English 3201 Terms Defined (revised 2015)

LITERARY TERMSALLEGORY -- a form of extended metaphor in which objects, persons, and actions in a narrative, are equated with the meanings that lie outside the narrative itself. The underlying meaning has moral, social, religious, or political significance, and characters are often personifications of abstract ideas as charity, greed, or envy.It is a story with two meanings, a literal meaning and a symbolic meaning. (For example, in Tennyson’s “The Lady of Shallot”, the lady represents the artist who is isolated from the real world.)

ALLITERATION - the repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words in close proximity. (Example: He was a bouncing baby boy.)

ALLUSION -- a reference, within a literary work, to another work of fiction, a film, a piece of art, or even a real event or person. An allusion draws on outside sources to provide greater context or meaning to the selection.

ANACHRONISM- is the poetic device which places a person, thing, or event in a time frame where it does not belong; e.g., “The clock has stricken three”. (Julius Caesar). This is an anachronism because clocks were not yet invented during the time of Caesar.

ANALOGY - a comparison of an unfamiliar object or idea to a familiar one in an attempt to explain or illuminate the unfamiliar.

ANECDOTE - a brief story or account of a single incident without the elaboration (character development, figurative language, symbolism, etc.) of a short story.

APOSTROPHE - a figure of speech in which someone absent or dead or something nonhuman is addressed as if it were alive and present and could reply. For example, in Romeo and Juliet, Romeo says, “I defy you stars!”

ARCHETYPE- an archetype is an ideal example or model after which other things are patterned. It is what is considered a typical example of a thing or person. In literature, there are situation archetypes, setting archetypes, symbolic archetypes and character archetypes.

ATMOSPHERE - the feeling surrounding a literary work. For instance, the atmosphere in the witches’ scene in the play Macbeth is quite dark and ominous.

CACOPHONY - refers to harsh, unpleasant sounds that are used in poetry, often to create an effect. Example: The canon cracked.

CATHARSIS- is an emotional discharge through which one can achieve a state of moral or spiritual renewal or achieve a state of liberation from anxiety and stress. Catharsis is a Greek word and it means cleansing.In literature it is used for the cleansing of emotions of the characters. It can also be any other radical change that leads to emotional rejuvenation of a person.

CLICHE- is an overused and unoriginal phrase that has lost meaning due to overuse. (Example: “The early bird gets the worm” or “Don’t judge a book by its cover.” Try to avoid using clichés when stating a theme for a particular text.

COMPARISON- is when two or more particular texts are compared and contrasted to examine similarities and differences between them. (Example: Romeo and Juliet are similar in that they are both Shakespearean plays but differ as one is a tragedy and the other is a comedy.

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COMPOSITION- is the bringing together of parts or elements to form a whole; the structure, organization, or total form of a work of writing. It involves the arrangement of the parts of a work of art as to form a unified, harmonious whole.

COMPLICATION- a series of difficulties forming the central action in a narrative.

CONFLICT - the struggle between two opposing forces within a work.

Internal conflict involves a struggle within (man versus himself). Examples of this include guilt, fear, indecision, et cetera.

External conflict involves the struggle of a character with an outside force (man versus nature, man versus man, man versus society, et cetera).

CONNOTATION the connotation of a word involves the attitudes and feelings associated with a word. These associations can be negative or positive, and have an important influence on style and meaning. For most people, the word mother calls up very strong positive feelings and associations--loving, self-sacrificing, always there for you, understanding; the denotative meaning, on the other hand, is simply "a female animal who has borne one or more children." Of course connotative meanings do not necessarily reflect reality; for instance, if someone said, "His mother is not very motherly," you would immediately understand the difference between motherly (connotation) and mother (denotation).

CONTEXT- the part of a written (or spoken) statement which leads up to, follows, and specifies the meaning of that statement. The context of a group of words is nearly always very intimately connected as to throw light upon not only the meaning of individual words, but also the sense and purpose of an entire work.

CONTRAST- is to compare as to pointing out differences between two particular items.

DENOTATION- the dictionary meaning of a word. Writers typically play off a word's denotative meaning against its connotations, or suggested and implied associational implications.

DICTION- the selection of words in a literary work. A work's diction forms one of its centrally important literary elements, as writers use words to convey action, reveal character, imply attitudes, identify themes, and suggest values.

DOMINANT IMPRESSION/IMAGE- in descriptive writing one dominant person or overall feeling should prevail. (i.e., that of terror, beauty, etc.).

EPIPHANY- it is a moment of enlightenment that may be caused by an everyday event or occurrence.

EUPHONY- is soothing, pleasant, harmonious sounds, especially words spoken in combination.

EXTENDED METAPHOR- a metaphor that is used throughout a work or is continued for a few lines of a selection.

FALLACY- is a flawed argument dependent upon an unsound or illogical contention. There are many fallacy examples that we can find in everyday conversations.

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE- a form of language use in which writers and speakers convey something other than the literal meaning of their words. Examples include hyperbole or exaggeration, understatement, simile and metaphor, which employ comparison, and synecdoche and metonymy, in which a part of a thing stands for the whole.

FLASHBACK- an interruption of a work's chronology to describe or present an incident that occurred prior to the main time frame of a work's action.

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FOIL – a character whose qualities or actions serve to emphasize those of another character (usually the protagonist) by providing a strong contrast with that character.

FORESHADOWING - when hints of what is to come in the action of a play or a story are given, it is known as foreshadowing.

HUBRIS- is extreme pride and arrogance shown by a characters that ultimately brings about his downfall. Hubris is a typical flaw in the personality of a character who enjoys a powerful position; as a result of which, he overestimates his capabilities to such an extent that he loses contact with reality. A character suffering from Hubris tries to cross normal human limits and violates moral codes. Examples of Hubris are found in major characters of tragic plays.

HYPERBOLE- intended exaggeration used to create a desired effect such as humour or sarcasm.

IMAGERY- language which describes something in detail, using words to substitute for and create sensory stimulation. One or more of the senses is used to create imagery.

IRONY (dramatic, situational, and verbal) – There are three distinct types:

Dramatic irony - occurs when the audience and/or one or more characters in a work are aware of information that another character or characters are not. For instance, in Romeo and Juliet, Friar Laurence and the audience are aware that Juliet is merely asleep, but Romeo and the others are not. Thus, Romeo kills himself because he thinks his love is dead.

