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Slavery in Brazil 1

Slavery in Brazil

SlaveryContemporary

•• Africa

•• Bangladesh

•• China

•• Europe

•• Haiti

•• India

•• Mali

•• Mauritania

•• Mexico

•• Niger

•• North Korea•• Pakistan

•• Puerto Rico

•• Sudan

•• United States

Types

•• Bride-buying

•• Child labour

•• Debt bondage

•• Human trafficking

•• Peonage

•• Penal labour

•• Sexual slavery

•• Wage slavery

Historic

•• History

•• Antiquity

•• Aztec

•• Ancient Greece

•• Ancient Rome

•• Medieval Europe

•• Thrall

•• Kholop

•• Serfdom

•• Slave ship

•• Slave raiding

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•• Galley slave

•• Panyarring

By country or region

•• Africa

•• Atlantic•• Arab

•• Barbary

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Slavery in Brazil 2

•• Spanish New World

•• Angola

•• Bhutan

•• Brazil

•• Britain and Ireland

•• British Virgin Islands

•• Canada

•• China

•• Haiti

•• India

•• Iran

•• Japan

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•• Ottoman Empire

•• Portugal

•• Romania

•• Seychelles•• Somalia

•• South Africa

•• Sweden

•• United States

Religion

•• Bible

•• Christianity

•• Islam

•• Judaism

Opposition and resistance

•• Timeline

•• Abolitionism

•• Compensated emancipation

•• Opponents

•• Slave rebellion

Related topics

•• Abolitionism

•• Indentured servant

•• Unfree labour

Slavery in Brazil by Jean-Baptiste Debret

(1834-1839). A slave owner punishes a slave in

19th century Brazil.

Slavery in Brazil began in the 16th century, when the Portuguese

Empire began to colonize the country. The enslavement of indigenous

peoples, and later the large-scale importation of Africans, heavily

shaped the country's social structure and ethnic landscape. During the

colonial epoch and for over six decades after independence in 1822,

slavery[1]

was a mainstay of the Brazilian economy, especially in

mining, cotton, and sugar cane production. Brazil obtained an

estimated 35% of all enslaved Africans traded in the Atlantic slave

trade. More than 3 million Africans were sent to Brazil to work mainly

on sugar cane plantations from the 16th to the 19th century, far more

than were imported into North America. Slavery was finally abolished

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Slavery in Brazil 3

in Brazil on 13 May 1888. It was the last nation in the Western world to abolish the institution of slavery.

Origins

Slavery as an institution in Brazil began alongside a subsistence economy in the first Portuguese settlement,

established in 1532.[2]

This dramatically changed with the discovery of gold and diamond deposits in the mountains

of Minas Gerais in the 1690s. Over the next century the population boomed from immigration and Rio de Janiero

exploded as a global city. Transportation systems for moving wealth were developed, and cattle ranching and

foodstuff production expanded as well. Simultaneously, between 1700 and 1800, 1.7 million slaves were brought to

Brazil from Africa[2]

to make this sweeping growth possible.

Starting around 1550, the Portuguese began to trade enslaved Africans as opposed to enslaving native Brazilians due

to two main reasons:

• The unenculturated indigenous peoples deteriorated rapidly, and became increasingly wary of the Portuguese,

thus, obtaining new indigenous slaves was becoming harder and harder.

• The Portuguese Empire, at the time, controlled some stages within the African slave trade's commercial chain,

thus, providing the Brazilian landholders with the opportunity to import slaves from Portuguese trading posts in

Africa. Portuguese, Brazilian, and African slave traders managed to profit even more from the increased demand.

During the 15th century, after realising the extension and importance of slave trading for the African economy, the

Kingdom of Portugal's soldiers, explorers and merchants involved themselves in the trade in black enslaved Africans

along with other tradable items through the establishment of several coastal trading posts. Starting around 1550, the

Portuguese began to trade African slaves to work the sugar plantations they were developing in their newly

discovered colony of Brazil, once the European discoverers needed more human resources to use in the new

continent, and the numbers of native indigenous peoples had declined. Although Portuguese Prime Minister Marquês

de Pombal abolished slavery in mainland Portugal on February 12, 1761, slavery continued in Portugal's overseas

colonies, particularly in Brazil, until its final abolition in 1888.

