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SOCIAL SKILLS AND ADAPTIVE BEHAWOR OF IRANIAN PRESCHOOLERS: TEACHERS' AND PARENTS' RATTNGS
Khalii Nourani
A thesis submitted in confomity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of PhiIosophy
Department of Human Development and Applied Psychology Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the
University of Toronto
0 Copyright by Khalil Nourani 1998
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Abstract
Social Skills and Adaptive Behavior of Iranian Preschoolen: Teachers' and Parents' Ratings
Khalil Nourani, Ph.D. 1998
The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education University of Toronto
Children's social competence has received much attention fiom professionals in the fields
of psychology and education. However, this topic has not been investigated in a major way by
professionals in non-western countries. Ln this study modified forms of the Social Skills Rating
System (SSRS) and the Vineland Adaptive Behaviour Scales (VABS) were used to explore
adaptive behaviours and the social skills of Iranian preschoolers. Both teachers' and parents'
ratings on the SSRS and the VABS were obtained fiom 207 chüdren aged 3 to 5 years. differing
in gender and SES. When parents and teachers rated the importance of social skills on the SSRS.
results showed that parents and teachea of Iranian preschoolers each value different social skills.
Cornparison of means for the importance ratings reveded that across al1 subscales a larger
number of the SSRS items were judged either "Important" or "Critical" by parents than by
teachers. Frequency ratings of children's use of social and adaptive behaviors also indicated that
Iranian parents and teachers of preschoolers have Werent perceptions of children's social
hctioning. This was evidenced by iow to moderately low correlations between their ratings on
the SSRS subscaies and the VABS subdomaios. Conelations between parents' ratings of
preschoolers' social skills and adaptive behaviors across ail subscales were lower than
correlations between teachers' ratings of preschoolers' social skills and adaptive behaviors. In
many domains signincant effects of demographic factors were evident On the SSRS: (a) Iranian
junior preschoolers were found to be less cooperative and less intemalized than senior
preschoolers, (b) femaies were more cooperative and less extemalized than males, and (c)
children of less educated families were rated significantly lower on Assertion, Cooperation. and
Responsibility and higher on Intemalinng than children of families with more education. On the
VABS: (a) junior preschoolers demonstrated lower adaptive skills on al1 domains as rated by
parents and on the Daily Living and Motor Skills as rated by teachers. (b) gender differences
were not significant, and (c) children of less educated families scored lower than children of
families with more education on al1 adaptive behavior domains. Overall, the results of this midy
are more consistent with previous research supporting the situational specifity of the social
cornpetence than those supporting the stability of behaviours across situations. Social skills are
more situationally specific than adaptive behaviours.
To :
my dear wife, Zohreh Yaghoubzadeh,
and
my loving daughter Setareh
In the name of God
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My appreciation is extended to many people who assisted me in different stages of this
dissertation. First and foremost, 1 would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor, Professor
Peter Gamlin who helped me to renne the design of this dissertation, and provided acadernic,
moral, and ernotional support during al1 stages of this research. I will always rernember Professor
Garniin as a warm, supportive, compassionate, and kind teacher as weii a s a loyal friend. His
guidance and his friendship are much appreciated.
A very special thanks to Professor Philip Nagy for his accessibility, and his constructive
and insightfiil comments. His h e l y feedback and his warmness were very encouraging.
Professor Nagy diligently read criticized and improved my thesis in many areas. 1 appreciate his
contributions very much.
My thanks to Professor Sabir Alvi for his sincere advice and fatherly support and
encouregments. Professor Alvi's comments on my study were relevant and critical.
My appreciation is also extended to Professor Gary Knowles for his kind encouragement
and suggestions for future research and work in the field.
1 wodd also like to thank Professor Knstian John Kirkwood, who kindly accepted the
responsibility of extemal examiner of my thesis. His insightfbi appraisal of my thesis is greatly
appreciated.
I am gratefid to Susan Elgie for her valuable and efficient statistical and cornputer advice.
1 am thankfûl to Stephanie Bourke for dl the helpful comments and editing.
I also want to thank the American Guidance Senrice, Inc. for their authorization of the use of
SSRS-PiT and the VABS-SFKE in my study.
The parents and teachers who participated in the study also deserve my thanks and praise.
My appreciation goes to the three interviewers, Farahnaz Ekhtiari Ardakani, Simin
Bashavard, and Mehrnaz Sahraei who helped me in the process of data collection. 1 am very
grateful for their interest in the study and their sincere cooperation. 1 wish them luck in their
personal and academic He.
I greatly acknowledge the financial support of the Ministry of Culture and Higher
Education of the Islamic Republic of Iran, to complete my graduate studies at the University of
Toronto. 1 also wish to thank The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education for granting me a
graduate assisstantship over the three years of rny study in the University of Toronto.
Finally, my deepest gratitude is reserved for my wife Zohreh Yaghoubzadeh for her
continuous support and understanding during my PH.D. studies. Although she herself was a full-
time PH. D. student, she faithfully supported the family during my thesis joumey. I would not
have accomplished my study without the sacrifices she made. 1 owe a great deal to her.
Table of Contents .................................................................................................................................................. Abstract 1
............................................................................................................... Acknowledgements ......... .... iv ............................................................................................................. Chapter One: Introduction 1
Issues and Trends in the Literature .................................................................................................. 8 .............................................................. Definition and Conceptualization of Social S kills -8
Assessment of Social Skills ................................................................................... I O Research Using the Social Skills Rating System (SSRS) ..................................... 12
Definition and Conceptualkation of Adaptive Behavior ................................................... 17 ........................................................................................... Developmental Nature 19
............................................................................ Cultural Specificity ............. .... 20 . . ............................................................................................ Situational Specficity 21 .. 37 Performance Versus Ability ..................................................................................-- 77 Relationships Between Adaptive Behavior and Intelligence ...................................
Assessrnent of Adaptive Behavior ......................................................................... 3.1 The Selection of an Adaptive Behavior Scale ............... .. .................................... 3 Research With Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (VAl3S) ................................ 26
Assessrnent of Young Children ......................................................................................... 30 Rating Scde Assessment .................................................................................................. -33
....................................................................... Parents and Teachers as uifonnants 35 Social Validity of the Rating Scales ............ .... ... .............................................. 41 . . ............................................................................................... Preschool Educa~on ui ù-an 42 Readiness Schools and Day Care Centres .............. .. ............................................ 44 Research on Preschool Education in Iran ............................................................... 47
Purpose ............................................................................................................................ -49 ................................................................................................................ Chapter Two: Method 5 1
.......................................................................................................................... Procedure -51 ............................................................................. Phase One: Translation and Adaptation 1
............................................................................................................. Translation 51 .............................................................................................................. Adaptation 52
Making the Final Dr& of the Instruments ........................... .. ................................ 54 Pilot Test of the Scales ........................................................................................... 55
............................................................................................... Phase Two: Data Collection 56 .................................................................................................................... Setting 56
............................................................................................................ Participants 56 ........................................................................................................................ Instniments -60
.................................................................................. Social Skills Rating System 60 .................................................................................. The Reliability and Validity 6 1
The Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (VABS) ................................................. 63 ................................................................................. The Reliability and Validity -66
Chapter Three: Results ................................................................. ... ............................................... 70 Cornparison of the SSRS Importance Ratings by Parents and Teachers ........................... 70
Cornparison of the SSRS Frequency Ratings by Parents and Teachers ............................. 75 Cornparison of the VABS Ratings by Parents and Teachers ............................................. 80 The Relationships Between the SSRS and the VABS Ratings by Parents and
b y Teachers ............................................................................................................ 84 The Influence of Demographic Factors ..................... .. ................................................ 87
Chapter Four: Discussion ............................................................................................................ 93 The Importance of the SSRS Social Skiils for Iranian Parents and Teachers ................... 93 The Relationship Between Parents' and Teachers' Ratings on the SSRS and
on the VABS .......................................................................................................... 99 The Influence of Demographic Variables ................................................................. 1 07 . . ...................................................................................................................... Implications 113
.................................................................................................. Suggestions for Future Research I l 5 References .................................................................................................................................. 1 17 Appenduc A: Modified Items of the SSRS and The VABS in the Farsi Versions ....................... 132
......................................................................... Appendix B: Consent Forms and Demograpbics 139 Appendix C : S tatistical Analyses ................................................................................................ -1 45 Appendix D: Copyright Permission Letters ................................................................................ 1 55