Situational irony – evident where an unexpected event occurs, in the sense that it is somehow in absurd or mocking opposition to what would be expected or appropriate. Mere coincidence is generally not ironic; neither is mere surprise, nor are any random or arbitrary occurrences. For instance, in Oedipus the King, Oedipus says that he fears that the murderer of Laius will come after him too. The irony is that Oedipus himself killed Laius.

Verbal irony -- speech in which what is said is the opposite to what is meant (i.e. sarcasm).

JUXTAPOSITION- the arrangement of two or more ideas, characters, actions, settings, phrases, or words side-by-side or in similar narrative moments for the purpose of comparison, contrast, or character development.

METAPHOR- a comparison between essentially unlike things without an explicitly comparative word such as like or as. An example is "My love is a red, red rose".

MOOD - most pieces of literature have a prevailing mood, but shifts in this prevailing mood may function as a counterpoint, provide comic relief, or echo the changing events in the plot.

MOTIF– a recurring important idea or image. A motif differs from a theme in that it can be expressed as a single word or fragmentary phrase, while a theme usually must be expressed as a complete sentence.

NARRATOR- the voice and implied speaker of a fictional work, to be distinguished from the actual living author. For instance, Holden Caulfield narrates The Catcher in the Rye, but the author is J.D. Salinger.

ONOMATOPOEIA - the use of words to imitate the sounds they describe. Words such as buzz and crack are onomatopoetic.

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OXYMORON- involves using contradiction in a manner that oddly makes sense on a deeper level. Simple or joking examples include such oxymora as jumbo shrimp, and sophisticated rednecks. Example from Literature: Shakespeare uses the loving hate in Romeo and Juliet.

PARADOX – an apparent contradiction or absurdity that is somehow true. Example: “In order to truly appreciate life, we must first accept death.”

PARAPHRASE- can also be known as summarizing, which means to express in a shorter, more concise form. When completing research, it is often important to paraphrase the research material you encounter to help better understand it and focus on the important parts related to your research task.

PARALLEL STRUCTURE- the repetition of similar grammatical forms used in a series. Also referred to as parallelism. It is often employed to create flow writing and achieve emphasis.

PERSONIFICATION- involves giving an inanimate object or an abstract idea, human traits.

POINT OF VIEW – the perspective established by the narrator of a literary work.

First-person- when a character narrates a story. In this instance, the main character conveys the incidents he encounters, as well as giving the reader insight into himself as he reveals his thoughts, feelings, and intentions.

Second-person - occurs when the narrator addresses the protagonist directly as "you" and never reverts back to “I”. The second person point of view is used in essays and poems, but is not commonly utilized. Example: Poem – “1958” in the Echoes 11 text

Third-person- told from the narrative perspective where a personage who is not a character in the story, tells the story.

Third-person limited - the author’s knowledge of a character is limited; uses he/she/they and can describe only what can be seen or heard

Third-person omniscient - the author knows everything about the characters including their feelings, thoughts, et cetera. The narrator moves from one character to another as necessary to provide those character’s respective motivations and emotions.

PUN – a humorous play on words. Example: "I do it for the pun of it".

PURPOSE - the purpose of an article or selection is the reason for its existence. The purpose could be to describe, to entertain, to inform, et cetera.

RHETORICAL QUESTION- is a question intended to provoke thought, but not an expressed answer, in the reader. It is most commonly used in oratory and other persuasive genres.

Example: Bugs Bunny typically asks, "What’s up, doc?" He isn’t actually inquiring how you are; it is more of a greeting.

SARCASM - the use of verbal irony in which a person appears to be praising something, but is actually insulting it. Example: “She’s a real winner!”

SATIRE -a literary work that criticizes human misconduct and ridicules vices, stupidities, and follies. Swift's Gulliver's Travels is a famous example.

SETTING - the time, place and circumstances of a literary work that establish its context.

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SIMILE- is a figure of speech involving a comparison between unlike things using like, as, or as though. Example: "My love is like a red, red rose."

SPEAKER - the voice in a poem. The speaker may be the poet or a character created by the poet. The speaker may also be a thing or an animal.

STEREOTYPE- a conventional and oversimplified opinion or image of a person or group of people. An author often stereotypes a character so that the person is readily identified with a distinct group of individuals. This literary device is most often used in a negative, and sometimes derogatory, fashion. A few examples are a person of Asian descent being likened to martial arts, a Harvard student being thought of as a "bookworm", or an Alaskan that is envisioned as living in an igloo.

SUSPENSE - is excited anticipation of an approaching climax.

SYMBOLISM - exists when an object or action in a literary work that means more than itself, that stands for something beyond itself. Example: In Macbeth, the blood of Duncan symbolizes guilt as well as betrayal.

TEMPORAL REFERENCE- a reference in a literary work that identifies the passage of time. It is also called a chronological reference and is especially important to narrative writing.

THEMATIC STATEMENT - a single sentence that describes a specific interpretation of the overall meaning of a work of literature. It must be brief, focused and insightful.

THEMATIC TOPIC- the central subject matter of a piece of writing.

THEME – the main subject that is being discussed or described in a piece of writing, a movie, etc.

TITLE (significance) - something signified, expressed, or intended through the title of a work. When considering titles it is important to consider the following:

- Is the title repeated throughout the piece?

- Are there any literary devices present in the title?

- Does the title work on multiple levels (i.e. literal/figurative)

TONE - a quality, feeling, or attitude expressed by the words that someone uses in speaking or writing

TRANSITIONS- In a piece of writing there are various ways to transition between ideas. Below are some of the common types of transitions:

- Logical- transitions related to the logical organization of ideas (i.e. “Firstly”, “In addition”, “Furthermore”).

- Spatial- transitions related to movement of locations or “spaces” being described (i.e. “On the beach...”, “When entering the room...”, “On the wall...”).

- Chronological- transitions related to the passage of time (i.e. “In the morning”, “As the day progressed”, “Three years later”).

- Oppositional- transitions that introduce a counter argument (i.e. “However”, “On the other hand”, “Otherwise”).