The enslaved Africans were useful for the sugar plantations in many ways. They were less vulnerable to tropical

diseases. Slavery was practiced among all classes. From the late 18th century to the 1830s, including by the time of 

the Rebellions in Bahia, slaves were owned by the upper and middle classes, by the poor, and even by other slaves.[3]

The benefits of using the enslaved Africans greatly exceeded the costs to the owners. After 2 – 3 years, enslaved

Africans repaid the cost of buying them, and slave plantation owners began to make profits from them. Brazil's

plantation owners made lucrative profits per year. The very harsh manual labour of the sugar cane fields involved

slaves using hoes to dig large trenches. They planted sugar cane in the trenches and then used their bare hands to

spread manure.

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Slavery in Brazil 4

The Bandeira

Domingos Jorge Velho, a notableBandeirante.

The Bandeiras (in Portuguese, "followers of the banner") were expeditions of 

citizens from São Paulo, known as Paulistas, formed with the aim of 

enslaving indigenous peoples and, later, to find precious metals and stones.

These expeditions were composed of Bandeirantes, adventurers mostly of 

mixed Portuguese and Indian ancestry, which penetrated steadily westward in

their search for Indian slaves. Along the Amazon river and its major

tributaries, repeated slaving raids and punitive attacks left their mark. One

French traveller in the 1740s described hundreds of miles of river banks with

no sign of human life and once-thriving villages that were devastated and 

empty. In 1628, Antônio Raposo Tavares led a bandeira, composed of 2,000

allied índios, "Indians", 900 mamelucos, "mestizos" and 69 white Paulistanos,

to find precious metals and stones or to capture Indians for slavery or both.

This expedition alone was responsible for the destruction of most of the Jesuit

missions of Spanish Guairá and the enslavement of over 60,000 indigenous

people.[4][5][6][7][8] After such attacks, in some areas of the Amazon Basin,

particularly among the Guarani of southern Brazil and Paraguay, the Jesuit

missionaries organized their missions along military lines to fight the slavers.

Slave identities

In colonial Brazil, identity became a complex combination of race, skin color, and socioeconomic status because of 

the extensive diversity of the both the slave and free population. For example, in 1872 43% of the population was

free mulattos and blacks. The fact that slavery was not synonymous with a particular skin color, as was the case in

the United States at the same time, had important implications towards this complexity. There are four broad

categories that show the general divisions among the identities of the slave and ex-slave populations: African-born

slaves, African-born ex-slaves, Brazilian-born slaves, and Brazilian-born ex-slaves.

African-born slaves

A slave’s identity was not only stripped when sold into the slave trade, but they were assigned a new identity that

was to be immediately adopted in stride. This new identity often came in the form of a new name, created by a

Christian or Portuguese first name randomly issued by the baptizing priest, and followed by the label of an African

nation. In Brazil, these ‘labels’ were predominantly Angola, Congo, Rebolo, Anjico, Gabon, and Mozambique.[9]

Often these names were not assigned with regards to ethnicity or origin, but only served as a way for Europeans to

divide Africans in a familiar manner. Anthropologist Jack Goody stated, "Such new names served to cut theindividuals off from their kinfolk, their society, from humanity itself and at the same time emphasized their servile

status".[9]

A critical part of the initiation of any sort of collective identity for African-born slaves began with relationships

formed on slave ships crossing the middle passage. Shipmates called each other malungos, and this relationship was

considered as important and valuable as the relationship with their wives and children. These ties were often

ethnically related as well, for slaves shipped on the same boat were usually from similar geographical regions of 

Africa.[9]

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Slavery in Brazil 5

African-born ex-slaves

One of the most important markers of the freedom of a slave was the adoption of a last name upon being freed.

These names would often be the family names of their ex-owners, either in part or in full. Since many slaves had the

same or similar Christian name assigned from their baptism, it was common for a slave to be called both their

Portuguese or Christian name as well as the name of their master. "Maria, for example, became known as Sr.

Santana's Maria". Thus, it was mostly a matter of convenience when a slave was freed for him or her to adopt thesurname of their ex-owner for assimilation into the community as a free person.