vii
List of Tables
1. 2. -B 3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
1 O.
II.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
........................................... Top Ten Important Items on the SSRS-Parenfleacher Forms. 7 1 Bottom Five Important Items on the SSRS-ParenüTeacher Forms ...................................... 72 Means and Standard Deviations of Importance RatUigs on the SSRS
Parent/ Teacher ........................................................................................................... -73 Correlations Between Parents' and Teachers' Importance Ratings of Social
Skiils on the SSRS-ParenVïeacher Subscdes .......,.-.-.....,... ,., ..... ,... 74 Correlations Between Parents' and Teachers' Importance Ratings of Similar
.................................... ............. Items on the SSRS-Parenneacher Subscales ..,... .-75 Descriptive Information for the Social Skills Rating System: Parents' and Teachers'
Ratings of the Social Skills and Problem Behaviors of the Iranian Preschoolers ........ 76 Correlations Between Parents' and Teachers' Ratings of Social Skills and Problem
Behaviors of the Iranian Preschool Children on the SSRS-Parenfleacher ................ 77 Correlations Between Parents' and Teachers' Ratings of Similar Items on
the SSRS Subscales ..................................................................................................... 78 Varimax Rotated Principal Axis Factor Loading for the SSRS-Parent/Teacher for
........................................................................................... Iranian Preschool sample .-79 Descriptive Information for the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scde-Survey F o d - . ........................................................................ ................ Classroom Edition ...... .8 1 Correlations Between Parents' and Teachers' Ratings of Adaptive Behavioa
............. of Iranian Preschool Sarnple on the VABS-Swey Form/Classroorn Edition 82 Varimax Rotated Principal Axis Factor Loadings for the VABS-Survey F o d
.............. ................................... Classroom Edition for Iranian Preschool Sarnple ... 83 Correlations Between Parents' Ratings of Social Skills and Parents' Ratings
of Adaptive Behavion of Iranian Preschool Sample on the SSRS-P and on the VAES-SF ................................................................................................... 85
Correlations Between Teachers' Ratings of Social Skills and Teachers' Ratings of Adaptive Behaviors of Iranian Preschool Sample on the SSRS-T
................................................................................................... and on the VABS-CE 85 Means and Standard Deviations for Parents' and Teachers' Ratings of Social Skills
and Problem Behaviors of Iranian Preschoolers on the SSRS-PIT by ................................................................................................. Age and Sex Groups.. -8 8
Means and Standard Deviations for Parents' and Teachers' Ratings of Adaptive Behaviors of Iranian Preschoolers on the VABS-SFKE by Age and Sex Groups ............................................................................................... 89
Means and Standard Deviations for Parents' and Teachers' Ratings of Social Skills and Problem Behaviors of Iranian Preschoolers on the SSRS-P/T by
......................................................................................................... Parent Education -90 Means and Standard Deviations for Parents' and Teachers' Ratings of Adaptive
Behaviors of Iranian Preschoolers on the VABS-SFKE by Parent Education. ......... ..92
List of Appendices Appendix A: ................................................................................................................................ 132
A 1 . Items Changed in the SSRS ........................................................................... 1 3 3 A2 . ItemsChangedintheVABS-SF .............. .. ................................................ 1 3 4 A3 . Items Changed in the VABS-CE ...................... ..... ....................................... 1 36
Appendix B: ....................................................................................................................... ..... 139 . . B 1 . Letter of Pennrsslon ................................................................................................ 1 4 0 . . . B2 . Letter of Pemüssion m English ........................................................................... 1 4 1 . . . B3 . Letter of Pemsslon m Farsi ................................................................................. 1 4 2
B4 . Demographic Characteristics ûf the Sample ........................................................ 1 4 3 85 . Items in the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales-Survey Forrn/Classroorn Edition
by Domain and Subdomain ..................................................................................... 144 ............................................................................................................................... Appendix C: 145
Intercorrelations Between Subscale and Total Scale for the SSRS-Parent Forrn ..................................................................................... for Iranian Preschool sample 146
Intercorrelations Between Subscale and Total Scale for the SSRS-Teacher Forrn ................................................................................... for Iranian Preschool sample -147
Correlations Between Parents' and Teachers' Ratings of Adaptive Behaviors of Iranian Preschool Sample on the VABS-Survey Fom-Classroom Edition ......... 148 Intercorrelations Between Subdomain and Domain for the VABS-Survey F o m for Iranian Preschool Sample .................................................................................... 149 Intercorrelations Between Subdomain and Domain for the VABS-Ciassroom Edition for W a n Preschool Sample .................................................................... 150 Repeated Measures MANOVA and Univariate Results: The Effects of Age and Sex on the Ratings of the Social Skills of Iranian Preschoolers on the SSRS-P/T .................. .. ............................................................................. 151 MANOVA and Univariate Results: The Effects of Age and Sex on the Ratings of the Adaptive Behaviors of Iranian Preschooles on the VABS-SFKE ................ 152 Repeated Measures MANOVA and Univariate Results: The Effects of Parent Education on the Social Skills of Iranian Preschoolers on the SSRS-P/T ................ i53 MANOVA and Univariate Results: The Effects of Parent Education on the Ratings of the Adaptive Behaviors of Iranian Preschoolers on the VABS-SF/CE ... 1 54
............................................................................... Appendix D: Copyright Permission Letter 1 56
Chapter One
Introduction
During the past two decades, children's social competence has received much attention
fiom both basic and applied researchers within the fields of psychology and education (Atkins-
Burnett, Nicholson & Meisels, 1997; Bracken, Keith & Waker, 1994; Byme & Schneider, 1986;
Cartledge & Milbun, 1995; Gresham, 1986, 198 1 ; Gresham & Elliott, 1987; Gresham &
Reschly, 1987; Guralnick, 1990; Hughes, 1990; McFaiI, 1982; Odom, McConneil & McEvoy,
1992; Schneider, 1993; Schneider, Attili. Nadel & Weissberg, 1989; Swanson & Malone, 1992;
Vaughn & Haager, 1994). Current interest in the area of assessing children's social competence
reflects psychology's trend toward finding other socially valid outcome measures than
intelligence tests as the major outcome measures of children's abilities and psychoeducational
intervention programs (Bagnato & Neisworth, 199 1 ; Hughes, 1990). Support for this idea is
premised on the belief that assessing children's social hctioning provides a more
comprehensive assessment of children, relevant to their instructional and therapy needs, and
gives parents and teachers the oppomuiity to monitor the child's progress and to evaluate the
effectiveness of the program. Observing children in play and communication settings and
appraising their socialization process may provide more valuable and relevant information on
their developmental and behavioral characteristics than traditional methods of intellectual
assessment (Bagnato & Neisworth, 199 1 ; Eisert, 1996). Other factors that have enhanced the
attention paid by researchers to the assessment of children's social competence include the
awareness among practitioners, teachers. and parents regarding the importance of social
interactions in every day Me, the results of correlational studies indicating the relatiowhip
2
between social skills deficits in childhood and mental hedth and adjustrnent problems in later
years. and the development of skill training techniques and intervention models for helping at
risk children (Flanagan, Alfonso, Prirnavera, Povall & Higgins, 1996; Hughes, 1990).
While the constnict of social competence has been used by many researchers in the fields
of psychology and education, there is no generai consensus on the definition of social
competence and how its constituent variables are related to each other (McFall, 1982; Hughes,
1990: Oppenheimer. 1989). In the literature, the t e m social competence has been considered as a
multifaceted constnict, associated with several related tems such as social behaviors, social
skills. social cognition, fnendship, social status, adaptive behavior, social acceptance, and peer
acceptance to descnbe children's social functioning (Bramlett, Smith & Edmonds, 1994 ; Landau
& Milich, 1990; Oppenheimer, 1989; Vaughn & Haager, 1994). Thus, a lack of agreement on the
concept and definition of social competence has resulted fiom the different approaches used to
operationaiize the constnict.
Several attempts have been made to integrate the various approaches about social
competence. Greenspan (1 98 1) distinguished three generai approaches:(l) Outcorne-onented
approach refers to the individual's ability to attain socially favorable outcomes; (2) Content-
oriented approach emphasizes the specific behavioral variables that contribute to socially
successful outcomes; (3) Skill-onented approach refers to the individual's social awareness, or
the skills and strategies that helshe uses to obtain socially successful outcomes. In a clarified
concephialization, Gresham and Elliotî (1987) and Gresham and Reschly (1987) suggest that
social competence comprises two subdomains: adaptive behavior and social skills. Adaptive
behavior may involve domains such as independent fünctioning, physical development,
sel f-direc tion and personal responsibility . Social skills may involve domains such as
interpersonal behaviors, self-related behaviors, assertion, and communication skills. According
to Gresham and Reschly (1987) peer acceptance is the most important outcome or result of
socially competent behavior.
Despite the differences in definitions and conceptualizations, social competence has long
been considered a fundamental aspect of human ability (Gresham & Reschly, 1987) for
successN relationships with others in homz, school, and community domains. It also has been a
critical notion in the assessrnent of persons with developmental disabilities (Gresham & Reschly.
1987). The definition of mental retardation appearing in the Amencan Association on Mental
Retardation Defioition and Classification Manual (Grossrnan, 1983), places equal emphasis on
the importance of both cognitive/academic and social competencies. Furthemore, social
skills/competence has become increasingly accepted as part of the definition of leaming
disabilities. According to LaGreca and Vaughn (1 992), the definitions of leamhg disabilities
provided by the National Joint Cornmittee on Learning Disabilities, and the Leaming Disabilities
Association of Amerka suggested that social skills deficits rnay be associated with leaming
disabilities.
Attainment of the social competencies that result in successful relationships with peers
and adults is one of the most important developmental tasks during childhood and is influenced
by many variables, such as the child's biological and physical characteristics, communication and
language skills, and interactions with family members and peen (Elliott, Barnard & Gresham.
1989). Odom et al., (1 992) emphasized the importance of social competence for young children
and identified that peer social competence is related to other developmental skills such as
4
cognitive and communicative skills. According to these authon, social interaction and social
competence have a circula relationship. That is, successful participation in social interactions
especially at the preschool level enhances advanced forrns of social competence sucb as
solidarity and mutual trust (Coaaro, 198 1), managing emotional responses in play situations -
(Parker & Gottrnan, 1989), and engaging in competition without aggression (Hartup, 1989) in
children.
Unfortunately, not al1 children acquire adequate social competence. According ro Asher
(1 990) 10% of al1 children may show social skills deficits or delays that could lead to peer
rejection. The incidence has been reported to be higher for children with disabilities (Odom et al.,
1992). Odom, McComell& Chandler (1990, as cited in Odom et al., 1992 ) reported that. on
average, 75% of the preschool children who participated in special education classrooms were
not able to interact in a positive and age-appropriate manner with iheir peers. Therefore. it is not
surprising when special education professionals suggest that intervention programs for improving
social competence of disabled children, particularly skills related to peer interaction, should be a
fundamental aspect of their services (Guralnick, 1989, 1990; Strain, 1990, as cited in Odom et
ai., 1992).
Children's social competence may be influenced profoundly by their environmental and
cultural background. Evidence shows that different culhues and ethnic groups place different
emphasis on communication and socialization sMls and have different standards for accepted
behaviors. Consequently, the culhual context in which children grow up has a significant impact
on the way children interact with their environment and the skiils they master (Cole & Cole,
1989; Farver & Howes, 1988; Gupta, 1995; McAfee & Leong, 1994; Schneider, 1993).
5
In Afncan and other non-western contexts in which s o c i h t i o n happens through an adherence
to parental and societai expectations, the patterns of development are different from those of
modem and industrialized societies in which the parentkhild relationship is less authoritanan
(LeVine, 1974, as cited in Gupta, 1995). According to LeVine (1 974) children in Afiican
societies fiequently are involved with more cornplex and heavier tasks and contribute to activities
and responsibilities such as food and craft production, food preparation, cultivation, fishing, pot
making, carrying water, and other domestic activities fiom an early age. Parents in these societies
demand a lot nom their children, since, they consider child labour as part of an adaptation to life
expectations and beneficial to the children's future life.
Social incompetencies also may differ fiom one culture to another. According to
Harkness and Super (1990) the sequence of adjustments to family, environment, and cultural
circurnstances contributes to learning, development of the self, acquiring coping skills, and
dealing with conflicts. These factors also determine the kinds of stressful reactions and
expenences that define problematic behaviors in the process of the child's developrnental
psyc hopathology .
Unfortunately, the constmct of social competence and its deficits have not been
investigated in a major way by professionals in non-western countries. Most of the available
research literature in the area of child development in general, and on children's social behavior
in particuiar, is based on information fiom white middle class Western children (Chen, Rubin &
Sun, 1992; Farver & Howes, 1988; Wagner & Stephenson, 1982, as cited in Feng & Cartledge,
1996). Evidence (Feng & Cartledge, 1996) shows that, even within the United States, the social
competence of culturally different students has not received adequate attention. Feng and
Cartledge (1996) have stated that little or no research has focused specially on the social
competence of students fiom racial or cultural minorities. These authors assert that a clearer
understanding of the successful social behaviors and problem-solvuig strategies employed by
these children, could provide an important basis frorn which to develop social skills lessons for
their same-race peea.
The inconsistencies amongst the various dennitions of social competence and its
dimensions, suggests that M e r studies need to be conducted in order to investigate the diitèrent
aspects of the construct and its correlates. Further ernpirical research focused on children in
different stages, domains and settings, will extend our theoretical knowledge of the construct of
social competence. The assessment of children's social competence and its deficits not only
enhances our understanding of children's social development and their atypical behavion in
various domains, but it allows practitioners to develop their understanding of the treatment of
social incornpetence. By investigating social competence across cultures, we increase our
understanding of how social competence is operationaiized in different cultures, enabling
investigators in a particular culture to identiQ childrez with problems in social fiuictioning and to
provide them with appropriate intervention prognms.
Iran is among the countries in which research in the fields of psychology and education
in general, and on the assessment of children' social behavior in particular, has received littfe
attention. One reason for the shortage of psychoeducationd research and assessment in Iran is the
serious lack of psychoeducationai instruments. There are no national or regionally made
psychoeducationai tests in Iran. It is only recently that popular Amencan intelligence tests such
as Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R)(Wechsler, 1974). and Wechsler
Preschool and Prirnary School Intelligence Scales (WPPSI) (Wechsler, 1967) have k e n
standardized (respectively by Shahim, 1990; Razavieh & Shahim, 1992) for use in Iran.