- Additional Support- transitions that provide extra detail on subject pattern (i.e. “In addition”, “Furthermore”, “As well”

- Concluding- transitions that summarize content, close arguments, and present findings (i.e. “to conclude”, “Finally”, “In summary”)

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LANGUAGE TERMS

AUDIENCE- are the people for whom a particular text (poem, essay, poster, etc.) is intended for. Authors usually write/create with a certain audience in mind. An audience can often be categorized as “general” or “specific”. The term "audience" also applies to the people who gather to see or hear any performance, including plays or poetry readings, speeches, and concerts.

BIAS - is a preference or prejudice for or against a particular person of group of people. (Example: a reporter from Newfoundland who consistently writes positive articles about the province would demonstrate bias FOR Newfoundland.

COHERENCE - is the logical and intelligible organization in a piece of writing. It involves how a piece of writing flows from beginning to end and consistently makes sense to the reader. There are various techniques a writer can employ to achieve coherence:

- Parallel Structure (parallelism) - the repetition of similar grammatical forms used in a series (example: John swam, cycled, and ran his way to another gold medal.)

- Pronoun Reference- using a word in place of a noun. Common pronouns include it, him, her, us, etc. The use of pronouns is essential in coherent writing to avoid the monotonous and abnormal overuse of repeated nouns. Writing without pronouns would likely make little sense.

- Repetition- by repeating key words and phrases related to the subject of the writing the author helps to emphasize their overall importance and relevance to the topic. This helps the reader make better sense of the writing as a whole.

- Transitions- words or phrases that help move sentences or paragraphs smoothly from one idea to the next; some common transitions are “firstly”, “secondly”, “in addition”, “likewise”, “however”, “but”, etc.

EMPHATIC DEVICES- techniques used to place emphasis on a particular word, phrase, idea and/or theme in a particular text. By using these devices, the reader should be able to more easily recognize their overall importance to the theme/message of the piece. Emphatic devices are also effective in achieving voice in a particular text. Some common empathic devices include:

- Listing (numerical order, bullets, sequencing)

- Font (bold, unusual capitalization, italics, underline)

- Punctuation (colon, dash, exclamation mark, brackets) - the colon (:) and dash (---) are often used to emphasize particular words/phrases within a sentence. They force the reader to pause. The exclamation mark (!) is usually used to convey emotional emphasis.

- Repetition- repeating key words/phrases/ideas serves to emphasize their overall importance to the reader.

- Parallel structure- the repetition of similar grammatical forms used in a series. For example, the passage below.

“Johnny would not enter. David would not enter. I would not enter. Nobody in their right mind would enter that old shed...”

The repetition of the phrase “would not enter” helps to emphasize the fact that the all involved are quite afraid to enter the shed in question.

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- Short sentences/sentence fragments- help to emphasize and individualize sentences and ideas so they do not get lost in a run on sentence. These sentences stand out to the reader.

ESSAY DEVELOPMENT- ARGUMENTATION- Function is to show that your assertion (opinion, theory, and hypothesis) about some phenomenon or phenomena is correct or more truthful than others. Argumentative writing is the act of forming reasons, making inductions, drawing conclusions, and applying them to the case in discussion; the operation of inferring propositions, not known or admitted as true, from facts or principles known, admitted, or proved to be true. It clearly explains the process of your reasoning from the known or assumed to the unknown. Without doing this you do not have an argument, you have only an assertion, an essay that is just your unsubstantiated opinion. Notice that you do not have to completely prove your point; you only have to convince reasonable readers that your argument or position has merit.

ESSAY DEVELOPMENT- PERSUASION- Utilizes logic and reason to show that one idea is more legitimate than another idea. It attempts to persuade a reader to adopt a certain point of view or to take a particular action. The argument must always use sound reasoning and solid evidence by stating facts, giving logical reasons, using examples, and quoting experts.

ESSAY DEVELOPMENT- CAUSE & EFFECT- Explores and explains the causes and effects of certain events, conditions, or situations.

- Supports explanations with specific evidence/details.- Presents evidence in a well-organized, logical sequence. - NOTE : A good piece of cause/effect writing uses transitional words/phrases including as

a result, therefore, because, etc. to make clear and coherent connections between causes and effects.

ESSAY DEVELOPMENT- CLASSIFICATION & DIVISION- Is an essay that sorts and arranges items, ideas, or topics into meaningful categories and explains them one by one.

- This arrangement or “sorting” attempts to deal with the complexity of a subject by separating it into smaller, individual parts. For example, music can be “classified” into categories such as county, rap, and rock. Each category can be “divided” into specific songs within each category.

- NOTE : To help you better grasp the concept of classification/division, think of a video store. They usually make sense to us as they are effective examples of classification and division. Classification: Horror. Division: “Saw”, “Friday the 13th.”

ESSAY DEVELOPMENT- COMPARISON & CONTRAST- Explores the similarities and differences between two or more related items (i.e. literary texts, countries, etc.)

- Provides a thesis statement- a generalization in the introduction- about the differences/similarities to be explored in the remainder of the essay.

- Reveals unexpected relationships between or among items. - Can be written for one or more of the following purposes: to inform, persuade,

evaluate, or entertain. - Needs to be organized consistently and coherently, item by item and using transitions to

clarify similarities and-or differences. - NOTE : This type of writing will be used when writing the Comparative Study essay on

the English 3201 midterm and Public exam. Students are required to “compare” some aspect of TWO major texts studied.

ESSAY DEVELOPMENT- DEFINITION- This involves expository essay which concentrates on detailing the characteristics of a particular topic, item, situation, etc.

- It may extend upon the basic definition by dealing with a topic’s qualities, purpose, history, etc.

- Definition essay writing, like process analysis, are alike in that unfamiliar terms/ideas MUST be explained clearly for the reader.

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- An essay that explores how Creon, Oedipus, or Antigone fit the mould of a typical tragic hero would be a great example of this essay form

ESSAY DEVELOPMENT- DESCRIPTION- writing that attempts to describe and/or recreate a particular experience in extensive detail. Descriptive essays include extensive sensory images/detail to help aid in description. Writer often use “spatial” transitions in moving from “space” to “space” in their description. Refer to the essay “On the Road to Berlin” in Echoes 12 as a great sample of descriptive writing.

ESSAY DEVELOPMENT- EXAMPLE & ILLUSTRATION- This method of development is very common in many types of essays and is used to support an idea, reinforce a contention, or clarify a particular topic.

- The transitional phrase “For example” is likely to be found when utilizing this method of development.

