy should be to follow criteria of sustainability. The modern concept of sustainable development was introduced by Gro Harlem Brundtland in the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) report “Our Common Future” (Brundtland Commission 1987) and is defined as the “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. The concept has been further developed into numerous models, one of the most accepted ones is the so-called “triple bottom line”, coined by John Elkington in 1994 (Slaper & Hall 2011). In its model, three spheres of action overlap as Venn circles, which express the need of taking into account economic, social and environmental aspects to achieve sustainability (see Figure 1). Often, the most obvious sphere of sustainability and with which the term is usually confused, is environmental sustainability. This sphere refers to the sound use of natural resources, the choice of renewable resources (renewable being understood either as replenishable or well below the depletion level), the prevention of pollution, the preservation of natural habitats and biodiversity, an adequate environmental management, the compliance with environmental laws and regulations, etc. Supporting this one are the social and economic spheres of sustainability. The social sphere refers to an appropriate education, an adequate standard of living, equal opportunities, human rights, community outreach, etc. Economic sustainability, on the other hand, refers to a balanced profit building, cost savings, resource efficiency, research and development, risk management, etc. When the different spheres of sustainability overlap, we achieve partial sustainability. The overlap between environmental and social sustainability is considered bearable and results in promoting fair trade, holding business ethics, attending to worker’s rights, halting climate change… If environmental and economic sustainability overlap, it is considered viable or feasible and it results in attaining energy efficiency, creating incentives for conservation… Finally, if economic and social sustainability overlap, it would be considered fair and results in environmental justice, land stewardship and similar situations. In the next section, examples of these spheres of sustainability within the context of salt making and the management of salinas will be offered.

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However, there is an additional aspect in business management which, in our view, should be essential to reach full sustainability (see Figure 1). Any institution offering products or services to third parties should pay special attention to authenticity. A term often used in business management and especially in tourism, the latter was already questioned by Mark Twain in his book “Innocents abroad” written in 1869 and is still under permanent debate (see for instance Jamal & Hill 2004, Lacy & Douglass 2002, Sims 2009, Taylor 2001…). Authenticity can be defined as the “quality of being real or genuine” and, from a philosophical point of view, shares semantic fields with other terms such as veracity, meaning, purpose or truth. In the end, it’s all about being honest to oneself and to one’s business environment (customers, providers, partners, other stakeholders). On the long run, authenticity builds trust and gives a solid ground for business. Within the context of this contribution, examples of authenticity in salt making and associated products and services will be offered, too.

Figure 1: The road to full sustainability

Hence, at IPAISAL we propose a model of sound management of salinas and saltscapes that is based on a well-balanced overlap of the three spheres of sustainability, and cross-checked with authenticity. Only where the four aspects coincide, it can be spoken of full sustainability. Although this model offers a solid theoretical framework for sound business management, few if any of the salt making sites known by IPAISAL actually comply with the requirements of full sustainability. The sites usually stress one or another sphere of sustainability or offer some partial overlaps, but the overlap is not always balanced or authenticity cannot not always be proven. Nevertheless, in the examples offered below, the sites have made significant efforts to attain or at least get as close as possible to full

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sustainability. The value of these examples does not lie so much in the extent of their efforts towards full sustainability but rather on the feasibility of specific actions that may contribute to attain it, with the necessary adaptations, regardless of the site. 3. EXAMPLES OF GOOD PRACTICES Very few references exist to the good business practices of artisanal-like salt making sites in general (Thomson 1999, Sovinc 2009, Gallicé & Buron 2010, Hueso & Carrasco 2010, Rodrigues et al. 2011), but these are virtually inexistent in the case of Spain (Hueso & Petanidou 2011a). On the other hand, the artisanal salt market is changing at great speed, gaining visibility among the public, and older references (Petanidou 2000, Petanidou et al. 2002a, 2002b) are becoming increasingly obsolete. The fact that many of these sites have relied on or still receive important support from public funds, makes them more volatile than stable self-sustained businesses. Paradoxically, some of the better known sites and apparently more solid ones, which usually depend to a large extent on external funding, may be more fragile on the long run than less popular sites that are doing a more modest job and do not experience steep growth curves. Only time will show how each of them will behave. There is not enough time perspective and/or data to discuss these aspects in depth and therefore this discussion would belong to the realm of speculation. Hence, the examples that follow will be detached from the overall situation of the site of reference. They intend to serve as ideas to strengthen the visibility of salt making sites and the services and products they offer.

3.1 Economic sustainability Salt, being a cheap commodity, does not offer much margin for profit and salt making companies often need to search for additional activities that may contribute to raise their profits (Hueso & Carrasco 2007). This is especially true in the case of artisanal salinas, which are labour intensive and therefore have high costs. Artisanal salinas are usually open for visitors and many of them offer specific services and products for them, whether they are actively producing salt or not. The most typical infrastructure is a visitor or interpretation centre or a museum, such as those in Salinas de Léniz (Basque Country), Poza de la Sal and Villafáfila (Castile and León), Salinas del Manzano or Saelices de la Sal (Castile – La Mancha), Rambla Salada (Murcia), Gallocanta lagoon (Aragón), Salinas de Fuencaliente (Canaries), etc.. In the Cardona salt mine (Catalonia), however, the visitors will be able to visit a large facility in which several indoor and outdoor exhibits, restored machinery and activity rooms are prepared for them in the so-called Cultural Park “Muntanya de sal”. The visit includes a visit to an area of the mine that is not under exploitation any longer and hosts spectacular salt formations. The well-known health properties of brine have also contributed to the creation of spa and wellness facilities in salinas, such as the brine pools of Naval (Aragón) or the foot and hand baths in Salinas de Añana (Basque country). Some productive sites are making efforts to get visibility in the culinary market by setting up alliances with opinion

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leaders in gastronomy and, more specifically, with prestigious chefs. This is notably the case of Salinas de Añana and Salinas de Oro (Navarra), located in regions with strong culinary traditions. Other sites have chosen to specialise in a certain product, becoming thus a reference in this speciality. Such is the case of Flor de sal Biomaris (flower of salt Biomaris), produced in Isla Cristina or Sal de Hielo (Ice salt), produced in the Bay of Cádiz (both in Andalusia). Many of these actions are not foreign to industrial-like salt making sites, as they also create or host visitor infrastructures, such as those found in San Pedro del Pinatar (Murcia), Santa Pola or Torrevieja (Alicante), Cabo de Gata (Andalusia)… to name a few. One company owning several salinas within natural protected areas has used this fact as a sales argument and packages its salt as “salt from natural protected areas”. Others use daring packaging, such as the bright coloured egg-shaped salt shakers labelled as “Soso” (unsalted, in Spanish).

3.2 Social sustainability Artisanal-like salinas are labour intensive production sites with a high degree of specialisation and need to rely on well trained and strongly motivated human resources (Hueso & Petanidou 2011b). Some sites have been very keen on these issues and now offer training courses to future professionals who wish to pursue a career producing or processing salt, whether on site or elsewhere, such as Salinas Biomaris. Salinas de Añana, a salt making site with a strong drive for tourism development, has also focused on training human resources specialised in tourism, such as guides. From the point of view of equal opportunities, Salinas Biomaris has paid special attention to gender, offering job openings and training sessions specifically for women. Salinas de Añana, on the other hand, has agreements with local technical schools to offer their premises as a training site for students interested in restoration techniques, masonry, carpentry, etc. Another issue of interest is accessibility of the public with special needs, which has only been partially tackled in sites such as Salinas de Añana. With respect to community outreach, the salt lake of Villafáfila has a visitor centre that functions also as a cultural/social centre, offering the local community their building as a venue for events, meetings, etc. whether related or not to the values of the protected area of reference. More specifically, sites such as Cardona or Salinas de Añana are willing to collaborate with local artists and offer them visibility by letting them exhibit their work on site. Again, part of these actions are also well known by industrial sites. To name a couple of examples, accessibility has been addressed in some of the protected sites next to large coastal salinas. On the other hand, the saltworks of Torrevieja have often been represented by local artists and there is a local tradition of building pieces of art with salt by soaking a wooden frame in brine and letting it dry. Samples of this can be seen at the local museum and shops.

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3.3 Environmental sustainability Salinas are extraordinary examples of cultural landscapes with a valuable natural heritage. The presence of water gives them the consideration of semi-natural or artificial wetlands, which provide important ecosystem services (Sadoul et al. 1998, Hueso & Carrasco 2009). This has resulted in some biodiversity conservation measures that may affect the salt production activity but which will enhance the site’s value or even improve salt production on the long run. Examples of these are the limitations of passage to certain areas during the bird reproduction season or the construction of artificial nests such as the Bay of Cádiz or San Pedro del Pinatar; the preservation of streams for halophillic invertebrates, such as Rambla Salada or Salinas de Añana or the preservation of on site or nearby halophyte communities such as in Saelices de la Sal or Salinas de Imón y de La Olmeda (Castile – La Mancha). Since most of these measures are compulsory and there is no choice whether to apply them or not, they will not be labelled as good practices. Nevertheless, some sites do stress the importance of their natural values by providing information and visitor centres, or more modest signs and panels, to allow visitors enjoy the sites. Some others also include specific infrastructures such as bird observatories or bird watching events, such as those in the Villafáfila or Gallocanta lagoons. The Salinas of Chiclana (Andalusia) are in fact overall devoted to environmental education, with a broad range of infrastructures and activities in and around the site focused on awareness raising and dissemination of the natural values of salinas. The salt production there is solely for demonstration purposes. Inland sites are not so much known for their bird fauna and specialise in showing other values to the public. Cardona may focus on the geological features of salt, whereas Rambla Salada stresses the biodiversity values of their invertebrates and Salinas de Añana mainly showcases its cultural heritage. Some sites allow local associations to perform volunteer work to restore the natural or cultural heritage in and around the salina, such as El Rasall (Murcia) or host youth work camps, such as in Salinas de Añana.

3.4 Authenticity Salt making sites in Spain face an additional challenge that may be foreign to salt making sites in other countries. How to stand out amidst the almost 1,000 saltscapes that the country hosts? Of course, many of these sites are virtually invisible and a working site, whether actively producing salt or not, will only need to “compete” with a few dozens of sites. A large enough number, anyway, to be a legitimate issue of concern. It is clear that, in order to stand out, one has to build up an identity, to create a sense of belonging to the community, the area, it is attached to. This is where the concept of strategy becomes truly relevant. The key to a solid identity and a firm sense of belonging lies in authenticity and has to be taken into account at strategic level. This is no trivial issue. The recent experience of Salinas de Añana with the preliminary negative report of UNESCO in response to its request to become a World Heritage Site was based on this concept (ICOMOS 2014). Identity that is

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rooted on authenticity may be achieved by simply acknowledging the specific features of the salt produced on the site. If the salt is not refined, the presence of specific micronutrients or certain physico-chemical properties may contribute to highlight the uniqueness of the salt. Salinas de Léniz, the only forced evaporation site in Spain, produces its salt with a distinct wood aroma, a result of the use of wood as a fuel in the evaporation process. Other salts claim to be especially appropriate for blending with specific food items (meat, fish, vegetables…) due to their composition or structure. Other, world known examples are the sel gris made in the Atlantic coast of France or the pink Himalayan salt, best identified by their colour. Labelling the salt in a trustworthy manner will contribute to strengthen the sense of authenticity. The use of quality seals, especially when approved by independent panels or relevant institutions also contributes to build trust among customers and the general public (Hueso 2013). Measures that can be taken on site are linking the salt to the local natural and cultural heritage, such as the above mentioned “salt from natural protected areas”, although it would have been better if it this label would have specified the names of the areas. Another example is the salt produced in Iptuci (Andalusia), whose managers claim it is obtained in a site built by the Romans. But perhaps the most powerful tool to create a sense of belonging is letting visitors and customers to produce their own salt. Being able to experience the rough task of salt making and the satisfaction of bringing your own harvested salt home creates a bond with the site that cannot be matched by any other form of passive communication. Salinas de Oro offers this activity to the general public during their yearly Gastronomic Day event and both Salinas de Añana and Salinas Biomaris regularly offer this activity to specific groups. Other events, such as cultural shows on site of the reenactment of historical forms of salt making such as the Salt Fair in Salinas de Añana are other options to create identity. 4. CONCLUSIONS Salt production is a very diverse and complex activity in which many different aspects intervene. From a business point of view, salt making is, by itself, rarely profitable, especially if it is done in smaller, more traditional sites. The few salt making facilities that still work need to find other ways and means to earn their profits and survive. A balanced combination of sensitivity towards economic, social and environmental issues contributes to maintain the activity. If the site wants to stand out, then it will need to add authenticity to its list of priorities. Authenticity will give a sense of truth and of belonging to its hinterland, which will in turn strengthen the efforts to attain sustainability in the three spheres mentioned. Easier said than done, full sustainability remains a challenge ahead of most salinas. The examples presented above are just the glazing of a cake that is yet to be baked. Or salted. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

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IPAISAL is grateful to the managers of all the sites cited above, for their generosity and hospitality during all our visits and the fruitful discussions that have arisen from them. REFERENCES 1. Brundtland Commission (1987) Our common future. Report of the World Commission on

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34. Sovinc, A. (2009) Secovlje Salina nature park, Slovenia- New business model for preservation of wetlands at risk. Global nest. The international journal, 11(1): 19-23.

35. Taylor, J. P. (2001) Authenticity and sincerity in tourism. Annals of tourism research, 28(1), 7-26

36. Thompson, I. B. (1999). The role of artisan technology and indigenous knowledge transfer in the survival of a classic cultural landscape: the marais salants of Guérande, Loire-Atlantique, France. Journal of Historical Geography, 25(2), 216-234.

37. Weller, O. (2002) Aux origines de la production du sel en Europe. Vestiges, fonctions et enjeux archéologiques. Archéologie du sel: Techniques et Societés, 163-175

38. Williams, E. (1999) The ethnoarchaeology of salt production at lake Cuitzeo, Michoacán, México. Latin American Antiquity, 400-414.

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SOLAR SALTWORKS: A MULTI EXPLOITABLE - PROFITABLE WETLAND

Nikoalos Korovessis1, Socrates Pnevmatikatos2, Georgios Georgiadis3

1Hellenic Saltworks S.A., Asklipiou 1 str., 10679 Athens, Greece, e-mail: nkor@hol.gr 2 Physiotherapist PT, DC, 30200 Messologhi 3 Geologist, 30200 Messologhi

ABSTRACT Salt is one of the world’s best-known minerals and the chemical substance most related with the history of human civilization. Its significance for the creation of life itself on the planet and its importance as a commodity are paramount. Man produces sea salt by solar evaporation since the dawn of human civilization. Nevertheless, recognition of the unique coastal ecosystems that developed in parallel with the solar saltworks production process evolution is often lacking.

The sea salt production process must have gone through some distinct stages [1] up to take its current configuration that is a series of interconnecting ponds covering the whole range of brine salinity from regular to hyper saline environments. The biological process that develops along with the salinity vector in the evaporating ponds and crystallizers has actually transformed solar saltworks into integrated saline coastal ecosystems [1].

The wetland function of solar saltworks, in connection with the historical value of salt, give rise to many additional to salt production ways of Solar saltworks exploitation.

1. Salt Museums are created to exhibit to the general public the salt production methods and techniques along with the cultural values of the salt making sites.

2. Bird watchers organizations visit solar saltworks at specific seasons for avifauna observation and recording. That develops strong waves of eco-tourism in Solar saltworks that furthermore affects the nearby local economy and development.

3. The brine of solar saltworks’ evaporating ponds is widely used for therapeutic baths and also the mud from their bottom is used for therapeutic and cosmetic purposes.

4. Products of high commercial value can be produced in solar saltworks such as β-carotene, artemia and cosmetics.

5. Solar saltworks are used for environmental education by environmental education centres (EEC) established by solar saltworks Companies or by local authorities.

Furthermore there is a large number of abandoned small salinas in the Mediterranean basin that can serve the broader society if rehabilitated properly. They will provide enhanced nature conservation areas and become part of regional networks of ecotourism.

Key words: solar saltworks, sea salt, solar salt, constructed ecosystems, wetlands, salt museums, ecotourism, therapeutic baths, environmental education.

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1. INTRODUCTION

The uniqueness of current Solar Sea Saltworks, is based on the fact that in parallel with the salt production (physical process), a unique and of particular importance community of microorganisms develops in the ponds’ system (biological process), consisting with organisms and microbes of all domains of life that is, Eukaryotes, Bacteria and Archaea [1].

The ecological importance of solar saltworks is also connected to their ornithological interest as shelters to avifauna. Basic organisms of their biological process constitute excellent food for a large number of birds living in the saltworks for this matter. Certain species of birds, especially the Avocet, the Black-necked Grebe, the Kentish Plover etc., depend directly on the productivity of the saltworks, since their diet is exclusively based on Artemia salina. Artemia is also part of the diet of the beautiful flamingos and it is the main reason for the orange colour of their feathers.

Precisely that wetland function gives rise to many side ways of exploitation of solar saltworks that in most of the cases develop spontaneously. Taking as example the Greek saltworks we can mention that in:

Kalloni Saltworks, a strong wave of eco-tourism has been developed following the reconstruction and optimization of its production area,

Kitros Saltworks, people use to take saline and mud baths for therapeutic and cosmetic purposes,

Messologhi Saltworks, is well known for its spas and mud baths. Additionally it serves as an environmental education site for a local authority.

It is obvious therefore that life shows the way how to proceed with every specific case (saltworks) since it is not possible/proper to apply all the aforementioned side ways of saltworks exploitation in every solar saltworks.

In this study we concentrate on the effectiveness of Messologhi saltworks high salinity mud, since for many years unconfirmed information reported on the efficacy of Messologhi saltworks mud compresses as a treatment for osteoarthritis and cellulite.

2. QUALITY OF CLAY SEDIMENTS

The Messologhi lagoon area has been formed with the sediments from the estuaries of two large rivers that define the borders of the area from east and west and also created substantial reserves of mature mud in the area of Aspri and Tourlida saltworks. The transfer of sediments from adjacent highlands coming in contact with salt water is the substrate for the creation of mud. The sediment materials are enriched with organic ingredients and microorganisms coming from the biological process of the saltworks and transformed in mature therapeutic mud. The most important microorganisms involved in the biological process of mud maturation are species of algae or green algae. Brine and these algae species with their actions and their metabolites, alter the physiochemical characteristics of

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sediments, turning them in mature mud, enriched with numerous organic compounds that have therapeutic effects to humans.

The mud is black, homogeneous, with good plasticity and perfect affinity on the skin, elements that make it ready for application. The mud acts therapeutically simultaneously in three ways: thermal, mechanical and chemical. During the application -due to the heat and texture - creates local hyperaemia, chemical element absorption through the skin and excellent cosmetic properties like cleanliness, firming, and tender touch on the skin. The black colour is due to sulphides, which are important therapeutic components and during the contact of the mud with the human skin react with skin’s acidic components freeing sulphide ions. These ions are absorbed by the skin treating dermatological diseases. Thus, the chemical action is due to the abundance of metals and minerals that have identified palliative or curative properties. Two experimental clinical studies demonstrated the beneficial effect of curative mud patches to osteoarthritis and cellulite.

The quality of the clay samples from Aspri and Tourlida saltworks, the two saltworks that operate in Messologhi lagoon area have been analysed in order to identify their therapeutic peloids. Indicatively it is mentioned:

Table 1. Indicative mud sample analysis from Messologhi saltworks

Analyte Units Aspri Saltworks

Tourlida Saltworks

Ag ppm 0.03 0.05

Al % 0.49 1.56

Ca % 17.15 5.85

Fe % 0.76 2.42

K % 0.22 0.45

Mg % 0.91 2.61

Mn ppm 217 692

Na % 1.93 5.33

P ppm 220 560

S % >10 1.11

Sr ppm 1320 399

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Zn ppm 21 57

C

Organic % 0.62 3.43

Sulphide % 2.51 0.32

Br ppm 200 340

I ppm 13.0 29.0

pH unity 8.1 7.5

Consecutively the heavy metals concentrations are very low:

Table 2. Indicative heavy metals content.

Analyte Units Aspri

Saltworks Tourlida

Saltworks

As ppm 3.0 3.8

Cd ppm 0.07 0.17

Cu ppm 25.8 37.9

Hg ppm 0.02 0.06

Pb ppm 5.9 17.7

3. OSTEOARTHRITIS TREATMENT

The application of mud compresses from Messologhi saltworks is examined, as an alternative treatment for the symptoms of neck, shoulder, arm, back, hip and knee, osteoarthritis [2].

Two hundred and forty (n=240) patients were selected and agreed to participate in the research. The patients got assigned to six different groups of forty people each (n=40), according to their arthritic joint, i.e. the neck group, the shoulder group, the back group, the arm group, the hip group and the knee group.

All patients followed the same treatment procedure:

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Application of a thin layer of sea mud (≤3mm) covering the joint in a uniform way.

Exposure to sunlight for thirty (30) minutes taking care that all parts of the joint received the same amount of sunlight.

At the end of the 30 min. period the patients washed off the mud at the sea.

The same procedure repeated for fifteen (15) consecutive days.

An initial evaluation was performed using the appropriate questionnaires for pain, functionality of the joint and estimation of the general health status (clinical disability) of the patient:

Pain Evaluation: The pain was measured by the eleven point Numeric Rating Scale, where the 0 represents the absence of pain and the 10 the worst pain he had ever felt.

Joint Functionality Evaluation: It was measured by a special for each joint questionnaire. That is the Neck Disability Index (NDI), the Shoulder Function Assessment Questionnaire (SFSQ), the Back Pain Functional Scale (BPFS), the Disability Arm Shoulder Hand (DASH), the Hip Rating Questionnaire (HRQ) and the Knee Function Questionnaire (KFQ).