Intelligence scales. however, have been criticized for being biased and aiso for having limitations
in meamring al1 aspects of human abilities (Barona, 199 1 ; Keating, 1996. 1990: Mercer. 1979:
Naglieri, Das, & Jarman, 1990; Nihira, Foster, & Spencer, 1968). It has been recommended that
other supplementary and educationally relevant measures such as adaptive and social skills scales
be used with intelligence scales for a more cornprehensive assessment of children (e.g. Bagnato
& Neisworth, 199 1 ; Hughes, 1990). Another reason for the shortage of psychoeducational
research in Iran, specially with younger children, is that the educational system in Iran has
devoted most of its financial and educational resources to higher education in order to train the
professional manpower needed for the development of the country. Consequently, compared to
higher education, the education and the assessrnent of younger children, especially that of
preschoolers, has received less attention.
In the present study translated and adapted forms of the "Social Skills Rating System-
TeacherParent" (Gresham and Elliott, 1990) and "The Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales-
Survey FomuClassroorn Edition" (Sparrow, Balla, and Cicchetti, 1984, 1985) were used to
investigate the social cornpetence of Iranian preschoolers with a focus on their social skills and
adaptive behaviors. The influence or basic demographic variables such as gender, age, and SES
on ratings has also been considered. Before presenting the hdings. a review of the literature on
definitional and assessrnent issues wiH be addressed.
Issues and Trends in the Literature
Definition and Conceptualization of Social Skills
There are several definitions in the literature reflecting various dimensions of the social
skills constnict. In a compreknsive review of the iiterature on the concept of social skius, Macfall
(1 982) concluded that most of the definitions of the concept fit into one of two major conceptual
models: the trait model, and the molecular rnodel. Withui the trait model, social skiIls are
considered as hypothetical constnicts referring to pesonality traits or predisposition responses
which are stable over time and across situations. Within the molecular model, social skills are
defmed as discrete, situation-specific, and observable units of behavior unrelated to an underlying
persondity trait. Macfall(1982) attempted to reforrnulate the concept of social skills by
distinguishing it fiom social competence. According to his work social competence is an evaluative
term referrhg to the social importance of the behavior, while social skills represent specific
behaviors required for successful performance on a social task. Macfdl's distinction between social
competence and social skills has been accepted and delineated by other researchen (Gresham, 1983.
1986; Hops, 1983). In an operational explanation of social skills, Michelson, Sugai, Wood &
Kazdin (1983) suggested seven components of social skills which are significant for a functional
understanding of the concept. These components are:
1. Social skills are primarily acquired through leaming (e.g., observation, modelling, rehearsai, and feedback).
2. Social skiils comprise specific and discrete verbal and nonverbal behaviors. 3. Social skills entail both effective and appropriate initiations and responses. 4. Social skills rnaximize social reinforcement (e.g., positive responses from one's social
environment). 5. Social skills are interactive by nature and entail both effective and appropriate
responsiveness (e.g., reciprocity and timing of specific behaviors). 6. Social skills performance is influenced by the characteristics of the environment (i.e..
situational specificity). That is, such factors as age, sex, and status of the recipient affect one's social performance.
7. Deficits and excesses in social performance can be specified and targeted for intervention (p. 3).
9
Based on the accuniuiated literature on children's social skills, Gresham & Elliott (1984),
Gresham (1 986) and Gresham & Elliott (1987), concephialized three general definitions of social
skills. In the first definition, which c m be temed the "peer acceptance" dennition, the focus is on
social status, or the degree to which a child is accepted or rejected by hisher peer group. The
assumption here is that children who are well accepted by their peers are socially more competent
than children who are less well accepted or who are rejected. In the second definition, the
"behavioral definition", social skills are defined as specific behaviors that rnaximize the
probability of receiving reinforcement or minimize the likelihood of receiving punishment by
othen for social behaviors. In the third definition, the "social validity" definition. social skills are
defined as those behaviors that within given situations can predict important social outcomes for
individuals. These valued social outcomes may include peer acceptance, popularity, significant
others' judgments of social skills, and other social behavioa associated with these outcomes. The
social validity definition is a synthesis of the sociometric and behavioral definitions and is
viewed as a more useful conceptualization of social skills (Gresham. 1986). The advantage of
this definition over the behavioral and peer acceptance definitions is that, it not only specifies
behaviors in which the child is deficient, but also links these behavion to socially important
outcomes (Gresham, 1986). The authors of the Social Skills Rating System (Grasham & Elliott,
1990) define social skills as "socially acceptable leanied behaviors that enable a person to
interact effectively with others and to avoid socially unacceptable responses"(p. 1). Based on this
definition, behaviors such as "sharing, helping, initiating relationships, requesting help, giving
complements, and saying please and thank you are examples of social skills"@. 1). These
interpersonal skills norrnally develop during childhood and enable the child to establish
10
successful relationships with others. Some children, however, are not able to acquire adequate
sociai skills. Consequently, they often experience problems in their relationships with others. The
identification and treatment of these children are essential tasks for educators, psychologists and
other mental health professionais (Gresham & Ellion, 1990). Ignoring social skills deficits in
young children may affect their academic performance (Castledge & Milburn, 1995) and may
lead to later social maladjustment or other psychopathologies (Asher, 1990; Asher & Parker.
1989; Landau & Milich 1990; Parker & Asher, 1987). There are four types of Social skills
deficits which may occur: (a) ski11 deficits, (b) performance deficits. (c) self-control ski11 deficits,
and (d) self-control performance deficits. Children with social skill deficits do not know how to
perfonn the skill. A performance deficit happens when the child knows how to perform the skill,
but does not perform it at an acceptable level due to a lack of motivation or absence of
oppominity. Self-control skill deficits occur when the child has not learned the skill because of
an interfering emotional arousal response such as fear or anxiety. Children with self-control
performance deficits do not perform the known ski11 at an acceptable level due to unpleasant
feelings associated with the behavior (Gresham, 1986; Gresham & Ellion, 1984).
Considering the diversity of social s!cills definitions and deficiencies, the assessment of
social skills is not an easy or singular process, rather it will include different procedures and
purposes. The following section will provide a review of the most commonly used rnethods and
instruments.
Assessment of Social Skills
A review of the literature identifies that a number of procedures have been used to assess
sociai skills. Of these assessment procedures some involve measures that can be completed by
11
knowledgeable informants of the child's behavior, some involve observing the child's behavior in
a specific situation, and others involve testhg the childs knowledge of social responses to social
situations (Atkins-Bumett et al., 1 997; Cartledge & Milbum, 1995; Gresham, 198 1, 1 986,
Gresham & Elliott, 1987; Hcghes, 1990). The most commody used assessment procedures in
assessing children's social behavior are rating by others, sociomehnc techniques, self-report
rneasures, be haviorai role-play measures, behavioral interviews, and naniralistic observations.
Although most of these methods represent the most practical approach to assessing children's
social skills (Gresham & Elliott, 1987), the selected assessment procedure depends on several
factors including the nature of the behavior being assessed; whether it is an individual or group
assessment; the availability of instruments; resources and knowledgeable informants about the
child; and the developmental level and communication skills of the child (Cartledge & Milburn,
1995). According to Gresham (1986), sociometrics, ratings by others, self-reports, and behavioral
role plays are the most fkequently used assessment procedures for selection/diagnosis purposes.
while behavioral interviews and natudistic observations are typically used for
interventionltherapeutic assessment.
Regardless of the assessment method, a number of problems may interfere with obtaining
valid and reliable information in the assessment of social skills (Cartledge & Milbuni, 1995;
Luftig, 1989). The first major probiem is that many social behaviors are situation specific.
meaning that, what a child displays in one situation he/she may not display in another situation.
The second problem in social skills assessment is that people have different ideas about what
constitutes acceptable social behavior (for cultural, developrnental, and personal reasons)(luftig,
1989). This can lead to problems in designating which behaviors should be assessed and in
d e f h g what are deemed to be social skill deficits for a child. The third problem in assessing
social skills is the reliability of the uiformant. This means, the person's report of a target child
may not be accurate at a desirable level. In order to increase reliability, and to rnake a more .
successfid social skills assessment, multiple sources of information, with more than one
informant, across a variety of situations (multitrait-mulùrater-mdtimethod assessment) have
been recomrnended (Cartledge & Milburn. 1995; Elliott & Ershler, 1990; Elliott, et al. 1989:
Gresham, 1986, 198 1). The inclusion of social validity as an Unportant or significant aspect in
the assessment of chiidren's social skills, particularly for ski11 training and remediation purposes,
has also been emphasized (Gresham, 1986). Recent developments in social skills assessment
technology (Flanagan et al., 1996), specially the advancement of the third-party rating scales
(Le., Gresham & Elliott, 1990; Reynolds & Kamphaus, 1992) provide practitioners with more
reliable and valid assessment instruments for rneasuring the social fuoctioning of children. In a
review of thirteen behavioral and social-emotional third-party instnunents (Bracken et al., 1994).
the Social Skills Rating Systems (SSRS) (Gresham & Elliott, 1990) was recognized as "one of the
most psychometrically sound rating scales for young children ... and the most comprehensive
standardized measure of social skills functioning currently available" (Flanagan et al.. 1996, p. 14 ).
ial Skills Ratings Syste Research Usiw the Soc m {SSRS)
Although the present version of the SSRS was published in 1990, a large nurnber of
research studies employing the SSRS are available. Experimental versions of the SSRS have also
been used in several studies. Elliott, Gresham, Freeman, and McCloskey (1988) w d the Social
Skills Rating Scales-Teacher (SSRS-T), an experimental version of the SSRS. to investigate the
construct validity, stability, intemal consistency, and interrater reliability of the scale, with a
13
sample of elementary school children. The results of the snidy indicated a high ( ~ 9 0 ) test-retest
reliability over a 6 week period, a high intemal consistency (r=.96), and a moderate (r=.65)
interrater reliability for the scaie. The construct validity of the SSRS-T was confirmed by
cornparison with the Revised Behavior Problem Checklia (RBPC) (Quay & Peterson, 1983) and
Teacher Ratings of Academic Performance (TRAP) (Gresham, Reshly & Carey, 1987).
In another study, Elliott, Barnard, & Gresham (1989) used the Social Skills Rating
System (SSRS) to investigate the influence of demographic variables such as age, gender, and
race as well as the influence of language ability and family background variables. on ratings of
preschoolers' social skills. They also examùied the correlation between parents' and teachers'
ratings of the prosocial behaviors of preschoolers. The subjects were 212 preschool children
ranging in age fiom 3 1 to 66 months fiom four States in the U.S.A. The parents and teachers
rated the prosocial and problem behaviors of their children on the SSRS-Parent, the SSRS-
Teacher, and the Burks Preschool and Kindergarten Inventory (Burks, 1977). The results of the
teachers' ratings on the SSRS indicated that there were significant differences between boys and
girls. Girls exhibited more fiequent prosocial behaviois whereas boys exhibited more fiequent
problem behaviors. The resdts also indicated significant difference related to ianguage ability.
Preschoolers who had excellent language ability showed more prosocial behaviors and Iess
problem behavion than children with average or poor language ability. In addition, children from
families where only the fathers worked consistently had the most prosocial behavior and children
of families where neither parent worked had the least prosocial and the most problem behavior.