- Case Studies in any subject area such as Geography, History, or Biology are great instances of example and illustration.

ESSAY DEVELOPMENT- EXPOSITION- writing that systematically explanatory, and communicates information. It is often referred to as “textbook writing.” There are many different ways in which a writer can choose to develop an expository essay (i.e. cause/effect, comparison/contrast, classification/division, etc.).

ESSAY DEVELOPMENT- NARRATION- writing that provides an account of an event or experiences whether real or invented. Narrative essays are usually told from a defined point of view which is that of the author. These essays maybe include some narratives elements commonly associated with short stories or pure narratives (i.e. dialogue, suspense, character development, etc.). A narrative essay often reads like a personal essay which conveys a particular experience of the author and comes with a sense of purpose. It provides a commentary on some meaningful aspect of life.

ESSAY DEVELOPMENT- PROCESS ANALYSIS- Presents information and gives direction on how “to do” something.

- Process refers to the way something is done or the way something happens. - Analysis of a process explains rather than specifically showing how. - NOTE: Effective process analysis relies heavily on effective transitioning. It is very

important to include transitional devices to help organize the steps involved

JOURNAL- A personal record of occurrences, experiences, and reflections kept on a regular basis; sometimes referred to as a diary.

STYLE- is a writer’s distinctive style of writing to suit his or her ideas and purpose in writing. Style involves “how” a writer writes and various aspects of writing such as diction, sentence structure/length, use of figurative language, etc. need to be considered when assessing style. Some of the key concepts associated with style include:

- Jargon- is language that is specific and specialized to a particular profession, occupation or other particular group. For example, there is various jargon used in an ice hockey dressing room that an outsider to the sport may not familiar with. A hockey stick may be called a “twig”, a helmet a “bucket”, an assist an “apple”, etc.

- Colloquialism- informal words or phrases of conversational language that brings colour to everyday speech and a friendly, conversational tone to writing. Many are figures of speech are not meant to be taken seriously.

- Dialect- dialects are spoken by definable groups of people from a particular geographic region, economic group, or social class. Writers use dialect to contrast and express differences in educational, class, social, and regional backgrounds of their characters.

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For example, a person from Toronto and a person from Newfoundland may both speak English but their dialects may differ greatly.

- Euphemism- a mild or indirect word or expression for one too harsh or blunt when referring to something unpleasant or embarrassing. For example, referring to a jail as “correctional facility” or saying “he was let go” instead of “he was fired.”

- Formal writing- writing that is very “polished”, pays close attention to the rules of proper English, and often ready for publication. Common examples of formal writing might include research paper, cover letters, resumes, etc. Rarely would formal writing include slang and colloquialisms.

- Informal writing- writing that is more casual than formal writing and often sounds like it should be spoken. Common examples of informal writing might include emails to friends, text messages, blogs, etc.

- Slang- nonstandard language particular to a time and often to a specific locale; acceptable in everyday speech, Slang should be avoided in formal contexts and, with few exceptions, in writing. Some common example of slang are referring to a car as “your ride”, or saying “my bad” when you make a mistake.

TRANSITIONS- (see definition under Literary Terms)

UNITY- is the quality of “oneness” in a piece of writing in which all parts of the writing come together in a unified whole. There are FOUR techniques a writer can employ to achieve unity:

- Closing by return- is when the conclusion of the writing is very similar to or reiterates something from the beginning of the writing. This technique serves to unify the writing and bring it all together.

- Repetition- repeating keys words/phrases related to the topic of the writing to stay focused on the subject.

- Thesis statement- a statement in the introduction of an essay that outlines the major points/ideas to be covered. Referring back to aspects of the thesis throughout the essay will reinforce unit.

- Topic sentence- the sentence in a paragraph that gives the main idea for the paragraph and sets the limits for the material that can be discussed. It is often, but not always, the first sentence of a paragraph because this helps the reader follow the writer's argument. When topic sentences relate to the thesis unity is achieved.

VOICE- is the personality of the speaker or creator (writer) that is revealed in a work through such elements as style, tone, diction, etc. Voice is closely linked to the tone on a piece of writing. A journal entry is often very rich in voice.

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DRAMA TERMS

ACT- is a major division in the action of a play. The ends of acts are typically indicated by lowering the curtain or turning up the houselights. Playwrights frequently employ acts to accommodate changes in time, setting, characters onstage, or mood. In many full-length plays, acts are further divided into scenes, which often mark a point in the action when the location changes or when a new character enters.

ACTION- A real or fictional event or series of such events comprising the subject of a novel, story, narrative poem, or a play, especially in the sense of what the characters do in such a narrative. Action, along with dialogue and the characters' thoughts, form the skeleton of a narrative plot.

ASIDE- is often a short speech within a play directed to the audience that supposedly is not audible to the other characters onstage at the time. Aside are much similar to soliloquies (see definition below) but other characters are on stage during speech. During the play Macbeth, the title characters Macbeth offers many asides during the play that help to reveal his personal thoughts to the audience. Although other characters are on the stage, they are not meant to hear what Macbeth is thinking aloud.

CHORUS- appear in Greek drama and is a group of actors who commented on and interpreted the unfolding action on the stage. Initially the chorus was a major component of the presentation, but over time it became less significant, with its numbers reduced and its role eventually limited to commentary between Acts. There are a few fey functions of the chorus in Greek drama:

- Summarize key events of the play

- Provide background information on important events of play

- Provide a break in action for audience

- Summarize theme/message near end of play

COMEDY- in drama, a comedy is a play often involves mishaps and ends happily. Its main intention is to entertain but sometimes can educate or persuade. A Midsummer Night’s Dream and Twelfth Night are both prime examples of comedies.

COMIC RELIEF- is a common technique, especially in Shakespearean tragedies, in which humor is used to relax the audience from dramatic tension and to temporarily lighten the mood. In Macbeth, the “Porter scene” is the comic relief following a very intense dramatic scene.

DIALOGUE- is the conversation that occurs between characters in a play of any narrative. It moves the action along in a work and it also helps to characterize the personality of the speakers, which vary depending on their nationalities, jobs, social classes, and educations. It also gives literature a more natural, conversational flow, which makes it more readable and enjoyable.

MONOLOGUE- a long speech by one actor in a play or movie, or as part of a theatrical or broadcast program.