General Health Status (Clinical Disability): The classification of the patients according to their disability level carried out as follows: 0-20% minimal disability, 21-40% average disability, 41-60% major disability and 61-80% patients are bedridden.

After the completion of treatment the patients filled the same questionnaires at the end of each subsequent month and for a period of four months.

Results

The results of the research are presented in the following tables 3 and 4.

Table 3. Statistical data

FRIEDMAN TEST (p value)

OWESTRY1 NDI2 SFAQ3 BPFS4 DASH5 HRQ6 KFQ7 NRS8

Neck 0,001 0,001 0,037

Shoulder 0,001 0,006 0,003

Back 0,003 0,001 0,001

Arm 0,001 0,004 0,003

Hip 0,016 0,039 0,004

Knee 0,001 0,001 0,004

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1: Owestry Disability Index (Evaluation of patient’s clinical disability 0-80%)

2: Neck Disability Index

3: Shoulder Function Assessment Questionnaire

4: Back Pain Functional Scale

5: Disability Arm Shoulder Hand

6: Hip Rating Questionnaire

7: Knee Function Questionnaire

8: Numeric Rating Scale (11-point scale for patient self-reporting pain)

Table 4. Aggregate data according to general health status, joint functionality and reduction of pain

Data analysis (p values)

Shows improvement (p < 0,05) of patients

general health status joint functionality reduction of pain

Neck 0,001 0,001 0,037

Shoulder 0,001 0,006 0,003

Back 0,003 0,001 0,001

Arm 0,001 0,004 0,003

Hip 0,016 0,039 0,004

Knee 0,001 0,001 0,004

Result analysis showed that there was significant reduction of pain and improvement of the general health status of the patients and of joint functionality as well (p<0,05), with the exception of the hip where the observed improvement is very close to statistical error.

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4. CELLULITE TREATMENT

Clay minerals are used in aesthetics and in the cosmetology to clean and moisturize the skin, to peel off the keratinocytes and to combat lipodystrophies, acne and cellulite. Cellulite is a herniation of subcutaneous fat within fibrous connective tissue that manifests topographically as skin dimpling and nodularity, most often in the pelvic region, lower limbs and abdomen.

Many therapeutic approaches have been used to confront the condition, usually with inconclusive results. We used mud from a well-known for its therapeutic properties location in Messologhi - Greece and evaluated its ability to affect the condition.

A total of 30 female patients [3] exhibiting the same degree of cellulite, lifestyle and activity level were recruited and divided randomly in two groups, A and B. The first group (A) was left untreated while the group (B) received the sea mud therapy for fifteen consecutive days. The degree of difference was determined measuring the circumference in the middle of the thigh.

The therapy consisted of a thin application of sea mud on the affected areas followed by exposure to direct sunlight for thirty (30) minutes, covering all parts of the affected areas. The 2-tailed paired t-test (SPSS v 17.0) was utilized for the statistical evaluation of the measurement.

Results

The results for groups A and B are presented in Tables 5 and 6 respectively [3].

Table 5. Group A

MEAN Std.

Deviation Std. Error

Mean Significance Correlation

Stage cellulitis B.T.* 2,4000 0,63246 0,16330 0,000 0,802

Stage cellulitis A.T.** 2,2000 0,67612 0,17457

Right thigh B.T. 67,5000 6,49725 1,67758 0,000 0,999

Right thigh A.T. 67,3333 6,37704 1,64655

Left thigh B.T. 67,5000 6,49725 1,67758 0,000 0,999

Left thigh A.T. 67,3333 6,37704 1,64655

Circumference B.T. 114,6000 9,59762 2,47809 0,000 1,000

Circumference A.T. 114,5133 9,64897 2,49135

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Waist B.T. 82,3333 7,54431 1,94793 0,000 1,000

Waist A.T. 82,2800 7,48343 1,93221

*B.T. = Before Treatment, **A.T. = After Treatment

Table 6. Group B

MEAN Std.

Deviation Std. Error

Mean Significance Correlation

Stage cellulitis B.T.* 2,4000 0,63246 0,16330 0,003 0,706

Stage cellulitis A.T.** 1,9333 0,70373 0,18170

Right thigh B.T. 66,9000 6,49725 1,67758 0,000 0,996

Right thigh A.T. 67,4000 6,33076 1,63460

Left thigh B.T. 67,1333 6,43151 1,66061 0,000 0,999

Left thigh A.T. 67,3333 6,42947 1,66008

Circumference B.T. 114,6000 9,59762 2,47809 0,000 0,996

Circumference A.T. 113,9333 9,50359 2,45428

Waist B.T. 82,3333 7,54431 1,94793 0,000 0,998

Waist A.T. 81,8667 7,42214 1,91639

*B.T. = Before Treatment, **A.T. = After Treatment

As it is shown in Table 5 no significant change was observed in the stage of cellulite in the perimeter of the thighs, in the circumference or in the perimeter of waist in group A, which did not received any treatment (p > 0,05, in all cases). On the contrary, improvement was noticed with statistical significance (p < 0,05), regarding the aforementioned parameters in group B (Table 6).

The mean stage of cellulite was decreased from 2,4000 to 1,9333 (p=0,004), while the perimeter of each thigh was also diminished (right thigh p=0,002, left thigh p=0,001). Decrease was noticed in the circumference (p= 0,007), as well. The perimeter of waist was also improved from 82,3333 to 81,8667 (p=0,004) [3].

It is noteworthy that no irritating effects such as redness or itching has been reported.

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5. CONCLUSION

Aim of the research was to verify the efficacy of Messologhi saltworks mud as a treatment for osteoarthritis symptoms and cellulite. The conclusion that can be drawn from the aforementioned results is that the application of Messologhi saltworks mud, for fifteen consecutive days has been proved to be:

quite effective in treating the symptoms of osteoarthritis in most of the major joints of the body

a beneficial and safe method for the treatment of cellulite.

Τhe possible mechanism of action of mud treatment remains unknown; it appears that the beneficial effect of the mud is due to a multifactorial (multielement) mechanism.

We wish to emphasize that in a next step, the results of this study should be confirmed by clinical examinations in order to accurately visualize the extent of the disease in each patient. Also, with further clinical studies can be shown that the mud is beneficial in cases of dermatological diseases as have occasionally noted by such references.

Lastly, the mud with proper processing can be incorporated into cosmetic formulations, or can be used as it is, on human skin (face and body). Hence the exploitation of Solar Saltworks as Spa sites proves to be quite effective!

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REFERENCES

1. Korovessis N.A., Lekkas T.D. (2012) Solar Saltworks – Constructed Ecosystems. Proceedings International Conference on Biodiversity, Sustainability and Solar Salt. , Editors N. Korovessis, S. Lauret, W. Lox., EuSalt – CEISSA, pp. 48-58.

2. Pnevmatikatos S., Kintziou H., Varvaresou A., Papageorgiou S., Protopapa E., Kefala V. (2011) The efficacy of Sea mud compresses from Messologhi Lagoon as a treatment for Osteoarthritis symptoms on Neck, Shoulder, Arm, Lower Back, Hip and Knee joints. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology and Pharmacokinetics. 2011; 29 (2):159-68.

3. Pnevmatikatos S., Kintziou H., Varvaresou A., Papageorgiou S., Protopapa E., Kefala V. (2011) Effect of sea mud compresses from Messologhi Lagoon as a treatment for Cellulite. (Experimental study). 9th World Congress of Cosmetic Dermatology, June 27-30, 2013, Athens Greece.

4. Zagana E, Lemesios I., Charalampopoulos S., Katsanou K., Stamatis G. and Lambrakis N. (2010) Environmental – Hydrogeological investigation on the clay deposits in the broad area of Messologhi – Aitoliko Lagoons. Bulletin of the Geological Society of Greece, 2010. Proceedings of the 12th International Congress, Patras, May 2010.

5. Manassis Mitrakas (2009) Physicochemical Characteristics of the Natural Mud Deposits in Sagiada Thesprotia, Greece - Geothermal Energy in the Spotlight, International Forum, Thessaloniki, Greece, December 11-12, 2009.

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Integrated salt and brine shrimp Artemia production in artisanal salt works in the Mekong delta in Vietnam: a socio-economic success story as model for other regions in the world

Nguyen Van Hoa (1) and Patrick Sorgeloos (2)

(1) College of Aquaculture & Fisheries, Can Tho University, Vietnam

(2) Artemia Reference Center, Ghent University, Belgium

ABSTRACT Different South-East Asian countries with a typical monsoon climate produce significant quantities of solar salt during the dry season, even if lasting only a few months per year. Back in the late 1970s, the technical feasibility of integrating salt production with brine shrimp Artemia farming as a second crop has been demonstrated in the Philippines and in Thailand.

This combined salt-cum-Artemia production has become a very lucrative business with major socio-economic ramifications in the coastal area of Vinh Chau – Bac Lieu in the Mekong delta of Vietnam: over 500 families of salt farmers have improved their income with more than 5,000 US $ per household and per dry season with the production and sales of brine shrimp. This paper introduces the site of Vinh Chau, where thousands of hectares of salt works could be switched into Artemia farming. Geographical, climatic condition, soil structure and general farming procedure for Artemia culture in these biotopes are presented.

1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION OF THE MEKONG DELTA COASTLINE AND ITS CLIMATIC CONDITIONS

1.1. Geomorphology

The Mekong Delta is situated at the lower course of the Mekong River in southern Vietnam (Fig. 1). In the southeast it borders the East sea (South China Sea). It mostly consists of Holocene fluviatile brackish water and marine sediments that were deposited during the last 5,000 years.

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The coastal zone is flat with an average elevation in the order of 0.8 m above mean seawater level and this leads to frequent flooding. However, with the typical climate of two alternating monsoons, the combined actions of intense river sediment deposition, prevailing winds and the sea have created a slightly higher coastal belt in which flooding is less severe than further inland. Thus, average land elevations of some 1.6 – 1.8 m above mean seawater level, extending over fringes of 200 – 1,500 m wide, are frequent along the eastern coast between the Co Chien River mouth and the Ca Mau peninsula. Low dunes exist on some locations, e.g. in Tra Vinh. The coastal zone is intersected by an extensive system of natural and man-made channels that are connected with the main Mekong and Bassac River branches and the sea, thereby creating a vast number of “islands” so characteristic for an estuary. The coastal zone is affected by two tidal movements that surround the Delta: the semi-intensive-diurnal (twice daily) tides in the South China Sea with an amplitude of 2.00 – 3.75 m, and, the diurnal (daily) tides in the Gulf of Thailand with an amplitude of only 0.4 to 1.2 m. This coastline is characterized by tidal flats and relatively small areas of sandy ridges. At high tides, most of the coastal plain inundates with saline water from creeks or river branches, if not protected by coastal embankments, artificial levees or high bunds around the fields.

From Fig. 2 it is obvious that the Mekong Delta coastline displays significant dynamic features, and is characterized by active processes of erosion (abrasion) and accretion. In

E t S

Fig. 1: Mekong Delta (South of Vietnam) with the location of Vinh Chau and Bac Lieu, where Artemia franciscana (SFB, USA) was introduced.

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affecting coastal stretches of extensive lengths (20–80 km), these phenomena are naturally caused by prevailing coastal currents, tidal range, wind set-up effects and wave action.

1.2. Soil

Of the 12 main soil groups recorded from the Delta, only 4 are found in the fringe of the coastal plain. These are (1) sandy soils: found on narrow inland ridges between Bac Lieu and the South-eastern point of Soc Trang Province, and on a number of parallel ridges further inland in Tra Vinh Province; these soils have a high cation exchange capacity but fertility is very low due to salinity; (2) Permanent Saline Soils: situated on the sea side of the sandy soils, and along the southern and western coast of the Ca Mau peninsula; these soils are relatively fertile and acid accumulation is limited; (3) Permanent Saline Acid Soils: the majority of the inland southern Ca Mau peninsula, these soils can roughly be divided in Saline and Potential Acid Sulphate Soils (SPASS) and Saline and Actual Acid Sulphate Soils (SAASS); actual distribution of these two types within the study area remains unclear, but generally speaking, all lands that have been uprooted for shrimp pond construction classify as SAASS and experience acidification problems; (4) Dry Season Saline Soils: located further inland of the three soil groups mentioned above.

Exposure of acid soils to the air, for instance after excavation (for canal or pond construction), leads to oxidation of pyrite and formation of sulphuric acid, which acidifies soil and water. This leads to low pH values, that beyond certain threshold levels, inhibit most aquatic life as well as plant and crop growth. Values of pH 3 or less are frequently encountered in the coastal zone in particular at the start of the rainy season.

Fig. 2 : Lay out of Vinh Chau - Bac Lieu salt works (Mekong Delta, Vietnam) and erosion (small arrows indicating previous coastlines) along the coastal line.

VINH CHAU

BAC LIEU COASTLINE 1965

COASTLINE 1995

SOC TRANG

MY XUYEN

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1.3. Climate

The coastal plain is dominated by a rainy south-west monsoon from end of April till October (85 % of the annual rainfall), and a dry north-east monsoon from November till April (15 % of the annual rainfall). The average annual rainfall varies from about 2,250 mm on the west coast to 1,250 mm in southern Tra Vinh. Within the Delta, the annual average temperature varies little and is 26 – 27°C, also the monthly mean temperature shows little variation, i.e. from 28.5°C in the warmest month (April) to 25.0°C in the coldest month (January). Annual evaporation rates range from 1,600 to 2,000 mm with highest values in March (2.0 – 5.5 mm/day) and lowest in October (1.8 – 2.0 mm/day). When combining rainfall and evaporation the data show that in most of the coastal zone rainfall exceeds evaporation during six months of the year.

The relative humidity is highest from August to October (84 – 90%) and lowest from February to March (65 – 80%). Sunshine and radiation vary with the seasons: highest monthly averages occur towards the end of the dry season, February to March (9 – 10 h/day and 450 – 550 cal/m², respectively) and are lowest in August to September/October (5 – 7 h/day and 360 – 400 cal/m², respectively).

NE winds prevail during the dry season, with velocities between 3 – 5 m/s, reaching 10 m/s in March and November/December, sometimes damaging the coastline. SW winds dominate during the rainy season and are also generally of low velocity. Typhoons, frequent in the central area of Viet Nam, are rare in the Delta.

1.4. Vinh Chau saltworks: specific characteristics of the study area

1.4.1. Geographic situation

Latitude 106° 05’ – 106° 42’ N; Longitude 9° 22’ – 9° 24’. In the East and the South bordering the South China Sea, in the West adjoining to Bac Lieu province, in the North adjoining to My Xuyen and Long Phu districts in the Soc Trang province.

1.4.2. Topography

Vinh Chau belongs to Soc Trang and Bac Lieu territory. The soil profile characteristics are clay (55-60 %), mud (19-20 %), and sand (21-22 %). There are three main soil groups identified in the area, all classified with humic, flavic and salic specifics, which are characteristic for marine inundation areas.

1.4.3. Hydrology

Seawater enters the area directly from the East Sea (South China Sea). Semi-diurnal tidal regime affects the area directly from the East Sea with a large magnitude (i.e. 2.5 m to 4.5 m).

Salinity of the area fluctuates in time (Fig. 3) and the highest salinities are recorded from May to June (the end of the dry season). However, because this period coincides with the rainy season, salinity in the area remains quite low. Moreover, as Artemia ponds are usually

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shallow (Brands, 1992), and heavy rains quickly dilute the pond salinity, pond culture of Artemia is not feasible during the rainy season.

2. OVERVIEW OF ARTEMIA CULTURE IN SOUTHERN VIET NAM

2.1. Review of Artemia cyst production in Viet Nam

First inoculation of Artemia in the central area of Vietnam took place in 1982 (Vu Do Quynh and Nguyen Ngoc Lam, 1987) with Artemia strains from Macau (Brazil), Great Salt Lake (USA) and China. However, in Vinh Chau and Bac Lieu (southern Vietnam, East coast of the Mekong Delta) first inoculation attempts were made in 1984 (De Graaf, 1985) and successful cyst production was recorded with San Francisco Bay (CA-USA, SFB) Artemia only in 1986 (Rothuis, 1986).

In the period between 1986 and 1990 different culture systems, e.g. the static system, flow-through system, and pond management procedures were developed. Late 1989 and early 1990 a few salt farmers in the area were selected to introduce Artemia into their salt farms for cyst production. Cyst production was successful and resulted in higher profits (3-5 folds) for farmers compared to the low income from traditional salt works. These results stimulated the salt-cooperatives and more farmers to engage in Artemia culture. In 1991, more than 2,700 kg of raw cysts were collected from 40 ha of culture area, which made the product available for commercialization. By 2001 the number of production sites increased to approximately 1,200 ha along Vinh Chau and Bac Lieu coastal lines, yielding almost 50 tons of raw cysts (College of Aquaculture and Fisheries, Can Tho University, unpublished data). With the boom of shrimp farming in 2002, many salt farmers switched their salt operation into shrimp culture. Also the drop of the selling price of raw cysts led a number of farmers back to their traditional salt production. In recent years this region has now turned into an important supplier of high-quality cysts (see Table 2).

Table 1: Overview of the weather conditions in Vinh Chau (Soc Trang province)

Month Air temperature (°C) Sun-hours

Rain-fall Humidity Evaporation

max min (hrs/wk)

(mm/month) (%) (mm/wk)

JAN 30.47±0.49 22.02±0.53 87±7 4.43±5.42 79.11±1.72 34.73±2.45

FEB 31.51±0.55 22.06±0.64 87±6 17.60±24.89 78.56±0.96 34.44±3.18

MAR 32.71±0.33 23.29±0.72 96±7 13.88±13.57 77.11±1.54 43.05±4.82

APR 34.27±0.55 24.58±0.51 90±6 39.60±30.97 77.22±0.78 40.78±4.08

MAY 33.32±0.65 24.77±0.17 67±4 235.29±155.53 82.56±1.60 27.98±4.01

JUN 31.83±0.47 24.65±0.28 53±4 301.87±66.66 86.83±1.01 20.36±3.18

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JUL 31.29±0.90 24.27±0.18 58±9 370.38±104.41 87.83±0.66 19.71±2.88

AUG 30.58±0.31 24.12±0.15 52±7 387.71±75.94 88.50±1.26 18.01±2.17

SEP 30.59±0.54 24.22±0.15 51±10 377.76±86.37 89.28±0.95 16.94±2.69

OCT 30.38±0.47 24.22±0.30 55±12 316.16±88.81 88.17±1.96 15.66±1.46

NOV 30.27±0.45 23.69±0.34 68±14 125.70±51.61 85.22±2.65 20.62±5.05

DEC 29.88±0.62 22.53±0.23 72±13 45.60±49.01 83.00±1.32 23.56±3.07

(Source: Meteorological field station, Soc Trang province )

Table 2: Cyst quality of Vinh Chau Artemia (SFB origin, source: Aquaculture and Fisheries Sciences Institute, University of Cantho, Viet Nam)

Cyst diameter 235.2 ± 1.3 µm

Hatching efficiency (HE) > 300,000 Nauplii/g

Moisture content < 5 %

Hatching percentage (24 h ; 28°C) > 90 %

HUFA (highly unsaturated fatty acid) ≈ 17 mg/g

2.2. General description of a traditional salt street and an Artemia culture system

2.2.1. Description of a traditional salt street

Salt production in Vinh Chau and Bac Lieu follows the traditional system, the so-called solar salt works, in which each salt street includes a reservoir, primary and secondary evaporation ponds, storage ponds, and finally crystallizers for salt precipitation. In such a salt street, crude salt is being produced by evaporation of seawater under the influence of solar radiation. The system is illustrated in Fig. 4 and operates as follows: seawater of 35 g/l from the reservoir will flow by gravity into the next basin, evaporation pond 1. Evaporation takes place and salinity reaches 70 g/l within a couple of days depending on temperature, wind speed, water viscosity, etc. Next, this saline water will be transferred into evaporation pond 2, and eventually to the following basins for further evaporation. This process continues until salinity reaches 170 to 250 g/l, approximately. Finally, high saline water or brine will be fed into crystallizers, in which, within 10 to 15 days, sodium chloride salt precipitates, completing a full production cycle. The first complete cycle, i.e. from seawater intake up to salt precipitation in the crystallizers, takes approximately 45 days. Towards the end the dry season, when temperature has increased and more salty water becomes available, the following batches for salt precipitation are shorter. Normally 4 to 6 salt production cycles are completed during the dry season in this area.

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2.2.2. General description of Artemia culture in Vinh Chau saltworks

The Artemia culture system in Vietnam is referred to as “semi-intensive” (Tackaert and Sorgeloos, 1991) and static (Vu Do Quynh and Nguyen Ngoc Lam, 1987). The term “semi-intensive” is used to denote small seasonal man-managed systems in which brine shrimp are inoculated at high densities (> 20 nauplii/l). Ponds are managed intensively following the methodology outlined in Sorgeloos et al. (1986), i.e. inoculation of selected strains, manipulation of primary and secondary production, predator control, etc.

