Social Construction of TCNs in Italy. A Case Study on Labour Market Integration of

Migrants, Risks and Opportunities.

Ugo Melchionda

IOM Rome

Malta, May 21st 2014

Summary

• Immigration in Italy, recent trends and its representation.

• Five main components of social construction of TCNs

• “Italians needing stay permits”: demands, problems and opportunities for the 2° Generation

• A best practice : innovative approach to implement EU Youth Guarantee and Youth Employment Initiative addressing Unaccompanied Minors and G2 NEETs

• Conclusions

Immigration in Italy Recent Trends

First 10 nationalities: Romania 21,2% Albania 10,6% Morocco 9,9% China 4,6% Ukraine 4,4% The Philippines 2,9% Moldova 2,9% India 2,6% Tunisia 2,4% Poland 2,4% Residence permits: WORK 49% FAMILY 41% Humanitarian 4% Study 3% Other 3%

-

1,000,000.00

2,000,000.00

3,000,000.00

4,000,000.00

5,000,000.00

6,000,000.00

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015

Migrants in Italy

TCNs are 2/3 of migrants in Italy usually defined in Italian as “EXTRACOMUNITARI”

“Extracomunitari” the Italian Label for TCNs

“Extracomunitario”, according to dictionary means “Coming from or pertinent to countries outside European Community”, but the current actual meaning is:

• Referring to people: 1. Arrived from peripheral and low GDP countries of the world

economic system (often comprehending Romanians, Polishes and Bulgarians, but not people coming from Switzerland, Japan USA... )

2. Available to accept jobs and work conditions refused by Italians

3. Culturally different

4. Represented as competitors or as a dangerous threat by xenophobic movements and sometimes by media

5. Treated with lack of deference or respect, within face to face daily interactions with autochthones.

1.1 Arriving from Peripheral and Low GDP Countries of the World Economic System

• According to the 2013 report of UNDESA, international migrants in the world today are about 232 million , 3.2% of the world population , in addition to more than 740 million internal migrants .

• According to the UNDESA report, of the 232 million international migrants , more than half lived in just 10 high-income countries :

• USA (46 million) Russia (11 million ) Germany ( 10 million ) Saudi Arabia (9 million) United Arab Emirates UK (8 million ) France and Canada (7 million) Australia and Spain (6 million)

• And Italy (5 million )

1.2 The Migration Divide

Country GDP per capita 2011 in US$ % of Italian GDP pc

Albania 7.848,173 26%

Bangladesh 1.909,461 6%

Bulgaria 13.788,97 45%

China 8.386,675 28%

Ecuador 8.486,905 28%

Egypt 6.454,82 21%

Ghana 3.112,875 10%

Moldova 3.373,244 11%

Morocco 5.080,253 17%

Pakistan 2.785,763 9%

Peru 10.062,28 33%

Philippines 4.080,292 13%

Romania 12.492,8 41%

Sri Lanka 5.663,591 19%

Tunisia 9.389,284 31%

Ukraine 7.222,376 24%

Italy 30.463,96 100%

Japan 34.748,15 114%

Switzerland 4.4451,64 146%

United States 48.327,86 159%

Source, elaboration on FMI 2012

1.3 Difference Between Italian and Main

Emigration Countries GDP Per Capita

2.1 Ethnic Segregation within Labour Market

• In some economic sectors (eg . Agriculture)

• In professional specializations (domestic workers, construction workers, cleaners )

• In low qualified or dangerous or socially stigmatized occupations …

• Nearly 1.5 million immigrant workers are concentrated in these professions : 62.3% of the total.