[9]

Obtaining freedom was not a guarantee of escape from poverty or from many aspects of slave life. Frequently legal

freedom did not come with a change in occupation for the ex-slave. However, there was increased opportunity for

both sexes to become involved in wage earning. Women ex-slaves largely dominated market places selling food and

goods in urban areas like Salvador, while a significant percent of African-born men freed from slavery became

employed as skilled artisans, including work as sculptors, carpenters, and jewelers.[9]

Another area of income important to African-born ex-slaves was their own work as slavers upon being granted their

freedom. In fact, purchase of slaves was a standard practice for ex-slaves who could afford it. Study of this

phenomenon is evidence of the lack of a common identity among those born in Africa and shipped to Brazil, for it

was much more common for ex-slaves to engage in the slave trade themselves than to take up any cause related to

abolition or resistance to slavery.[9]

Brazilian-born slaves and ex-slaves

A Brazilian-born slave was born into slavery, meaning their identity was based on very different factors than those of 

the African-born who had once known legal freedom. Skin color was a significant factor in determining the status of 

African descendants born in Brazil: it affected both their chances of manumission as well as their social mobility if 

they were granted freedom, making it important in the identity of both Brazilian-born slaves and ex-slaves.

The term crioulo was primarily used in the early 19th century, and meant Brazilian-born and black.  Mulatto was

used to refer to lighter-skinned Brazilian-born Africans, who often were children of both African and Europeandescent. As compared to their African-born counterparts, manumission for long-term good behavior or obedience

upon the owner’s death was much more likely. Thus, unpaid manumission was a much more likely path to freedom

for Brazilian-born slaves than for Africans, as well as manumission in general.[10]

Mulattos also had a higher

incidence of manumission, most likely because of the likelihood that they were the children of a slave and an

owner.[9]

Race relations

These color divides reinforced racial barriers between African and Brazilian slaves, and often created animosity

between them. These differences were heightened after freedom was granted, for lighter skin correlated with social

mobility and the greater chance an ex-slave could distance his or herself from their former slave life. Thus, mulattos

and lighter-skinned ex-slaves had larger opportunity to improve their socioeconomic status within the confines of the

colonial Brazilian social structure. As a consequence, self-segregation was common, as mulattos preferred to

separate their identity as much as possible from blacks. One way this is visible is from data on church marriages

during the 19th century. Church marriage was an expensive affair, and one only the more successful ex-slaves were

able to afford, and these marriages were also almost always endogamous. The fact that skin color largely dictated

possible partners in marriage promoted racial distinctions as well. Interracial marriage was a rarity, and was almost

always a case of the union between a white man and a mulatto woman.[9]

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Gender divides

The invisibility of women in Brazilian slavery as well as in slavery in general has only been recently recognized as a

pervasive historical rift. Historian Mary Helen Washington wrote, "the life of the male slave has come to be

representative even though the female experience in slavery was sometimes radically different".[11]

In Brazil, the

sectors of slavery and wage-labor for ex-slaves were indeed distinct by gender.

Women

Work

Labor performed by both slave and ex-slave women was largely divided into the domestic sphere within the house of 

an owner or ex-owner and the market scene, which was much larger in urban cities like Salvador and Rio de Janiero.

The domestic work women performed for owners was traditional, consisting of cooking, cleaning, laundry, fetching

water, and childcare. In urban settings, African slave markets provided an additional source of income for both slave

and ex-slave women, who typically monopolized sales. The women sold tropical fruits and vegetables, cooked

African dishes, candies, cakes, meat, and fish.[9]

Prostitution was almost exclusively a trade performed by slave women, many of whom were forced into it to benefit

their owners socially and financially. Slave women were also used by freed men as concubines or common-law

wives and often worked for them in addition as household labor, wet nurses, cooks, and peddlers.[12]

Status

The dual-sphere nature of women’s work, in household domestic labor and in the market place, allowed for both

additional opportunities at financial resources as well as a larger social circle than their male counterparts.[9]

This

gave women greater resources both as slaves and as ex-slaves, though their mobility was hindered by gender

constraints. However, women often fared better in manumission possibilities. Among Brazilian-born adult ex-slaves

in Salvador, 60% were women.[9]

There are many reasons that could explain why women were disproportionately represented in manumitted Brazilian

slaves. Women who worked in the home were able to form more intimate relationships with the owner and the

family, increasing their chances of unpaid manumission for reasons of "good behavior" or "obedience"[9]

Additionally, male slaves were economically seen as more useful especially by landowners, making their

manumission more costly to the owner and therefore for the slave himself.