In the previously described salt street, Artemia can be introduced into ponds where salinity reaches 80 g/l to 120 g/l. Most of the Artemia ponds in Vinh Chau and Bac Lieu salt works are situated in the second evaporation ponds, i.e. where salinity varies from 90 to 150 g/l (see Fig.4). An Artemia pond of 0.5 to 0.7 ha is manageable. A pond with its axis directed towards the local wind orientation is necessary for more oxygen diffusion into the water column. Wind action also helps to drive the floating cysts into the pond corners from where they can be harvested. As salt ponds are usually shallow, excavation of the pond bottom and/or heightening the pond dikes to increase the pond volume are necessary. In every culture system, a “kitchen pond” to produce green water as feed for Artemia, is recommended. Green water is pumped from a common fertilization pond and if needed mixed with brine to maintain high salinity levels (> 80 g/l) in the culture ponds (Vu Do Quynh anh Nguyen Ngoc Lam, 1987; Baert et al., 1997). Two to three weeks after inoculation, Artemia commonly starts to reproduce. Two reproduction modes (i.e. ovoviviparous and oviparous) are observed in SFB Artemia. High production of cysts usually occurs in February to March as water temperature is less than 35°C. Towards the end of the dry season, high water temperature and food limitation cause a population collapse. Sometimes ponds are re-inoculated but higher water levels are then needed in order to avoid excessive water temperatures. In average, cyst production in Vinh Chau varies from less than 5 kg/ha/month to 40 kg/ha/month, depending on the culture system (extensive vs. semi-intensive, respectively), and the climatic conditions.

Recently, the culture techniques have been gradually improved into intensive culture techniques, in which the main concepts are the following: (1) excavated ponds as to increase the water column to at least 50 cm, (2) stocking density up to 100 nauplii/l, (3) management of green water to stimulate more suitable algae (e.g. diatoms and green algae) at appropriate concentrations prior to outflow to the Artemia pond, (4) additional feeding with marine shrimp feed (circa 40 % protein) and finally (5) aeration of the pond waters in order to promote higher survival, growth and reproduction rates. Interestingly, such a system now can yield cyst productions up to 150-200 kg raw cysts (wet weight) per hectare and per season (90-120 days) and thus considerably improve the farmer’s income (US $ 7,000 to 10,000 per household per season).

3. CONCLUSION

Because of its wide tolerance the Artemia franciscana (SFB) strain was intentionally introduced at the beginning and now it has shown its ability to adapt to a new habitat in the solar salt works in the Mekong delta. This combined salt-cum-Artemia production has become a very lucrative business with major socio-economic ramifications in the coastal area of Vinh Chau – Bac Lieu in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam: over 500 families of salt farmers have improved their income with more than 5,000 US $ per household and per dry

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season with the production and sales of brine shrimp (cysts and since recently also adult brine shrimp biomass harvested towards the end of the dry season through the first months of the rainy season). Although cyst harvests amount to about 50 tons in a dry season of 3 to 4 months, these meet less than 10 % of the present demand for Artemia cysts by the Vietnamese aquaculture industry. Local availability of top-quality Artemia cysts has allowed Vietnam to become the first in the world to develop commercial mud crab hatcheries (as umbrella Artemia can be used to replace rotifers at start feeding).

As the profitability of seasonal solar salt production is under much pressure in many countries around the world integrated salt with brine shrimp production should be further explored: it can make this artisanal sector, often involving many thousands of households, again profitable (with brine shrimp Artemia as extra by-product and thanks to its filter-feeding activity producing a higher NaCl quality) and furthermore contribute to the expansion of local fish and shellfish farming activities.

REFERENCES

1. Baert, P., Nguyen Thi Ngoc Anh, Vu Do Quynh and Nguyen Van Hoa, 1997. Increasing cyst yields in Artemia culture ponds in Vietnam : the multi-cycle system. Aquaculture Research, 28 : 809-814.

2. Brands, J.T., 1992. Research into the development of an integrated and sustainable system of penaeid shrimps, Artemia and salt in the operating salinas in the coastal area of the Vietnamese Mekong Delta, Report no. 4 on DG XII project 004/2179 contract nr. TS2-0278-NL (GDF)

3. De Graaf, G.J., 1985. Artemia culture in the southern provinces of Vietnam. Report on a visit to Socialist Republic of Vietnam, 38 pp.

4. Rothuis, I.A., 1986. Report of the activities on the culture of Artemia salina and Macrobrachium rosenbergii in Can Tho and Vinh Chau in southern Vietnam, 81 pp.

5. Sorgeloos, P.; Lavens, P.; Léger, P.; Tackaert, W.; Versichele, D.-1986

6. Manual for the culture and use of brine shrimp Artemia in aquaculture.

7. Artemia Reference Center, State Ghent University, Belgium, 319 pp.

8. Tackaert, W.; Sorgeloos, P.-1991

9. Biological management to improve Artemia and salt production at TangGu saltworks in the People's Republic of China: 78-83. In: Proceedings of the International Symposium "Biotechnology of solar saltfields", Tang Gu, PR China, September 17-21, 1990, Cheng, L. (Ed.), Salt Research Institute, Tanggu, Tianjin, PR China, 283 pp.

10. Vu Do Quynh and Nguyen Ngoc Lam, 1987. Inoculation of Artemia in experimental ponds in central Vietnam: an ecological approach and a comparison of three geographical strains: 253-269. In: Artemia Research and its Applications, Vol. 3, Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on the brine shrimp Artemia, P. Sorgeloos, D.A. Bengtson, W. Decleir, E. Jaspers (Eds). Universa Press, Wetteren, Belgium, 380 pp.

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Peixe Rei Solar Salt Works Project: Ecotourism and Tourism Experience as Complementary Activities

Ricardo Jorge Dolores Coelho1 and Mauro Rafael da Cunha Hilário2, Filipe José Nascimento Silva3 and Sandra Margarida Duarte Silva4 1,2 Independent Researchers in Universidade do Algarve. ricardojdcoelho@gmail.com and mauro_lwt@hotmail.com 3, 4 Owners of Peixe Rei Solar Salt Works. capitalmoura@gmail.com

ABSTRACT Solar salt works are more than just a human salt production activity. They represent a particular type of bionetwork that is inserted in another broader salt marsh ecosystem, richer in biodiversity. Inserted in Ria Formosa, Peixe Rei solar salt works represent an activity surrounded by other human activities that become representative of a natural and economic sustainable development. This project aim is to develop touristic activities as complementary actions from the marine salt extraction, highlighting the natural side of solar salt works and of its adjacent area as well as the historical and social environment. For that purpose, a requalification design of the tide mill that belongs to the delimited terrain tries to ensure the building of a museum in which natural, historical and social environment is shown. Also it will function as a place for workshops of marine salt production, stargazing, bird watching and salt marsh tours promotion. This will have a major role regarding environmental education and it will be developed by researchers, to further study the creation of new complementary and sustainable activities in the area.

1. BRIEF BACKGROUND OF THE AREA

Peixe Rei Solar Salt Works is located in Parque Natural da Ria Formosa (PNRF) in the Algarve south coast. It is part from Natura 2000 [1], Ramsar list and Reserva Ecológica Nacional (REN) with a rich ecological area that is classified as a specific target area that means it has special features that require action or specific actions [2]. It includes spaces with heritage value, natural and cultural, actual or potential, in need of recovery, backup, or rehabilitation. This includes areas where the dynamism of the changes that were reversed and should be subject to recovery-oriented. The high biodiversity and nature conservation needs led to the designation as a special protection area to ensure proper management to safeguard the natural resources, promoting sustainable development and population’s life quality.

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Figure 1: (A) Location of Peixe Rei Solar Salt Works in Portugal; (B) Location of the Project area in Olhão; (C) Aerial photograph of Peixe Rei Solar Salt Works with the Project area (defined by red).

2. PROJECT DESIGN

Due to the fact that Peixe Rei solar salt works has a great potential to marine salt extraction and to develop complementary activities. The owners, Filipe Silva and Sandra Silva devised a project that incorporates not only the extraction of marine salt with traditional methods but also a redevelopment of the Peixe Rei solar salt works and adjacent area, adding the exposure of natural surroundings enhancing the diversity in the area, history and social environment. The project aim is to create a set of animated recreations that will be directed to tourism and local environmental monitoring, with different occupations from the bird watching to the stargazing, the study of biodiversity, the exploitation of solar salt works activities and workshops, nautical activities, local gastronomy promotion and nature protection awareness.

37° 7 32 N

A B

37° 7 32 N

8° 18 53 W

8° 18 53 W

C

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Figure 2: Chart with the first and the second Project steps

In this context, the heritage not only closes the shed built, as the natural fauna and flora, and habitats, as well as socio-cultural, respecting the traditional activities related to the experience of people in their daily contact with the space of Ria Formosa. It also aims to create conditions that allow the implementation of recreational and educational activities consistent with the interpretation and enjoyment of this landscape. To this end, there will not be any change or extension of the existing areas and volumetric spaces. Interventions around the surrounding space are associated with visiting the marine salt production, starting the ground paths for observation and study of plant species, observation and study of birds, and the possible construction of a small wooden pier, allowing a diversified analysis and knowledge of local biodiversity.

3. PROJECT SUSTAINABILITY

The sustainability of the project depends on two main variables. The first is the acceptance by ecotourists. The biodiversity, the entire environment, the history and the activities in the area should convince people to have an active role and participate. The second is the acceptance of the project by the area regulators. In fact there is a politico-bureaucratic problem, which is the inability of the institutions that regulate the area do not have favorable decisions on activities that promote changes in the area even if they could promote a great development of the area and even if they are considered environmentally friendly and respect throughout the natural area.

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For us the creation of a touristic paradigm with a strong protection side promoting the enhancement of the existing natural heritage would be a sustainable act and will be beneficial for all parties.

4. ECOTOURISM AND TOURISM EXPERIENCE

The tourism market is constantly changing [3]. Several trends can be identified. Among them, are: the search for complementarities that exist in all travel options [4], the quest for authentic and the refusal of artificial lead to the development of new destinations and products where consumers can access authentic products of local culture and knowledge [5, 6]. There is a growing demand for authentic experiences [7], there is also a growing demand for experiences that represent an opportunity for the tourists to increase and expand their knowledge called tourism experience [8]. In short, the consumer no longer looks for a product but an experience in all its components [4]. In the case of Peixe Rei solar salt works ecotourism and tourism experience can be integrated as complementary activities.

5. TOURISM IN THE WORLD AND IN PORTUGAL

The world tourism prospects, including its contribution to the economic and social development are increasing. It is estimated that by 2020 international tourism will grow 4% annually and reach values of 1.6 billion tourists [9]. In Portugal it is estimated that the number of tourists in 2020 reached a value of 18,3 million. There is a significant volume of demand stimulated by the increased disposable income, motivations to travel, the exponential growth of emerging markets [10] accompanied by continued growth in traditional markets, the demographic, social and technological changes, diversification of destinations and the increasing liberalization of the sectors [7]. This causes a segmentation of markets [11]. One of the segments is ecotourism that is becoming one of the fastest-growing sectors of the tourism industry.

6. ECOTOURISTS PROFILE: THE “GREEN” CONSUMER

The "green" products play an important role in the tourism industry [12]. The future tourists believe that its presence and use of facilities perceived as "green", sustainable or "eco" tourism will not ruin the resources they visit [13]. Ecotourism, as a kind of sustainable tourism depends on environmental quality, and requires a great need to ensure that the impacts of their activities are controlled and minimized. It is necessary to maintain the ecological quality and environmental integrity at the same time it provides an attractive activity for ecotourists [14, 15]. Quality is a key factor throughout the tourism industry, with a certification of the many existing tools for the guarantee [16].

7. SOLAR SALT WORKS IN PORTUGAL AND SPECIFICALLY IN OLHÃO

Coastal solar salt works are anthropogenic supratidal habitats exploited for sea salt, which becomes progressively concentrated by evaporation [17] (Annex 1). In the middle of the XX century, the salt production from salt works in Portugal suffered a decline due to, production costs, the increase of global competition but also because of the land pressures

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[18]. The appearance of semi-intensive and intensive aquaculture, the constant increase of coastal tourism and changes in hydrological regimes turned the land more expensive and inaccessible to salt works an exclusive. However the existence of new projects based in tourism, biological production, land rehabilitation, traditional know-how and environmental education could bring profitably to solar salt works [19].

Historically, Olhão was always a very important area for marine salt production. There are records of the salt activity at the site from several centuries ago. Since the Roman occupation, important traces and tradition of marine salt production were left. Its edaphic characteristics as clay soil, its plasticity and impermeability allow the construction of salt ponds. The topographic position is also an asset since there is a natural protection against winds and tides guaranteed by the barrier islands that exist ahead.

8. SOLAR SALT WORKS AND ADJACENT AREA ECOLOGY

Solar salt works activities are normally present in wetlands, more specifically in salt marshes rich in biodiversity and represent unique biological systems [20], which makes them environmentally relevant activities [21]. Many species live, feed and reproduce in a salt marsh and in a salt works area [22]. They provide the environment for biological diversity, including plants, birds, reptiles, fish and invertebrates, prevent flooding and improve water quality [22, 23]. Salt ponds adjacent ecology is the relation between the adjacent communities and environmental factors. Usually salt producers do not give great importance to its ecological value and is difficult to estimate an economic value, but it’s possible to list the arguments in favor of salt works. The presence of solar salt works can control the hydrological regime, promote the area preservation, controlling natural and anthropogenic factors, can control the litter and water quality. Consequently, the decrease of litter and the increase of water quality increase the phytoplankton and macro invertebrate’s diversity and biomass [25, 26]. It’s a place where several species of fish fulfill part of their life cycle. Migratory birds shelter, feed and nest [22]. For that reasons solar salt works are environmentally friendly areas and ensure nature conservation [27].

An example of successful protection is the case of the salt works of Margherita di Savoia (South of Italy). A completely artificial salt ponds located in a protected area with natural interest, belonging to the Natura 2000 and Ramsar list. This salt work is the biggest in Italy, and all the parts that regulate the area agree with the role that plays in conservation, due to the lack of negative impacts [28]. Other examples of Ramsar areas, with traditional salt works are the cases of Songor Keta lagoon in Ghana [29], Yucatan in Mexico (Ortiz-Milan, 2006a) and Rajasthan in India [30].

9. BIOLOGICAL SURVEY

Given the example of this list of species (Annex 2) regarding the type of ecosystem and the type of activity, theoretically it seems like a good strategy the rehabilitation of the area. First of all, if the area is going to be used sustainably by Man, it is going to be studied and cleaned, not only improving the landscape but also increasing the knowledge of Peixe Rei solar salt works and adjacent area, biodiversity. Second, if well taken care of, consequently there will be good water quality in the surrounds, it is also a certainty that the solar ponds will continue attracting birds. Why the certainty? One should consider the main reason why

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all animals including our own species move, in two words: food and water. But what makes us migrate from place to place, the search for a steady food supply. And mainly birds, they will find small aquatic invertebrates in the ponds, including Artemia spp. For some species this is a crucial food source, attracting many individuals not only to feed, but to also rest and find a mate. Third, if the ecosystem is healthy, flowers and vegetation will grow, and they will attract insects that will attract small mammals, reptiles and amphibians. The food web will evolve in a vigorous way. Ultimately the positive evolution of the biodiversity in Peixe Rei solar salt works and adjacent area will raise awareness and attract tourists and environmental researchers.

10. WIND MILL HISTORY AND REQUALIFICATION

The built structure present in the area of Peixe Rei solar salt works was a tide mill, built at the time when Ria Formosa was a mandatory stop of the cereals market to transform them into flour [31], however nowadays part of it is a ruin without use. So together the tide mill, the solar salt works and the surrounding salt marsh are natural and built heritages. The Project claims the structure will be rehabilitated into a museum to provide space for teaching history, workshops and research.

The importance of (natural or built) heritage in coastal management is all too evident. In fact, just by knowing the reality one is moved to respect it in its own characteristics and therefore crave some enjoyment, using it to efficiently manage the requalification. The role of historical knowledge in this process is extremely important because, by definition, the history allows for knowledge of past times, understanding and correct interpretation of this and hence an efficient design and management of the future. Thus, appreciation of heritage helps, first, to preserve the cultural identity of the people and on the other hand, tourism is an enhancer factor [32].

11. DISCUSSION

Apart from the marine salt production, the Peixe Rei solar salt works and adjacent area integrated management with complementary activities could offer a variety of requirements to the ecotourist or experience tourist: security, high level of available information, tourism product, emotional significance, influence of consumer trends and high involvement within a buying decision. It’s possible to observe a traditional salt production system with the traditional know-how, the effects on the landscape, the biodiversity, the salt marsh, the history from the area and a functional old tide mill. Those touristic activities may also be a marketing tool in the construction of a "green" image, as tourists come and actively participate [8]. Consequently spreading information about the activities and the products made in the Peixe Rei solar salt works: "green" products and activities with little or no impact on the environment in which is located. The influence of consumer trends is completed by the global panorama: Sustainable and Integrated Management.

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REFERENCES

1. Ceia FR: Vulnerabilidade das Ilhas-Barreira e Dinâmica da Ria Formosa na Óptica da Gestão. Journal of Integrated Coastal Zone Management, 2009: 9, 57-77;

2. DR (Diário da República), 22th August, 2008. Decreto-Lei nº 166/2008, 162 (online). Available from: http://dre.pt/pdf1s/2008/08/16200/0586505884.pdf (Acessed 2 May, 2014);

3. Araújo JG F and Filho NQV: Empreendedorismo e Turismo na era do conhecimento, 2007: (online) Available from http://www.periodicodeturismo.com.br/site/artigo/pdf/empreendedorismo.PDF. (accessed 02 May 2014);

4. Tangeland T and Aas O: Household composition and the importance of experience attributes of natural based tourism activity products – A Norwegian case study of outdoor recreationists. Tourism Management, 2011: 32, 822-832;

5. Wang N: Rethinking authenticity in tourism experience. Annals of Tourism Research, 1999: 2, 349-370;

6. United Nations World Tourism Organization: Tourism market trends, world overview and topics, 2006: UNWTO (ed), Madrid;

7. Khoo-Lattimore CSC: The tourism and leisure experience: Consumer and managerial perspectives. Annals of Tourism Research, 2011: 38, 1193-1211

8. Ballantyne R, Packer J and Sutherland LA: Visitors memories of wildlife tourism: Implications for the design of powerful interpretative experiences. Tourism Management, 2011: 32, 770-779

9. United Nations World Tourism Organization: Tourism Highlights. UNWTO (ed), 2009: Spain

10. United Nations World Tourism Organization, UNWTO. 2007: (online) Poole: Tourism highlights 2007. Madrid. Available from http://unwto.org/facts/menu.html (Accessed 02 May 2014)

11. Cavlek N: Travel and tourism intermediaries. Dwyer, L. and Forsyth, P (ed.) In: International Handbook on the Economics of Tourism. Bodmin, Cornwall, 2006: pp.155-172;

12. Appiah-Opoku S: Using protected areas as a tool for biodiversity conservation and ecotourism: A case study of Kakum national park in Ghana. Society and Natural Resources, 2011: 24, 500-510;

13. Wood ME: Ecotourism: Principles, Practices & Policies for Sustainability. United Nations Environment Program, 2002: Paris, France;

14. Buckley R: Parthenerships in Ecoturism: Australia political frameworks. International journal of tourism research, 2004: 6, 75-83;

15. Leme FBM and Neves SC: Dos ecos do turismo aos ecos da paisagem: análises das tendências do ecoturismo e a percepção de suas paisagens. Revista de Turismo y Património Cultural, 2007: 2, 209-223;

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16. Donnelly RET, Katzner T, Gordon IJ, Gompper ME, Redpath S, Garner TWJ, Altwegg R, Reed DH, Acevedo-Whitehouse K. and Pettorelli N: Putting the eco back en ecotourism. Animal Conservation, 2011: 14, 325-327;

17. Rocha RM, Costa DFS, Lucena-Filho MA, Bezerra RM, Medeiros DHM, Azevedo-Silva AM, Araújo CN and Xavier-Filho L: Brazilian solar saltworks - ancient uses and future possibilities. Aquatic Biosystems, 2012: 8, 8;

18. Bastos MR: No trilho do sal: Valorização da história da exploração das salinas no âmbito da gestão costeira da laguna de Aveiro. Revista da Gestão Costeira Integrada, 2009: 9, 25-43;

19. Hortas F, Pérez-Hurtado A, Neves R and Girard C: Interreg IIIB sal project “salt of the Atlantic”: Revalorization of identity of the Atlantic salines. Recuperation and promotion of biological, economic and cultural potential of coastal wetlands. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006: 272-276;

20. Kavakli Z, Tsirtsis G, Korovessis N, Karydis M: A comparative analysis of the ecological systems of two Greek seasonal saltworks (Mesolonghi and Kalloni): Implications for salt production. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006: 95-102;

21. Dardir AA, Wali AMA: Extraction of salts from lake Quaroun, Egypt: Environmental and economic impacts. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006: 44-51;

22. Moosvi SJ: Ecological importance of solar saltworks. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006: 243-248;

23. Sundararaj TD, Devi MA, Shanmugasundaram C, Rahaman AA: Dynamics of solar saltworks ecosystem in India. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006: 122-128;

24. Sovinc A: Secovlje salina nature park, Slovenia – new business model for preservation of wetlands at risk. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006: 254-258;

25. Mottershead R, Davidson P: The Yannarie solar project: design of a solar saltfield in Western Australia to safeguard the natural environment. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006: 133-141;

26. Evagelopoulos A, Spyrakos E, Karydis M, Koutsoubas D: The biological system of Kalloni saltworks (Lesvos Island, NE Aegean Sea, Hellas): Variations of phytoplankton and macrobenthic invertebrate community structure along the salinity gradient in the low salinity ponds. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006: 85-94;

27. Kortekaas KA, Vayá JFC: Tradicional salt making areas in the mediterranean: Poles for sound local development and nature conservation. Proceedings of the 1st International

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Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006: 85-94.;

28. Zeno C: The ecological importance of the Margherita Di Savoia saltworks. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006: 15-24;

29. Quashie A. and Oppong D: Ghanaian solar saltworks: promoting and protecting the ecology. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006: 174-181;

30. Sundaresan S, Ponnuchamy K and Rahaman AA: Biological management of Sambhar lake saltworks (Rajasthan, India). Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006:199-298;

31. Santos LFS: Os Moinhos de Maré da Ria Formosa. Edição do Parque Natural da Ria Formosa, 1992;

32. Bastos MR: No trilho do sal: Valorização da história da exploração das salinas no âmbito da gestão costeira da laguna de Aveiro. Revista da Gestão Costeira Integrada, 2009: 9, 3: 25-43.