PROLOGUE- is an introductory section of a literary work. It often contains information establishing the situation of the character or presents information about the setting, time

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period, or action. In drama, the prologue is spoken by a Chorus or by one of the principal characters.

SCENE- is a subdivision of an act of a drama, consisting of continuous action taking place at a single time and in a single location. The beginnings and endings of scenes may be indicated by clearing the stage of actors and props or by the entrances and exits of important characters.

SCREEENPLAY- is the script for a movie which includes the dialogue to be spoken by audience, description of scenes, some camera directions and instructions for sets. For example, the movie The Fellowship of the Ring was based on a novel by J.R.R Tolkien but the screenplay for the film was written by Fran Walsh, Phillipa Boyens, and Peter Jackson.

SCRIPT- is the written text of a stage play, screenplay, or broadcast; specifically the one used in production or performance. An actor rehearsing for a performance should always have a script on hand. Once an actor’s lines are memorized, he or she should be “off script.”

SOLILOQUY- is a moment when a character is alone on stage and speaks his or her thoughts aloud to the audience. A soliloquy is similar to an aside but the actor is alone on stage. In a soliloquy, the character usually is very serious and contemplates something very serious. The character often takes very decisive action after a soliloquy.

STAGE DIRECTIONS- are the actions that appear in parenthesis or italicized that describe what the character is doing in a script. For example:

JOHN: Hello Jane. It’s great to see you again.

JANE (confused): Oh. Is that you Dave?

STEREOTYPE- is a fixed and often simplified viewpoint towards a particular person or group of people. Stereotypes can be positive or negative.

- “All Newfoundlanders are hard workers” (positive)

- “All Muslims are terrorists” (negative)

TRAGEDY- a story that presents a courageous individual or individuals who confront powerful forces within or outside themselves with dignity that reveals the breadth and depth of the human spirit in the face of failure, defeat and even death. Tragedies recount an individual’s downfall; they usually begin high and end low. The plays “Antigone” and Macbeth are both prime examples of tragedies.

TRAGIC HERO- a character who has the potential for greatness but is doomed to fail. He or she is trapped in a situation where he cannot win. He makes some sort of tragic flaw, and this causes his fall from greatness. Even though he is a fallen hero, he still can win a moral victory, and have his spirit live on. Characteristics include: born into nobility, responsible for their own fate, endowed with a tragic flaw, doomed to make a serious error in judgment, fall from great heights or high esteem, realize they have made an irreversible mistake, faces and accepts death with honor, meet a tragic death and the audience is affected by pity and/or fear.

Example: Oedipus of the Theban Plays is a tragic hero.

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NARRATIVE TERMS

ANTAGONIST – the character, force, or collection of forces in fiction or drama that opposes the protagonist and gives rise to the conflict of the story; an opponent of the protagonist.

ANTICLIMAX-

AMOSPHERE- (see definition under Literary Terms)

CHARACTER/CHARACTERIZATION- the way an author creates characters within a story to make them seem real to the reader; includes the development of the character’s appearance, background, feelings, and thoughts; direct characterization – when the author tells the reader directly about the character; indirect characterization – when the author shows the character in action and lets readers draw their own conclusions.

CLIMAX- the moment in a narrative when the action comes to its highest point of dramatic conflict.

CONFLICT- a struggle between opposing forces; conflict may be described as: internal – an emotional struggle inside a person; external – a struggle against the environment/nature or society; interpersonal – a struggle with another person; main – the central conflict that moves the plot forward; minor – secondary conflict that does not influence the plot a great deal.

DENOUEMENT- follows the falling action and pulls together all the loose threads of the story; also called the conclusion or falling action.

EXPOSITION- background material about the characters, setting, and dramatic situation; introduces the essentials of the story.

FALLING ACTION- (See definition for denouement above.)

FRAME STORY- is a literary technique that sometimes serves as a companion piece to a story within a story whereby an introductory or main narrative is presented, at least in part, for the purpose of setting the stage either for a more emphasized second narrative or for a set of shorter stories. The frame story leads readers from a first story into another, smaller one (or several ones) within it.

IRONY- (see definition under Literary Terms)

JUXTAPOSITION- (see definition under Literary Terms)

MESSAGE- the general idea or insight that a writer wishes to express in a story. The message of a story and its theme are closely linked.

MOOD- (see definition under Literary Terms)

NARRATOR- (see definition under Literary Terms)

PLOT- the author’s arrangement of events that make up the action of a story; includes:

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Exposition – background material about the characters, setting, and dramatic situation; introduces the essentials of the story.Complication – any obstacle or conflict that increases the tension of the story’s conflict; also called the rising action.Climax – the moment when the action comes to its highest point of dramatic conflictFalling action – follows the climax and leads to the resolution and a sharp decline in dramatic tension.Resolution – follows the falling action and pulls together all the loose threads of the story; also called the conclusion or denouement.

POINT OF VIEW- (see definition under Literary Terms)

PROTAGONIST- the main character in a literary work.

RESOLUTION- follows the falling action and pulls together all the loose threads of the story; also called the conclusion or denouement.

RISING ACTION- the events in a story that build up to the climax. Often the conflict intensifies and the audience wonders what will happen to the characters.

SETTING- the environment or surroundings in which a story takes place; includes time, place, and situation in which the characters are placed. The setting of a work can have a significant impact on the characters.

SUBPLOT- a secondary or subordinate plot, as in a play, novel, or other literary work. Many sitcoms and movies rely heavily on the use of subplots.

SUSPENSE- techniques used by the author to keep readers interested in the story and wondering what will happen next.

THEME- (see definition under Literary Terms)

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POETRY TERMS

NOTE: Many of the poetry terms below are defined under LITERARY TERMS as they are applicable to various genres.

ALLEGORY- (see definition under Literary Terms)

ALLITERATION- (see definition under Literary Terms)

ASSONANCE -- the repetition of similar vowel sounds in different words in close proximity.

Example: The deep green sea…

CACOPHONY- (see definition under Literary Terms)

CONSONANCE- the repetition of similar consonant sounds, especially at the ends of words, as in lost / past, confess /dismiss, middle / muddle.

COUPLET- a pair of lines of verse that rhyme. Some poems, such as “The Night Before Christmas,” are written entirely in couplets: `Twas the night before Christmas, when all through the house.