Resistance

There were relatively few large revolts in Brazilian slavery for much of the 16th through 18th centuries, most likely

because running away into the expansive interior presented an attractive alternative to the dangers of revolt.[2]

However, in the years after the Haitian Revolution, Brazil increased its importation of Africans to gear up for the

enormous increases in sugar prices after the fall of the French in Haiti. These new slaves were extensively

concentrated in the northeastern region of Bahia, an area known for its many sugar plantations. Simultaneous to this

influx was a surge of slave revolts in Bahia, which during this time period occurred in the years 1807, 1809, 1814,

1816, 1822, 1824, 1826, 1827, 1828, 1830, 1831, and 1835 with violence never seen before by slave revolts in the

area[13]

.

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Slavery in Brazil 7

The Muslim Uprising of 1835

The largest and most significant of these uprisings occurred in 1835 in Salvador, called the Muslim Uprising of 

1835. It was planned by an African-born Muslim ethnic group of slaves, the Malês, as a revolt that would free all of 

the slaves in Bahia. While organized by the Malês , all of the African ethnic groups were represented in the

participants, both Muslim and non-Muslim.[2]

However, there is a conspicuous absence of Brazilian-born slaves who

participated in the rebellion. Brazilian-born slaves and ex-slaves represented 40% of the population of Bahia, but atotal of two mulattos and three Brazilian-born blacks were arrested during the 1835 revolt.

[13]What's more, the

uprising was efficiently quelled by creole and mulatto troops by the following day of its instigation.

The fact that Africans were not joined in the 1835 revolt by creoles and mulattos was far from unusual, in fact, no

Brazilian blacks had participated in the 20 previous revolts in Bahia during that time period. Masters played a large

role in creating tense relations between Africans and Afro-Brazilians, for they generally favored mulattos and native

Brazilian slaves, who consequently experienced better manumission rates.[13]

Masters were aware of the importance

of tension between groups to maintain the repressive status quo, as stated by Luis dos Santos Vilhema, circa 1798,

"…if African slaves are treacherous, creoles and mulattos are even more so; and if not for the rivalry between the

former and the latter, all the political power and social order would crumble before a servile revolt…"[13]

The master

class was able to put creole and mulatto troops to use controlling slaves with little backlash, thus, the freed black and

mulatto population was considered as much an enemy to slaves as the white population.

Not only was a unified rebellion effort against the oppressive regime of slavery prevented in Bahia by the tensions

between Africans and Brazilian-born African descendants, but ethnic tensions between the African-born slave

population itself even prevented formation of a common slave identity.[13]

Quilombo (runaway slaves)

Escaped slaves formed Maroon[14]

communities which played an important role in the histories of other countries

such as Suriname, Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Jamaica. In Brazil the  Maroon villages were called quilombos and the

most famous was Quilombo dos Palmares. In the mid-to-late 19th century, many Amerindians were enslaved towork on rubber plantations.

19th century and the rise of Abolitionism

Jean-Baptiste Debret, a French painter who was active in Brazil in the first decades of the 19th Century, started out

with painting portraits of members of the Brazilian Imperial Family, but soon became concerned with the slavery of 

both blacks and the indigenous inhabitants. During the fifteen years Debret spent in Brazil, he not only concentrated

on court rituals but the everyday life of slaves as well. His paintings on the subject (one of which appears on this

page) helped draw attention to the subject in both Europe and Brazil itself.

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Slavery in Brazil 8

Brazil, the world's largest sugar producer

Cross-section of a slaver ship, from Notices of Brazil in 1828 and 1829 by Robert Walsh.

The Clapham Sect , although their

religious and political influence was

more active in the Spanish Latin

America, were a group of evangelical

reformers that campaigned during

much of the 19th century for the

United Kingdom to use its influence

and power to stop the traffic of slaves

to Brazil. Besides moral qualms, the

low cost of slave-produced Brazilian

sugar meant that British colonies in the

West Indies were unable to match the

market prices of Brazilian sugar, and

each Briton was consuming 16 pounds

(7 kg) of sugar a year by the 19th

century. This combination led to intensive pressure from the British government for Brazil to end this practice,

which it did by steps over three decades. To this day, Brazil still is the world's largest sugar producer.[15]

Steps towards freedom

Brazil achieved independence from Portugal in 1822. However, the complete collapse of colonial government took 

place from 1821-1824.[16]

José Bonifácio de Andrade e Silva is credited as the "Father of Brazilian Independence".