• Migrant workers, who general account for 10.1% of the total of national workforce, increase in these occupations from 3 to 7 times

2.2 Ethnic Segmentation Of Labour Market

Job title TCNS

% of total workers % of TCNs

Unqualified domestic workers 356,741 70,9% 15,3

Qualified workers in the care of people 245,871 57,9% 10,5 Pedlars 37,582 36,5% 1,6

Unskilled workers in the building sector 35,982 31,7% 1,5

Bricklayers and carpenters 200,506 32,5% 8,6 Unqualifed cleaners 149,445 27,0% 6,4

Unskiled workers in delivery and transportation of goods 94,624 24,6% 4,1 Unqualified workers in agriculture and gardening 69,856 23,1% 3

Melters, welders and tinkers 57,495 20,4% 2,5

Source: Fondazione Moressa, 2013)

2.3 The Domestic Sector

• 4 out of 5 domestic workers, are foreigners

• According to the Immigration Dossier 2013 data , domestic work and care giving employs :

• 65.9 % of all Filipinos 58.4 % of Ukrainians 40.7 % of Peruvians 41.8% of Moldovans 35.8 % of Ecuadorians 31.9% of Poles 25 % of Romanians.

• Wages below the minimum legal limits, excessive working hours, multiple discrimination (racial and of gender), a life of toil and fear are common features of this job.

2.4 The Constructions Sector

• According to the seventh report IRES - CGIL FILLEA, “Foreign workers in the construction industry” :

• " The immigrant presence is now predominant , but in most cases qualifications are still very low and working conditions absolutely poor.“

• " In particular foreign labor is concentrated in the less qualified activities .

• In 2011 58% of foreigners worked as common laborers compared to 29.5% of Italian workers ,

• on the contrary, among technical professionals Italians are accounted for 15%, while TCNS represent only 1% of the total.

2.5 Agriculture

• “Extracomunitari” workers are 320.000, (117,000 coming from Romania, 27.000 from India, 26.000 from Morocco, 24.000 from Albania, 20.000 from Poland, 15.000 from Bulgaria and 12.000 from Tunisia).

• "Within buffalo farms working conditions are almost comparable to slave conditions, especially in small businesses : migrants work seven days a week without a definite working hours, virtually imprisoned in the farm, for an average salary ranging from 300 to 600 Euro per month” (OIM).

• In some South regions of the country they live in ghettos, “real slums dramatically growing during periods of large collections of tomato and vegetables”. in many cases self-built structures or abandoned houses, in "deplorable sanitary conditions, exacerbated by lack of access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation" (Dedalus, p, 13).

•

2.6 Between Sticky Floor and Glass Ceiling

• Lower paid occupations, and restricted access to the most advanced career positions

• Foreign workers present in 2011 an involuntary underemployment rate three times higher than Italians : 7.7 % compared to 2.4 %”.

• Report on the social cohesion , by the Ministry of Labor, indicates that approximately 19 % of Italians are over -educated in reference to skills required by the work they got, while the percentage of foreign workers increases up to 40.9% , for the greatest part women (49.3% compared to 34.7% of men). (Minlab Report on Social Cohesion , p . 13).

3.1 Cultural Difference

• Culture definition

• 1871 Edward B Tylor gave the first scientific definition of culture : “That complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society."

• Eighty years later anthropologists Kroeber and Kluckhohn provide over 300 different definitions of culture including material objects, production techniques and styles of consumption.

3.2 Religion as a Proxy of Cultural Difference

• Cultural distance relates to norms, values, traditions, customs and religions specific to each culture. “The choice is to take religion as the main element through which to understand cultural proximity and distance”. (Indici di integrazione" by V. Cesareo and GC Blangiardo ... p. 73).

• Samuel Huntington estimates that "Of all the formal elements which define civilization, the most important is religion in general . " (The Clash of Civilizations , p. 47 )

• Huntington list the following civilizations: Western Civilization , Eastern Christian Civilization ( Orthodox ) Latin American Civilization (as distinct from that of the West ) , Islamic Civilization , Hindu civilization , Chinese (Taoist) Civilization , Japanese civilization , African civilization .

3.3. Breakdown of Migrants Cultural Differences

• Assuming that religion is a reliable proxy of cultural difference, according to data from the 2013 Immigration Statistical Dossier on religious affiliation of immigrants, the 5,186,000 legal immigrants estimated by the authors, appear

• Radically different for at least 46% :

– 223,000 atheists / agnostics,

– 309,000 followers of Eastern religions

– 1.708 million Muslims

– 150,000 belonging to other religions

• partially different for 35 %

– 1,534,000 Orthodox,

– 231,000 Protestants

– 37,000 other Christians

• less than 20% quite similar

– ( 994,000 Catholics ) .

