Socio-Economic RepercussionsSocio-Economic Repercussions

Military Recruitment Crises Military Recruitment Crises and the Gracchan Revolutionand the Gracchan Revolution

Rome’s Great Period of Imperial Rome’s Great Period of Imperial Conquest, 200-150 Conquest, 200-150 BCBC

New Extra-Italian Territories: Sicily New Extra-Italian Territories: Sicily (241),(241), Sardinia and Corsica (238), Sardinia and Corsica (238), Spain (197), Africa (146), Macedonia Spain (197), Africa (146), Macedonia and Greece (146), Asia (129)and Greece (146), Asia (129)

Changes in Roman Military NeedsChanges in Roman Military Needs Continuity in High Command: Continuity in High Command:

ProrogationProrogation Long-term Service for Roman Long-term Service for Roman

Legionaries—Armies of OccupationLegionaries—Armies of Occupation

Traditional View:Traditional View:Hannibal’s Legacy as Hannibal’s Hannibal’s Legacy as Hannibal’s

RevengeRevenge Ruin of Small Italian FarmsteadsRuin of Small Italian Farmsteads Influx of Wealth and Socio-Influx of Wealth and Socio-

Economic DislocationsEconomic Dislocations Growing Urban Proletariat in Growing Urban Proletariat in

RomeRome Poverty-Stricken Falling Below Poverty-Stricken Falling Below

Property Qualification for Property Qualification for Military ServiceMilitary Service

Nathan Rosenstein, Nathan Rosenstein, Rome at WarRome at War (2004): A Challenge to the Traditional (2004): A Challenge to the Traditional

ViewView Roman military service begins at 17; Roman Roman military service begins at 17; Roman

males marry after 30 (claims that Roman males marry after 30 (claims that Roman military demands adversely affected small military demands adversely affected small agriculture are exaggerated) agriculture are exaggerated)

Conflicts between military service and Conflicts between military service and agriculture date back to fourth century BCagriculture date back to fourth century BC

High military mortality alters Italian High military mortality alters Italian demography; paradoxically creating demography; paradoxically creating conditions for population growthconditions for population growth

Cessation of colonization and Spanish wars Cessation of colonization and Spanish wars contribute to population pressurescontribute to population pressures

Roman authorities misread the evidence; Roman authorities misread the evidence; believed there was a manpower shortage, believed there was a manpower shortage, when the reverse was the casewhen the reverse was the case

Spain: Military Recruitment CrisesSpain: Military Recruitment Crises

Tough, Mountain Tribesmen Tough, Mountain Tribesmen (Celtiberians, Lusitanians)(Celtiberians, Lusitanians)

Nearly Constant Guerilla Warfare Nearly Constant Guerilla Warfare (197-179, 154-133 (197-179, 154-133 BCBC))

Viriathus defeats several Consular Viriathus defeats several Consular Armies in the 140sArmies in the 140s BC BC

Military Service in Spain Military Service in Spain Unprofitable; Low Army MoraleUnprofitable; Low Army Morale

Roman Ineptitude in SpainRoman Ineptitude in SpainConsequences at Home Consequences at Home caca. 150 . 150

BCBC

Tribunician Agitation for Military Tribunician Agitation for Military ReformReform

Rioting in Rome over RecruitmentRioting in Rome over Recruitment Failure to Turn out the Levy Failure to Turn out the Levy

((dilectusdilectus)) Scipio Aemilianus’ Volunteerism Scipio Aemilianus’ Volunteerism

for Service in Spainfor Service in Spain Incarceration of consuls in 151 Incarceration of consuls in 151 BCBC

Paradox of Roman Imperial SuccessParadox of Roman Imperial SuccessSocio-Economic Turbulence in Socio-Economic Turbulence in

Roman SocietyRoman Society Increased Social and Economic Increased Social and Economic

Differentiation (insufficient “trickle-down” Differentiation (insufficient “trickle-down” effect)effect)

State-Subsidized Grain for the Populace of State-Subsidized Grain for the Populace of Rome (seen as a radical, demagogic maneuver Rome (seen as a radical, demagogic maneuver on the part of individual Roman statesmen in on the part of individual Roman statesmen in the historiography of the earlier Republic)the historiography of the earlier Republic)

New Magnificence in Public Buildings, New Magnificence in Public Buildings, Games, and TriumphsGames, and Triumphs

Electoral Bribery (Electoral Bribery (ambitusambitus) and Legislation ) and Legislation Against ItAgainst It

Sumptuary LegislationSumptuary Legislation

Problem: Real (Traditional) Problem: Real (Traditional) or Imagined (Rosenstein)or Imagined (Rosenstein)

AssiduiAssidui and Property and Property Qualification for Eligibility Qualification for Eligibility

for Military Servicefor Military Service

Gracchan ChallengeGracchan Challenge Tiberius Sempronius GracchusTiberius Sempronius Gracchus Gaius Sempronius GracchusGaius Sempronius Gracchus Aristocratic BackgroundAristocratic Background