Around 1822,  Representação to the Constituent Assembly was published arguing for an end to the slave trade and

for the gradual emancipation of existing slaves. Further steps were taken on November 7, 1831, when a law banning

the slave trade in Brazil was passed.[17]

However, since this point until the 1880s, the Brazilian demand for slaveswas filled by a gigantic increase in the importation of African slaves. This massive importation of slaves was marked

by a difference in the geographical location of Africa from which the new slaves came. Whereas before the 19th

century, the majority of slaves in Brazil came from Central and East Africa, the majority in the mid-19th century

came from West Africa. This is especially true of the Yoruba region, where the Oyo Empire existed.[18]

Lady in litter being carried by her slaves, province of São Paulo, c. 1860.

In 1848, the Brazilian slave trade

continued on considerable level

growing rapidly during the 19th

century, and during this time the

numbers reached as much as 60,000

slaves per year. Portugal and its

territories in Africa had already

stepped down from slave trade

activities, but in other African coast's

ports the slave trade continued. In

Brazil, the foreign slave trade was

finally abolished by 1850, and there

were new laws on slave traffickers and

speculators. Then, by 1871, the sons of 

the slaves were freed. In 1885, the

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Slavery in Brazil 9

slaves aged over 60 years were freed. The Paraguayan War contributed to end slavery, since slaves enlisted in

exchange for freedom.

Brazil's 1877-78 Grande Seca (Great Drought) in the cotton-growing northeast, led to major turmoil, starvation,

poverty and internal migration. As wealthy plantation holders rushed to sell their slaves in the south, popular

resistance and resentment grew, inspiring numerous emancipation societies. They succeeded in banning slavery

altogether in the province of Ceará by 1884.

[19]

The end of slavery

Slavery was legally ended nationwide by the  Lei Áurea ("Golden Law") of 1888, a legal act promulgated on May 13

by Isabel, Princess Imperial of Brazil. In fact, it was an institution in decline by this time (since the 1880s the

country began to attract European immigrant labor instead). Brazil was the last nation in the Western world to

abolish slavery.

Modern era and quasi-slavery

In 1995, 288 farmworkers were freed from what was officially described as slavery, a total which rose to 583 in2000. In 2001, however, the Brazilian government freed more than 1,400 slave laborers. Some believe that most

cases probably go undetected. A national survey conducted in 2000 by the Pastoral Land Commission, a Roman

Catholic church group, estimated that there were more than 25,000 forced workers and slaves in Brazil.[20]

A national survey conducted in 2000 by the Pastoral Land Commission, a Roman Catholic church group, estimated

that there were more than 25,000 forced workers in Brazil. More than 1,000 slave-like laborers were freed from a

sugar cane plantation in 2007 by the Brazilian Government.[21]

In 2004 the Brazilian government acknowledged to the United Nations that 25,000-40,000 Brazilians work under

work conditions "analogous to slavery." The top anti-slavery official in Brasília, nation's capital, estimates the

number of modern slaves at 50,000.[22]

More than 1,000 slave laborers were freed from a sugar cane plantation in

2007 by the Brazilian government, in the largest anti-slavery raid in modern times in Brazil.[21]

In 2008, the Brazilian government freed 4,634 slaves in 133 separate criminal cases at 255 different locations. Freed

slaves received a total compensation of £2.4 million (equal to $4.8 million).[23]

In March 2012, European consumer protection organizations published a study about slavery and cruelty to animals

involved when producing leather shoes. A Danish organisation was contracted to visit farms, slaughterhouses and

tanneries in Brasil and India. The conditions of humans found were catastrophic, as well the treatment of the animals

was found cruel. None of the 16 companies surveyed was able to track the used products down to the end producers.

Timberland did not participate, but was found the winner as it showed at least some signs of transparency on its

website.[24]

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Slavery in Brazil 10

References

[1]  Early Colonization (http:/   /  lcweb2. loc. gov/  cgi-bin/  query/  r?frd/  cstdy:@field(DOCID+ br0017))

[2][2] Bergad, Laird W. 2007. The Comparative Histories of Slavery in Brazil, Cuba, and the United States. New York: Cambridge University

Press.

[3] Rebellions in Bahia, 1798-l838. Culture of slavery (http:/   /  isc. temple. edu/  evanson/  brazilhistory/  Bahia. htm)

[4] bandeira (http:/   /  www.britannica. com/  eb/  article-9012127/  bandeira)

[5] Bandeira - Encyclopædia Britannica (http:/   /  concise. britannica. com/  ebc/  article-9356505/  bandeira)[6] Bandeirantes (http:/   /  www. v-brazil. com/  information/  history/  bandeirantes. html)

[7] António Rapôso Tavares (http:/   /  www. win. tue. nl/  ~engels/  discovery/  raposo. html)

[8] Colonial Brazil: Portuguese, Tupi, etc (http:/   /  www. balagan. org.  uk/  war/  iberia/  1492/  brazil/  index. htm)

[9][9] Nishida, Mieko. Slavery and Identity: Ethnicity, Gender, and Race in Salvador, Brazil, 1808-1888. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 2003. Print.