3.4 Does Different Culture Mean Unintegrability?

• According to Huntington “The fundamental problem for the West is not Islamic fundamentalism. It is Islam, a different civilisation whose people are convinced of the superiority of their culture and are obsessed with the inferiority of their power.” But the main factor leading to the crisis of American identity is immigration , as Mexicans immigrants led to a " Hispanization " of the United States.

• Mexicans are at the same time the migrants with less high school graduates and college students than all other groups , with the lowest levels of professional or entrepreneurs, the highest levels of poverty ( except for the Dominicans ). The reasons for these differences are mainly due to the "culture of Catholicism " dominant among them

• In Italy according to Giovanni Sartori : " Immigrants are of very different nature , their integration can not be managed with a unique recipe . (...) Is it possible that immigrants ethnically or religiously different can be integrated as well as immigrant s only different by language and tradition? No, you can not .

• And the impossibility increases when the immigrant belongs to a culture that does not separate fideistic or theocratic civil state and religious state that absorbs the citizen in the believer . (...)

4.1 Representation of Tcns as Competitors or Dangerous: Xenophobic

Movements and Media

• Surfing websites :

• "While our workers lose their jobs , while firms close stifled by a State which does not pay and by unsustainable taxes , Minister Riccardi thinks to ensure a fast-track entry to illegal immigrants , accepting new poor people … " (Source: stranieriinitalia.it , 24/09/2012 )

• Forza Nuova writes, on the walls in front of the Police Immigration Office in Pesaro: "For every immigrant there is an Italian unemployed (...) The right to work should be guaranteed first of all to Italians " (Source: CGIL of Pesaro and Urbino 11/09/2012 ) and or they propose to create an " Anti-racist Observatory in defense of the Italians ", ( 17/09/2012 , Source: stranieriinitalia.it )

• The comments on the website of Corriere della Sera, to the nomination of Ms Cecil Kyenge as Minister of Integration. " No Congolese immigrant can tell me what to do in my country or enact laws that destroy my country,“ " (The Economist , 31 August 2013 ) .

4.2 Media Representation

• Information on immigration is characterized by a repertoire of recurring images in which prejudices and stereotypes are reproduced blatantly and openly ( in the tabloid ) or more subtly , in the journalism of opinion and information.

• EUMC (the European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia) noted that emergency situations are constantly put in the foreground, with a lack of analysis of big international migration processes Migrants themselves very rarely speak in first person , but rather are narrated by others highlighting the negative aspects far more often than the positive aspects .

• Very often the common ethnic or national origin of the persons involved in criminal activity , is emphasized even when it is irrelevant with respect to the news itself.

4.3 Social Representations

• Social representations operate in a consistent way , standardizing and “making conventional objects , people and events we encounter in our path , providing them with a precise form , assigning them to a particular category and defining them in a gradual manner as a model of a certain type, separate and shared by a group of people "( Moscovici, 27).

• Thanks to these representations, the unknown is transformed into something known , losing its more disturbing feature: its novelty .

• Social representations consist, of a core which is non-negotiable and a peripheral part more flexible and malleable , allowing the individual modulations of the common representation .

• According to Teun Van Dijk the central core is characterized by the following elements : Diversity , Competition, Threat.

5.1 Low Deference in Face-to-Face Interactions: Media and Researchers Reports

• “Ritals”, ours, macaronis, dagos, babis, cristos, Spaghettifresser, Katzelmacher, Mafiamann were the names of italian migrants

• Mauros, Gastarbeiter , beurs , blacks are the names of migrants in some countries

• Both separate and remark the difference between us and them in a significative way, identified for the first time by George Simmel.

• Describing the tax treatment of the Jews in the Middle Ages, Simmel wrote: “While the Christian citizen paid higher or lower tax depending on his wealth, in the case of the Jew the tax was fixed in its entity once and for all. (...) As for the tax issues, every other citizen was the owner of a specific revenue and taxes could be calculated on the basis of its oscillations. The Jew was instead as a taxpayer first of all a Jew”

• And, generalizing, he concluded “Foreigners are not considered as individuals, but as foreigners of a certain category”

5.2 Lack of Positive Feelings

• This specific form of relation with foreigners explains why the main relationship autochthons maintain with foreigners, is not the open discrimination and racism, but, rather the lack of positive feeling toward migrants.