Father T. Sempronius Gracchus, consul Father T. Sempronius Gracchus, consul and patron of Spainand patron of Spain

Mother Cornelia, daughter of Scipio Mother Cornelia, daughter of Scipio Africanus, conqueror of HannibalAfricanus, conqueror of Hannibal

Revive the Original Function of the Revive the Original Function of the Tribunate as the Defender of Tribunate as the Defender of Plebeian InterestsPlebeian Interests

Creators of the Creators of the PopularisPopularis Tradition Tradition for the Late Republicfor the Late Republic

Aristocratic Background of the Aristocratic Background of the GracchiGracchi

This year [480 This year [480 BCEBCE] also had a tribune who ] also had a tribune who advocated a land law, Tiberius Pontificus. He set advocated a land law, Tiberius Pontificus. He set out on the same path that Spurius Licinius had out on the same path that Spurius Licinius had taken, as though Licinius had been successful, taken, as though Licinius had been successful, and for a time obstructed the levy. The senators and for a time obstructed the levy. The senators again were thrown into consternation, but Appius again were thrown into consternation, but Appius Claudius told them that the tribunician power had Claudius told them that the tribunician power had been overcome the year before, actually for the been overcome the year before, actually for the time being, and potentially forever, since a way time being, and potentially forever, since a way had been discovered for employing its resources had been discovered for employing its resources to its own undoing. For there would always be to its own undoing. For there would always be some tribune who would be willing to gain a some tribune who would be willing to gain a personal victory over his colleague, and obtain the personal victory over his colleague, and obtain the favor of the better element, while doing the favor of the better element, while doing the nation a service. There would be a number of nation a service. There would be a number of tribunes…who would be ready to help the consuls; tribunes…who would be ready to help the consuls; and a single one was enough, though opposed to and a single one was enough, though opposed to all the rest. Only let the consuls, and the leading all the rest. Only let the consuls, and the leading senators as well, make a point of winning over, if senators as well, make a point of winning over, if not all, at any rate some of the tribunes to the not all, at any rate some of the tribunes to the state and the Senate.state and the Senate.

Livy, Livy, History of RomeHistory of Rome, 2.44, 2.44

Tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus Tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus (133/132 (133/132 BCBC))

Limitations to Holdings of Public Land (Limitations to Holdings of Public Land (ager ager publicuspublicus) )

Land Redistribution: Reestablish the Free Land Redistribution: Reestablish the Free Peasantry to Small FarmsteadsPeasantry to Small Farmsteads

Gracchan Commission for Assigning Land Gracchan Commission for Assigning Land ((triumviri agris iudicandis adsignandistriumviri agris iudicandis adsignandis))

Tribunician Obstacles (M. Octavius) and Tribunician Obstacles (M. Octavius) and Senatorial ObstructionSenatorial Obstruction

Attalus III of Pergamum’s Legacy (133 BC)Attalus III of Pergamum’s Legacy (133 BC) Tiberius’ Direct Appeal to the Popular AssemblyTiberius’ Direct Appeal to the Popular Assembly Re-election Bid; Riots and LynchingsRe-election Bid; Riots and Lynchings Tiberius and 300 Gracchan Supporters found Tiberius and 300 Gracchan Supporters found

floating in the Tiber Riverfloating in the Tiber River

Light Green=Roman TerritoryIn 133 BCE

Rust Color=Ager PublicusAnnexed fromDisloyal allies inHannibalic War

His brother Gaius recorded in one His brother Gaius recorded in one of his writings that when Tiberius of his writings that when Tiberius on his way to Numantia passed on his way to Numantia passed through Etruria and found the through Etruria and found the country almost depopulated and its country almost depopulated and its husbandmen and shepherds husbandmen and shepherds imported barbarian slaves, imported barbarian slaves, [Tiberius] first conceived the policy [Tiberius] first conceived the policy which was to be the source of which was to be the source of countless ills to himself and to his countless ills to himself and to his brother. But it was the people brother. But it was the people themselves who chiefly excited his themselves who chiefly excited his zeal and determination with zeal and determination with writings on porticoes, walls, and writings on porticoes, walls, and monuments, calling on him to monuments, calling on him to retrieve the public land for the poorretrieve the public land for the poor..

Plutarch, Plutarch, Life of Tiberius GracchusLife of Tiberius Gracchus, , 88

About this time [133/132 BC] King Attalus About this time [133/132 BC] King Attalus Philometor died, and Eudemus of Philometor died, and Eudemus of Pergamum brought to Rome his last will, Pergamum brought to Rome his last will, in which the Roman people was named in which the Roman people was named the king’s heir. Tiberius promptly the king’s heir. Tiberius promptly proposed a law of popular appeal proposed a law of popular appeal providing that the king’s money, when providing that the king’s money, when brought to Rome, should be distributed brought to Rome, should be distributed among those of the citizens receiving among those of the citizens receiving allotments of public land, to provide them allotments of public land, to provide them with equipment and give them a start in with equipment and give them a start in farming. As for the cities that were in the farming. As for the cities that were in the kingdom of Attalus, he declared that the kingdom of Attalus, he declared that the disposal of them was not the Senate’s disposal of them was not the Senate’s business, but that he himself would put a business, but that he himself would put a resolution before the people. By this he resolution before the people. By this he offended the Senate more than ever.offended the Senate more than ever.