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Annex 1 – Solar Salt Works Traditional Processes

Men capture marine salt from the seawater, using ponds to keep seawater and retaining only the salts through a natural evaporation process [1]. The first pond called reservoir is fed with seawater. Here happens a decantation process [2]. The seawater flows to evaporators and its salt concentration rises continuously through evaporation, controlled by wind, precipitation, temperature, humidity and radiation. To finalize, the seawater flows to crystallizers, where continues the evaporation process, leading to a complete salt dehydration process and consequent crystallization and collection [3, 4]. The relative ratio of the various ions contained in seawater is almost independent from its overall salinity, however it is practically the same on every coast of all open seas, 35g*L-1. The passage of seawater from evaporators to crystallizers usually occurs at 150g*L-1 to avoid salt crystallization in evaporators ponds. This method has disadvantages to produce pure NaCl, since the salt produced contains all the ingredients of seawater. However this fact is an “innovator parameter”, the production of high traditional salt quality rich in salt diversity (carbonates, iodides, bromides and sulfates) and organic matter, but also different structural crystallization, color and taste. Modern salt works could be semi-artificial coastal ecosystems, unique in terms of their architecture [5].

Figure 5: Steps from the Collection of Sea Water till the Collection of Marine Salt with the Relationship of Effective Evaporation, Ponds Volume and Surface Area.

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Annex 1 – References

1. Palanichamy V, Rahaman AA, Than CJ: Indian solar saltworks production processes and chemical composition of salt. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006: 249-253;

2. Ponnuchamy K, Rahaman AA, and Esso S: Sedimentology of Indian solar saltworks. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006: 229-234;

3. Davis JS: Structure, function and management of the biological system for seasonal solar saltworks. Global Nest: The International Journal, 2000: 2, 217-226;

4. Korovessis NA and Lekkas TD: Solar saltworks production process evolution – Wetland function. Proceedings in 6th Conference on Environmental Science and Technology, Pythagorion, Samos, Global NEST, Athens. 2000: pp 11-30;

5. Jhala DS: Solar salt production process. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on the Ecological Importance of Solar Saltworks, CEISSA 06, Santorini Island, Greece, 2006: 235-242.

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Annex 2 – Biological Survey (Birds, Other Animals and Plants)

Birds

[1] Ardea cinerea (Gray Heron)

Portugal’s biggest egret, with 90-100 cm in length. It has a big body, grayish and darker on the upper body. The head is black and white, the neck is long and the bill is straight and yellowish. The feet and legs are yellowish. The breeding season occurs between February and July, usually in colonies. It inhabits fresh or brackish waters. It feeds on fish, amphibians and small mammals.

[2] Phoenicopterus roseus

(Greater Flamingo)

A big bird, with 125 to 145 cm in length, young are grayish white and adults white and pink. Long neck, pinkish legs and a very thick black bill and curved. They can be seen all year around. Can be found in lagoons, shallow lakes, salt marshes, estuaries and solar salt works. It feeds mainly on crustaceans and mollusks by filtering the water.

[3] Egretta garzetta

Medium sized egret, up to 55-65 cm in length, it has white plumage, black bill and legs and yellow feet. In Portugal it has a long breeding season. It is gregarious while nesting. I tis easily seen in wetlands and feeds on fish, crustaceans, amphibians and small mammals.

[4] Ciconia ciconia (White Stork)

It has white plumage, with black primary feathers. The bill and legs are red, mostly in adults and reaches up to 100-110 cm in length. It is a migratory species that may nest solitarily or in colonies, sometimes in urban settlements near agricultural fields and wetlands. It feeds on many preys, including aquatic organisms, small mammals, amphibians and insects.

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[5] Charadrius hiaticula (Ringed plover)

A wader with 18 cm in length. It has a complete black collar and during summer adults have orange legs and bill. It has a broad black band on top of the head and the back is brown. It can be found in open areas, beaches, saltmarshes and intertidal areas. Worms and crustaceans are the main part of its diet.

[6] Calidris minuta (Kentish plover)

A small wader, reaching 14 cm in length. It has a short straight bill and black legs. The back is gray in winter and brown in summer. It passes through Portugal mostly in autumn. It occurs in estuaries, rice paddies and coastal lagoons. It feeds on small aquatic invertebrates.

[7] Limosa lapponica

(Bar-tailed Godwitt)

Around 38 cm in length. During winter it is mainly brownish and in summer, males get more reddish and females cream. The bill is quite long and narrow. It occurs in estuaries, solar saltworks and intertidal areas. It’s a winter migrant and it feeds on small invertebrates.

[8] Limosa limosa

(Black-tailed Godwitt)

Around 40cm in length with long bill, neck and legs. Druring summer, the face, neck and chest are reddish and the belly white with dark stripes. In winter the body is grayish with a white belly. It can be seen in beaches, estuaries, and shallow waters. Feeds mainly on crustaceans, mollusks, and fish and amphibian eggs.

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[8] Tringa tetanus (Redshanks)

It has 27 cm in length, the legs and base of the bill are bright red. In winter the back is brown, and in summer is darker. The belly is white streaked with brown. It is seen in several wetlands and brackish saltmarshes. It eats small invertebrates and polychaetes.

[9] Tringa nebularia (Greenshanks)

A wader with about 32 cm in length. It has greenish legs and a long bill, slightly curved upwards. During summer its back is gray with a bit of black, and the lower body is whitish. It inhabits coastal wetlands, saltmarshes an flooded fields. Its diet consists in small aquatic invertebrates and small fish.

[11] Platalea leucorodia (Spoonbill)

It reaches 80 to 90cm in length. The plumage is white and the bill has a characteristic spoon shape. The legs are long and dark. The neck is elongated. It is migratory and a nesting species in Portugal. It is found in lagoons, estuaries, mud flats and coastal areas. It feeds on small fish, crustaceans, insects and tadpoles.

[12] Sternula albifrons (Little Tern)

Small, with about 23cm in length. The bill and legs are yellow. The tip of the wings are black and the rest of the body is white. It is found in coastal areas, nesting in dunes, salt marshes or lagoons. If preys on small fish and crustaceans.

159

[13] Sterna sanvicensis (Sandwich Tern)

It reaches 40cm in length. The bill and legs are black, as well as the cap, forming a small crest. Its back is light gray and the ventral area is white. During winter it can be seen in coastal areas such as lagoons and estuaries. It feeds on small fish.

[14] Sterna hirundo (Common Tern)

Can reach up to 35cm in length. It has a light gray back and a white belly. The legs are red and the bill red in summer and dark the rest of the year. It’s a coastal species that feeds on small fish, insects and crustaceans. It nests on solar salt works and aquacultures.

[15] Chroicocephalus ridibundus (Black-headed Gull)

Reaches up to 36cm in length. From Febto Aug it has a brown cap. The bill is red, being almost black in summer and the cap becomes a small spot behind the eye. The legs are red and the plumage varies with age, with the wings being black, brown and white. Common along the coast, solar salt works and estuaries in winter. Feeds on fish.

[16] Larus michahellis (Yellow-legged Gull)

It reaches 60cm in length. With a gray back, and black wing tips. Adults have yellow legs, and a yellow bill with a red spot. The head is streaked with gray during winter. Juveniles are mostly brown. Very common in Portugal, along the coast, from beaches, docks, solar salt works and urban areas, nesting in islands and cliffs. It feeds on fish and whatever it can find.

160

[17] Larus audouinii (Audoini Gull)

Reaches up to 50cm in length. The head is long and slightly flattened, the eye is dark, the bill is dark red with a yellow tip and the legs are gray. Adults have gray backs and white heads and chests. The tip of the wings is black. It is seen at beaches, solar salt works, estuaries and lagoons, nesting in rocky islands. Feeds mostly on fish and invertebrates.

[18] Plegadis falcinellus (Glossy Ibis)

Up to 55-65cm in length with a long curved bill. The body is dark brown, and adults have greenish reflections on the feathers. The legs are dark and long. It is gregarious, nesting near water. It is seen in coastal áreas, salt marshes, rice paddys and cultivated áreas. Feeds upon worms, insects and aquatic larvaes.

[19] Himantopus himantopus (Black-winged Stilt)

A wader thar reaches 42-45cm in length. The legs are red/pinkish and very long, the neck is long, the head round and the bill is black and pointy. The body is white with the wings being black and the head might have black spots. Inhabits near salt and fresh waters. It feeds mostly on aquatic insects.

[20] Recurvirostra avosetta (Avocet)

With 42-45cm in length. The body is black and white The legs are dark and the bill is curved upwards. Juveniles have a brown back. Found in shallow salt or fresh waters, estuaries, rice paddies and solar salt works. Feeds on aquatic invertebrates such as worms, insects and crustaceans.

161

[21] Haematopus ostralegus (Oystercatcher)

Reaching around 40-45 in length. The plumagem is white and black. The eye is red, the bill is red, long and thick and the legs are pink. Found in wetlands such as solar salt works, mud flats and estuaries. Feeds on mollusks, worms.

[22] Pluvialis squatarola (Gray Plover)

Reaches 28cm in length. The back has a gray black pattern, in winter the belly is white, while in summer is black with the face and chest turning black as well. The bill is short and strong. Found in coastal areas, aolar salt works and rice paddies. It feeds upon polychaetes, mollusks and crustaceans.

[23] Numenius phaeopus (Whimbrel)

Reaching up to 40cm in length. The neck and chest are brownish-yellow and the back is grayish-brown. It has a light supraciliar stripe and the bill is long and curved downwards. It can be found in mud flats, solar salt works and agricultural fields. Feeds on aquatic invertebrates, mainly crabs.

[24] Numenius arquatus (Curlew)

Reaching up to 50-55cm in length. The back is brown with yellowish-brown feathers. The chest is heavily barred as well as the neck. The bill is very long, curved downwards. It can be seen in estuaries, mud flats, mostly in Autumn, feeding on invertebrates.

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[25] Arenaria interpres (Turnstone)

Sturdy, up to 23cm in length. The legs are short and orange, the bill is short. In summer the back is brown-reddish. The head and neck are white with black markings, extending towards the chest. In winter the colors turn grayish. Tolerates rain and wind, seen in rocky shores, estuaries and mud flats. They feed by scraping algae from rocks, eating insects, crustaceans, small fish and worms.

[26] Calidris alpina (Dunlin)

Wader with 17 to 20 cm in length. During winter the back is gray and the lower body white, in summer it is reddish brown on the back and abdomen has a black spot.it is found in coastal areas, mud flats, solar salt works and estuaries. It follows low tides to prey upon small invertebrates like worms and crustaceans.

[27] Calidris alba (Sanderling)

Wader with 17 to 20 cm in length. The bill and legs are black. In winter the back is light gray and the belly white. In summer the head, chest and back are black and brown. It is mostly found in beaches and sandy areas, and also in estuaries and solar salt works. It preys on invertebrates buried in the sand.

[28] Calidris ferruginea (Curlew Sandpiper)

About 19cm in length. The legs and neck are long. The bill is slightly curved downwards and the rump is white. In winter the back is grayish and the belly is white. In summer the plumage isreddish-brown. It occurs mainly in mud flats and solar salt works. The diet consists in worms, mollusks and crustaceans.

163

[29] Calidris canutus (Knot)

It reaches up to 24cm in length. The bill is straight and black. The legs are greenish-grayish and short. During winter the back is gray and the belly is white. In summer the back is mottled with black and the rest of the body turns orange-brown. The rump is grayish. It inhabits coastal wetlands such as solar salt works and mud flats. Eats mainly mollusks.

[30] Actitis hypoleucos (Common Sandpiper)

Small, reaching 20cm in length. White belly and brown back, chest and head. The legs are greenish. It has a white stripe that extends from behind the bill to the cheeks. Inhabits many biomes near water, riparian rivers, beaches, mud flats, lagoons and solar salt works. Its diet consists in small crustaceans and aquatic invertebrates.

[31] Burhinus oedicnemus (Stone Curlew)

Reaches 40-45cm in length. The body is light brown, streaked with black. The face has patterns of brown and white stripes. The legs are long, strong and yellow. The eye s are big and yellow. It is found in open spaces with vegetation, such as dunes and fields. It preys upon terrestrial invertebrates, hunting by night.

[32] Anas platyrchynchos (Mallard)

Reaches 50-65cm in length. Males have a green head and a white ring on the neck. The body is grayish and dark brown, and the wings have a blue mirror. The bill is yellow. Females are browner and duller. Quite common, seen in aquatic habitats such as dams, rivers, lagoons, estuaries, etc. Breeds from May to July. The diet tis variable, eating seeds, amphibians, crayfish and small fish.

164

[33] Tadorna tadorna (Shelduck)

Duck that reaches 60-65 in length The head and neck are green, and the rest of the body white with a brown and a black streak. The bill is bright red, with a bulge in males. It is a winter migrant, and can be seen in estuaries and solar salt works. Feeds mainly on invertebrates and mollusks.

[34] Pandion halieatus (Osprey)

It reaches 50-55cm in length and 160cm in wingspan. The dorsal area is dark brown and the lower part of the body is white with dark bands. The head is white with a black ocular stripe. It does not nest in Portugal anymore. It prefers cliffs, estuaries and lagoons to be able to hunt for medium sized fish, in both salt and freshwater.

[35] Circus aeruginosus (Marsh Herrier)

It reaches 45-55cm in length and 115-135cm in wingspan. Adult males are tricolored (brown, gray and black) and females and juveniles are brown and light heads. Nests in reedbeds. Inhabits wetlands, estuaries, salt marches and lagoons. Feeds upon aquatic birds, rodents, fish, amphibians and eggs.

[36] Turdus merula (Blackbird)

Common bird, reaching 25cm in length. Males are black with an orange bill and a yellow ring around the eye, females are dark brown and a yellowish bill. Fund in woods, gardens and parks. Nests on trees and shrubs. Its diet is comprised of worms, insects, fruits and berries.

165

[37] Merops apiaster

A quite colorful species with 28 cm in length. The body is yellow, reddish and greenish –blue. The tail is long and the bill slightly curved down. Found in forested areas, plains and open areas. Builds the nest in holes in sandy walls or in the ground. It’s a spring migrant and breeds in May. It preys mostly bees and beetles.

[38] Cisticola juncidis

Small bird with 10 cm in length. It has short round wings and tail. The back is striped, the throat is white and pale around the eyes. It occurs in riparian biotopes, fields and saltmarshes. The breeding season is from March to September. It feeds on insects.

[39] Sylvia melanocephala

(Sardinian Warbler)

It has about 13 cm in length. The male has a black head and a red orbital ring. The belly is white and the back is gray. The female is similar but brownish and duller. It is common to see this species in riparian areas, woods and fields. The breeding season is between March and July. During summer it east mostly insects and in winter add to the diet berries and fruits.

[40] Galerida cristata (Crested Lark)

Small with 18cm in length. It bears a crest and is mostly brown-yellow with a white belly. The chest is streaked with black. The tail is short and the bill long and slightly curved. Found in open areas, dunes, roads and farmed areas. Its diet consists of seeds, fruits and beetles.

166

[41] Cecropis daurica

(Red-rumped Swallow)

A swallow with 17cm in length. With bluish color, a rufous band on the back of the head, a cream rump, and long forked tail. They prefer valleys with streams or springs, nesting on bridges. It comes to Portugal in spring and summer. It feeds on invertebrates.

[42] Delichon urbicum

(Common House Martin)

It has about 14cm in length. The plumage is black-bluish on the back and white underneath and rump. It is found in urban areas near water. Nests only in man-made constructions. It preys mainly upon flying insects.

[43] Hirundo rustica (Barn Swallow)

Up to 18cm in length. The back is dark blue with metallic reflexes. The lower body is white. The face and throat are red. The wings are long and angular and the tail is long and heavily forked. It is associated to urban areas, living near lagoons, dams and villages. Nests in man-made constructions. I tis migratory, spending spring and summer in Portugal. Feeds upon insects.

[44] Upupa epops (Hoopoe)

It reaches 37cm in length. The wings and tail are black and white with large bands. The head and chest are orange/brown and the belly is cream. It has a long crest and the legs are short and the bill is black and slightly curved. Inhabits dry places with vegetation cover and agricultural áaeas. It feeds upon insects, larvaes and cocoons.

167

[45] Passer domesticus (House Sparrow)

Reaching 15cm in length. Males have a back streaked of brown and black with a gray cap The neck is black and the belly is white. The female is duller and lacks the black in the neck. Can be found in many habitats, including urban places and cultivated fields. It feeds on seeds and man-made residues.

Salt marsh Plants

[46] Spartina maritima

(Small Cordgrass)

Present in temporary submerged wetlands, in estuaries and salt marshes.

[47] Atriplex halimus

It can be found in saltmarshes, solar salt works, ocean cliffs, salty and sandy soils near the coast somewhat disturbed. It has edible leaves. May be used as ornamental.

[48] Arthrocnemum macrostachyum

Flowers between April and September. Present in halophyte woods, saltmarshes and estuaries.

168

[49] Halimione portulacoides

Inhabits estuaries, salt marshes and solar salt works. When present on salty soils it can be flooded periodically.

[50] Sarcocornia perennis (Saltwort)

Shrubby perennial halophyte. Flowers with equal height in the cymes. Adapted mostly to upper part of saltmarshes.

[51] Cistanche phelypaea (Broomrape)

Yellow, present in salt marshes and estuaries. A parasite in roots of other salt marsh plants.

[52] Sonchus tenerrimus (Slender Sow Thistle)

Yellow flower. A ruderal species, found in cultivated fields, gardens, riparian woods and rock cracks.

169

[53] Brachypodium distachyon (Purple False Brome)

Annual plant, found in prairies, road sides, open woods and dry soils.

[54] Mesembryanthemum nodiflorum (Slenderleaf Ice Plant)

The flower is white, found in solar salt works, dunes and sandy rocky substrates.

[55] Lamarckia aurea (Goldentop Grass)

Found in annual fields, walls, rocky formations, grasslands. Also found in dry, slightly nitrophile areas.

[56] Silene gallica (Common Catchfly)

Found in cultivated fields, prairies, road sides preferring sandy soils. The flowers are white-pinkish.

170

[57] Plantago lagopus (Mediterranean Plantain)

Found in grasslands, road sides, farmed lands and dry areas with high nitrogen levels.

[58] Plantago coronopus (Buck’s Horn Plantain)

Found in disturbed areas, paths, coastal cliffs and urban areas. Its ecology and characteristics vary. In coastal cliffs they have sturdy leaves, while in dry areas, they appear smaller and with less flowers.

[59] Convolvulus althaeoides (Mallow Bindweed)

A pink flower with united petals. Found in gardens, cultivated fields, grazing fields and woods. It has a high environmental plasticity, preferring dry areas.

171

[60] Pistacia lentiscus (Mastic)

Bush with a red inflorescence. Abundant in sclerophyllous woods and perennial woods. Can reach a tree size. Prefers limestone soils.

[61] Opuntia ficus-indica (Cactus Pear)

An exotic cacti species, with orange flowers and pear-shaped fruits. Found near roads, paths, and cultivated fields.

[62] Limoniastrum monopetalum (Limoniastrum)

An exotic species with white and purple flowers. Found in halophyte woods in salt marshes, solar salt works and rarely also in coastal rocky areas.

[63] Chrysanthemum segetum (Corn Daisy)

An exotic species, with yellow petals. Found in cultivated and abandoned lands. Does not prefer limestone soils.

172

[64] Chrysanthemum coronarium (Crown Daisy)

It has white flowers, with a yellow center. Found in abandoned/disturbed, urban areas. I tis found less frequently individuals completely yellow.

[65] Taraxacum officinale (Dandelion)

A perennial, herbaceous plant with long, lance-shaped leaves, always growing in a basal rosette.

[66] Juncus sp (Rush)

Annual plant. Found in meadows, near ponds, lagoons and water lines. Prefers temporary flooded soils and rich in silica.

[67] Salsola vermiculata (Mediterranean Saltwort)

A shrubby perennial, up to 1 meter tall. Found in saline and clay soils, sandy areas, maritime habitats and rocky slopes.

173

[68] Artemisia campestris (Field Wormwood)

Perennial, growing to 1.5m that flowers from August to September. Found at well drained sandy soils and dunes. Tolerates drought.

[69] Limonium algarvense (Algarve´s Sea Lavander)

Perennial, preferring dry or moist soils. It can tolerate maritime exposure. Growing up to 0.3m. It is in flower from July to October. The flowers are pinkish.

Other vertebrates

[70] Tarentola mauritanica

(Common Gecko)

Can reach 15cm in length. Brownish to grayish body. The back is covered with rows of tubercules, giving it a rough aspect. The belly is white. It has 5 fingers on each foot with developed nails on the 3rd and 4th finger. Nocturnal and natural climbers, feeding on a large variety of insects. Found mainly in dry areas near to human settlements.