• I found such distance in a research carried out among students and teachers in Rome, during 1996 (more than a third of students and teachers had answered to our survey that they "never" or at best 'rarely' had felt positive feelings towards immigrants , and the recent CENSIS Report 2013, confirms such finding out.

• " In recent population surveys it is remarkable the low presence of positive sentiments towards immigrants : just 17.2 % of Italians say they feel understanding and have a friendly approach towards them , four out of five Italians are divided , however, between distrust (60.1% ) , indifference (15.8% ) and hostility (6.9% ) " (Censis, p. 516).

5.3 Episodes and News

• Another study, published in 1997 by Paola Tabet ( Tabet , 1997) using an original methodology, asked to pupils from II to III primary school to write a composition about " If my parents were blacks ."

• " Blacks are called “extracomunitari” and this word means that men of different color go to live in another country, looking for a job. But no one gives them a job because they are of a different color " (Tabet , p.77)

• " If my parents were blacks , I guess I would be very desperate because all white people say evil about extracomunitari, in fact they say that they are dirty and they do not deserve anything, they are drug addicts, snatchers and thieves because, being so poor , they have Mercedes " ( Tabet p . 96) .

• The same is worded differently from another child : " If my parents were blacks , I would live a very sad life because surely I would not have as many friends as now , because of the color of my skin " ( Tabet p . 87).

Daily Racism or Lack of Deference

• But also some time newspapers refer about daily little episodes which are referred as “daily racism”:

• "A grandmother with her granddaughter walking on the sidewalk. The small, two years old, blond curls, attracts the attention of a man who greets her. The grandmother says the little, turning to her in Polish, to respond to the greeting. The man then begins to gesticulate wildly, saying "no, no" and runs away. "(Source; Lapresse, September 2, 2012)

• " A mother enters a children's area with her daughter and her dog. Dogs would not be allowed , according to regulation, but there are many people who take them . The woman enters and nobody says anything until it turns to her daughter in Romanian . The other parents " realize " that mother and daughter are foreign nationals , and with aggression and contempt, telling her to bring out the dog immediately . (Source: lapresse.it )

5.4 Rituals of Deference

• Sociologists who have studied daily interactions between individuals and social groups , as Erving Goffman , and Randall Collins, illustrated some of the specific features in place when different people come together, which seem to be absent in interactions with migrants .

• Among the features of common interactions we find: • shared emotions and feelings , • actions and speeches routines, ( even called " rituals " ) especially aiming to give

importance to the image (the “self”) of the participants of the meetings, careful to pay attention, to show deference and esteem, to conform, to the possible extent , to reciprocal expectations…

• "In our urban world and the secular individual is granted a certain sacredness , which is manifested and confirmed by symbolic acts " ( Collins p . 51).

• The participants at the same time are obliged to dignity and demeanor. • Everything , all this complex system of ritualized interactions seems destroyed in

the case where one of the interacting subjects is an "extracomunitario " , as the above examples have shown .

Facing Effects of 2008 Turmoil

• More than 3,000,000 unemployed (13% of the whole workforce);

• 611,000 unemployed migrant workers (unemployment rate 14,5%)

• Immigration and, above all economic immigration, is decreasing

• in 2012 new residence permits for work reasons issued to TCNs were around 67,000 ;

• in 2011 new permits issued were almost 40% less than in 2010 (Ismu Report 2013)

• Since 2011 new yearly quota decrees allow only seasonal workers and few thousands of workers who attended authorized pre-departure training in origin countries.

• “Labour migration flows " are going to be substituted by "mixed flows" where irregular migrants are going to arrive together with asylum seekers or displaced people.