The results of the parents' ratings showed sirnilar patterns to the teachers' ratings. Furthemore,
parents' ratings were higher for white preschool children than black children. Other results
14
revealed that the correlations between teachers' and parents' ratings on the £iequency of discrete
social skills were low to moderate. This result was consistent with the previous research on
parents' and teachers' rathgs of children's social behaviors (Achenbach, McConaughy & Howell,
1987), suggesting that different inforrnants view different aspects of children's social behaviors
and add unique information to the understanding of children's behaviors. On the importance of
the specific behavior items the correlation was very low (mean r=.04), although the overall
perceptions of preschoolers' social behavior for both raters were similar. Both parents and
teachers perceived cooperative behaviors as most important, followed by self-control skills, and
then initiative behaviors. Finally, p a n t s ' and teachefs ratings of prosocial behaviors on the
SSRS were correlated with their ratings on the Burks to examine the concurrent validity of the
SSRS. The results revealed no evidence of the convergent validity between parents' and teachen'
ratings. Despite the differences between parent and teacher ratings, the total data gathered fiom
this exploratory study suggested that "the SSRS-T and SSRS-P are valid measures of prosocid
behavior at home and school and also that both are sensitive to potential problem behaviors"
(Elliott et al., 1989, p. 232).
Several investigators have used the SSRS to compare handicapped and nonhandicapped
populations (Bramlett, Smitt & Edmonds, 1994; Elliott & McKinnie, 1994; Haager & Vaughn,
1 995). Bramlett, Smitt & Edmonds (1 994) used Sociai Skills Rating Sy stem (S SRS)-Teacher-
Parent Forms to compare students identified as leaniing disabled and mildly mentally retarded
with a group of nonreferred students. Subjects were between 7 yean, 4 months and 16 years, 6
months. The resdts of their study showed that students who had already been identified as
learning disabled or mentally retarded scored significantly lower than the nonreferred group on
teacher and parent ratings of social skills and significantly higher on the parent ratings of
problem behaviors. There were no significant ciifferences between disabled groups on parent and
teacher ratings of social skiiis. Additionai results showed that parents of disabled students tended
to score their children7s social skills lower and problem behavioa higher than did the teachers.
Moderate correlations were found between parent ratings of problem behaviors and teacher
ratings of problem behaviors ( ~ 4 2 ) and social skills (r--5 l), and between parent ratings of
social skills and teacher ratings of social skills (r=.46). Correlation between parent ratings of
social skills and teacher ratings of problem behaviors was low (r=.-15). The findings of this
research indicate that students7 social skills were perceived somewhat consistently across
respondents. However, disagreements were observed between raten on the social ski11 deficits
across different settings and diverse situations. The results of this shidy in general revealed that
the SSRS variables were able to predict group membership broadly (e-g., disabled vs.
nondisabled) but not speci fically (e-g., learning disabled vs. mentally retarded). Overall. the
results of this shidy supported the results of previous studies ( Gresham et al, 1987; Stinnett.
Oehler-Sti~ett & Stout, 1 989) indicating that the SSRS differentiates generally between
different categories of disabilities and normal children on social skills.
Powless and Elliott (1993) used SSRS to explore the influence of culture on the social
skills of preschoolers. Their sample contained 50 Native Amencan preschoolen and a matched
group (by age and gender) of 50 White preschoolers fiom Head Start programs in the US.
midwest. The results of this study indicated that: (a) the Native Amencan preschoolers exhibited
social skills less fiequently than their matched sample of White preschoolers as rated by their
teachers and parents on the SSRS. The differences oc d l three SSRS-T social skills subscales
16
and on al1 four SSRS-P subscdes were statisticaily significant. The greatest ciifferences in mean
ratings were observed on the Assertion Subscale; (b) the fiequemies of problem behaviors for
Native Amencan and White preschoolen were the same; (c) the correlation between ratings of
the importance of social skills by teachen and parents of Native Americans and teachers and
parents of White preschoolers were low; (d) the teachers and parents of Native Arnerican
Preschoolers showed a moderate agreement in their ratings of the frequency of expression of
social skills, whereas the agreement between White raten for the preschoolers' fkequencies of
social skills expression were low and non-significant in al1 cases. The authos attributed this
fmding to cultural similarity, setting, or racial commonalities within the Native Amencan
sarnple. The authors explain the different frequencies of social skills between the two groups
occur as a result of different cultures valuing different social skills. They claimed that the
Importance ratings in the SSRS c m provide this information and help the teachers, parents and
students to determine the social validity of particular skiils for their cornmunity. In a more recent
study, Feng & Cartledge (1996) compared the social skills of fifth-grade Asian, f i c a n , and
European Amencan students through a multimethod. multidimensional approach. They used the
SSRS-TeachedStudent Forms (Elementary Level, K-6) to assess the social skills and problem
behaviors of the participants. The results of teachers' ratings revealed that on the SSRS, social
skills and problern behaviors of the Asian Arnerican students were within the average range,
whereas, those of the European and f i c a n Arnerican students were below average for social
skills and above average for problem behavion. Also, Asian and African Arnerican students were
rated significantly different on Cooperation and Self-Control. but not on Assertion. Asian and
European Amencan groups were rated significantly different only on Cooperation. The
17
differences between African and European Americans on the three SSRS-T subscales were not
significant. In addition, teachers perceived Asian American students to be more cooperative and
self-controlled than assertive. and more internalized than externalized. in contrast, African
Amencan students were rated as highly assertive, and as having difficulties in peer related
actions which intefiered with their academic ta&. No particular pattern was found for European
American hidents. However, they were generally rated low in social skills and high in the
hyperactivity domain. The resuits of other assessrnent procedures (sociomeûic. interview. and
direct observation) also showed significant differences among the students from the three
racial/culhiral groups; some were consistent with teacher ratings and some were not. Although no
significant differences in the self-assessrnent of social skills among the three groups were found,
the mean ratings suggested that the students who were most confident of their social competence
were respectively European Arnerican, Asian Arnencan, and Afncan Arnerican.
Definition and Conceptualization of Adaptive Behavior
Historically the interest in the study and the assessment of adaptive behavior first
appeared in the field of mental retardation (Cicchetti and Sparrow, 1990). Doll, the pioneer of the
assessment of adaptive behavior, designed the Vineland Social Maturity Scale (the original form
of the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scdes) (VABS) to measure the social competence of
institutionalized mentally retarded children. He defined adaptive behavior as "the functional
ability of the human organisrn for exercising personal independence and social responsibility" (as
cited in Cicchetti and Sparrow, I W O , p. 174). Since that tune, many definitions of the construct
of adaptive behavior have been suggested in the literature(see DeStefano & Thompson, 1990;
Hamadah, 1992; Kamphaus, 1987; Meyers, Nihira & Zetlin, 1979; Reschly, 1985). The most
18
widely cited definition of adaptive behavior is that of the Amencan Association on Mental
Deficiency (AAMD, now known as AAMR ) (Grossman, 1983). According to the AAMD
manuai, adaptive behavior refers to "the effectiveness or degree with which the individual meets
the standards of personai independence and social responsibility expected for age and cultural
group" (Grossman, 1983, p. I ). The authors of The Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales
(Sparrow, Balla & Cicchetti, 1984; 1985) defined adaptive behavior in tems of the extent to
which individuals perform those daily activities that are required for persona1 and social
sufnciency. Gresham and Eiiiott (1987) incorporated adaptive behavior into the broader concept
o f social competence. From Sattler's (1 990) perspective the construct of adaptive behavior
incorporates two major components: (a) the individuai's ability in meeting hisher independent
needs and (b) hisher competence to meet the social and culturai demands of the environment.
Many researchers have argued that adaptive behavior definitions are not as precise as other
behavioral constructs assessed for children (Harrison, 199 1 ; Sattler, 1990; Witt and Martens,
1984). Sattler(l990) points to the difficulties in considering ail environmental and developmental
factors involved in the concept of adaptive behavior. Other researchers have argued that there are
many consistencies in the definitions of adaptive behavior and agreements among different
adaptive behavior scales (Holman & Bruininks, 1985; Kamphaus, 1987; Meyers et ai., 1 979;
Reschiy, 1982, as cited in Harrison, 1991). Kamphaus (1987) has argued that definitions of
adaptive behavior are influenced homogeneously by the AAMD definition of adaptive behavior.
Despite the diversity, several common elements have been extracted fiom the definitions
and measures of adaptive behavior (DeStefano & Thompson, 1990; Harrison, 1990: 199 1 ;
Reschly, 1985; Witt & Martens, 1984; Hamadah, 1992).
Developmental Nature
The element of a developmental nature, which is common to al1 definitions, is considered
to be the most salient feature in adaptive behavior (Reschly, 1985). The term developmental
implies that appropriate adaptive behavior is a fûnction of age. 'Thus, as children grow older
people expect them to exhibit adaptive behavior of increasing complexity. Based on this
conceptualization, failure to perform certain skius at certain ages rnay result in deficits in
adaptive behavior. According to Grossman (1983) deficits in adaptive behavior may inhibit the
acquisition of skills in each of the three generai levels of development:
During infancy and early childhood in: 1. sensorimotor skills development 2. communication skills (including speech and language) 3. self-help skills 4. socialization (development of ability to interact with othen).
During childhood and early adolescence in areas 1 through 4 d o r : 5. application of basic acadernic skills in daily life activities 6. application of appropriate reasoning and judgment in mastery of the environment 7. social skills (participation in group activities and interpersonal relationships)
During late adolescence and adult life in areas 1 through 7 a d o r : 8. vocational and social responsibilities and performance (Grossman, 1983, p. 25).
Delays in adaptive behavior, as well as sub-average intellechial hctioning, are essential
requirements for a classification of mental retardation (Grossman, 1983).
The above developmental domains constitute the basic dimensions of adaptive behavior
that are usually assessed by adaptive behavior scales. Therefore. the contents of adaptive
behavior scales differ depending on the age range that they are designed to measure. For
example, an adaptive behavior scale for young children may include motor skills, language skills,
and self-help skills while a scale appropriate for adults may include cornmunity and vocational
skills (Taylor, 1993).
Cultural S~ecificie
Various definitions of adaptive behavior reflect the cultural specifity of the concept and
suggest that adaptive behavior must be evaluated according to the expectations of social context
in which it occurs. The need for cultural specificity in the assessrnent of adaptive behavior is
based on the recognition that children living in different cultural environments are expected to
demonstrate different cornpetencies (Mercer, 1977. as cited in DeStefano & Thornpson, 1990).
This recognition is also reflected in Nihira's (1 973) statement that "a person can be neither
adaptive nor maladaptive in a vacuum. He is only adaptive or maladaptive in relation to the
demands of the particular social system in which he is a member" (Hamadah, 1992, p. 28).
There are nurnerous examples of the differences in adaptive functioning within various
cultures. Individuals of different cultures display different styles of interaction with each other
(Barona, L 99 1 ). In Vietnamese culture, for example, where nonverbal communication plays a
significant role in social interactions, it is considered impolite for a child to establish eye contact
when helshe is spoken to by an adult. Huynh (1 987)writes. " A well-mannered Vietnamese child.
for instance, will speak only when spoken to"@. 382). This may have significant implications for
a Vietnamese child within the context of a North American classroorn. Raising a hand or
volunteering an answer would be interpreted within the child's culture as being rude or showing
off. Conversely, sitting quietly and listening attentively, which wodd be seen as polite behavior
in Vietnamese schools may be interpreted by North American teachers as shyness or a lack of
self confidence. There are many cultures which place great emphasis on nonverbal
communication. Again, withio the Vietnamese culture, a verbal expression of thanks would
reflect a lack of modesty (Barona, 199 1). Leland (1983, as cited in Harrison, 199 1) provides a
21
M e r illustration, stating that in some countries it is acceptable for children to urinate in public,
whereas in other countries this behavior is not countenanced.