174

[71] Psammodromus algirus

(Large Psammodromus)

Reaches up to 30cm in total length. The body is brown with two yellow/white lateral lines. It can present orange coloration on the tail and hind limbs. The belly is white and males have blue spots near the axilla. Inactive during winter. Feeds on small invertebrates and it can be found in pine woods, sandy soils and areas with shrub cover.

[72] Oryctolagus cuniculus

(European Rabbit)

Reaches 35-50cm in lenght. Ears with an inferior length than the head. Brownish fur. Mainly nocturnal breeding from October to June having several litters per year from 3-6 juveniles. Lives in family groups. Feeds mainly on leaves, grass and bulbs. Inhabits open fields, woods and farm lands.

[73] Atherina presbyter (Sand Smelt)

Maximum length up to 20cm. A small pelagic fish present in coastal areas and estuaries. Feeds on small crustaceans and fish larvae. It has a long, brilliant silver stripe along the flanks from head to tail.

[74] Diplodus sargus (White Seabream)

Common length of 22 cm. Body with 5 black and 4 vertical gray bands. Inhabits coastal rocky reef areas and feeds on shellfish and benthic invertebrates living in the sediment.

175

[75] Diplodus vulgaris (Two-banded Seabream)

Common length of 22cm. A species that occurs in rocky and sandy bottoms to depths of 160 m, but commonly in less than 50 m. The young use seagrass beds as nursery area. The adults feed on crustaceans, worms and mollusks.

[76] Sarpa salpa (Salema)

Common length of 30cm. The body is slender with 10 golden longitudinal stripes. It is found over rocky substrates and sandy areas with algal growth. Gregarious. The young are mainly carnivorous, eating crustaceans, and adults are herbivorous.

[77] Chelon labrosus (Thick Lip Gray Mullet)

Common length of 32cm. Occur inshore, entering brackish and freshwater. Occasionally migrates. Feeds mainly on benthic diatoms, epiphytic algae, small invertebrates and also detritus.

[78] Dicentrarchus labrax (Seabass)

Common length of 50cm. Grayish in coloration. Mouth moderately protractile. Adults are demersal, occurring in coastal waters down to about 100m depth but more common in shallow waters. They are found on various kinds of bottoms on estuaries and occasionally rivers. Feeds upon shrimps and mollusks, and on fishes.

176

[79] Gobius paganellus (Rock Goby)

Maximum length of 12cm. Coloration varies in this species. mainly marine, but may enter freshwater. Adults occur inshore in intertidal waters and in pools on sheltered rocky shores with algae cover, feeding on crustaceans.

[80] Syngnathus acus (Greater Pipefish)

Common length of 50cm. Light greenish to dark brown in color with variable markings, the snout is cylindrical. Found in coastal waters; on sand, mud and also rough bottoms. Common near algae and eel-grass (Zostera).

[81] Hippocampus guttulatus

(Long-snouted Seahorse)

Maximum length of 22cm. Long snout and prominent rounded eye spines. Color from dark green to brown. Occurs mostly in shallow inshore waters including littoral lagoons with algae and eel grass (Zostera or Posidonia), or even among rocks and in gravel bottoms.

177

Invertebrates

[82] Artemia spp (Brine Shrimp)

A small crustacean (15mm) that can be found in salt waters in all over the world in natural or commercial farms. It has an oviparous and an ovoviviparous reproduction.

[83] Carcinus maenas (Green Crab)

It is a medium sized crab. Up to about 6 cm in length and 9 cm wide. It is a voracious omnivore with a wide tolerance for salinity variation, water temperature and habitats. It burrows in substrates such as mud, sand, rock, and eelgrass. It can also occupy depths ranging from high tide to 6 meters.

[84] Eriphia verrucosa (Warty Crab)

Up to 7cm in length and 9cm wide. Covered with small warts and hairs. Coloration can be green-brownish with yellow dots. It can be found in shallow waters, amongst algae and rocks. Feed upon mollusks and worms.

178

[85] Pachygrapsus marmoratus (Marbled Crab)

Up to 4cm in length, with a quadrangular and smooth carapace. With pincers of different sizes. Green and brown in color with lighter stripes. Found in rock pools, intertidal areas and under rocks.

[86] Uca tangeri (Fiddler Crab)

Up to 2,5cm in length and 5cm wide. A semi-terrestrial crab, that inhabits salt marshes, mudflats and sandy beaches. Inactive during high tides. Males have one claw much larger than the other. The carapace is violet, yellowish-brown or black.

[87] Protula tubularia (Bristleworm)

A polychaetae worm with 5cm in length and with 100 body segments. The gills are from white to red. The tube is 2-8mm in diameter. It is found attached to rocks or shells on the bottom up to 100m of depth.

[88] Sepia officinalis (Common Cuttlefish)

Large, oval body up to 30-40cm with fins that extended throughout the body., With a small ventral syphon, and retractile arms. The color varies from black to gray or white, striped or mottled, capable of changing colors. Can go up to 250m depth. Found in sand. Feeds upon crustaceans and fish.

179

[89] Crassostrea gigas (Pacific Oyster)

With a large, oval, asymmetrical shell, up to 10-15cm length. With concentric rings and 6-7 radial rings. White and brown shell, and white inside. Attaches to rocks at the sublitoral, in calm waters. It is a filter feeder.

[90] Ensis siliqua (Pod Razor)

Long, straight shell, up to 20cm in length and parallel edges. With a dark external ligament. The Shell is white, with greenish-yellowish stripes. It buries itself in sandy bottoms up to 30m of depth.

[91] Ruditapes decussatus (Grooved Carpet Shell)

Oval shell, up to 6-7cm in length. The surface of the valves is reticulated and growth striations. The shell is white-yellowish with brown markings and the interior is white. It buries in sandy and muddy bottoms. It is a filter feeder.

[92] Papilio machaon (Common Swallowtail)

Wingspan of 60-80mm. Yellow wings with black stripes and blue stripes on the posterior wings. The tipo f the posterior wings is pointy. Males are bigger. It feeds on plants, mainly Ruta chalepensis and Foeniculum vulgare. Can be found in flowered prairies and gardens.

180

Other plants

[93] Ulva sp (Sea Lettuce)

A thin flat green algae growing from a holdfast, it has torn edges. It can reach 18cm in length and up to 30cm across. It grows attached to rocks or other algae by a small holdfast. The color varies from several green tones.

181

Annex 2 – References

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[66-67] http://www.flora-on.pt/

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[68] http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Artemisia+campestris

[69] http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Limonium+vulgare

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[75] Bauchot ML and Hureau JC: Sparidae. 1990, p. 790-812. In Quero JC, Hureau JC, Karrer C, Post A and Saldanha L (eds.) Check-list of the fishes of the eastern tropical Atlantic (CLOFETA). JNICT, Lisbon; SEI, Paris; and UNESCO, Paris. Vol. 2;.

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[76] Bauchot ML and Hureau JC: Sparidae, 1996 p. 883-907. In P.J.P. Whitehead, M.-L. Bauchot, J.-C. Hureau, J. Nielsen and E. Tortonese (eds.) Fishes of the north-eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean. volume 2. UNESCO, Paris;

[77] Billard R: Les poissons d'eau douce des rivières de France. Identification, inventaire et répartition des 83 espèces. Lausanne, Delachaux & Niestlé, 1997, 192p;

[77] Ben-Tuvia A: Mugilidae, 1986 p. 1197-1204. In Whitehead PJP, Bauchot ML, Hureau JC, Nielsen C and Tortonese E (eds.) Fishes of the North-eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean. Volume 3. UNESCO, Paris;

[78] Lloris, D., 2002. A world overview of species of interest to fisheries. Chapter: Dicentrarchus labrax. www.fao.org/figis/servlet/species?fid=2291. 3p. FIGIS Species Fact Sheets. Species Identification and Data Programme-SIDP, FAO-FIGIS;

[78] Tortonese E: Moronidae, 1986 p. 793-796. In P.J.P. Whitehead, M.-L. Bauchot, J.-C. Hureau, J. Nielsen and E. Tortonese (eds.) Fishes of the north-eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean. UNESCO, Paris. vol. 2;

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[80] Dawson CE: Syngnathidae, 1986 p. 445-458. In M.M. Smith and P.C. Heemstra (eds.) Smiths' sea fishes. Springer-Verlag, Berlin;

[81] Foster SJ and Vincent ACJ: Life history and ecology of seahorses: implications for conservation and management, 2004, J. Fish Biol. 65:1-61;

[81] Lelong P: Hippocampe moucheté, Hippocampus ramolosus. Océanorama (Institut Océanographique Paul Ricard) No. 24, June 1995, p. 19-20;

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[6] Photo by Mauro Hilário

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[10] http://ibc.lynxeds.com/photo/common-greenshank-tringa-nebularia/migrant-visitor

[12] Photo by Mauro Hilário

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[14] http://www.uzgamta.com/index.php?mact=News,cntnt01,detail,0&cntnt01articleid=177&cntnt01returnid=83

[15] Photo by Mauro Hilário

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[19] http://toateanimalele.ro/Pasari/Migratoare.php

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[22] Photo by Mauro Hilário

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[25] Photo by Mauro Hilário

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[27] Photo by Mauro Hilário

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[93] http://www.seaweed.ie/algae/ulva.php

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Biodiversity as a source of innovation and development: the Trapani and Marsala salt works

Andrea Santulli

Laboratory of Marine Biochemistry and Ecotoxicology, Department of Sciences of Earth and Sea, University of Palermo

Via Barlotta,4 - 91100, Trapani, Italy; andrea.santulli@unipa.it

The coast from Trapani to Marsala has been influenced by the presence of salt works for sea salt production for over 2000 years. This activity has had a significant impact on both the territory and its local population, influencing the areas geomorphological, ecological, economic and ethno-anthropological points of view.

It has been suggested that salt harvesting in the area began with the Phoenicians. The first historical record however, dates back to 1145 by the Arab geographer El Idrisi (Bufalino, 1983).

The choice of this area for sea salt production, presumably was determined by the combination of a number of factors; such as the morphology of the coast (flat and low), climatic characteristics (dry and windy), the presence of artisan skills for the construction of windmills. Finally, the high productivity of the fishing industry in this area led to a ready market for the sea salt to preserve the caught fish.

We can find evidence of the abundance of fishery resources in the rock art of the Cave of Genovese (on the Island of Levanzo 20km off the coast of Trapani). Where carvings dating back 11000-12000 years ago (late Paleolithic) and paintings dating back to 5000-6000 years ago (late Neolithic) depicting numerous marine animals have been found (Figure 1).

Figure 1 – Painting of the Cave of Genovese on the Island of Levanzo, off the coast of Trapani.

Further, evidence of the abundance of fish in the area and its strong relationship with sea salt harvesting can also be found in the pits for making garum (a salted and fermented fish

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sauce made in Roman times) and the more recent “tonnara”, trap nets utilized to catch blue fin tuna, which would have been preserved with sea salt (Figure 2).

Figure 2 – The buildings and a traditional boat of the “tonnara” industry on the Island of Favignana (left) and blue fin tuna fishing in the trap net used in “tonnara”, off the coast of the Island of Favignana (right).

Over the centuries the surface occupied by salt works underwent cyclic variations. Along with fishing, sea salt production had a major impact on the local economy.

Today the salt works cover an area of 1,200 ha. The majority of salt works in this area are still exploited, but a few are now abandoned or utilized as extensive aquaculture basins (Figure 3). About 75 % of this surface is exploited for salt harvesting with an annual production of approximately 90,000 t of sea salt, however, nowadays, sea salt is no longer a major factor for the local economy.

Nonetheless the geometry of the basins and the windmills still make a unique landscape in this part of Sicily (Figure 3).

Figure 3 – Salt harvesting in salt work “Ettore Infersa” (left). The lagoon Stagnone of Marsala and the Salt work “San Teodoro”, utilized for fish farming (right).

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Along the coast from Trapani to Marsala there are two types of salt works, those characterized by industrial exploitation and small artisanal family-run salt works (Figure 3).

Industrial salt works of Sosalt Spa occupy the major part of salt works surface area (800 ha) producing almost 80% of sea salt.

Sosalt spa utilizes two production sites, one on the Island “Isola Lunga” in the lagoon of Stagnone and one near the city of Trapani where it also owns a sea salt processing plant (Figure 4).

Figure 4 – Processing plant of the industrial salt work (left). Salt harvesting in an artisanal salt work (right).

Sea salt harvesting in the artisanal salt works of Trapani has remained tied to traditional techniques to cultivate the salt. Until the end of the last century the salt was almost exclusively harvested by hand, with a large experienced workforce (Figure 4). The experienced workforce was needed as the manual harvesting requires some knowledge/skill to avoid collecting the mud that lies under the salt layer.

During the 90s to counter a growing financial crisis in the sector, determined by the limited profit margins, lack of workforce and high labor costs a process of “artisanal technological innovation" was started. This resulted in some prototypes of salt harvesting machines (Figure 5).

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Figure 5 – Artisanal mechanization of salt harvesting in the salt works of Trapani. Ph A. Battaglia (left), D. Culcasi (right).

The interest in innovation of the salt works farmers is confirmed by the “willingness to experiment”, as in the case of the successful pilot trial currently in progress with the cooperation of the industrial salt works. This is being carried out to verify the possibility of using brine from the desalinization plant of Trapani (Figure 6) to improve the salt production.

Furthermore, it is worth stressing that a patent for the technique to produce Water-soluble natural integral sea salt tablets (Figure 6), prepared as single unit doses simple and ready to use (Daidone, 2005).

Figure 6 – Desalination plant of Trapani (left) and water-soluble natural integral sea salt tablets (right), ph http://www.flamingosalt.it/.

At the end of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century the most significant innovation resulting in an increased income has involved the Trapani salt works, and is represented by the possibility to maximize the main wealth of these unique artificial ecosystems: “the biodiversity”, consisting of four levels: genes, species, ecosystems and functions (Nunes and van den Bergh, 2001).

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Keeping in mind that the salt works are industrial environments, generated and maintained by the labor of man, these extreme environments have a peculiar biodiversity that is determined by the gradients of ecological conditions and their seasonal variations, arising by the cycle of sea salt production and harvesting

The salt works of the Province of Trapani, are characterized by high biodiversity not only in terms of genes and species, but also in terms of ecosystems and functions, i.e. landscape and cultural and ethno anthropological heritage.

To protect the high ecological and cultural value, unique biodiversity and ethno-anthropological heritage, the salt works of the Province of Trapani have now been protected through the institution of two Natural Reserves:

1) the Regional Natural Reserve “Isole dello Stagnone di Marsala”, established in 1984, with DA 215/04.07.1984, managed by Province of Trapani;

2) the Regional Natural Reserve “Saline di Trapani e Paceco”, established in 1995 with DA n. 257/44/11.5.1995, management by World Wildlife Fund WWF.

Figure 7 – The “challenge” for the management of the natural reserve.

These two Natural Reserves are very peculiar, they exist because man has built these artificial environments to exploit the natural resources and will exist as long as man governs and uses these resources.

For these reasons, they represent a big challenge for the institutions and the persons appointed to manage the reserves and to govern inevitable conflicts (Figure 7).

An example: since the establishment of the reserve and the disappearance of hunting, we have witnessed the increase in the bird population and among these the populations of piscivorous birds (Figure 8).

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In the first storage basins of the salt works of Trapani euryhaline fish species are reared by extensive techniques. However piscivorous birds cause considerable damage to the fish production (Figure 8).

According to the derogation provided by the Council Directive 2009/147/EC (Birds Directive), the salt farmers in order to protect farmed fish are permitted to put in place bird scaring systems such gas cannons. However these systems can have a significant impact on other bird species (Russel et al., 2012).

Over the years other less invasive defense systems have been tested (Figure 9), which should be promoted and recommended to the salt workers, this will ensure and improve the sustainability of human activities (Santulli, 2009).

Figure 9 – Net pens installed in rearing basins to prevent the underwater hunting by cormorants.

This experience suggests that it is necessary to implement management policies that consider the preeminent sustainable exploitation that is essential for the survival of these artificial ecosystems.

In spite of the conflicts arising from the protected environment being an artificial environment, and for its preservation, it is essential that man continues to produce and

Figure 8 – Cormorants in a salt work basin (left). Sea bream with a wound caused by a bird's beak (right).

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harvest the salt. The formation of two natural reserves has led to many positive effects on the conservation of salt works, biodiversity, and the local economy.

It has to be considered that the most significant effect of the reserve institution is undoubtedly represented by the increase in the number of tourists, which has increased significantly around the salt works of Trapani. Tourists are attracted by the unique features of the territory and also by the peculiar biodiversity associated with these environments.

Figure 10 – Red water of the basins of a salt work on Isola Lunga, in the Stagnone Lagoon, one of the most distinctive aspects of the salt work landscape

Among the “exploited” aspects of the biodiversity of salt works of Trapani some are “consciously exploited” such as the bird community that inhabits the salt works. Whilst others are ”unconsciously utilized” such as the halophilic microorganisms that turn the waters of the salt works red (Figure 10).

A detailed description of the biodiversity of the Natural Reserve of the salt works of Trapani and Paceco was made by Troia (2006). Troia (2006) published a review from several authors’ works, to describe the different aspects of the biodiversity.

The biodiversity of the Trapani salt work has been also reviewed by Giordano and Coll. (1998), Gianguzza and Coll. (2003), Mannino (2010) and by Mazzola and Coll. (2010).

The birdlife gives an immediate idea of biodiversity and immediately impress visitors to the salt works.

Trapani and Paceco the number of species increased from 113 in 1996 to 200 in 2005 for both wintering and nesting birds’ species (Giordano et al., 1998; Troia, 2006).

Among the species listed in Annex 1 of the EC Birds Directive (79/409/EEC), we can find Botaurus stellaris, Egretta garzetta, Casmerodius albus, Platalea leucorodia, Phoenicopterus roseus, Himantopus himantopus, Larus genei, Sternula albifrons and finally Recurvirostra avosetta (Figure 11), which has been adopted as a flagship species of the Reserve the salt works of Trapani and Paceco (Figure 11).

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Figure 11 – Recurvirostra avosetta (left) WWF logo (right).

The area of the salt works of the Province of Trapani represents an important habitat for large numbers and many species of water birds (Troia, 2006) similar to other man-made Mediterranean salt works(Birtas et al., 2011).

The effect of the institution of the two Natural Reserves on the number of bird species and individuals was particularly evident. In the reserve of the salt works of

The areas surrounding the basins are also populated by a rich fauna, less visible and less eye-catching, but no less significant in terms of biological importance (Troia, 2006).

Among insects there are many endemic and rare species such as Cephalota circumdata imperialis, Cephalota litorea goudoti, and Pterolepis elymica that are found in the salt works.

The small Limantride, Teia Arcerii dubia is particularly vulnerable as well as rare, because females are apodal and apterous.

It is believed that among insects there are still many unknown species (Troia, 2006).

Recently, in fact, an interesting endemism has been described: a grasshopper (Figure 12), discovered in 2006 within the Reserve, is endemic Platycleis (Decorana) drepanensis (Massa et al., 2006).

Two species of water beetles are also particularly interesting, Potamonectes cerisyi, and Hydroporus limbatus (Troia, 2006).

Diversity of the organisms inhabiting the water of salt work basins of Trapani and Marsala is greatly influenced by the salinity gradient. It is evident the progressive reduction of the number of euryhaline species with increasing salinity.

The first storage basins are usually used for the breeding of fish (Dicentrarchus labrax and Sparus aurata). In these basins wild resident fish species are present, such as Syngnathus abaster, Atherina boyeri, Aphanius fasciatus (Troia, 2006; Mazzola et al., 2010).

Figure 12 – Female of Platycleis (Decorana) drepanensis (Ph. B. Massa).

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However little is known about other organisms, such as polychetes (Cicciari et al., 1996), crustaceans (Cicciari et al., 1997) or mollusks (see Gianguzza et al., 2003 for a review).

Following the salt work basins gradient, at higher salinity the number of species is strongly reduced. These basins are characterized by the presence of Aphanius fasciatus and subsequently, at higher salinity by Artemia salina (Troia, 2006)

Salt works flora includes a small number of species characterized by a high degree of specialization.

Approximately 450 species of salt-tolerant plants are adapted to the extreme environment of the salt marshes, where the plants that survive are those tolerating or even requiring a high salt concentration for their growth and development. Along salt work banks there are Salicornia radicans, Halimione portulacoides, Suaeda vera, Inula critmoides, Atripex halimus, Halocnemum strobilaceum, Arthrocnemum glaucum. These plants are able to survive in these extremely high saline conditions through various mechanisms for adaptation and specialized physiological and biochemical defense mechanisms (Troia, 2006).

The presence of some endemic species is particularly noteworthy, such as Limonium densiflorum, Calendula maritima, Anthemis intermedia, Limonium ferulaceum Limonium avei, Limoniastrum monopetalum, Halopeplis amplexicaulis and Cynomorium coccineum (Troia, 2006).

A large number of these plants have been used for food and in traditional phytotherapy (Troia, 2006).

In the first storage basins of the salt works, where salinity is lower than 80‰, 70% of the vegetated surface is occupied by two seagrasses that are adapted to these extreme conditions: Ruppia cirrhosa and Cymodocea nodosa (Mannino et al., 2006). The remaining 30% is characterized by the presence of macroalgae belonging to 47 taxa, including Chaetomorpha, Chondria, Cladophora (Troia, 2006, Mannino, 2010).

At the highest salinity the waters of the salt work basins of Trapani is populated by numerous species of halophilic unicellular eukaryotes (Dunaliella salina) and prokaryotes (bacteria and archaebacteria), that, in spite of their crucial role in the production of salt, have received little attention (Margheri et al., 1987; Troia, 2006).