Mixed Flows: Landings in 2013-2014

Year Landings

2010 4,406

2011 62,692

2012 13,267

2013 42,925

2014 20,899

Total 144,189

Source: relation of Ministry of Interior to Parliament on April 14 2014

Next Future Trends

• TCNs population will increase, due to its Demographic dynamics

• ISTAT forecast of demographic growth, (Istat 2008) according to different Assumptions:

• In the same time for the decade 2010 -2020

• According to CEDEFOP forecast of changes in the labor market :

• significant growth in the group of executives and entrepreneurs,

• increase in the group of professionals,

• fall in employees and workers

• with the sole exception of unskilled occupations, including the segment of services to families

• (See table on next slide)

Year % of TCNs out of Population

2007 5%

2011 7,4%

2031 12,3% -14,1%

2051 16,1% -184%

2010 2020

Foreigners Italians Total % of

foreigner

out of the

total

Foreigners Italians Total % of

foreigner out

of the total

Executives, entrepreneurs,

legislators

25 896 921 2.7 95 1529 1625 5.9

Intellectual and scientific

professions

43 2 249 2 292 1.9 78 2 379 2 457 3.2

Technical professions 81 4 506 4 587 1.8 146 5 223 5 368 2.7

Clerks 39 2 559 2 598 1.5 55 2 556 2 612 2.1

Skilled occupations in

business

303 3 527 3 830 7.9 300 2 967 3 267 9.2

Craftsmen, skilled workers

and farmers

589 3 629 4 218 14.0 825 3 087 3 913 21.1

Plant semi-skilled

workers

217 1 593 1 810 12.0 274 1 421 1 695 16.2

Unskilled occupations 784 1 572 2 356 33.3 1 222 1 202 2 424 50.4

Armed forces 0 260 260 0.0 0 307 307 0.0

Total 2 081 20 791 22 872 9.1 2 996 20 673 23 668 12.7

Future Scenario of Labour Market

Second Generation Issues

Due to the Jus sanguinis, also Children born and / or raised in Italy are “extracomunitari”.

Nevertheless they

• attended Italian schools

• have cultural preferences and behaviors very similar to their Italian peers

• aspire to the same jobs and same working conditions

But they have to face

• academic failure;

• difficult access to equal opportunities for socio-economic mobility;

• ethnic discrimination on the part of the native population

G2 Expectations and Opportunities

According to Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs 2005 research on second generation

• “ The second-generation youth seem unwilling to accept the profile of socio-economic integration of their parents and want to move towards more qualified professions that enjoy greater social recognition. "(Www.lavoro.gov.it)

According to G2 network • " guys born and raised in Italy, are rotting in the fields, exposed to

the same exploitation suffered by their parents” • . (...) Deep, a 21 years old with a diploma as specialized turner,

collects vegetables from morning to night. (...) • • Ravinder Singh, 15 years old, would like to study, to get a degree

as Italians. Instead his family has already booked him for next year a job where to work as a laborer in the fields close to Rome

Weakness and Threats Analysis

• Young unemployment rate is about 47% among nationals and TCN youngsters .

• Due to the labour market crisis produced by the financial turmoil of 2008 and dynamics of demographic change, we could be forced to cope with a situation in which the second generation, grown in Italy, could find an offer of jobs which were acceptable for their parents, but are unacceptable for them, who have been socialized within the Italian schools, with Italian peers, through Italian media.

• As the international experience and some theoretical model tells us, such situations develop a frustration, esxhacerbated by rude competition with Italian peers, which could produce either a rebel behavior (urban riots) or a deviant behavior (gangs) respectively able to permit them to save anyway their identity or to achieve the goals they were promised.

Robert K. Merton’s Model Of Anomie

International Observations

• In the USA, 1901 the Second Board of Inquiry set up by the U.S. Congress on the issue of immigrant crime, argued that "foreigners of the second generation, having more accustomed to the ways of life of the country, having taken more familiar and having freed from the control of their parents, have a crime rate too high

• • In 1920, the research of Thomas and Znaniecki on Polish immigration to America, raised the question of increased deviance of immigrant children than parents

• In 1979, Michael J. Piore. Birds of Passage: Migrant Labor and Industrial Societies,, noticed of "rebellion of the second generation," : “young people from immigrant families are likely to fuel a potential reservoir of social exclusion, deviance, opposition to the receiving society and its institutions. "

• More recently, Alejandro Portes, Patricia Fernandez-Kelly and William J. Haller recognize "the prospect that members of the second generation will end up plunging to the bottom of the social ladder - creating a new "rainbow underclass“.