The emphasis on the cultural specificity of adaptive behavior in the assessrnent of
children, particularly in the area of mental retardation, necessitates that the diagnostician must
differentiate between behavior based on a cultural n o m and maiadaptive functioning due to a
mental disability. This is possible only when the diagnostian is farniliar with the adaptive
behavior demands of the child's culture (DeStefano & Thompson, 1990).
S ituational Scecificity
Most definitions of adaptive behavior reflect a situational approach rather than a
generalized trait perspective in interpreting the behavior (DeStefano & Thompson, 1990;
Harnadeh, 1992). They assume that children's adaptive behavior rnay vary across situations,
depending on the demands of the environment in which they live and the expectations of the
significant others around them. Knowing how to cross a Street using a traffïc light may not be as
important for a rural child, where the nearest stoplight to her/his living area may be several miles
away, as it is for a child residing in the city (Reschly, 1985). Taking tunis is an important ski11 for
children to master in order to cope with the school environment. Before entering school however,
children fiom one-child families have less chance to acquire the adaptive behavior of taking turns
than children fiom families with more than one child (Harrison, 199 1). The implication of the
situational specificity of adaptive behavior in the assessrnent of children is that the information
about the child's behavior must be obtained across a variety of settings including home, school,
peer group, and community. Assessing children in different situations in which they are
functioning prevents inaccurate labeling of the child (DeStefano & Thompson, IWO).
Performance versus Ability
According to Harrison (1991) an implicit assumption in the definitions of adaptive
behavior is that, the concept of adaptive behavior sssses the observable performance of daily
activities rather than the child's capability of doing those behavion. On this basis, when assessing
children's adaptive behavior, a skili will be considered deficient if the child is able to do it but
does not routinely perform it. Thus a child who has mastered the skills required to tie hidher
shoelaces, but who routinely waits for an adult to perform the task, would be assessed as being
deficient in hidher fûnctioning in this area. Harrison asserts that the emphasis on performance,
not ability, implies that the concept of adaptive behavior includes the motivation for performing
activi ties.
Reiationshi~s Between Adaptive Behavior and Intelli~ence
Since most definitions of intelligence to a certain extent include adaptation (Lidz, 1986;
DeStefano & Thompson, 1990), and because deficits in both intelligence and adaptive behavior
are required to classi@ a person as mentally retarded (Grossman, 1983) researchers have been
very concemed about the relationship between adaptive behavior and intelligence. Research
findings indicate that adaptive behavior and intelligence lack a unified concephialization and
their measures differ in significant ways (DeStefano & Thompson, 1990; Meyers, Nihira &
Zetlin, 1979). Evidence also shows no agreement arnong investigaton regarding the relationship
between intelligence and adaptive behaviors (Atkùison, Bevc, Dickens & Blackwell. 1992;
Harrison, 1987; DeStefano & Thompson, 1990; Witt, Elliott, Kramer & Gresham, 1994). Some
researchers ( Harrison, 1 989; Keith, Fehnnan, Harrison & Pottebaum, 1 9 87 as cited in Atkinson
et al., 1992) argue that intelligence and adaptive behaviors are distinguishable, even among
23
individuals whose performance is in the lower ranges of intelligence. Other researchen (e.g..
Meyers et ai. 1979; Reschiy, 1982) argue that the two constructs are not distinguishable as
intellectmi level decreases.
Harrison, Keith, Fehnnan, and Pottebaum (1986) conducted a factor anaiysis in order to
explore three hypotheses: " that intelligence and adaptive behavior represent the same underiying
constmcts, two unrelated constnicts, or two separate but related constmcts" (Harrison, 1987. p.
43). They utilized the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales-Survey Form, and the K a h a n
Assessment Battery for Children in their study. The results supported the hypothesis that adaptive
behavior and intelligence are separate but related constmcts. Harrison (1 987) reported the results
of 42 studies which investigated the relationship between intelligence and adaptive behavior. The
correlation coefficients reported in Harrison's review ranged fiom .O3 to .9 1, but the majonty
were in the moderate range. The author found it difficult to draw a major trend among the
correlations, although two trends were evident. First, there were higher correlations between
adaptive behavior and intelligence scores for severely handicapped individuals. Second, there
were lower correlations for mdadaptive subscales than for adaptive scales. The correlations
varied widely depending on the type of intelligence scale, the adaptive behavior instrument, and
the sample size. Similar fmdings were reported by Witt and Martens (1984) suggesting that the
relationship between adaptive behavior and intelligence depends largely on the content of the
instruments and the measurement procedure employed. In a more recent study, Atkinson et al.,
(1 992) tested the concurrent validity of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale against the
Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales-Survey F o m on a group of developmentally delayed
children. The correlation between Stanford-Binet Global Score and the VABS was -70. The
V AB S, however, provided higher global scores than the S tanford-Binet.
Assessrnent of Adaptive Behavio~
The assessment of adaptive behavior is usually done utilizing a " third-party" method in
which an informant farniliar with the child's behavior, typically a parent or teacher, evaluates the
child in hisher daily activities. This method has been recognized as the most effective and
appropnate way of assessing adaptive behavior because it focuses on the childrents performance
on self-care tasks and social hctioning (Harrison, 199 1, 1 987).
Traditionally there have been two major reasons for assessing adaptive behavior. The k t
is to provide the needed information for making decisions about the nature, diagnosis. and
classification of handicaps and placement of children into special programs based on their needs.
The second reason for assessing adaptive behavior is to acquire the needed information for
prograrn planning and the evaluation of interventions (Harrison, 199 1; Meyes et al., 1979;
Reschly, 1985; Salvia and Ysseldyke, 1988; Taylor, 1993; Witt and Martins, 1984). According to
Reschly (1 985, 1982) and Harrison ( 1987) adaptive behavior assessment in many cases involves
the declassification of low fùnctioning children who have been classified for special education
programs solely on the ba is of their performance on intelligence tests. Declassification occurs
when a child who has been eligible for a classification of mental retardation because of having
low scores on intelligence tests, is no longer eligible as a result of having adequate adaptive
behavior skills. Therefore, declassification not only prevents inaccurate labelling but dso
provides the child with appropnate educational services based on his/her needs (Harrison. 1987).
Beyond the assessment of mentally retarded children, adaptive behavior assessment has ken
used for the identification of other handicapping conditions such as autism (Jacobson &
25
Ackerman, 1990; Loveland & Kelly, 199 1, 1 988; Szatmari, Archer, Fisman. & Streiner, 1994;
Rodrigue, Morgan, & Geffken, 199 l), emotional and behaviorai disturbances (Middleton. Keene.
& Brown, 1990; Pearson & Lacher, 1994; Sparrow & Cicchetti, 1987)- and learning disabilities
(see Pearson & Lachar, 1994).
Sattler (1990) counted six benefits that can be gained nom assessing adaptive behavior:
(a) identification of behavioral strengths and deficiencies; (b) evaluation of the intervention
program; (c) comparison of the subject's behavior across different situations; (d) comparison of
the collected information across different informants; (e) cofll~nmication of the orm mat ion
among agencies; (f) and, moreover, designation of new intervention p r o g i m and research.
Since the preschool time is a critical period in the process of child development, adaptive
behavior assessrnent has been recommended for evaluating the development of preschool
children (Harrison, 1 99 1). The results of adaptive behavior assessments of preschool children
may be used for three major purposes: (a) education or teaching skills to children to enable them
to achieve their potential. @) prevention or keeping the child fiom developing m e r problems
or handicaps and (c) correction or the reduction of any handicaps or disabilities (Verhaaren &
Conner, 198 1).
The Seiection of an Adaptive Behavior Scale
There are many adaptive behavior scales with different psychometrïc properties available
at the present tirne. Meyers et al. (1 979) reported as many as 132 published and informally
developed scales, and this number has been increasing in recent years. A number of more
recently published scales are Listed in a review of the research on adaptive behavior scaies by
Harrison (1987). Of the scales identified in the literature, the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales
26
(VABS) (Sparrow et al., 1984; Harrison, 1985) is one of the most recent and fiequently used
adaptive behavior scales appropriate for use with preschoolers (Bracken, Keith, & Waker, 1994;
Salvia, Yeseldyke, 1988, Sattler, 1990; Nunall et al., 1992; Harrison, 199 1; Cicchatti, Sparrow.
1990; Reschly, 1985; Taylor, 1993; Witt et al., 1994). The VABS is a revision of the Vineland
Social Maturity Scale (VSMS) (Doll, 1935, 1953) which was a crucial tool in the development of
the area of adaptive behavior assessrnent (Taylor, 1993). The VABS is intended to assess the
personal and social sutnciency of handicapped and nonhandicapped individuals fkom birth to
adulthood. It is one of the most useful instruments for making decisions regarding intervention
strategies or programs (Taylor, 1993; Witt et al. 1994). According to Walton and Nuttall( 1992).
" the Vineland has the most open format for discussion with the caretaker and may be
experienced as less intrusive and less like a test"@. 295). The style of interview in this scale is
open-ended and it is adaptable for use in any language. Walton and Nuttal(1992) selected the
VABS as one of the most appropriate instruments for evaluation of culhually different children,
especially for assessing their adaptive development including social behaviors and self-care
abilities.
Three versions of the VABS are available: Survey form. Expanded fom, and Classroom
Edition. Each version measures adaptive behavior in communication, daily living skills,
socialization, and motor skills domains. The survey and expanded forms also include a
maladaptive behavior domain. Parents and teac hers are the primary inforrnants for completing
the VASS.
Research with the Vineland Adaptive Rehavior Scales
Since 1984 when the the VABS was published, numerous research studies using these
27
scales have been reported (Fombome & Achard. 1993; Harrison. 1990). Providing information
about different conceptual aspects of adaptive behavior (e.g., Harrison, 1987). and the usefulness
of these scales for the assessment of individuals with various disorders and handicaps (see
fombonne & Achard, 1993; Loveland & Kelley, 91 ; Pearson & Lachar, 1994; Rodrigue, Morgan
& Geflken, 199 1) have been two major concerns of these investigations.
Sparrow, Balla & Cicchetti (1984) used the standardization sample of the VABS to
explore group differences on the VABS. They found that mentally retarded adults had a Iower
performance in communication than in other areas of adaptive behavior, whereas emotionally
disturbed children had lower performance in socialization than in other areas. In this study race
differences were not significant, but socioeconomic differences were evident. Sparrow et al..
(1 984) also used the Spanish version of the Vineland in the standardization of the scale and did
not find differences between the cultural groups which participated in the standardization sample.
Middleton. Keene & Brown (1990) examined the convergent and discriminant validities of the
Scales of Independent Behavior (SIB) and the VABS. Subjects were 53 children ages 3 to 7.
They found a correlation of .83 between the SIB Broad Independence Score and the VABS
Adaptive Behavior Composite. The application of Campbell and Fiske's ( 1959) criteria for
convergent and discriminant validity to six of the cornrnon scaies revealed that Personal Living
Skills, Communication SkilIs, and CommUNty Living SkilIs were the most valid scales.