In fact, even if the raw material for sea salt production is sea water, the quality of produced salt crystals, in terms of density, inclusions, dimension, color, can be different in different crystallization basins of the same salt work, in different harvesting seasons and among different salt works. The halophilic microorganisms of the waters of salt works, as well as ensuring the spectacular phenomenon of “red waters”, determined by the accumulation in their cells of -carotene and bacterioruberin (Oren et al, 1992; Oren and Dubinsky, 1994; Oren and Rodríguez-Valera, 2001; Oren, 2009; Oren 2010a), are also involved in the crystallization process, influencing the quality of the salt crystals (Figure 13).

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Figure 13 – Basins of a salt work of Trapani characterized by different color, determined by different microbial populations and different crystallization in terms of quality and quantity.

Salt works therefore could be considered a super organism (Riggio, 2009) a ”giant bioreactor”, where extremophilic microorganisms, their metabolites, with biological processes associated with them and with the biological processes that they determine, significantly influence the formation of halites in the crystallization basins (Tackaert and Sorgeloos, 1993; Davis and Giordano, 1996; Popowski Casan and Sanchez Lorenzo, 1999; Javor, 2002; Liu et al., 2002; Sundaresan et al., 2006; Davis, 2009; Oren, 2010a; 2010b).

It has been demonstrated that halophiles present in salt work basins, directly or indirectly, can be involved in:

- initiation of the crystallization process (Castanier et al., 1999),

- acceleration of the formation of crystals (Norton and Grant, 1988);

- determination of the size and the number of halites (Lopez-Cortes et al., 1994).

In red water of crystallization basins, bacterial cells can reach and exceed the remarkable concentration of 107 - 108/ml (Oren, 2009). When the sodium chloride crystallizes and precipitates, it can incorporate the brine and then halophilic archaebacteria and bacteria that can reach up to 105-106 CFU per gram salt (Bírbír and Sesal, 2003). Within halites, they can survive for long periods (Norton and Grant, 1988) up to several tens of thousands of years (Lowenstein et al., 2011).

The biodiversity of the microbial community entrapped in fluid inclusions of halites can provide clear added value to sea salt, being an infallible tool for the certification of the geographical origin of sea salt.

There is a growing need for a pan-European identification system that validates the origin of food products, and strengthens consumer confidence and enables the identification and control of products intended for human consumption (Schwagele, 2005). In this context it has been demonstrated, by molecular biology techniques, already used for the

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characterization and geographical traceability of many foods (Luykxe and van Ruth, 2008). It will be possible to implement a traceability of sea salt, through utilizing the strong geographical connotation of this product which ties incontrovertibly to the production area. This can lead to a strong positive effect on the value of traditional food productions and the territory that utilize sea salt.

Dufossé and Coll. (2013) demonstrated that it is possible, utilizing 16S rDNA profiles generated by PCR DGGE, to characterize the bacterial community present in salt crystals that results different in salt from different producing areas.

These markers were proposed as a new traceability tool to certify the origin of salts, which allows tracing back the packaged salts from store shelves to their geographic origin (Dufossé et al., 2013).

The same results have be obtained analyzing organic volatile products and Carotenoid-derived aroma of salt crystals and of fluer de sel, by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (Silva et al., 2009; 2010; Donadio et al., 2011). These compounds are produced by the microbial community of the salt works and they vary in salts from different origins, and have been proposed as chemical biomarkers to trace geographic origin of marine salt.

Sea salt from Trapani, recently included in the register of protected designations of origin and protected geographical indications, will surely have significant benefits from the use of these tools.

These results strongly suggest that biodiversity of salt work can be profitably used to increase the income of economic activities linked to the exploitation of salt works, by taking advantage in a sustainable manner of the peculiar biological characteristics of extremophilic organisms living in these environments.

However, there may also be other uses of biodiversity, aimed at the conservation and exploitation.

For the salt pans of Trapani there is a paradigmatic example.

One of the reasons that led to the establishment of the reserve is the presence of an endemism of great ecological value: the Sea marigold, Calendula maritima Guss (Figure 14), a critically endangered species (de Montmollin and Strahm, 2005). The Italian National Research Council, the University of Palermo , IUCN plant conservation programs in the Mediterranean, Conservatoire botanique national de Brest and WWF started a conservation program for this species. The project is also supported by the Klorane Institute, which is aware of the fragility of plant resources and operates in close cooperation with botanical conservatories against the disappearance of plant species in the world.

The conservation measures taken by the project are: in situ micro Reserves and ex situ conservation and population reinforcement, within the project GENMEDOC, an inter-regional network of Mediterranean seedbanks (Cardona et al., 2013).

Figure 14 – Calendula maritima.

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Among the interests for the conservation and the protection of this critically endangered species, it have to be stressed that C. maritima belongs to the genus Calendula (Asteraceae), that comprises other species with numerous pharmacological effects, already exploited, in particular of C. offincinalis (Arora et al., 2013). Under this respect, we still have little information about C. maritima.

Terrestrial and aquatic biological communities of salt works are strongly influenced by environmental factors, in particular the high salinity that has a negative effect, reducing both species richness and diversity (Williams, 1998) compared to the sea and the adjacent areas.

The organisms that are able to survive in extreme conditions are known as “extremophiles”, “halophiles” in the case of organisms adapted to live in very high salt concentrations.

Their ability to survive in these extreme conditions (Figure 15) is determined by the presence of complex systems of biochemical defense, such as compatible solutes, antioxidants, carotenoids and polyphenols that play a crucial role in stress management and adaptation and in scavenging free radicals and oxidative stress, often related to UV exposure (Margesin and Schinner, 2001; Oren, 2010b).

Oxidative stress in human is recognized to be at the basis of numerous pathological conditions (i.e. skin-ageing, Alzheimer, cardiovascular disease, melanoma, etc.).

For this reason studying extremophile organisms and the components of their defense mechanisms can be useful to better understand the molecular mechanisms of resistance to oxidative stress and to develop industrial biotechnological applications in pharmaceuticals, nutraceutical and cosmeceutical sectors, utilising compounds that the extremophiles produce for their adaptation to these extreme conditions.

Figure 15 – Limonastrium monopetalum along the banks of a salt work (Ph. M. Aleo)

Keeping in mind these considerations, we focused our attention on some extremophiles living in the salt-works of Trapani, to study some bioactive compounds that they produce and to verify their possible industrial application. Their utilization has to be sustainable and tightly linked to the territory.

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Among the halophilic organisms we investigated: the plant Pickleweed (Arthrocnemum glaucum and Halocnemum strobilaceum), microalgae (Dunaliella salina) and halophilic bacteria and archaebacteria.

The bioactive properties of the molecules we extracted from these organisms were evaluated on seafood products, for nutraceutical applications, and in vitro for pharmacological and cosmeceutical applications.

1. BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS FROM EXTREMOPHILES AND NUTRACEUTICAL APPLICATION

Halophytes, extremophile perennial plants growing along salt marshes, salt lakes and salt works all over the world, have strong antioxidant properties due to the production of secondary metabolites, produced to counteract environmental stressors, represented by variations of salinity, temperature, soil composition. Among secondary metabolites, phytosterols and phenolic compounds, mainly flavonoids and phenolic acids, are particularly abundant (Kim et al., 2011).

These compounds are responsible of the strong antioxidant activity (Rhee et al., 2009; Sung et al., 2009). Some halophytes have been used as a food by coastal people and in traditional medicine to treat a variety of diseases, like gastroenteric disorders, diabetes, asthma, hepatitis, hyperlipidaemia and cancer (Rhee et al., 2009; Sung et al., 2009; Essaidi et al. 2013). Due to these properties, halophytes are considered a promising source of functional foods, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics.

In the food industry, in particular, natural polyphenols are preferred to the synthetics ones, because are considered safer than synthetics and, further, they demonstrate equivalent ability to inhibit tissue oxidation, allowing to a broad range of applications (Ngo et al., 2011). Among these, the utilization in the seafood industry represent one of the most promising possibility, due to the increasing number of scientific evidence that demonstrate the ability of natural polyphenols in preserving seafood quality.

Fish, are a primary source of omega-3 polyunsaturated FAs (PUFAs), which provide many health benefits in humans (Arab-Tehrany et al., 2012), but at the same time they are very susceptible to lipid oxidation. This degradation leads to loss of quality, shortening shelf-life, decreasing consumer acceptability, reducing both the nutritional value and safety of the products. Methods for preventing or retarding the oxidation of sea food include storage at low temperature, appropriate packaging, glazing with various chemicals and incorporation of antioxidants (Ngo, et al. 2011).

Furthermore, modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), in which air in the packaging is substitute with a mixture of bacteriostatic and inert gases, is a widely used technique, effective in preserving the quality and extending the shelf-life of many fish products (Mastromatteo et al., 2010).

We investigated the effects of coupling MAP with polyphenols obtained from a halophyte species of salt works of Trapani, Halocnemum strobilaceum, on quality and shelf-life of a fisheries species common in the Mediterranean region, Coryphaena hippurus (common dolphin-fish).

In H. strobilaceum, the presence of strong antioxidants polyphenols, such as flavonoids, caffeic acid esters and cumarins, was previously demonstrated (Miftakhova et al., 2001).

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Common dolphinfish, a cosmopolitan species very appreciated in Mediterranean, is characterized by high fillet yield, good taste and low price, but it is available in a restricted period during the year, limiting the fresh consumption.

Our results demonstrate that antioxidant treatment of dolphinfish shelf life coupled with MAP, significantly increases, respect untreated control, improves the sensory properties, such as colour, odour and general aspect, and ameliorated the levels of some biochemical markers.

In particular, the treatment with MAP and polyphenols extracted from H. strobilaceum was able to ensure the most effective protection against lipid peroxidation, respect to the control group, as demonstrated by the variation of markers related to this event (Messina et al., submitted).

2. BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS FROM EXTREMOPHILES AND PHARMACEUTICAL APPLICATION

Microorganisms that survive in extreme ecological conditions, such as high temperatures, high salt concentrations or extreme pH levels, have developed unique physiological and biochemical characteristics that make them a potentially valuable resource in the development of new biotechnological processes and industrial applications such as new products pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, nutritional supplements, molecular probes, and enzymes (Margesin and Schinner, 2001; Oren, 2010b).

Halophilic archaebacteria living in high salinity basins of salt works produce high levels of carotenoids (bacterioruberin), in response to high light intensities (Ben-Amotz et al., 1983 Oren et al., 1992; Jehlička et al., 2013). These molecules exert many functions within the bacterial cells, protecting organisms from excessive irradiance and allowing the use of light as source energy (Oren et al., 1992; Oren, 2010).

Carotenoids, lipid-soluble antioxidants, responsible for the yellow and red colours in many vegetables, have been shown in humans to prevent many types of cancer and cardiovascular diseases related to oxidative stress, thus these compounds have a considerable potential for use in pharmacology (Alquéres et al., 2007).

The term oxidative stress identifies a pathological condition caused by the impairment of the physiological balance between the production and the elimination of oxidants, free radicals. Free radicals are unstable molecules, searching of its chemical balance through acquisition of missing electrons from other molecules that, in turn, become unstable and seek another electron from other molecules, thus triggering a chain mechanism.

Some oxidizing species, known as reactive oxygen species (ROS), are products of normal metabolic activity. In physiological concentration, they play important functions at cellular and systemic level. These metabolites react with various organic substrates mainly by oxidation, determining a broad range of structural and functional damages that can alter or compromise many biochemical patterns in cells, tissues and organs (Ames, 1983, 1992).

An excess of ROS contributes to the processes of aging and is implicated in the development of chronic diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases (Halliwell and Gutteridge, 1990; Benzie, 2000). ROS can oxidize lipids, causing lipid peroxidation, can oxidize protein substrates, resulting in the wrong folding and thus causing a structural or

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enzymatic dysfunction, depending on the type of protein. Still, they can cause damage to the DNA of various types ranging from the skeleton to the nitrogenous bases, resulting in modification of gene expression.

From the biochemical point of view, antioxidants act preventing or scavenging free radicals, thus the interest in natural sources containing these chemical compounds is increasing.

Natural antioxidants, such as phytochemicals have the ability to modulate many signalling pathways, they interact with growth factor receptors, influencing cell survival, cellular signalling cascades, and modulating cell cycle regulatory molecules, leading to inhibition of growth and/or apoptotic death of tumour cells (Mo et al., 1999).

The utilization of a natural antioxidants needs further studies, in order to verify in vitro, the effects of the exposure in terms of toxicity, antioxidant properties, induction of apoptosis and inhibition of proliferation and molecular basis of the reported effects.

Halophilic archaea and other halobacteria where extracted from salt crystals, they were isolated and cultivated and then identified by 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis.

Halobacterium salinarum, was chosen on the basis of both their growth rate and production capacity of carotenoids, and mass cultivated in a 14l bioreactor.

Bacterioruberins were extracted by supercritical fluid extraction and tested in vitro, both in normal and cancer cell lines, to evaluate the dose-dependent toxicity, the inhibition of oxidative stress and the inhibition of proliferation.

In normal cells, the pre-treatment with bacterioruberins extracted from the halobacteria of the salt work of Trapani and Marsala, protected cells from ROS production and subsequent mortality induced by oxidative stress.

In cancer cells, the treatment with increased concentration of these bacterioruberins, induce a significant decrease of cell viability in a time-dose dependent manner of up to 50%. Furthermore, the analysis of cell death shows that cancer cells undergo programmed cell death (apoptosis) that is one of the required molecular mechanisms for the identification of anticancer drugs.

Because the involvement of oxidative stress was demonstrated in all stages of carcinogenesis (Valko et al., 2006), attention is growing to the direct and indirect antioxidant capacity of many phytochemicals.

Intake of phytochemical antioxidants through diet may prevent or reduce oxidative damage and could reduce the risk of chronic diseases and cancer.

Pharmaceutical application of natural compounds in the fight against cancer is also a very fascinating suggestion.

But it is known that from the discovery of the potential anticancer activity of a natural compound to its pharmacological application against cancer can take several decades of experimentation.

However, there are other applications, less fascinating from the scientific point of view, but that may have more immediate and profitable applications in cosmeceutical industry.

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3. BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS FROM EXTREMOPHILES AND COSMECEUTICAL APPLICATION

Cosmeceutics seem to be one of the most promising industrial applications of halophilic bacteria (Kim et al., 2008). Its remarkable economical potential is confirmed by the great success of the ectoine (Kunte et al., 2014), a compatible solute produced by moderately halophilic bacteria. Ectoine has been utilized for skin protecting cosmetics due to its ability to protect the skin from the effects of UVA-induced cell damage (Buenger and Driller, 2004) and its activity against skin ageing (Heinrich et al., 2007).

Human skin is constantly exposed to UV rays in sunlight. This triggers a stress condition, and over time a series of cellular changes. The photoaging is a complex process that gradually leads to skin alterations as a result of intense and repeated exposure to the sun or UV rays. Major skin changes induced by UV are represented by the appearance of deep wrinkles and skin blemishes stimulated at the biochemical level by ROS-induced activation.

Extremophile organisms have a high biodiversity due to the extreme conditions of the habitat in which they live causing them to produce bioactive molecules (such as carotenoids and polyphenols). These compounds can act as inhibitors against these metabolic patterns inducing photoaging and protect against the ultraviolet radiation (Singh and Gabani, 2011).

In addition to antioxidant and antitumor activities, bacterioruberins obtained from H. salinarum can exert potential photoprotective and anti-photo-aging effects. These properties can be useful in the prevention of cellular damage induced by ultraviolet radiation; continuous exposure to UV rays (both UVA and UVB), which may lead to the development of skin cancer and other numerous complications. Mainly related to ROS production.

Experimental evidence confirmed the importance of natural antioxidants from marine organisms or extremophiles in preventing processes related to photoaging. This reduces the occurrence (in a dose dependent manner) of factors promoting skin damage (Ryu et al., 2009).

Most of the studies aimed to evaluate the potential of bioactive compounds have been conducted in vitro. Cultured cells represent an excellent model system to investigate the role that natural compounds have in enhancing the endogenous antioxidant power and in the inhibition of elastase and tyrosinase (the key enzymes involved in the process of photodamage).

We have shown that polyphenols extracted from halophytes and bacterioruberins from halophilic microorganisms are able to stimulate the endogenous antioxidant such as SOD and CAT. Furthermore polyphenols and bacterioruberins can inhibit the production of ROS in cell cultures that have been in an induced oxidative stress condition.

Furthermore both classes of antioxidants were able to reduce the levels of elastase and tyrosinase, responsible of wrinkle and blemish formation.

Recently, our studies on stem-cells in vitro have also shown that bacterioruberins from halobacteria have a significant anti-wrinkle effect by stimulating cell renewal (the main mechanism involved in the anti-aging effect in cosmetics).

Treatment of these cell lines with bacterioruberins showed a significant induction of molecular markers related to cell differentiation and the anti-wrinkle effect.

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Figure 16 – Artisanal (left) and touristic (right) salt harvesting in a salt work of Trapani.

On the basis of these results and their potential industrial applications, it can be suggested there is a beneficial approach to biodiversity exploitation.

The study of biodiversity to protect and at the same time take advantage of an ecosystem in a sustainable manner, may produce innovation, development and generate income; part of which will be reinvested in the study and protection of biodiversity.

Our results indicate the possibilities to use some aspects of the Trapani salt works biodiversity, through innovative and sustainable technologies for the sea food industry and with nutraceutical and cosmeceutical application.

The technologies we propose, based on utilization of salt crystals and salt work biodiversity, enable the development of new goods and services in accordance with the innovation policy of the European Commission, and its strategy to boost the industrial production through one of the six key enabling technologies (KETs): “industrial biotechnology”.

Development of blue biotechnologies, together with the production of salt (one of the oldest and most sustainable exploited natural resources), will promote the conservation of salt works and of their biodiversity, along with providing jobs and growth for our country. This could help in addressing some of the major concerns for citizens in Europe by providing environmental protection and sustainable products.

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Turning ecological management into economic value: The case of the Aigues-Mortes salt-marshes, Camargue, France

Sonia Séjourné

Compagnie des Salins du Midi

30220 Aigues-Mortes

FRANCE

E-mail : ssejourne@salins.com

The company Salins du Midi, affiliate of Salins Group, manages three salt-marshes in the South of France. Those sites represent an ecological interest of major importance in France and Europe. The hydraulic management is favourable to the reception of 230 species of birds, 300 species of plants, 21 species of reptiles, amphibians and mammals and at least 11 species of fish and a specific shellfish Artemia salina adapted to salty environments.

Since 2006, the company has implemented many actions to conserve that biodiversity especially on the Aigues-Mortes salt production site: the creation of 45 nesting islets, the restoration of 20 reproduction sites, the creation and maintenance of 200 artificial nests to attract Pink Flamingos, the installation of replicas to attract birds, actions to limit the disturbance by the Yellow-legged Herring Gull, the elimination of invasive plants, burying electrical cables, hydraulic restoration works, prevention initiatives in the work schedules so as not to disturb the birds and destroy the plants, protection barriers for protected flora, collection of waste and limiting visits. Salins du Midi also signed the Natura 2000 Charter, which is a tool for subscribing to the respect of good environmental practices over a 5-year period. For those actions, the company was awarded the “Prix Entreprises et Environnement” (Business and Environment prize) awarded by the French Ministry of Ecology in December 2013.

This type of ecological management allows for the development of several economic activities. Firstly, it increases the positive image of the company and its products. This is also a selling point in the framework of calls for tenders. The commitment to the Natura 2000 charter allows an exemption from the land tax what represents an important earnings each year. Since 2009, Salins du Midi has developed an ecotourism activity on the Aigues-Mortes site with a new 3-hour 4-wheel drive guided tour to discover the specific landscapes and the nature of the salt-marshes. The ecological management allows for a fishing activity. Thanks to the hydraulic management, fish can develop in permanent low salinity ponds and the Artemia salina shellfish develop in temporary high salinity ponds. In this case, the company is paid according to the quantities taken. Salt-marshes can also support new technology.

Since 2011, an experiment to create a new High Frequency Surface Wave Radar able to monitor maritime zones up to 200 nautical miles off the coast has been implemented. This radar could detect small boats, pollution and be a tool to follow the currents and tides. The tranquillity of places and the presence of permanent high salinity ponds were the main criteria for choosing the salt-marshes of Aigues-Mortes as the experimental site. It consists of an installation of wooden posts and cables used as the receiving antenna. For the moment, the Company rents a part of its grounds for the implementation of this project but

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hopes to have more opportunities when this technology is finished. The company is still favourable to the development of new economic activities on the salt-marshes compatible with salt production and nature conservation.

1. ECOLOGICAL ACTIONS CARRIED OUT ON THE AIGUES-MORTES SITE

The company Salins du Midi, affiliate of Salins Group, manages three salt-marshes in the South of France. Those sites represent an ecological interest of major importance for France and Europe. The hydraulic management is favourable to the reception of 230 species of birds, 300 species of plants, 21 species of reptiles, amphibians and mammals and at least 11 species of fish and a specific shellfish Artemia sp. adapted to salty environments (Séjourné & Constantin, 2008; Séjourné, 2013). Since 2006, the company has implemented many actions to conserve this biodiversity especially on the Aigues-Mortes salt production site (Séjourné & Matrat, 2009; Séjourné, 2012).

1.1. Actions for 7 endangered nesting species of Terns, Gulls and Avocets

The salt-marshes are essential reproduction sites for seven endangered bird species including Terns, Gulls and Avocets. They can host up to 100% of their French or Camargue populations (Pin & Sadoul, 2006-2013).