ENJAMBMENT- refers to the practice of running lines of poetry from one to the next without using any kind of punctuation to indicate a stop (periods, commas, etc.).

EUPHONY- (see definition under Literary Terms)

FEET- A poetic foot is a basic repeated sequence of meter composed of two or more accented or unaccented syllables. In the case of an iambic foot, the sequence is "unaccented, accented". There are other types of poetic feet commonly found in English language poetry. Be sure to refer to the definition of iambic pentameter below.

HYPERBOLE- (see definition under Literary Terms)

IAMBIC PENTAMETER- a line of verse with five metrical feet, each consisting of one short (or unstressed) syllable followed by one long (or stressed) syllable, for example Two households, both alike in dignity.

IMAGERY- (see definition under Literary Terms)

IRONY- (see definition under Literary Terms)

LINE- A line is a subdivision of a poem, specifically a group of words arranged into a row that ends for a reason other than the right-hand margin.

METAPHOR- (see definition under Literary Terms)

MOOD- (see definition under Literary Terms)

ONOMATOPOEIA- (see definition under Literary Terms)

PARADOX- (see definition under Literary Terms)

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PERSONIFICATION- (see definition under Literary Terms)

POETIC FORM- BALLAD- a story, usually a narrative poem, in a song. Any story form may be told as a ballad, such as historical accounts or fairy tales in verse form.

POETIC FORM- ELEGY- a type of lyric poem that expresses sadness for someone who has died; a solemn meditation on a serious subject.

POETIC FORM- EPIC- a long narrative poem that records the adventures of a hero. Epics typically chronicle the origins of a civilization and embody its central values. Examples from western literature include Homer's Iliad and Odyssey.

POETIC FORM- FREE VERSE- poetry without a regular pattern of meter or rhyme

POETIC FORM- BLANK VERSE- unrhymed verse, especially the unrhymed iambic pentameter most frequently used in English dramatic, epic, and reflective verse.

POETIC FORM- LYRIC- a poem used to express feelings. Lyric poems have specific rhyming schemes and are often, but not always, set to music or a beat.

POETIC FORM- NARRATIVE- a poem that tells a story.

POETIC FORM- ODE- a long, often elaborate poem of varying line lengths and sometimes intricate rhyme schemes dealing with a serious subject matter and treating it reverently. Example “Ode on a Grecian Urn” or “Ode to Newfoundland.”

POETIC FORM- SONNET- a fourteen line poem written in iambic pentameter. The Shakespearean or English sonnet is arranged as three quatrains a final couplet and rhyme scheme of abab cdcd efef gg. The Petrarchan or Italian sonnet divides into two parts: an eight-line octave and a six-line sestet, rhyming abba abba cde cde or abba abba cd cd cd.

POETIC FORM- VILLANELLE- is a nineteen-line poem consisting of five tercets followed by a quatrain. There are two refrains and two repeating rhymes, with the first and third line of the first tercet repeated alternately until the last stanza, which includes both repeated lines.

POINT OF VIEW- (see definition under Literary Terms)

QUATRAIN- a four line stanza that oftentimes has lines of alternating rhyme.

REFRAIN/REPETITION- a phrase, verse, or group of verses repeated at intervals throughout a song or poem, especially at the end of each stanza. Oftentimes the use of refrain/repetition is used to

RHYME- the same sound occurring in different words.

RHYTHM- pattern of accented and unaccented, stressed and unstressed, syllables in written or spoken language.

SESTET- a six line stanza.

SIMILE- (see definition under Literary Terms)

STANZA - in poetry, a 'stanza' is a unit within a larger poem. There are various types of stanzas including: couplets, tercets, quatrains, etc.

SYMBOL- (see definition for symbolism under Literary Terms)

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TONE- (see definition under Literary Terms)

VERSE- writing arranged with a metrical rhythm, typically having a rhyme.

INFORMATIONAL TERMS

APPENDIX- a section or table of additional matter at the end of a book or document.

BOLD PRINT- involves making words/phrases stand out by making them appear darker. Oftentimes words that are bolded will be defined in a glossary.

BULLET- usually used to indicate lists of important information. They are sometimes used in informational texts to summarize key points just explained.

CAPTION- usually appear under a picture or photograph and offer explanation of what is occurring in the text. Captions are very common in newspaper and magazines.

CHART/TABLE- graphics that are present in informational texts that summarize and/or compare important information. These features are often used to convey important statistical date.

COLOUR- informational texts often use colour coding to help differentiate information. For example, case studies may be on different colour pages than biographies of notable individuals from a subject area.

CROSS SECTION- the magnification of a sub-section of a visual to help the viewer see particular sections in more detail.

DIAGRAM- a simplified drawing showing the appearance, structure, or workings of something. These help the reader to understand a more detailed of simplifies view of something.

DRAWING- a picture or diagram made with a pencil, pen, or crayon rather than paint, especially one drawn in monochrome.

FIGURE- a number, especially one that forms part of official statistics or relates to the financial performance of a company.

GLOSSARY- an alphabetical list of terms or words found in or relating to a specific subject, text, or dialect, with explanations; a brief dictionary.

GRAPH- a diagram showing the relation between variable quantities, typically of two variables, each measured along one of a pair of axes at right angles.

HEADING- is a word, phrase, or sentence at the beginning of a written passage that explains what it's about. A heading is very similar to a title. A heading is similar to a caption, a line below a photograph that briefly explains it.

INDEX- an indirect shortcut derived from and pointing into, a greater volume of values, data, information or knowledge

ITALICS- designating or pertaining to a style of printing types in which the letters usually slope to the right, patterned upon a compact manuscript hand, and used for emphasis, to separate different kinds of information. Italics looks like this.

LABEL- a brief description given for purposes of identification.

MAP- a diagrammatic representation of an area of land or sea showing physical features, cities, roads, etc.

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OVERLAY- a decorative and contrasting design or article placed on top of a plain one

PHOTO- a picture made using a camera.

PREFACE- an introduction to a book, typically stating its subject, scope, or aims.

PRONUNCIATION GUIDE- a phonetically-based system to demonstrate how difficult words are to be pronounced.

SIDEBAR- a short article in a newspaper or magazine, typically boxed, placed alongside a main article, and containing additional or explanatory material.