There is extensive research on the usefihess of the VABS for assessment of individuals
with various disorders and handicaps. Rodrigue et al., (1 99 1) used the VABS to compare the
adaptive behaviors of 20 autistic, 20 Down Syndrome and 20 developmentally n o d children.
The results of this study suggested that: first, the socialization skills of autistic children were
significantly Lower than those of children with Down Syndrome and those with normal
development. Second, failure to develop normal socialization among autistic children was
pervasive in their interpersonal relationships, play and leisure tirne, and coping skills. Third,
compared to children with Down Syndrome and those with normal development, autistic
children displayed considerable variability in adaptive behavior. The authors suggest that their
findings were consistent with the results of previous studies (Freeman et al., 1988; Loveland &
Kelly, 1988; V o h a r et al., 1987) and that "the Vineland may be used successfully in
operationally defining the nature and degree of social dysfunction in children with autism" (p.
195). In another study, Loveland and Kelly (1991) used the VABS-Survey Form to examine
adaptive skills of two groups of preschool children with autism or Down Syndrome rnatched for
Chronological Age (CA) and Mental Age (MA). They hypothesized that different profiles of
disabilities exhibited by autistic and developmentally disabled children wodd be reflected in
differing patterns of adaptive skills related to their CA and MA. The results supported previous
findings (Loveland & Kelley, 1988) that children with autism or Down Syndrome demonstrate
different patterns of adaptive development at very early ages. According to these researchers
children with Down Syndrome were obviously more advanced in socialization skills than their
couterparts with autism. The scores of two groups on overall communication skills were not
significantly different because both groups had little expressive language and no written skills.
However. children with Down Syndrome had significantiy more advanced receptive skills than
autistic children. The researchers also found that Adaptive Standard Scores were unrelated to CA
in both groups while Adaptive Age Equivalent was positively related to CA for children with
Down Syndrome in al1 domains but oniy in communication domain for children with autism.
29
Finally, in al1 children and in al1 domains adaptive skills had positive relationships with MA.
The VABS have been used by researchers in diEerent countties. In a study by F o m b o ~ e
and Achard (1993) the VABS were used to assess the adaptive behavior of normal French
children. The resuits showed that the scores of French children on the Vineland Scales were
comparable to their American peers. From age six, however, French children performed at a
lower level in the daily living skills domain. Sex differences were not found to be statistically
significant, though, boys performed at a lower level than girls in the persona1 subdomain
(dressing, grooming, health care, etc.) and girls performed lower than boys in the cornrnunity
subdomain (safety, money, telephone, job skills etc.). While the overail findings of this snidy
supported the cross-cultural validity of the Vineland scales, M e r research is suggested by the
authors for examining the usefuiness of this instrument in other countries. Hamadah ( 1992)
developed a Kuwaiti Version of the VABS-Classroom Edition (KVCE) in order to operationalize
the construct of adaptive behavior as it is measured by the VABS, for assessing Kuwaiti school
children. The subjects were 373 students including 325 students fiom regular classes and 48
students fkom special education classes, ranging fkom 4 to 13 years old. Demographic variables
such as gender, socioeconomic status, achievement level, and nationality were controlled for the
sarnple. The findings of this research showed that: (a) the KVCE was a highly reiiable measure in
terms of psychometnc properties such as intemal consistency and test-retest reliabilig; (b)
adaptive behavior scores provided by the KVCE were affected by age; (c) the KVCE was able to
discriminate significantiy between normally achieving students and mentally retarded students;
and (d) adaptive behavior skills were af5ected by gender and nationality factors, and the
interaction between them. The S w e y Fonn of the VABS has successfblly been adapted and
validated for use in an indonesian context (Tombokan-Runtukahu & Nitko, 1992). The
Indonesian version of the VAB S (IVABS) was administered to parents and teachers of a matched
sample of children with mental retardation and children with normal intelligence. The instrument
showed psychometric characteristics similar to those of the Amencan version.
Assessment of Young Childreq
During the preschool years children demonstrate dramatic changes in their social,
emotional. cognitive, and physical abilities. They also develop their performance in self-help
skills such as eating, dressing, personal hygiene, toileting, and sleeping alone, and increase their
awareness of the basic social categories and culnual noms (Edwards, 1992). These social and
adaptive skills that children acquire during their childhood form a foundation that plays a critical
role in later hctioning in the home, at school and in the community. However, al1 children do
not appear to develop their skills in these domains equally. The stages of development in some
children may occur within a normal pattern of development while in others may indicate
symptoms of mental and physical difficulties. Biological and environmental factors are the most
intluential factors affecting the pattern of children's development and their interaction with others
(see Lifter, 1992). Assessment of young children in various stages of development not only
provides information on their age-appropriate developrnent but also helps parents and teachers to
identify children who may need early special education or remedial services. More specifically,
the assessment of young children may be used to: (a) screen for children with leaming problems
or at risk of developing pathology; (b) identifi the areas of deficiencies andor cornpetencies in
development for placement purposes; and (c) evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention
(Barona, 199 1 ; Martin, 1988; Paget and Nagle, 1986; Salvia and Ysseldyke, 199 1).
Depending on the purpose of the assessment and the decision to be made, different
assessment approaches have been used (Lidz, 199 1; McMee & Leong, 1994; Witt et al., 1994;
Luther, Cole & Garniin, 1996). Curriculum-based assessments have been used for teaching and
intervention purposes (Bagnato, Neisworth & Capone, 1986; Bagnato & Neisworth, 199 1 ).
Dynarnic assessment procedures have been used to enhance the child's performance by focusing
on hisher potential for learning ( Garnlin & Luther, 1992; Lidz; 1987; Missiuna, 1996).
Developmental measures have been used to provide descriptions of the child's current
functioning in relation to a particuiar n o m or a developmentai theory (Lidz, 199 1). Other
assessment trends have been identified in the area of assessing young children. Fewell (as cited in
Witt et al. 1994) characterized six trends in the assessment of preschool children : " (a) play, (b)
ecological assessment, (c) arena assessment, (d) judgrnent-based assessment, (e) adaptive
assessment, and (f) social interaction assessment" (p. 21 5). According to Fewell these approaches
may share common traits and formats. For example, play, arena assessment. and ecological
assessment use naturalistic observation methods in which the child plays an active role in the
testing process and the observer's task is to score and to interpret the action (Witt et al., 1994).
Despite the considerable attention that the topic has received during the Iast decade
(Bagnato & Neisworth, 199 1 ; Bracken, 199 1 ; Martin, 1988; Nuttall, Romero & Kalesnik, 1992;
Paget & Nagel, 1986), evidence shows that, compared to school-age children preschoolers are
less likely to be the subject of assessment. The findings of a recent national survey (Stinnett.
Havey, and Oehler-Stinnett, 1994) on the assessment activities of a random sample of school
psychologists revealed that American school psychologists were less likely to be involved in
preschool assessment. One major reason for less attention to preschool assessment that can be
32
iderred from the literature is that preschool assessment is diacult (Lidz, 199 1, 1986; Martin,
1988, 1986; Treuting, 1992; Witt et al., 1994). The assessment of preschool children is difncult
because, as Lidz (1 99 1 ) described "the preschooler(s) seems to be an accelerated case of process
and developrnent"@. 18). This means that the behavion and characteristics of preschool children
are very changeable and inconsistent. In addition, the fact that preschool children have less
developed communication skills, are more spontaneous, less self-conscious, are less concemed
with pleasing the examiner, have problems separating fiom their parents, and have shorter
attention span create special challenges for the assessor and may result in difficulties in the
assessment procedures (Lidz, 1991). Another challenge in the assessrnent of preschool children is
that many behavion that are not expected fkom school-age children are normal arnong
preschoolers. Witt et al., (1 994) stated that it is normal for young children, but not for school-age
children, to exhibit social-emotiond problems such as temper tantnims, isolation, crying, and a
high level of activity some of the tirne. According to these authon "the differences between
children with serious social-emotional problems and normal children are often differences in the
frequency, intensity, and duration of an undesirable behavior7'@. 189). However. different
expectations from school-age and preschool children, in te- of their social behaviors may
unintentionally result in less attention being paid to preschoolers' social problems by adults.
The cognitive and verbal limitations of preschool children, and their inability to control
their behavior to conform to the expectations of the assessment situation, place significant
limitations on the ability of the psychologist to gather valid and reliable assessment information.
As a result, psychologists rely mainly on behavior rating scales and interviews with parents,
teachers or other significant adutts in the child's life to obtain information. They are also more
likely to focus on situational, ecological and mdtidirnensional assessment for intervention
purposes, rather than using strategies to minimize or eliminate unreliability (Lidz, 1 99 1 : 1 986;
Paget & Nagel, 1986; Martin, 199 1, 1988).
Rating Scale Assessrnent
Behavior rating scales are the most commonly used assessment tools for quantiQing
adults' judgments of childrents social and problem behaviors and determining appropriate
psychoeducational services for them (Carlson & Lahey, 1983; Edelbrock, 1983; Elliott, Busse &
Gresham, 1993; Elliott, Gresham, Freernan & McCloskey, 1988; Gresham & Elliott, 1990; Hoge,
1 983 ; Martin, 1986; McCloskey, 1990). Rating scales completed by teachers and parents have
the advantage that they provide suInmative evaluations of the child based upon samples of
behaviors observed over a period of tirne (Gresham & Elliott, 1990; Merrell, 1993). They not
only are useful assessment devices in identifying target behaviors for intervention, but also can
facilitate gathering information about individuals who can not respond to direct testing, such as
infants, severely retarded, and physical haodicapped (Edelbrock, 1983). Behavior Rating scales
have several advantages over other assessment methods (Edelbrock, 1983; McCloskey, 1990;
Sattler, 1990; Witt, Heffer & Pfeiffer, 1990). An important advantage is that they have the ability
to obtain information on a broad range of traits nom diverse sources including parents, teachers.
mental health workers and other professionals who work with children. Compared to
psychological tests and direct observation techniques, rating scales are inexpensive, easy to
administer and score, and demand less professional tirne. They also provide more objective,
reliable, and valid information than assessments based on projective techniques or clinical
interviews (Gresham & Elliott., 1990). Behavior rating scales are the recommended devices for
34
assessing children's social cornpetencies, because opportunities for practising specific social
skills are f iequent and it is m~ul t to assess these behavion only by observation methods
(ienson, Sloane & Young, 1988)
As with any assessment method, rating scales are not without limitations. Edelbrock
(1 983) writes, "behaviorai descriptions provided by rating scaies are a function not only of the
child and the assessment device, but also the informantu@. 296). The informant is a key element
in the assessment procedures using rating scales. Since informants differ in terms of the nature of
their interaction with the child and the settings in which they observe the child, they rnay rate the
child based on their previous interactions, emotions or personal biases (Edelbrock. 1983 ).
Therefore, a critical consideration will be the level of agreement between raters when multiple
informants are involved. Several factors may interfere in the level of agreement between various
raters. According to Sattler (1990) these factors may include the type of problem being assessed.
familiarity of the informant with the child, sensitivity and tolerance to behavior problems,
informant's personality and expectations, child's appearance. race and socioeconomic status.
Sattler (1 990) suggests, disagreement between raters may indicate that, (a) the child behaves
differently depending on the situation or setting, @) one or more of the raters is not reliable, (c)
theraters have different response styles, or (d) other unknown factors are involved and contribute
to the unreliability of the ratings. Further to these factors, research shows that adults differ
regarding their "insightfulness" (Nisbett & Ross, 1980), "observational skills" (Foster & Cone.