Plutarch, Plutarch, Life of Tiberius GracchusLife of Tiberius Gracchus, 14, 14

Gaius Gracchus’ TribunateGaius Gracchus’ Tribunate(123/122, 122/121 (123/122, 122/121 BC)BC)

Continues Tiberius’ Land Continues Tiberius’ Land Redistribution Program (Redistribution Program (ager ager publicuspublicus))

Overseas Colonization; Junonia Overseas Colonization; Junonia (Carthage)(Carthage)

Regular, State-Subsidized Grain for Regular, State-Subsidized Grain for Capital (Capital (lex Sempronia frumentarialex Sempronia frumentaria))

Reform of Extortion Court (Reform of Extortion Court (quaestio de quaestio de repetundisrepetundis): ): equitesequites and and publicanipublicani

Knights granted rights to exploit the Knights granted rights to exploit the province of Asiaprovince of Asia ((lex de Asialex de Asia))

Reserved seats for knights next to Reserved seats for knights next to senators in theatersenators in theater

Acilian Law on Extortion Acilian Law on Extortion (123/122 (123/122 BCBC))

From any person who has been dictator, consul, From any person who has been dictator, consul, praetor, master of the horse, censor, aedile, praetor, master of the horse, censor, aedile,

tribune of the plebs, quaestor, member of the tribune of the plebs, quaestor, member of the three-man board on capital crimes or the three-three-man board on capital crimes or the three-

man board for granting or assigning lands, military man board for granting or assigning lands, military tribune in any one of the first four legions, or from tribune in any one of the first four legions, or from a son of any of the foregoing, or from…any person a son of any of the foregoing, or from…any person

who, or whose father, is a senator, for a sum of who, or whose father, is a senator, for a sum of money…having been, in the exercise of an money…having been, in the exercise of an

imperiumimperium or magisterial office, carried off, taken or magisterial office, carried off, taken away, exacted, embezzled or misappropriated from away, exacted, embezzled or misappropriated from [various categories of subjects]. In such case the [various categories of subjects]. In such case the

said person shall have the right to sue and to said person shall have the right to sue and to summon the defendant….summon the defendant….

Corpus Inscriptionum LatinarumCorpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, vol. I, 2, vol. I, 2ndnd ed., no. ed., no. 583583

Senatorial ReactionSenatorial Reaction

Gaius Gracchus failed reelection Gaius Gracchus failed reelection bid for 121 bid for 121 BCBC

The Italian QuestionThe Italian Question Unrest and RiotingUnrest and Rioting Emergency Decree of the Senate Emergency Decree of the Senate

((senatus consultum ultimumsenatus consultum ultimum)) Murder of Gaius and 3,000 Murder of Gaius and 3,000

SupportersSupporters

AftermathAftermath Cancellation of the Gracchan Land Cancellation of the Gracchan Land

LawsLaws Precedent for Violence as a Solution Precedent for Violence as a Solution

in Roman Republican Political Lifein Roman Republican Political Life Fracture Lines in the Roman Fracture Lines in the Roman

Aristocracy: Senate and Equestrian Aristocracy: Senate and Equestrian OrderOrder

A New Politics: A New Politics: OptimatesOptimates and and PopularesPopulares

Thorian Law (118 Thorian Law (118 BCBC))

Appian, Appian, Civil WarsCivil Wars, 1.4.27, 1.4.27

Not long after [the death of Gaius Not long after [the death of Gaius Gracchus] a law was enacted to permit Gracchus] a law was enacted to permit holders to sell the land about which they holders to sell the land about which they had quarreled; for even this had been had quarreled; for even this had been forbidden by the law of the elder Gracchus. forbidden by the law of the elder Gracchus. At once the rich began to buy the At once the rich began to buy the allotments of the poor, or found pretexts for allotments of the poor, or found pretexts for seizing them by force. So the condition of seizing them by force. So the condition of the poor became even worse than before, the poor became even worse than before, until Spurius Thorius, a tribune of the until Spurius Thorius, a tribune of the plebs, brought in a law providing that the plebs, brought in a law providing that the distribution of public domain should be distribution of public domain should be discontinued, that the land should belong discontinued, that the land should belong to those in possession who should pay rent to those in possession who should pay rent for it to the state, and that the money so for it to the state, and that the money so received should be distributed; and this received should be distributed; and this distribution was a kind of solace to the distribution was a kind of solace to the poor, but it did not help to increase the poor, but it did not help to increase the population. By these devices the law of population. By these devices the law of Gracchus…was once for all frustrated….Gracchus…was once for all frustrated….