• And conclude: "The adult immigrants accept low-wage jobs in services. Their children, however, steeped in consumption patterns and aspirations of their status as American-style, are usually not at all satisfied by such prospects. (Ibid.)

In Italy?

• Maurizio Ambrosini " Some national components, in which the parents had entered peacefully into occupations with low social recognition, show unexpectedly high rates of involvement of children in deviant activity, drug use, forms of maladjustment, experience of prolonged unemployment. "

• Marzio Barbagli describes the following situation : "To commit the crimes most frequently mentioned (Barbagli lists a number of crimes in his text) are immigrants without a residence permit. (…) But secondly (…) In some European countries, to have higher crime rates of the latter are more often immigrants of the second generation (and only them)”.

• According to Istat data on people under trial , the most impressive data are neither the high number of foreign people (over 276,000 in 2011), nor the younger age of foreign people under trial, as they are strongly represented among foreign neo-majors. (Caritas Report on Immigration 2013, p. 100)

EU Youth Guarantee and Youth Employment Initiative

• Recommendation of the Council of the European Union of 22 April 2013, endorsed by the June 2013 European Council, on the establishment of a "Youth Guarantee“ aiming to offer all young people up to age 25 a quality job, continued education, an apprenticeship or a traineeship within four months of leaving formal education or becoming unemployed

• The Council and the European Parliament agreed to create a dedicated Youth Employment Initiative (YEI). YEI support will concentrate on regions experiencing youth unemployment rates above 25% and on young people not in employment, education or training (NEETs).

• Italian Government has launched, starting from May 1, 2014, the National Plan for the implementation of the Youth Guarantee, opening the Youth Guarantee to unemployed NEET above 29 years and to foreign Unaccompanied Minors

Innovative Use Of Available Tools: The European Youth Guarantee

• Policies formulated and implemented in this way can overtake the risks of dilemma between universal policies and specialized positive actions:

• In fact direct policies, commonly thought of as affirmative action may provoke opposition among more privileged groups, because they are highly visible, and in the same time, “by targeting certain groups, they can reinforce group distinctions, which could in turn encourage prejudice and cultural stereotyping” ( CRISE, 2007).

• On the other side formally universal policies, can reproduce discrimination

• The italian legislation on job recruitment ,which is 100% colour-blind.

• Nevertheless, migrants face several forms of discrimination:

• discrimination on entrance ,

• discrimination in employment conditions, (job classification, pay, employment relationships, contractual arrangements, treatment offered by colleagues and superiors, distribution of tasks , job shifts, and career paths. (Zanfrini, 2004).

Beyond The Alternative Between Direct And Indirect Policies

• The most interesting aspect of the Italian approach is that the inclusion of G2 NEETs and unaccompanied minors is made through policies which are at the same time universal and indirect, but which forecast specific indicators values able to better help beneficiaries who face more difficulties

• In the Region Lazio plan , beneficiaries are profiled on the basis of national indicators of disadvantage., among which, we find:

• age,

• gender

• geographical location

• school education and training qualification

• unemployment state in the previous year,

• linguistic ability, as measured by a test.

• Based on such profiling , as beneficiaries who have the greatest difficulties and therefore are the most disadvantaged, are placed in a higher band score, TCNs NEETs and Unaccompanied minors receive more aid.

Youth Guarantee Schemes And Beyond

• Youth Guarantee scheme requires strong cooperation between all the key stakeholders: public authorities, employment services, career guidance providers, education & training institutions, youth support services, business, employers, trade unions, etc.

The “Young Guarantee" forces to break the borders between:

• Public and private initiatives

• Local and central policies

• Direct and indirect policies.

• But above all it shows how to break the diaphragm Abdessalam Sayad described in his classic "The double absence“as existing in the country of destination, where “people want that immigrants will always remain immigrants, as permanent and continues to be their presence [...]" (p. 105).

• It demonstrates that much more important is the so called Thomas Theorem: “If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences” (Thomas, 1928): if G2 youngsters will be aided to define themselves Italians …

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