1 986; Cone & Foster, 1 982), and " interpretations of periodical terms" (such as "sometimes" and
"occasionally") when they are unsure of their judgments (McAfee & Leong, 1994)
However, despite the many factors that influence the use and interpretation of behavior
35
rating scales, they have played a central role in screening, identification, intervention. and
program evaluation as well as in correlational studies related to children's academic and social
behavior problems (Elliott et ai., 1993 ; Martin, 1986; McCloskey, 1990; Merrell, 1993).
Parents and Teachers as 1nforma.n~
Parents and teachers are the primary caretalcers for young children, and thus, they are the
best source of information about children's behavioral and social development (Edelbrock. 1983:
Elliott et al., 1989; Elliott et al., 1988; Hoge, 1983; Shaw, Hammer & Leland 199 1 ; Stephens.
1978). Parents' and teachers' ratings provide a valuable oppominity to study children's behaviors
at home and in the school environments and to compare their behaviors in different settings
(Sattler, 1990). Because parents and teachers observe different aspects of the child's behavior it is
reasonable that their idormation is not equivalent, but, can be seen as cornplementary (Routh.
1990). Parents reports, in fact, rnay improve and deepen a teacher's understanding of a child
(McAfee & Leong, 1994).
Studies demonstrate that parents and teachers place different emphasis on dflerent social
behaviors. The social behaviors that teaches consider important for children to exhibit may not
be considered important by parents (Baumgart, Filler & Askvig, 199 1 ; Cartledge & Milburn.
1995; Gresham & Elliot, 1988; 1990; McAfee & Leong, 1994)). Teachers place more stress on
academics and those social behaviors which facilitate their task of teaching, whereas parents
seem to stress cornpliance to instnictions/directions and responsibilities within the home.
Carteledge and Milbum (1995) reported the results of Milbmis (1 974) study suggesting that
"teachers rated the skiils concemed with order, cooperative behavior, accepting consequences,
following d e s and directions, avoiding conflict, and basic self-help behavior as more important.
36
They rated as less important the skills that involved initiating contact with others, greeting and
conversation, being assertive in interpersonal relationships, and perf'orming for othersm(p. 1 3).
The implication of these differences in assessrnent is that parents and teachers dBer in terms of
behaviors they are better qualified to rate. According to Edelbrock (1983) parents are generally
better qualified to rate behaviors which occur primarily at home (such as eating, toileting,
bedwetting, and sleeping). Teachers, on the other hami, are better qualifïed to rate behaviors
related to classroom, peer group, acadernic skills, and inattentiveness.
Teachers ratings are likely to provide more objective and reliable information than parent
ratings, because teachers have the opportunity to rate children in cornparison to other children of
the sarne developmental level in a stmctured environment (Beck, 1986; Witt, Heffer & Pfeiffer,
1990). Elliott et al. (1988) and Gresham et al. (1987) described teacher judgements as the most
comprehensive and representative sampling of academic and social behaviors. Greenwood
Waiker & Hops (1 977, as cited in Gresham, 198 1 ) validated teacher ratings of social skills as
compared to observation and sociometric methods and found that teachers ratings were more
accurate measures of children's social behavior than previous researchers have reported.
Gresham, Elliott & Black (1987) and Walker et al. ( 1988, cited in Cartledge & Milburn, 1995)
showed that teacher ratings can accurately identi@ children with various mes of disabilities.
Ratings by nursery school teachea have been found to be more accurate than ratings by
teachers in upper grades. Unlike the fairly structured and formal classroom settings in upper
grades, nursery school teachers have the oppomuiity to interact with children and observe them
in a more informa1 and niendly activity such as spontaneous free play (Mussen & Eisenberg-
Berg, 1977, as cited in Treuting, 1992). There is also less discrepancy between teacher ratings
37
and peer ratings in preschool settings cornpared to elementary school, because the sirnilarity of
the s e thg decreases in elementary school (Treutïng, 1992).
On the other hand, parents' ratings may provide a wider range of information, because
they observe their children iri a variety of settings across a long period of tirne (Hughes, 1990).
At times, however parents are not familiar with the purpose of the assessrnent (McAfee & Leong,
1994) and also rnay not have experience with various types of deviant behaviors (Beck. 1986).
therefore, they rnay overreact to or underestimate the child's deviant behavior. Cartledge and
Milburn (1 995) argue that parents' ratings are less reliable than ratings by teachers and often do
not correlate highly with other measures.
Considering the great nurnber of factors infiuencing the rating of children's behavior.
including the contexts in which the raters see the child and th- nature of interaction between
child and raters, it is not surprishg that the literature shows inconsistencies across different
informants (Hamadah, 1992; Harrison, 1 987; McConaughy, 1993). Achenbach and Edelbrock
( 1 978, as cited in Edelbrock, 1983) summarized the correlations between child behavior ratings
provided by different informants including parents, teachen, and mental health workers. They
found a range of correlations, scattered between .24 and -5 1 for a broad range of scales. In a
meta-analysis (Achenbach, McConaughy & Howell, 1987) of 119 studies in which different
infamants rated the emotionaUbehaviora1 problems of children (1 1/2-19 years old), correlations
between different pain of informants varied depending on the contexts in which children were
evaluated. The mean correlation between ratings of uiformants with similar roles (e.g.,
parentlparent) was .60, whereas, the mean correlation between ratings of informants with
different roles (e-g., parentkeacher) was .28. The average correlation between children's self
38
ratings and ratings by addts was .22. There was a higher correlation between informants for
ex temalhg problems than for the internaking problems Xhere was also disagreement between
mothers' and fathers' reports of their children's behavion, but not in the intemalking and
externalizing domains. Ln a study by Szatmari, Archer, Fisman & Streiner (1 994) the agreement
between parents and teachers on the assessrnent of 83 autistic children, 4-6 years of age, was
examined. Parents and teachers rated each child on the Autism Behavior Checklist (ABC) and
the VABS. The results suggested no agreement between scores provided by parents and teachee
on severity of autistic behaviors on the ABC. However, the patterns of correlations between
Uiformants on the VABS were quite different fiom those on the ABC. There were high
correlations between ratings on measures of adaptive behavior and very low correlations between
parent and teacher versions of the ABC. In addition, Szatmari et ai., (1 994) emphasized that a
systematic difference was found between parents' and teachers' scores on the VABS. Teachers
appeared to rate children between 4-13 points higher than parents on each of the Vineland
subscales. The findings on the VABS reported in this study were consistent with those of
Cicchetti and Sparrow (1989) and inconsistent with those of Achenbach et aL(1987).
Hamadeh's (1 992) review of the literature on the relationships between parents' and
teachers' ratings reveaied that there was little agreement between parent and teacher ratings. In
most of the reviewed -dies (Wall and Paradise, 198 1 ; Spivack, 1980; Bailey, 1979; Heath,
1984; Bruininks, 1987; Mealor & Richmond, 1980; Semmel, VanEvery, & Sitko, 1971) mothers
tended to rate their children higher than did the teachers. Hamadeh (1992) reported the results of
a study by Shaw, Hammer & Leland (1991) that compared teacher and parent ratings of a group
of developmentally delayed children (24-38 month old) on the Adaptive Behavior Scale for
39
Infants and Early Childhood. In this study, parents rated their children higher than did teachers on
some domains including rnaladaptive behaviors. According to Hamadeh (1 992) the researchers
suggested three possibilities that might explain the higher rating by parents compared to teachers:
1. Parents are likely biased in their perceptions of their children's behavion for
emotional reasons,
2. Teachers are less concemed about children's personal maladaptation and more
concemed about children's behaviors that interfere with their teachhg.
3. Children may behave differently within the school setting than they do in other
environments.
Hamadah (1 992) believes that the significance of the variation in children's behavior
across different settings may be the most crucial issue in the adaptive behavior assessrnent
process, because it will lead the assessor to probe further into parents' and teachers' judgrnents for
more data that explain the child's behavior. Parents' higher ratings of their children's adaptive
behavion, compared to teachersf ratings, have been reported by other investigatos (e.g., Heath &
Obmt, 1984; Wall & Paradise, 198 1, as cited in Harrison, 1987).
There have been some studies which have not reported significant differences between
parentsf and teachers' ratings. Harrison (1987) reported the results of several studies in which
parent and teacher ratings of the adaptive behaviors of different groups of children on the VABS
were compared. In a study by ABa, Rider, & Cummings (1 984) the Survey Form and the
Classroom Edition of the VABS were used to assess adaptive behavion of a sample of Head
Start children. The researchers found no differences between mean scores of parents and
teachers, however a correlation of -.O5 between the two informants were reported. Harrison
(1985), Rainwater-Bryant (1985) and Ronka (1984) also found no significant differences
between parents and teachers rating scores.
As can be seen in the literature (e.g., Achenbach et al., 1987; Brocken, 199 1 : Cartledge &
Milbum, 1995; Gresham, 198 1; Hops & Finch, 1982; Kazdin, 1979; Keller, l988), the majority
of the researchers who investigated the relationships between parents' and teachers' ratings of
children's social and behavioral problems, tend to attribute the inconsistencies between the raters
to setting differences. Brocken ( 199 1 ) discussed the environmental influences on a preschool
childs behavior and suggested that the child's behavior in a setting can not be generalized to
other settings, because typical behavior of a child in a relatively more structured environment
such as a day cive centre or kindergarten is different fiom h i d e r behavior in a less structured
environment such as the home. According to Brocken(l990). a better understanding of the childs
typical behavior is possible only if he/she is observed in a variety of settings. Achenbach et al.
( 1987) attributed the differences between parents' ratings and ratings by other sources to the
situational specificity of the social behaviors rather than inaccurate or unreliable informants.
According to these authors, difkent inforrnants rnay provide valid and reliable information even
though they disagree, each providing unique idormation that is not accessible to the other. Based
on this assumption, the differences between a child's perceived functioning in different settings
such as home and school may indicate that different intervention techniques and programs are
needed for the problern reported, or a change in the informant's perceptions of the child would be
appropnate. In any case, multiple assessrnent of the child's functioning is more realistic than
either single evaluation (Achenbach et al, 1987).
Further research on children's social behavior across different settings, focushg on the
41
relationships between parent and teacher perceptions of chiidren's behavior, could be helpful in
obtainùig clarification of the reasons for the variance in Wormants' responses.
Social Vaiiditv of the Ratine Scales
The Iiterature on behavioral assessment indicates that researchers who use rating scales
are concemed about the social validity of these instruments (Cartledge & Milbum, 1995;
Gresham, 1986, 1985; Gresham & Elliott, 1988, 1990; Meadows, Neel, Parker & T h o , 199 1;
Witt et al., 1994; Wolf, 1978). Social validity is the rnost important aspect of the content validity
(Gresham & Elliott, 1990) and reflects the social importance accorded to certain behaviors in the
child's environment or in a given situation by social agents (e.g., teachers and parents) (Wolf,
1978). Social validity is determined through evaluations of the meaningfulness and usefulness of
scale items by consumers and significant members of society (i.e., parents, teachers. students)
(Gresham & Elliot, 1990; Elliot, Busse & Gresham, 1993). The criterion of social validity is
important not only in the use and interpretation of the data provided by behavioral rating scales
(Witt et al., 1994) but also is important in planning intervention prograrns. Without having
representative noms for target children and views obtaùied h m the members of the relevant
comrnunity, it is difftcult to select valid skills to teach desirabie ways of interaction in
interpersonai situations or remediate social ski11 deficits (Cartledge & Milburn, 1995; Witt et al.,
1994). In fact, the social validity of the assessment measures guarantees the value and the
importance of the subsequent instructions or interventions (Cartledge & Milbum, 1995; Witt et
al. 1994). Therefore, the authors of some rating scales investigated the social validity of their
scales by surveying consumers before making decision about which skills should be included in
their scales. Gresham and Elliott (1990), for example, have used a validation procedure in which
42
teachea' and parents' evaluations of a list of social skills behaviors and the reIative importance of
those skills are considered (McCloskey, 1990).