[10][10] Moore, Brain L., B.W. Higman, Carl Campbell, and Patrick Bryan. Slavery, Freedom and Gender the Dynamics of Caribbean Society.

Kingston, Jamaica: University of the West Indies, 2003. Print.

[11][11] Campbell, Gwyn, Suzanne Miers, and Joseph Calder. Miller. Women and Slavery: The Modern Atlantic. Athens: Ohio UP, 2007. Print.

[12][12] Karasch, Mary C. Slave Life in Rio De Janiero 1808-1850. Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP, 1987. Print.

[13][13] Reis, João José. 1993. Slave Rebellion in Brazil: The Muslim Uprising of 1835 in Bahia. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

[14] A Experiência histórica dos quilombos nas Américas e no Brasil (http:/   /  hemi. nyu.  edu/  course-rio/  perfconq04/  materials/  text/  carvalho.

html)

[15] Struggling over sugar , St. Petersburg Times (http:/   /  www. sptimes. com/  2005/  11/  09/  Business/  Struggling_over_sugar. shtml)

[20] Larry Rohter, Brazil's Prized Exports Rely on Slaves and Scorched Land (http:/   /  www. raceandhistory. com/  cgi-bin/  forum/ 

webbbs_config. pl/  noframes/  read/  531), The New York Times, March 25, 2002

[21] "'Slave' labourers freed in Brazil", BBC News (http:/   /  news. bbc.  co. uk/  2/  hi/  americas/  6266712.  stm).

[22] Hall, Kevin G., "Slavery exists out of sight in Brazil" (http:/   /  www. mongabay. com/  external/  slavery_in_brazil. htm), Knight Ridder 

 Newspapers, 2004-09-05.

[24] In Lederschuhen steckt Sklavenarbeit (http:/   /  help. orf. at/  stories/  1696255/  ), help.orf.at, 24. March 2012

Further reading

• Bethell, Leslie (1970). The Abolition of the Brazilian Slave Trade: Britain, Brazil and the Slave Trade Question,

1807-1869 (http:/   /  books.google.com/  books?id=2LsNTUPI_6sC& printsec=frontcover&

source=gbs_ge_summary_r& cad=0#v=onepage& q& f=false). Cambridge University Press.ISBN [[Special:BookSources/97805210759831 97805210759831 [[Category:Articles with invalid ISBNs]].

• Conrad, Robert E. (1972). Destruction of Brazilian Slavery, 1850-1888. Berkeley: University of California Press.

ISBN 0-520-02139-8.

• Klein, Herbert S. Klein and Francisco Vidal Luna, Slavery in Brazil (Cambridge University Press, 2010)

• Schwartz, Stuart B. (1985). Sugar Plantations in the Formation of Brazilian Society: Bahia, 1550-1835 (http:/   / 

books. google.com/  books?id=InAVH-gPgdkC& printsec=frontcover& source=gbs_ge_summary_r&

cad=0#v=onepage& q& f=false). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-31399-6.

• Schwartz, Stuart B. (1996). Slaves, Peasants, and Rebels: Reconsidering Brazilian Slavery (http:/   /  books.google.

com/  books?id=YTnY5h0NE3sC& printsec=frontcover& source=gbs_ge_summary_r& cad=0#v=onepage& q&

f=false). Urbana: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-06549-2.

External links

• Brazilian slavery (http:/   /  histclo. com/  act/  work/  slave/  am/  sa-bra. html)

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Article Sources and Contributors 11

Article Sources and ContributorsSlavery in Brazil  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=548988562 Contributors: ABarnes94, Alan Liefting, Alex Middleton, AnOddName, Andreas Kaganov, Andres rojas22,

Apdent, Asteuartw, Atlpedia, Blicarea, Bobo192, Bogdangiusca, Camarinha, Cambalachero, CanisRufus, Dalillama, Danielcz, Deanlaw, EagerToddler39, Eladynnus, Elektrik Shoos, Epbr123,

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