Avocet Mediterranean Gull Little Tern Common Tern

Recurvirostra avosetta Larus melanocephalus Sterna albifrons Sterna hirundo

Slender-billed Gull Gull-billed Tern Sandwich Tern

Larus genei Gelochelidon nilotica Sterna sandvicensis

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1.1.1. Creation of islets

Thanks to the creation of 45 nesting islets and the restoration of 20 reproduction sites from 2006, the population of those birds has been increasing on the salt-marshes. The number of pairs increased fivefold on average over the period 2006-2013. The artificial reproduction allows for better nesting conditions (no possible access by predators, presence of some vegetation as shelter, and so on) and shows a better number of chicks per pair that is essential to renew the population. It is thus important to continue the creation of islets (Pin & Sadoul, 2006-2013).

In 2008, the only French breeding colony of the slender-billed gull was observed on an artificial nest created in 2006 on the Aigues-Mortes salt-marshes.

In 2013, islet building by a Mechanic shovel Test of load bearing during the works with boards to be able to progress in the pond

The islet created in January 2013 sheltered the only Nesting Slender-billed Gulls nesting site of the Slender-billed Gull in the Camargue

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Islet before restoration Islet after raking and removal of vegetation

In 2009, some shelters were installed to protect the chicks from the predators

1.1.2. Specific management to limit the disturbance by the Yellow-legged Herring Gull

On the long term, it also appears necessary to set up specific management to limit the disturbance by the Yellow-legged Herring Gull, which has been increasing on the Mediterranean coastline since the 1950’s and which competes with the other colonial Charadriiforms species of patrimonial interest (Sadoul & Walmsley, 2000).

Two innovative methods to limit the reproduction of the Herring Gulls have both been tested since the winter of 2006-2007 on the Aigues-Mortes salt-marshes. These experiments aim, in the long run, to completely free these islets from Herring Gulls in order to allow for the return on these sites of small colonial Charadriiforms. One of the principal criteria sought by the Herring Gulls to select its nesting site is its inaccessibility to the terrestrial predation. The site is all the more attractive as this condition is constant year after year. Consequently, the loss of the isolation of the islet must involve a progressive abandonment by the early breeders. It is the objective targeted by the first method of temporarily installing a footbridge, connecting the islet to a dyke, in order to allow the passage of predators. Two sites were thus arranged during the autumn of 2006 and were the subject of a particular follow-up: an infra-red camera was installed on each of the two islets at the end of the footbridge in order to identify the predators and to count the intrusions.

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Anti-Herring Gulls footbridge Fox on a footbridge by the infra-red camera

The first results of the experiment carried out to limit the disturbance by the Yellow-legged are mixed. The use of the footbridges has produced positive results with a clear fall in the frequentation of the islets by Herring Gulls which finally left 1 of the 2 islets. After the withdrawal of 1 of the 2 footbridges in 2012 the birds of patrimonial interest have not come back yet (Pin & Sadoul, 2006-2013).

The second method aims to scare the colonies of Gulls at the time of their installation from January to March in order to limit the numbers of nesting couples and in April to poison the couples which have settled. It is expected that the combination of these two methods on the same colony will involve a fast and continuous decrease in the Gull’s breeding. However, this effect will only be assessed in the years to come. In the event of success, it would have the advantage of rapidly freeing the sites, decreasing the breeding population, while limiting the dispersion of the birds onto other sites. Periodic ‘frights’ are carried out by the installation of an inflatable automatic device called the Scarey-Man ®. This method has been tested on 3 sites of the Aigues-Mortes salt marshes.

Yellow-legged Herring Gull Automatic scarecrow

The first results of the experiment are mixed. The Gulls have left 2 of the 3 islets but the birds of patrimonial interest haven’t come back for nesting. In 2014, after the withdrawal of the Scarey-man at the end of March, the Yellow-legged Herring Gull have come back to nest (Pin & Sadoul, 2006-2013).

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1.1.3. Installation of decoys

For the moment, the low quantity of decoys installed on the islets of the “Avant-pièces de la ville” to attract Gulls, Terns and Avocets of patrimonial interest have not shown good results. We decided to test a high quantity of decoys in 2014 by installing 26 decoys of the Common Tern and 26 decoys of the Mediterranean Gull. These new decoys do not seem to be attractive for birds for the moment but we will continue to test this method.

Decoys of the Common Tern

1.2. Actions for nesting Great Flamingos

Since 2009, the islet creation, the annual renovation of 200 artificial nests and the 4 decoys installed to attract nesting Great Flamingos haven’t been successful yet.

Grape harvest buckets used to create the artificial nests Flamingos artificial nests on the islet

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Modelling of an artificial nest Installation of 4 decoys on the islet

In April 2014, nesting flamingos have installed for nests on a smaller islet dedicated to species of Gulls, Terns and Avocets and on dykes. The eggs and the chicks may survive on the islet but it will be more complicated on the dykes for they will not be protected from the predators such as foxes. To prevent fox attacks, 6 traps have been installed. This installation is an exceptional event and represents the only nesting site of the Great Flamingos in France. Next winter, we plan on improving this nesting site by increasing the size of the islet and creating a new islet from the already existing dyke.

In April 2014, the only nesting site of the Pink Flamingos in France is observed on the Aigues-Mortes

saltmarshes

1.3. Elimination of invasive plants

To preserve the terrestrial and amphibious environments related to salt lagoons, it is necessary to implement several management actions including the elimination of invasive plants. The invading species have for the last 20 years been an important subject in ecology because of their progressive extension, the increasing damage they produce on the environment and the lack of knowledge of their operating cycle (Callaway & Maron, 2006).

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The presence of invasive species on the natural environments of the Camargue has already been identified (Costa, 2005). Many habitats related to salt ponds, within approximately 1,200 ha, are of main ecological interest according to the Habitats Directive (Pallu, 2006) and are threatened by invasive plants.

Six invasive species have been detected and located on the Aigues-Mortes salt-marshes : the Pampas Grass (Cortaderia selloana), the Groundsel-tree (Baccharis hamilifolia), the Desert false-indigo (Amorpha fruticosa), the Water-primrose (Ludwigia sp.), the Russian Olive (Elaeagnus angustifolia) and Ice plant (Carpobrotus sp) (Pallu, 2006 and Beck, 2009). It is important to set up preventive, eradication and control actions towards these species to preserve the biodiversity (Hulme, 2006). Those species are systematically detected and charted on the saltworks. The staff daily inspecting the site is involved in the early detection of those species in order to limit the interventions. From 2006 until now, 30 seedlings of Baccharis halimifolia were cut at ground level and certain stumps were treated with specific phytocides (Costa, 2005). In 2007, on-site observations showed that the operation was profitable for the treated stumps while the seedlings which were simply cut presented suckers. Using a mechanical shovel and by hand, 105 plantations and 30 m2 of seedlings of Cortaderia selloana were cleared, then evacuated in order to be destroyed in accordance with the recommendations (Costa, 2005). The Ice plant (Carpobrotus sp) have been extracted by hand over a 210 m2. Four plantations of Russian Olive were cut at the base at ground level and treated with specific phytocides. The result of this action was not positive and allowed the development of other plants. So we decided to stop any action on this species.

Pampas Grass Cortaderia selloana Manual elimination of the Pampas Grass

Carpobrotus sp. Manual elimination of Carpobrotus

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Elaeagnus angustifolia Groundsel-tree Baccharis hamilifolia

Desert false-indigo Amorpha fruticosa Water-primrose Ludwigia sp

Therefore, it is now planned to continue these actions of elimination and control of the development of invasive plants in general.

1.4. Burying of electrical cables

The company Salins du Midi is the owner-manager of the Aigues-Mortes salt works electricity network. Most of the electric lines are above ground and 50 km long. The staff observes regularl collisions between cables and birds resulting in material damage and the mortality of birds. In October 2009, a collision between flamingos and the electric line provoked a fire leading to damages in the natural areas. The Mediterranean salted meadows and the Mediterranean and thermo-Atlantic halophilous thickets were burnt on approximately 0.5 ha. The burying of this particularly sensitive portion of electric line seems to be a solution adapted to avoiding the problems of collision between birds and electric lines as well as the regular damage of the natural habitats. Since 2012, about 10 km of electrical cables have been burried.

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Machine used to bury electrical cables Electrical cables

1.5. Hydraulic restoration works

This action allows to preserve and to restore the coastal salt lagoons by preserving the salt works hydraulic systems (control of the water circulation and the gradients of salinity). It also allows the good conditions of reception of several water bird species on the salt works to be kept. Any disturbance of the salt-works hydraulic management would lead to the failure of the reproduction and disturb the food supply of certain bird species.

The lagoons of the salt-marshes are permanent or temporary water areas the surface and salinity of which are variable. Those areas correspond to former ponds and natural lagoons that were modified and reorganized for salt. They have the peculiarity of being characterized by a gradient of salinity and hydraulic management that goes against the natural cycle. They are separated from the sea by a sand ridge and fed with sea water in an active way. There is no permanent natural exchange between the salt lagoons and the sea.

On the salt-marshes, we distinguish between permanent or temporary salt lagoons of low salinity, characterized by the presence of aquatic vegetation (Zostera and Ruppia), of fish and a variety of aquatic invertebrates, and permanent or temporary salt lagoons of high salinity (> 70g / L) home to large quantities of shellfish Artemia spp ., the food resource of numerous water birds.

The hydraulic management, which corresponds to the flooding of the salt-marshes in spring and in the preservation of the levels of water during summer, is favourable to the reproduction and food supply of birds. These particular conditions, different from those of the natural areas that dry out in summer, allow:

An isolation towards the predators of the reproduction sites of colonial Charadriiforms of patrimonial interest. The salt-marshes are of major importance for the conservation of 7 species of birds of European Interest (Directive Habitat Appendix I), hosting sometimes up to 100 % of breeders in France for the Slender-billed Gull, Mediterranean Gull, Sandwich Tern and Gull-billed Tern.

The presence of available aquatic food resources for numerous birds of patrimonial interest

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In spring and in summer, the salt-marshes’ management induces a gradient of salinity favourable to the development of varied food resources. The ponds of low salinity are characterized by the presence of aquatic vegetation, fish and a variety of aquatic invertebrates. The ponds of high salinity (> 70g / L) are home to large quantities of shellfish Artemia sp., which numerous birds, especially flamingos, feed on. In France in summer, the salt-marshes of the Camargue (Aigues-Mortes and Giraud) are home to about 50 % of the latter’s national population.

In autumn and in winter, the hydraulic management, corresponding to the drying out of certain ponds, is favourable to the reception of wintering and migratory birds such as limicolous. The limicolous feed on invertebrates in mudflats formed by the dried up ponds. The salt marsh is a privileged zone for the reception of 25 species of coastal limicolous which justified the designation of the Special Protected Area (SPA)" Petite Camargue laguno-marine : the 2 salt marshes of the Camargue (Aigues-Mortes and Giraud) are home to the majority of wintering and migratory costal limicolous of the Camargue.

In total, the salt-marshes have 336 hydraulic sluice systems. Each year, Salins du Midi carries out hydraulic restoration works to produce salt and maintain the specific biodiversity of its salt-marshes. Since 2012, the commitment of the company to the European project Life + MC-Salt (see http://www.mc-salt.eu) has allowed to co-finance the restoration of 11 hydraulic sluice systems and 1 pumping station.

Localisation of the costal lagoons Costal lagoons and dunes

Restored hydraulic sluice system Old Hydraulic sluice system

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1.6. Protection barriers for plants

The Aigues-Mortes salt-marshes host 278 species of plants. Among these species, 20 are protected. One species of Maresia Malcomia nana considered extinct from France was observed in 2007 on the site. To protect it from pedestrians or car traffic, some stone blocks have been installed.

The Aigues-Mortes salt-marshes are the only Blocks installed to protect the Malcomia nana site in France to host the Malcomia nana

1.7. Prevention initiatives

The salt-marshes managers have followed environmental training. It is very important to choose the period for the works. For example in 2012, the staff delayed the renovation works of the dykes by one month so as not to disturb the nesting Kentish Plover (Charadrius alexandrinus). Maps of the protected plant species and the habitats have been drawn, so that during salt production works, they can be accommodated. Since 2012, a specific tool has been developed to prevent the destruction of plants or natural habitats and the disturbance of animals during the works carried out by external societies. It is part of the security prevention plan when the works are implemented in the natural areas. Furthermore, 15 panels have been installed on the site to remind the users of the good environmental practices (see http://www.mc-salt.eu). Three birdhides have been installed to limit the disturbance of the birds during the tourist or media visits.

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Protected plant marked by a picket Plan of biodiversity prevention Panel at the entrance of the site

People using the birdhide Information panel

1.8. Collection of waste

An annual operation « Clean beaches » has been carried out on the Aigues-Mortes salt-marshes for several years with the participation of the staff and their families and friends. Furthermore, the staff is used to systematically picking up any waste observed on the salt-marshes.

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Collection of the waste on the beach Evacuation and sorting of the waste

1.9. Commitment to the Natura 2000 Charter

In 2009, Salins du Midi also signed the Natura 2000 Charter of the Petite Camargue for a 5-year period on 6,294 hectares of wetland. Signing it, the company acknowledges the exceptional ecological and patrimonial values of habitats and endangered or rare species on a European scale and is committed to conserve them.

The main commitments are :

To conserve the dunes, the woods, the Mediterranean halophilous thickets, salt meadows and salt steppes,

To maintain salt hydraulic management favorable to the waterbirds on the lagoons,

Not to introduce invasive plants in a voluntary way,

In case of the presence of nesting bats, to warn the Natura 2000 animating structure (see http://www.camarguegardoise.com),

To authorize the Natura 2000 animating structure to organize scientific follow-ups,

To inform the salt-marshes users of the commitments,

To increase public awareness on the respect of the natural areas and the species targeted by the Natura 2000 Red.

The main recommendations are :

- To channel tourism activities to limit the disturbance of the birds,

- To limit as much as possible motor vehicle traffic on the dunes,

- To inform the Natura 2000 animating structure of the appearance of any invasive plants or animals and of any new projects.

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1.10. Limiting and controlling visits

It is very important to limit and control the visits of the salt-marshes to ensure the protection of the salt production material and the quiet conditions for birds. The entries are controlled by the guardroom at the entrance to the site. Every visitor is identified and has the authorization to enter.

Guardroom at the entrance of the salt-marshes

The “sauniers”, workers managing the level and the salinity of the water, circulate every day on the salt-marshes. Caretaking and monitoring of the site are part of their job. A person who lives on the salt-marshes is also dedicated to the caretaking of the site.

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2. Economic valorisation of the ecological management

The ecological management implemented on the salt-marshes allows for the development of several economic activities.

2.1. The sale of salt

The ecological management carried out by Salins du Midi has been awarded several prizes since 2005 :

- Prix Entreprises et Environnement organised by the French Ministry of Ecology in 2013,

- Grand Prix Natura 2000 granted by the French Ministry of Ecology and ADEME in 2011,

- Belleuropa Prize organised by the European Association of Landowners ELO in 2007,

- Anderswall Prize awarded by the Swedish Foundation Anders WALL, Friends of the Countryside, the Executive Management of the Environment and the Royal Agricultural Academy of Stockholm in 2005.

Those awards give a good image to the company and their products for consumers, clients and suppliers. This is also a selling point in the framework of calls for tenders.

This positive image is regularly maintained by communication actions on nature and salt : TV, radio, magazines, newspapers, websites (see http://www.salins.com, http://www.labaleine.fr, http://www.saunierdecamargue.fr).

Furthermore, the commitment to the Natura 2000 charter allows for an exemption from the land tax which represents a saving of 90 000 Euros per year, so less charges for the salt production.

2.2. Ecotourism activity

Since 1998, short train visits for up to 50 people have been proposed for tourists on the Aigues-Mortes site (see http://www.visitesalinsdecamargue.com). In an hour and a half, people get to discover the salt tables and production. The number of visits has increased from 46,000 in 2003 to 99,000 in 2013.

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Short train visit Salt tables where the salt is harvested

Since 2009, the company has developed an ecotourism activity on the Aigues-Mortes site with a new 3-hour 4-wheel drive guided tour to discover the landscapes, nature and production of the salt-marshes over three and a half hours. The number of visits has increased from 333 in 2009 to 600 in 2013.

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Visit by 4-wheel drive Great White Egret Egretta alba

The visit of the salt museum is part of the two tours. A documentary explaining the link between salt production and biodiversity has been under development since 2013 in the framework of the Project Life + MC-Salt. It will be broadcasted in 2015.

Former tools used for the salt harvest Salt cellars

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2.3. Fishing activity

The ecological management allows for a fishing activity. Thanks to the hydraulic management, fish such as Eels Anguilla anguilla and Atherina boyeri can develop in permanent low salinity ponds. In this case, the company is paid according to the fish quantities taken that represents about 1,450 kg of Eels and 750 kg of Atherina boyeri in 2013. These quantities have decreased over the last years (Groupe Salins, 1993). In 2015, the company and scientists will study the possibility of improving the Eel stocks by returning them to the sea in autumn to reproduce in the Sargasso Sea and the sustainable management of the fishing activity. It is important to take into consideration the species of Eel Anguilla anguilla because of its endangered status. The Artemia spp. (A.franciscana and A. salina) shellfish, which develops in temporary high salinity ponds, is also fished on the site with about 12 to 15 tonnes per year which represents about 10% of the sites resources (Gout, 2014).

Artemia sp. Eel (Anguilla anguilla)

2.4. New radar technology

Salt-marshes can also help new technologies. Since 2011, an experiment to create a new High Frequency Surface Wave Radar able to monitor maritime zones up to 200 nautical miles off the coast has been implemented by “TéléDiffusion de France”. This radar called “Stradivarius” would be able to detect small boats, monitor pollution and be a tool for measuring currents and tides.

Threshold of detection of ships

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The tranquillity and the protection from storms and the permanent high salinity were the main criteria for choosing the pond “Sangliers” on the Aigues-Mortes salt-marshes as the experimental site. It consists of an installation of 12 Sweet chestnut tree wooden posts and Stainless steel cables used as the receiving antenna. This material was chosen for a question of landscape integration and was accepted by the environmental authorities such as the regional natural park of the Camargue. An ecological study has been carried out to assess the impact of the radar on the birds the results of which have been integrated into the project by the installation of fluttering plastic tapes on the cables to avoid collisions between the birds and cables. “Télédiffusion de France” currently leads campaigns of measures at least twice a year. The first results have been positive (Jezequel, 2012). At the moment, the Company rents out a part of its grounds for the implementation of this project but hopes to have more opportunities when and if this new technology develops.

12 antennas consisting of 3 wooden pickets Great Flamingos and antennas

3. Conclusion

An ecological management of the salt-marshes considering habitats, birds, plants and fish is favourable to the development of several sustainable economic activities. Studies are still being carried out in order to develop new economic activities such as the production and use of the Algae Dunaliella salina full of carotenoids.

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REFERENCES

Articles and reports

1. Beck N. (2009). Inventaire et recommandations pour le contrôle des espèces végétales invasives de la propriété des Salins du Midi (Aigues-Mortes 30). Tour du Valat, 18p.

2. Callaway R.M. and Maron J.L. (2006). What have exotic plant invasions taught us over the past 20 years?, Trends in ecology and evolution, 7p.

3. Costa C. (2005). Atlas des espèces invasives présentes sur le périmètre du parc naturel régional de Camargue. Mémoire. Ecole des Métiers de l’Environnement de Rennes et PNR de Camargue. 216p.

4. Jezequel PY. (2012). Projet Stradivarius – Qualification des antennes du site de réception aux salins du midi. TéléDiffusion de France, 16p.

5. Pallu C. (2006). Site Natura 2000 de Petite Camargue. Diagnostic écologique du salin d’Aigues-Mortes (Gard, France) et préconisations de gestion du milieu naturel. Mémoire de Maîtrise Environnement et Ecologie, Université Paris-Sud 11. 45p.

6. Pin C. and Sadoul N. (2006). Bilan du suivi des populations de laro- limicoles - Salin d’Aigues-Mortes. Les Amis des Marais du Vigueirat, 13p.

7. Pin C. and Sadoul N. (2006). Bilan des aménagements réalisés pour favoriser la reproduction des laro-limicoles coloniaux à forte valeur patrimoniale - Salin d’Aigues-Mortes. Les Amis des Marais du Vigueirat, 5p.

8. Pin C and Sadoul N. (2007). Bilan du recensement des laro-limicoles coloniaux réalisé sur les Salins d’Aigues-Mortes. Les Amis des Marais du Vigueirat, 24p.

9. Pin C. and Sadoul N. (2007). Bilan et suivi des aménagements ornithologiques réalisés sur les Salins d’Aigues-Mortes. Les Amis des Marais du Vigueirat, 24p.

10. Pin C. and Sadoul N. (2008). Bilan du recensement des laro- limicoles coloniaux réalisé sur les Salins d’Aigues-Mortes. Les Amis des Marais du Vigueirat, 22p.

11. Pin C. and Sadoul N. (2008). Bilan et suivi des aménagements ornithologiques réalisés sur les Salins d’Aigues-Mortes. Les Amis des Marais du Vigueirat, 26p.

12. Pin C. and Sadoul N. (2009). Bilan du recensement des laro- limicoles coloniaux réalisé sur les Salins d’Aigues-Mortes. Les Amis des Marais du Vigueirat, 25p.

13. Pin C. and Sadoul N. (2009). Bilan et suivi des aménagements ornithologiques réalisés sur les Salins d’Aigues-Mortes. Les Amis des Marais du Vigueirat, 29p.

14. Pin C. and Sadoul N. (2010). Bilan du recensement des laro- limicoles coloniaux réalisé sur les Salins d’Aigues-Mortes. Les Amis des Marais du Vigueirat, 20p.