SKETCH- a rough or unfinished drawing or painting, often made to assist in making a more finished picture.

SPEECH BALLOON- a graphic convention used most commonly in comic books, comics and cartoons to allow words (and much less often, pictures) to be understood as representing the speech or thoughts of a given character in the comic.

SUBHEADING- a heading given to a subsection of a piece of writing.

TABLE OF CONTENTS- a list of titles of the parts of a book or document, organized in the order in which the parts appear.

TEXTBOX- a small rectangular box on a page that is included to add information related to the topic (i.e. definitions, interesting facts, historical background, etc.)

TIMELINE- a graphic representation of the passage of time as a line.

TITLE- the name of a book, composition, or other artistic work.

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VISUAL ELEMENTS AND FORMS

Visual Elements

ANGLE- The vantage point or direction from which the artist photographs the subject.

ASSYMETRY- is balance in which the parts are visually unequal.

BACKGROUND- is the part of the visual that seems to be farthest from the viewer.

BALANCE- is an arrangement of parts achieving a state of equilibrium between opposing forces or influences. Major types are symmetrical and asymmetrical. When shapes are balanced, they create a feeling of order or harmony. When shapes are not balanced, they create tension.

COLOUR- appearance of objects (or light sources) described in terms of a person's perception of their hue and lightness (or brightness) and saturation. Color is made up of hue (tint), intensity, and value. Hue refers to the name of the color, such as red or blue. Intensity is the purity and strength of the color, such as dull red or bright blue. Value means the lightness of darkness of the color. Color is used by artists to represent the way things really look and also to create feelings. The effect of color on the viewer may be stronger than any other element.

COMPOSISTION- is the bringing together of parts or elements to form a whole; the structure, organization, or total form of a work of art. It involves the arrangement of the parts of a work of art as to form a unified, harmonious whole.

CONTRAST-is the perceptual effect of the juxtaposition of very different colors/textures/shapes. Occurs when there is a visual difference between things or qualities being compared; degrees of dynamic imbalance between elements of a composition which draw the eye and demand resolution (dominance) to establish unity and overall balance in the design as a whole.

DOMINANT IMAGE- the central object that stands out in a work.

FOCAL POINT- what your eye is drawn to, the main element in a composition, it is the main idea of interest.

FOCUS (in or out) - the distinctness or clarity of an image in a visual text. Some images are very clear and in focus while others are less clear and out of focus.

FONT-is the specific type of lettering on a text.

FOREGROUND- part of a two-dimensional artwork that appears to be nearer the viewer or in the front. Middle ground and background are the parts of a picture that appear to be farther and farthest away.

FRAME- is the border of a text.

LIGHTING- is illumination, can often establish mood or serve a symbolic purpose.

LINE- is the basic unit of any image that has both length and direction. Straight lines often suggest order. Jagged lines can suggest power, fear, or confusion. Curved lines may suggest motion or softness. Diagonal lines can suggest motion or tension.

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PANEL- is a single section of a comic, showing one moment in a story being told. They are sometimes called frames. Most cartoons consist of a single frame. Comics have several.

PERSPECTIVE-is a system for creating an illusion of depth or three-dimensional space on a two-dimensional surface. Usually refers to linear perspective, which is based on the fact that parallel lines or edges appear to converge and objects appear smaller as the distance between them and the viewer increases.

PROPORTION- is the size relationship of parts to a whole and to one another.

SCALE- is the size or apparent size of an object seen in relation to other objects, people, or its environment or format.

SHADOW- is a mirrored image or reflection; a shaded area in a picture or photograph

SYMBOL- something concrete, such as a person, object, image, word, or event that represents something abstract, such as a feeling, emotion, idea, or concept

SYMMETRY- is the balance in which the parts are visually equal; also called formal balance or proportion.

Visual Forms

CARICATURE- comically distorted drawing or likeness intended to satirize or ridicule its subject.

COLLAGE- a technique of composing a work of art by pasting on a single surface various materials not normally associated with one another, such as newspaper clippings, parts of photographs, parts of cards, etc.

COMIC STRIP- a sequence of drawings arranged in interrelated panels to display a brief form of a narrative, often serialized, with text in balloons and captions.

EDITORIAL CARTOON- an illustration containing a commentary that usually relates to current events or personalities. They typically combine artistic skill, hyperbole and biting humour in order to question authority and draw attention to corruption and other social ills.

GRAPHICS- visual presentations on some surface, such as a wall, canvas, screen, paper, or stone to brand, inform, illustrate, or entertain. Visual elements often used to point readers and viewers to particular information. They are also used to supplement text in an effort to aid readers in their understanding of a particular concept or make the concept more clear or interesting.

PHOTO ESSAY- a series of photographs that tells a story or evokes an emotional response from the viewer; often accompanied by a written text (e.g., simple captions, titles, artist’s statement, essay, etc.).

POSTER- a sign usually consisting of a combination of print and visuals; mainly designed to attract and hold the attention of the audience; may convey a message to make people think.

PRINT- a picture that was created in multiple copies by printing.

STORYBOARD- sequence of images used to plan a film, video, television program, drama, story or presentation.

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MEDIA LITERACY TERMS

ADVERTISEMENT- A notice, such as a poster or a paid announcement in the print, broadcast, or electronic media, designed to attract public attention or patronage.

AGENDA– a list or program of things to be done or considered; could also mean the purpose or motive behind a media text

BIAS- a slanted viewpoint that prevents a fair and open-minded assessment; can occur in a piece of writing when the author leaves our information that is necessary to give an accurate presentation of a person or subject.

BLOG- a web site that contains an online personal journal with reflections, comments and often hyperlinks provided by the writer.

BROCHURE- a booklet of printed informational matter, like a pamphlet, often for promotional purposes.

CAPTION- the words beneath a photograph that explain the subject and give background information; help to shape the meaning of the photo, sometimes in misleading ways.

COMMERCIAL- a public promotion of a product or service

DECONSTRUCTION- breaking a text down into its components to see what messages and assumptions it carries.

DEMOGRAPHICS- Measurable characteristics of media consumers such as age, gender, race, education and income level.

ENDORSEMENT- a message issued on behalf of some product, cause, idea, person, or institution; usually involves companies and their products

FORMAT– style, plan or arrangement

FORM – smaller division within a genre (Ex: poetry is a genre; haiku, a type of poetry, is a form of the genre)

HEADLINE – the heading, title or caption of a newspaper article; usually very attention-grabbing.