15. Pin C. and Sadoul N. (2010). Bilan et suivi des aménagements ornithologiques réalisés sur les Salins d’Aigues-Mortes. Les Amis des Marais du Vigueirat, 24p.

16. Pin C. and Sadoul N. (2011). Bilan des recensements des laro-limicoles coloniaux- Saison 2011 Sites Natura 2000 SIC/pSIC LA CAMARGUE GARDOISE FR9101406 / ZPS CAMARGUE GARDOISE LAGUNO-MARINE FR 9112013. Les Amis des Marais du Vigueirat, 41p.

17. Pin C. and Sadoul N. (2011). Bilan et suivi des aménagements ornithologiques réalisés sur les

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18. Salins d’Aigues-Mortes – Saison 2011 Sites Natura 2000 SIC/pSIC LA CAMARGUE GARDOISE FR9101406 / ZPS CAMARGUE GARDOISE LAGUNO-MARINE FR 9112013. Les Amis des Marais du Vigueirat, 34p.

19. Pin C. and Sadoul N. (2012). Bilan des recensements des laro-limicoles coloniaux- Saison 2012 Sites Natura 2000 SIC/pSIC LA CAMARGUE GARDOISE FR9101406/ ZPS CAMARGUE GARDOISE LAGUNO-MARINE FR 9112013. Les Amis des Marais du Vigueirat, 46p.

20. Pin C. and Sadoul N. (2012). Bilan et suivi des aménagements ornithologiques réalisés sur les

21. Salins d’Aigues-Mortes – Saison 2012. Les Amis des Marais du Vigueirat, 25p.

22. Pin C. and Sadoul N. (2013). Bilan des recensements des laro-limicoles coloniaux- Saison 2013 Sites Natura 2000 SIC/pSIC LA CAMARGUE GARDOISE FR9101406/ ZPS CAMARGUE GARDOISE LAGUNO-MARINE FR 9112013. Les Amis des Marais du Vigueirat, 44p.

23. Pin C. and Sadoul N. (2013). Bilan et suivi des aménagements ornithologiques réalisés sur les

24. Salins d’Aigues-Mortes – Saison 2013. Les Amis des Marais du Vigueirat, 16p.

25. Séjourné S. et Constantin P. (2008). Plan de gestion du salin d'Aigues-Mortes 2008-2013 (Camargue, France). Compagnie des Salins du Midi et des salines de l'Est. 188p.

26. Séjourné S. (2013). Plan de gestion environnementale du site de production de sel de mer de Salin de Giraud 2014-2019 (Camargue, France). Compagnie des Salins du Midi et des salines de l'Est. 107p.

27. Séjourné S. (2013). Plan de gestion environnementale du salin de Berre 2013-2018 (Bouches du Rhône, France). Compagnie des Salins du Midi et des salines de l'Est, 17p.

28. Séjourné S. and Matrat M. (2009). Managing Mediterranean saltworks as protected areas: the case of Salins Group in Europe. 2nd International conference on the ecological importance of solar saltworks Merida, Yucatan, Mexico 26-28 March 2009, CEISSA. Groupe Salins, 14p.

29. Séjourné S. (2012). The Salins Group, a salt company committed to European biodiversity protection. Conference on Solar Salt & Biodiversity Sevilla, Spain 22-23 May 2012, EuSalt. Groupe Salins, 8p.

Communications and internal reports

30. Gout F. (2014). Oral communication on fishing activity. Camargue Pêche SARL

31. Groupe Salins (1993). Bilan et perspectives des activités de pêche. Midisel, 26p.

32. Dupeux D. (2014). Written communication on fishing activity. Salins Group

Web sites

http://www.mc-salt.eu

http://www.salins.com

http://www.labaleine.fr/

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http://www.saunierdecamargue.fr/

http://www.visitesalinsdecamargue.com/

http://www.camarguegardoise.com

Photo Credits

Thierry Vezon, Mirella Pappalardo, Patrice Aguilar, Serge Tollari, Henry Michaud/CBN, Parc naturel régional de Camargue, Christophe Pin/ Marais du Vigueirat, Xavier Ruffray, Sonia Séjourné/SALINS Group, TéléDiffusion de France

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SALTWORKS MANAGEMENT: A PRODUCTIVE ACTIVITY GENERATING, SUPPORTING AND PROTECTING BIODIVERSITY

Ciro Zeno

Atisale and SOSALT SpA, Trapani Italy

1. A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF SALTWORKS

Nowadays when we talk about salt we refer to a goods that is globally considered to be a low-value commodity, used in various production sectors.

Uses of salt

The current importance of salt in the global economy, while remaining indisputable as versatile and irreplaceable in many industrial processes, is not remotely comparable to what these goods had been up to the last century. Not so long ago, all the processes of food preservation depended on salt, as well as cattle feed and tanning, without mentioning the invariable relevance in daily human consumption.

Salt, the so-called "white gold", was a real driving force for economies that could have a saltworks plant for their production. These activities were highly profitable, therefore considered strategic for the development of large areas, fully integrated, in which the space occupied by the saltworks was fused with the urban fabric in a sort of expanded industrial village.

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Le marais salants de Martigue. Andrè Durain (1911)

From a sociological point of view, therefore, the history of salt can be used as a clue to trace a history of the communities affected by this activity. The chapters of this history show the economic, social and cultural developments as well as the customs and traditions of past civilizations.

"Preserving, breeding, paying, cooling, treating, curing, building, shooting, exchanging, trading, praying, and many other activities needed this simple element to be implemented and evolve such fundamental processes to human existence .." (Greco, 2006)

The Salt March. India, 1930

1.1. Crisis in the Saltworks

Over the centuries the saltworks or salinas industrial organization has obviously benefited from all the improvements in human knowledge. On the other hand, this progress itself has impacted on the economic value of salt, making it lose value, while finding alternative solutions to basic needs for which salt was no more irreplaceable, especially in food preservation.

For these reasons this economic activity began to suffer more and more from a sector crisis, which especially affected the smaller and less industrially organized saltworks, where the increasingly high costs of management meant they had to face reduced profit margins.

This phenomenon became accentuated in the second half of the last century, particularly affecting the Mediterranean area, where no longer profitable ancient salt pans had been abandoned, "reclaimed" or converted into fish farms.

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Inactive Mediterranean Saltworks (Moinier, 1999)

This phenomenon was particularly pronounced in Italy, reaching its peak with the abolition of the national tax on salt consumption and the consequent opening up to outside markets (Italian law No.10 dated February 16, 1973).

In just a few years countless saltworks were shut down because they were uneconomical. Some of them, that were completely reclaimed, have left traces only in their local place names.

Marine saltworks in Italy - those still working are in red.

1.2. The rebirth of solar saltworks

In the last forty years this negative trend has undergone a radical change with the advent of a new social awareness, related to naturalist themes combined with those of regional sustainability.

Saltworks were in fact recognized as very important natural wetlands, both because they are sites that are vital refuges and places to rest for many thousands of seabirds, which migrate between breeding areas in Arctic regions and winter in the south of the

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Mediterranean, and because they are strategic areas for the conservation of plant species and animals, vertebrates and invertebrates.

For this reason, saltworks have been placed into the group of areas subject to the measures of protection and safeguards established by international conventions (Ramsar, 1977); by EU Natura 2000 network, and of course by national sector laws.

From an economic point of view the new interest in marine salt comes from the growing importance of the green economy, based on "meeting the current needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" (Brundtland Report, 1987).

In this context, the production of sea salt has been recognized not only because it is an activity with low environmental impact, but also because it is itself a source of new local services, which translate in turn into new resources, themselves also fully sustainable, such as ecotourism, thermae activities, the production and marketing of cosmetic and healing products. Many inactive saltworks have been reopened and returned to their communities, which have been able to regain their past.

2. THE SOLAR SALTWORKS AS AN ENVIRONMENTALLY-FRIENDLY PRODUCTIVE ACTIVITY

The relationship between the production of sea salt and the environment presents different interpretations. A first point of view, the simplest and the most rooted in public opinion, is the one that sees the saltworks as "ecological" activities inasmuch as it is an activity with almost zero energy cost, thanks to the use of renewable sources of energy, the sun and the wind ; and the use of a raw material, sea water, considered "infinite" in its availability.

In addition, the final product, salt, the fifth element of nature according to the Ancient Greeks, is a natural, non-toxic, non-replaceable substance, as it is essential for human life.

The end of production salt solutions, finally, represent only 5% of the total sea water processed and can be used as raw material to produce other products such as sulphate and magnesium chloride, used in agriculture, building and pharmaceutics ( The salt works at Santa Gilla, Sardinia, Italy), as well as for other purposes, as we shall see later.

Next to this level entry point of view there definitely exists another that shows how the economic viability of this business is in tandem with that of the environment.

The relationship between the saltworks economic system and the environment

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This is particularly evident if we consider the evolution that the industrial organization of important sea salt production has had over the past four decades.

The case of the Margherita di Savoia saltworks

An interesting case to study is certainly represented by the Salina in Margherita di Savoia, one of the most productive in Europe.

Since the beginning of time, they have tried all the techniques of production, collection and have gathered advanced know-how, becoming for this reason and throughout history, a benchmark for other saltworks in the Mediterranean and in Europe.

In the late 70s this saltworks showed a high degree of industrialization. The harvest stage was fully automated up to the piling up of the crude salt. There were fewer than 800 staff employed, of which more than half engaged in the activities of the operation and maintenance of this machinery.

The response to the crisis in the sector in the 80s was an extreme simplification of the production layout achieved through the 'implementation of the "long-term" or "salt on salt" production. Thanks to this new method, they have not only drastically reduced management costs, but it has greatly increased the operational efficiency of the entire industrial plant.

Ways of collecting salt in the past in Margherita di Savoia

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The salt produced during the period from May to September is not harvested, but left to deposit at the bottom of the salt pans. This process is repeated for 4-5 years.

At the end of the cycle, the salt is harvested from the tanks by means of simple machinery such as diggers, scrapers and lorries.

In order to protect the layer of salt deposited on the bottom of the salt pans from rain, the processing waters (those formed when the salt pans are emptied for harvesting) are used to form a protective cover of 30 to 40 cm thick. The current layout has a production capacity of stacking more than 6,000 tons per day.

The salt harvest at the works in Margherita di Savoia

Thanks to this new kind of production, connected with a type of collection by making roads (a sort of big salt beam) in the salt pans for load bearing vehicles, it was possible not only to reduce staff to just over 100 units, but even outsource the stage of harvesting salt to outside firms.

Another point worth noting is that the harvest is separated from the production phase - something that is essential in the case of annual production. Therefore the harvest can be scheduled on the basis of market requirements or calmer periods of year.

This new way of operating, by "rarefying" the industrial aspect, has drastically reduced the environmental impact in terms of its energy consumption and the production of industrial waste, thus increasing its environmental sustainability even more.

Finally, the fact that the areas affected by the harvesting each year are around one fifth of the total salting areas, means that they are impacted by these activities once every 4 to 5 years.

The salina in Margherita di Savoia does not discharge its own residual sea bittern, but allocates a portion for its own activities, reserving the remaining part which is used to power thermal baths that are almost a hundred years old (1930).

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The thermae in Margherita di Savoia

This thermal bath centre probably came about due to the use of production water in previous saltworks.

3. THE SALTWORKS ECOSYSTEM

Briefly, a solar saltworks consists of a series of interconnected ponds in which sea water is circulated in a professionally controlled way, achieving degrees of saltiness that are increasingly higher, until reaching saturation conditions of sodium chloride, NaCl , after which it is directed into the crystallizers pans, in which the precipitation of this salt occurs, which will subsequently be collected.

In a properly managed saltworks the temperature, salinity and depth of each of its sectors can therefore be kept constant within time scales of weeks, through the compensation of the evaporated water with fresh sea water.

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Almost fifty years of scientific studies and researches have established that saltworks production generates an unique integrated ecosystem, whose biodiversity is directly linked to the intrinsic characteristic of the sea salt production.

Therefore, it is possible to provide an overview that is sufficiently approximate to that ecosystem, using as a benchmark only the salt content present in the manufacturing process water used in the saltworks.

Flow chart of Seasalt production

These very same studies have shown that the physical process behind the production of salt, mainly dependent on the role of temperature and evaporation, is significantly helped also by a biological component that ensures greater efficiency in the industrial production and a better quality product .

This is why many solar saltworks have implemented the so-called organic management of their production through which they monitor and manage the structure and functions of the organic sector in order to achieve greater production efficiency and improve product quality. It is possible therefore to define the relationship between a marine saltworks and its ecosystem as symbiotic.

Some scholars (Walmsley, 1999) found that within a classification of sea saltworks based on their productive organization, the industrial saltworks present the highest ecological value.

Salts dissolved in a cubic meter of sea water

Quantity of salt dissolved

(kg)

FeO 0.112 – 0.117

CaCO3

CaSO4 1.335 – 1.691

NaCl 25 - 30

MgSO4 2.045 – 2.095

Rough estimate of principle organism at each salinity range in Solar Saltworks (J. Davis 1993)

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The ecological importance of salinas (Walmsley, 1999)

These are the salinas that can best guarantee a stable natural conditions in time and space for the generation of such ecosystem, while providing greater stability and resilience.

It is in fact the ordinary productive activities and maintenance carried out in the saltworks areas that are the ones that allow the management of the external impact, including those resulting from weather conditions, which is another highly critical and latent issue.

However, the importance of salt management becomes even more evident when we compare the active and working saltworks with those that have been abandoned or left idle.

It is clear that the initial ecological value attributable to these areas ("high" according to Walmsley) would rapidly decrease as the effects of the non-salt production management will lead to a progressive deterioration of these areas, with the resulting reduction of its biodiversity. For this reason, these areas have been subject to major interventions of restoration, mainly financed by the Community Programme Life + Nature.

Promoters of this reclamation work have been above all the institutions involved in their conservation, environmental groups and, more rarely, private companies producing salt.

***An examination of the conservation work points out the importance that is placed on restoring water management, which basically follows, sometimes with inevitable simplifications, the production cycle of the original sea salt, (reconstruction of levees, dredging of channels, reinforcing of lifting stations of production water, etc.).

Conservation work envisaged for the Salina in Molentargius – Poetto, Sardegna, Italy

(Mc Salt Life + project http://www.mc-salt.eu)

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The economic and sustainable management of these salt marshes that are no longer productive but recouped, remains in the background, as a matter that has not yet been solved.

4. THE SUSTAINABILITY OF SEA SALT PRODUCTION

Saltworks are a source of biological resources as shown by their unique ecosystem. They seem to occur almost as natural resources, free gifts from nature, inherently present, and not as a result of industrial activity.

From an economic point of view these resources express a territorial value, conventionally divided into extraction, non-extraction and use.

The territorial value of sea salt production.

Extractive use value

encompasses direct use of biological resources, for either production or consumption

Salt

Salty water used for thermals

Algae for medical use

Brine shrimps

Biotech

Employment

Non-extractive value

use entails use value without extracting the resource (‘indirect’ use), either for production or consumption

Recreation/Tourism

Education and Research

Employment opportunities

Ecosystem services

Non-use value

encompass value that is not derived from use

Spiritual, historical or cultural value

Existence value

Option value

Bequest value

Salt production, ensuring the durability of the economic value of biodiversity in the solar saltworks, allows the maintenance of a constant balance between resources and the economic value obtained.

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The economic value of salt production

Economic theories have shown that such a balance is achieved when an intervention designed to increase human well-being is viable, equitable and sustainable at the same time. These three values are the expression of the three qualities of sustainability: economic, social and environmental, which, in dynamic equilibrium, define the area of sustainability.

The assessment of the greater or lesser "sustainability" of the production of sea salt, like any other industry, has to consider both the purpose and the resources used for obtaining the product.

The purpose of sustainability is verified in the following points:

- The birth of a new product,

- Keeping alive an existing product and the reason for which it is made,

- The recycling of the product in the hope of achieving new life.

The product sustainability instead examines the following features:

- The use of natural raw materials with minimal energy investment,

- Having a product that is local,

- The ability to be programmed for a new life cycle,

- Avoiding or minimizing waste generation,

- For public welfare, tending to optimize a sustainable environmental globalized product.

Some of the answers relevant to sea salt production are:

- Sea salt is a non-toxic product and necessary to life,

- The production of sea salt establishes a very specific ecosystem, the same for each marine saltworks, whose biodiversity is a source of new features, services and products for the benefit of the territory,

- The life cycles associated with salt production, its ecosystem services and the goods provided by biodiversity remain the same over time and space,

- The production of salt is an activity with low environmental impact.

S lt k

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Therefore, the Saltworks:

- Guarantee, protect and renew natural resources and biodiversity, while enhancing the environment as "distinctive" of the territory (environmental sustainability),

- Produce and maintain maximum added value within the territory, combining resources effectively in order to enhance the specificity of the products and local services. And itself a source of new economic resources from the local services provided by biodiversity (economic sustainability),

- Guarantee conditions of human welfare (security, health, education) equally distributed among classes and gender (social sustainability).

5. THE SALTWORKS AND THE TERRITORY

The solar saltworks areas are vast, even tens of square kilometers, so very often they affect the territory of several municipalities.

It seems obvious that this also affects the lives of thousands of people at different levels in economic, social and environmental terms. Public expectations towards the salinas then translate into a demand for a generalized "livability" for the place in which they live.

Margherita di Savoia and its salina

An effective urban governance, that is to say, that defines public welfare as its objective, cannot help but adopt a two directional vision (Salina and Territory) to design sustainable development.

However, the integration of the salina and the territory cannot be achieved without mutual identification. As in a game of mirrors, the territory and the saltworks recognize each other in the image of the other, reflecting the people's needs and aspirations, but also the critical situations, within each one.

It is therefore necessary to work together in a “territorial pact” with the following criteria:

1) All local stakeholders must recognize the sea salt producing companies as private stakeholders taking care of public interest,

2) Salt producers must take social responsibility for the saltworks ecosystem and its biological resources.

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"Solar saltworks" should therefore be keywords to be kept in mind, not only in the management plans for these areas, compiled in accordance with the “Habitat” and “Water” European Community Directive, but also in the actions resulting from the application of Community strategies that deal with sustainable development, such as the Lisbon Strategy and Europe 2020.

6. ACTIONS OF SALT PRODUCING COMPANIES

The point of view of the salt companies does not coincide with the one of the public stakeholders, whose aim is to represent the interests of the community, but it is the entrepreneur who, aware of his role, implements the commitments made to the territory, declaring them publicly in their own company policy, mobilizing its industrial organization for this purpose.

Subsequent actions to raise public awareness should then highlight not only the complex multi-functionality of this productive activity, but also the specific needs of artisanal saltworks, for which economic viability is difficult to achieve if left solely to core business, but needs the support of other activities, first of all, ecotourism.

Key topics of public awareness

More attention to the multi-functionality of sea salt

Greater attention to the importance of salt production for employment and sustainable land use (eco-tourism, museum tours and thermal baths, etc.)

More attention to the interaction between salt and ecosystems

Greater attention to the importance of salt management in ensuring maintenance of the ecosystem

Greater attention to the role of producer of "public good"

More attention at the quality of the product

More attention to the history of sea salt

More attention to the needs of sea salt production

From Integrated Territorial Project "Culture of the Sea and development of Sardinian South Western Wetlands.“ Province of Carbonia - Iglesias (2006) Sardinia, Italy

“…All the ponds belonging to Sant’Antioco Saltworks are currently affected by an economic activity consisting in the production of seasalt, that is not only compatible with the conservation of the habitats present within it, but that is the primary cause of their establishment and their maintenance.”

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The world of European sea salt has been aware of these themes for some time culminating at the international conference on "biodiversity, sustainability and solar salt", organised by EuSalt and held in Seville in 2012, in which the Statement of Biodiversity European sea salt was issued.

It is certainly hoped that this awareness-raising campaign implemented by sea salt producers towards public opinion will push the European Union to activate support actions specifically directed at the sea saltworks, even in terms of mere income support and employment, recognizing the irreplaceable function of this productive activity as being strategic for the maintenance of the saltworks ecosystem, in agreement with the Community Strategy "Biodiversity 2020".

The benefits would fall not only on the artisanal marine saltworks, but on the non-producing ones too, the maintenance of which is borne by the community through the institutions responsible for their conservation.

REFERENCES

1. Davis, Joseph S. (1999). Solar saltworks – an environmentally-friendly industry. In Post Conference Symposium proceeding saltworks: Preserving Saline Coastal Ecosystem.

2. Greco, Elisabetta (2006). L’industrializzazione di un prodotto spontaneo: le Saline di Margherita di Savoia. Tesi di Laurea. Universita del Salento.

3. Moinier, Bernard (1999). The appropriate size of saltworks to meet environmental and production requirements. In Post Conference Symposium proceeding saltworks: Preserving Saline Coastal Ecosystem.

4. Mburu, John (ed.). Economic valuation and environmental assessment.

5. Walmsley, John G. (1999). The ecological importance of Mediterranean Salinas. In Post Conference Symposium proceeding saltworks: Preserving Saline Coastal Ecosystem.

6. Zeno, Ciro (2009). The ecological importance of Margherita di Savoia saltworks. Global Nest Journal. 11.

“…There is a deep, genuine interest in maintaining solar salt works for its disappearing would mean a disaster for the environment. In addition, salt works’ activities can coexist with eco-tourism. Eco-tourism contributes to bringing public attention to biodiversity issues and coastal ecosystems. What we need at European level is to promote better awareness of what is being done for biodiversity by solar salt works..”

Source: EuSalt Biodiveristy Statement 2012