ICON – in media, it can be referred to as an image; in literature, it is known as a description of a person or thing, usually using a figure of speech

IMAGE – an object that usually represents a larger idea

INTENT – an aim or purpose

LEAD – the introductory section of a news article/story; usually a news story of major importance in a newspaper

LOGO – an identifying symbol used to advertise and promote an organization, event, product or service. Usually, such symbols combine pictorial and textual elements in a distinctive manner. When consisting solely of stylized textual elements, such symbols are referred to as logotypes or wordmarks.

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MASS MEDIA – when media methods are used to communicate to thousands of people at the same time.

MEDIA TEXTS – any communication product, including radio and television, movies, billboards, magazine and television advertisements, books, paintings, photographs, collages, posters, comics, and web pages

MEDIA STRATEGIES- see below

MEDIUM – a means of mass communication, such as newspapers, magazines, radio, or television

MESSAGE- the central observation or meaning conveyed in a particular media text. Each medium offers its own construction of reality.

MOTIVE – the underlying purpose behind a text.

PODCAST- a digital recording of a broadcast, available on the Internet for downloading to a personal computer or audio player.

POSTER – a sign usually consisting of a combination of print and visuals; mainly designed to attract and hold the attention of the audience; may convey a message to make people think

PRODUCT– any text. This school year you will be expected to create a variety of products in your English course (i.e. posters, essays, poems, stories, etc.)

PRODUCT PLACEMENT – a form of advertisement where branded goods or services are placed in a context usually devoid of ads, such as movies, music videos, the story line of television shows, or news programs. Traditionally the product placement is not disclosed at the time that the good or service is featured.

PROPAGANDA – attempts to sway popular opinion and beliefs through distortions of the truth or outright lies. It is the way of presenting a belief that seeks to generate acceptance without regard to facts or the right of others to be heard. Propaganda often presents the same argument repeatedly, in the simplest terms and ignores all rebuttal or counter-argument. It is essentially self- interested and often associated with authoritarian regimes. Propaganda is often used to convey official descriptions of reality, when it may be allied with bureaucratic control of media, censorship of opposing opinions and deliberate misinformation.

DIALOGUE BUBBLES/SPEECH BALLOONS – a graphic convention used mostly in comics, cartoons, and graphic novels which contain a character’s spoken words (balloons are shaped with smooth circular lines) as well as their thoughts (words are contained in balloons shaped like clouds); thoughts sometimes appear in boxes in the upper corners of the graphic

SUBLIMINAL MESSAGE – used by advertisers as a way to sell their product; it can be defined as any sensory stimuli below an individual’s threshold of perception (an individual does not know they are subjected to the message or object); a form of advertising on film or television that employs subliminal images to influence the viewer unconsciously

SUBTEXT – the implicit meaning or theme of a literary text; a message which is not stated directly but can be inferred

TARGET AUDIENCE –consumer group most likely to buy a specific product and identified by region, age, demographics, or economic status. Effective ads are created and placed in media with the target audience clearly in mind.

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WEBPAGE – a page of information on a website; may include text, graphics, and links to other pages

WHITESPACE – space on a page or poster not covered by print or graphic matter

MEDIA STRATEGIES

BANDWAGON– advertisers try to make it appear as if the majority are buying the product or using the service. The implication is that everyone should join in. A variation on this is the “limited time only” approach in which it is implied that waiting will involve loss.

CARTOON/CUTE CHARACTERS – many advertisers use cartoon, animated, or like-like mascots to sell the product or service.

CELEBRITY ENDORSEMENT – sometimes called testimonial, this technique uses famous people to endorse the product, service, or idea.

EMOTIONAL APPEALS – elements placed in a work to draw emotion from a viewer. Advertisers often consciously try to elicit an emotional response by the use of family images, children, people in need, etc. The approach is to add heavy sentiment to the advertisement.

FACTS AND FIGURES – advertisers often use statistics that may or may not have any real value. They also often create names for their products and ingredients that have scientific-sounding names.

GENDER/SEX APPEAL – advertisements often use provocative images of men/women to “arouse” consumer and make them feel like if they buy the product they too might be more attractive and sexy.

HUMOUR-

NAME CALLING – advertisers often belittle of use negative words to create an unfavorable opinion of the competition. This is a very common technique used in political campaigns.

PLAIN FOLKS – advertisers use “average people” in “everyday” situations to add credibility to their claims. This technique is often combined with nostalgia.

SHOCK APPEAL – advertisements that appeal to the sensibilities of the viewer by shocking them. Often jolting visuals are used to make a particular advertisement more memorable. This technique is often used in advertisements looking to get donation to help Third World countries.

SNOB APPEAL – advertisers feature upper-class and wealthy people in their ads so as to associate the service or product with the “good life.”

TESTIMONIAL- when advertisers rely on the recommendation from others using a product. People fall for these products just because they see someone else endorsing them. Oftentimes advertisers rely on celebrities for this but everyday people are also commonly used.

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SPEAKING & LISTENING TERMS

Language Features

ALLITERATION- the repetition of similar sounds at the beginning of words (i.e. red red rose)

HYPERBOLE- an over-over exaggeration often used for comedic or dramatic effect.

IMPERATIVE- giving an authoritative command to the audience.

LISTS- listing items often help the speaker to organize ideas when presenting and can allow.

REPETITION- repeating key words and phrases/ideas important to the message/purpose of text.

RHETORICAL QUESTION- posing questions to the audience that do not require formal answers.

Voice Techniques

INFLECTION/INTONATION- a rise or fall in the sound of a person’s voice which can alter the meaning of spoken words. For example, the way in which your pitch rises at the end of a question.

PACE/PAUSE/BREATHING- pace involves how fast or slow one speaks. Sometimes speakers take pauses (breaks in speaking) to allow audience to “digest” content and allow time for breathing.

PITCH- refers to the highs and lows of the voice. The speaker should stay within a comfortable range in order to sound natural.TONE/EMPHASIS- tone refers to the impression the speaker wishes to create for the listener (e.g. urgent, reflective, serious. etc.). Emphasis involves stressing particular words to convey meaning/intent and/or create interest.

VOLUME- the level at which something is heard.

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