Preschool Education In Iran
Education in Iran has a long history, however modem education, within the framework of
a state run institution, has been carried out only since the last century (Sorkhabi, 1992; Anz-
zadeh 1994). The present educational system was created in 1967, and reformed afler the Islamic
Revolution in 1979. Since that t h e , based on the objectives of the cultural revolution and the
philosophy of the govemors of the Ministry of Education there have been a number of revisions
to the structure and regulations goveniing the educational system. At present, Iran's educational
system includes a five-year primary school, a three-year guidance school, and a four-year high
school. Responsibility for the structure and administration of the system is centralized, with the
Ministry of Education detemiining the curriculum, materials, and books as well as the
responsibility for the employment of staff, regulations governing enrolment and the system of
evaluation used in the program. Regional Boards of Education, while they exist, have Iimited
authority to change the organizational structure or the content of the programs in their
jurisdiction (Sabbaghian, 1992). Since 1990 the trend toward the privatintion of education in
tran has developed rapidly, and has been encouraged by the government.
While prirnary education is mandatory for children in Iran, preschool education is not
officiaily part of the education system. Traditional Islamic schools (Maktab-khaneh) have existed
for centuries. Developed during the establishment of Islam in Iran, they were adjunct to the
mosques and designed to teach young children religious principles and the Koran. The
establishment of secular preschool education, dates back to 1920, when the first preschool centre
43
was established in T e h (Mofidi, 1992). In 1925 and 1927 Jabbar Askarzadeh opened two
preschool programs in Tabriz and in Shiraz A foilower of Froebel, the founder of kindergarten in
Gemany, Askarzadeh cailed his preschools 'Baghche-Atfal' (a linle garden of children) and was
himself known as Baghch-e-Ban (guardian of garden). In 1934, the f k t constitution and
curriculum guidelines for preschool education in Iran were sanctioned by the National Supreme
Council of Culture and Education. This document was considered a cornprehensive reference and
a landmark in the history of preschool education in Iran (Mofidi, 1992).
During the past halfcentury, preschool education in Iran has received inconsistent
attention depending on the socioeconomic and political situation, and the approaches of various
educational authorities. In 1962 an amendment from the office of primary education in the
Ministry of Education increased the number and the quality of preschools for children between
three and six years of age in al1 cities and ensured the accessibility of preschool education for a
wider range of families. In 1963, the 'Council of Childbook' was established to enhance the
quaiity of the books and educational materials provided for preschool children. In 1975, however.
the Ministry of Education excludedchildren under age 5 fiom preschool programs and
established a one year 'readiness' program for five year olds. In 1976, the govemrnent allocated a
budget for each of the ministries to finance the opening of day care centres, supervised by
women's organizations, to meet the needs of their employees with children under the age of five.
In 198 1, shortiy after the revolution, the Department of Social Welfare in the Ministry of Health
was established, and responsibility for the day care centres was transferred to this department
(Mofidi, 1992). During the l98Os, concurrent with the war years between Iran and Iraq, the
number of 'readiness schools' decreased drastically. The shortage of financial resources during
44
this penod was reflected in the opinions of the public and policy makers about the necessity for
preschool education. Tashakkori, Haghighat, and Yousefi (1988) identify two popular beliefs
regarding preschool education in Iran: (a) that preschools are a luxury and the responsibility for
child care should rest either with the family, or where both parents are working, it should be the
responsibility of their employer; (b) that the skills children learn in the preschool setting could be
easily taught later in the elernentary school. These authors assert that it is the prevalence and
penistence of these beliefs which is responsible for the continued neglect of the need for officia1
policies govemuig preschool education and the establishment of public preschools which rvould
be open to al1 Iranian children.
Readiness Schools and Day Care Centes
Presently, there are two kinds of institutions for the care and education of preschool
children in Iran, readiness schools and day care centers. As previously stated, readiness schools
are controlled by the Ministry of Education and open only to children above five years of age. In
1990. there were 227,500 children enrolled in these schools, most of them fkom regions where
Farsi is the officia1 language. in the last six years the number of readiness schools has increased,
primarily within the private sector. While the govemment has announced its intention to extend
readiness schools to economically deprived regions. particularly those areas where ethnic
minorities live, in the new proposal for educational reform preschool education has received little
attention (Sorkhabi, 1992). Recently new guidelines for educational reform have proposed that a
preparatory course be ofTered for five and a half year olds, before they enter primary school, and
that younger children remain outside the purview of the national educational system.
There are three types of day care centres in Iran: those within the Complexes of Social
45
Welfare services, self-contained day cares, and private day cares. Day care centres within social
welfare complexes are few in number and open only to children of poor families whose parents
work. children of working single parents, and children whose parents are divorced, deceased or
pnsoners. They are not well equipped and often provide caretaking rather than educational
services. Self contained day cases are usually located within the factories and industrial centres
and offer services to children of employees. They are fmancially supported by the Company and
by fees paid by parents. The quality of services and programs differ fiom centre tu centre. but are
usually acceptable and augmented by professional assistance fiom psychologists and art teachers.
According to Sorkhabbi (1 992), private day care centers comprise the largest number of
preschool education programs in Iran. They are established according to the p ~ c i p l e s of the
Constitution of the Islamic Republic, and approved by the Mini- of Health and Medical
Education. The mandate of these centers is to keep, care and provide education for healthy
children between the ages of three months and five years. By law, each day care c a ~ o t register
more than 100 children and only women are given permission to open a center. The proprietor
must be at least 22 years of age and both physicalIy and nientally healthy. They must have a
Bachelor's degree in preschool education or in psychology, education, or sociology, and at least
one year of practical practice. They m u t also be Muslim and of Iranian decent (Sorkhabi. 1992).
Women fiom non-Muslim religions which are accepted by the Iranian constitution can apply for
permission to open a day care center, but oniy to serve children fiom their own religious
community. Teachers in private day care centers are responsible for providing educational
programs, supe~s ing the religious and emotional growth of the children, and teaching social
skills. They aiso care for the physical well-being of the child and keep evaluative records on their
46
educational progress (Sorkhabbi, 1992). Curriculum focuses on the religious, social, cognitive,
affective, and physical development of the child and includes activities to enhance language
skills, creativity, thinking, analysing, problem solving skills, and an understanding the Islamic
religion. However, there is no evidence to show to what extent these laws and regdations are
foilowed or whether the quality of the programs provided is satisfactory. What is easily
observable is that the quality of private day care depends largely on the parents' income. The cost
of the program varies widely depending on the area, building, facilities and services, and some of
the centers require such a high fee that only farnilies with very high incomes are able to pay it
(Sorkhabi, 1992).
As in many developing countries, the demand for preschool education for Iranian children
cornes largely firom families in which both parents work. Although Imnian women were involved
in economic activity outside the home prior to the revolution, since that time the rate of working
women has increased as a resdt of changing social and economic factors. The Islarnic
governent has increased educational and professional oppominities for wornen. Iranian women
have also s h o w a growing interest in becoming more independent fhancially. Recent changes in
the fiscal situation in Iran, coupled with the influx of young families in urban areas following the
revoluîion, has meant that the husband's income is frequently not suficient for the family's living
expenses and that young couples may no longer have the assistance of their extended family. As
well, there is an increasing demand for part-tirne day care fkom families in which the mother does
not work, but who believe that their children will benefit fiom eady educational experiences. At
present , preschool education is neither available nor affordable for most of these families, but
the demand for accessible programs and the concern regarding the quality of these centres is
increas ing .
In 1 992 there were 1,887 day care centers in Iran, offering services to 245,3 10 children
(Mofidi. 1992). This number is estimated to represent about 10% of Iranian preschoolen. Most
of these children come fiom families in which both parents work, or families who are able to
afford the cost of private day care. As a resul~ Iranian children enter kindergarten or elementary
schools with a variety of experiences and skills. Some have spent a number of years in a
preschool environment, while othea come directly fiom home with little experience in
socializing with peers or pre-academic skills. Assessrnent of both groups in various domauis can
help educators plan educationai programs and materials at the appropriate level in order to
facilitate the transition to school.
Research on Preschool Education in Iran
A review of the literature reveals little information on preschool education in Iran. Only a
few studies in the area of preschool education in Iran are available, most of which are
unpublished master theses. The one published study in this area was conducted by Tashakkori,
Haghighat, and Yousefi in 1988. In this study the effects of preschool education on the
intelligence and achievement of a group of children living in the city of Shiraz was investigated.
The authors compared a group of elementary school students with preschool experience, with a
group of students without preschool experience. They found significant differences between the
two groups across al1 grades, with the students with preschool experience demonstrating higher
intelligence and achievement scores. They concluded that, preschool education not only had
enhanced the snidents' mental abilities, but that the effects were maintained for a relatively long
period of time during the elementary school years. When the researchers examined the effect of
48
the family's socioeconornic Ievel (SEL) on the performances of the two groups, they found fewer
differences between children of high SEL families as compared to children of Iow SEL families.
They also found that children who had illiterate or less educated fathers had poorer scores in their
intelligence and achievement tests, with a smaller gap between children with preschool
experience. k, children of low SEL families who were deprived of an emiched environment
benefited more from preschool experience. Based on these findings the researchers concluded
that preschool education can be considered as a means of offering enriched and suitable
intervention prograrns to Iranian children particularly to those who live in poor cultural
environments.
hadequate attention to preschool education in the national educational system, shortage
of financial resources, and lack of appropriate psychoeducational devices for assessment are the
rnost important constraints of research with preschool children in Iran.
Summw
Children's social competence signincantly affects their functioning in everyday life and
their future success in a variety of areas. Therefore, it is important for psychologists and other
professionals who work with children to develop their knowledge about the social competence of
children. Social competence is a multifaceted construct influenced by biological, environmental .
and cultural factors. However, the literature Ki the area of social competence suggests that: (a)
there is no general consensus among professionals regarding the dennition of social competence
and how its constitutional variables relate to each other, (b) much of the research on children's
social competence has been conducted with school age children, (c) social competence has been
investigated less in non-western countries, and (d) multiple informants of the same child's social
49
behavior may agree moderately. Therefore, M e r research on various dimensions of social
competence, particularly wiîh younger children, in different settings, and with utilkation of
different informants needs to be done to extend our knowledge of social competence. The results
of these studies cm be used to improve the techniques and assessrnent tools for measuring social
competence and to develop treatment procedures for helping at risk children. Investigating social
cornpetence across cultures may help in providing a universally agreed upon definition of the
construct of social competence in the professional community. In fact, the need for more
clarification in the area of social competence has been suggested by previous investigators
(Elliott et al., 1988; Gresham, 1986; Schneider, 1993; Schneider & Byme. 1989).
Purpose
The purpose of this exploratory study was to extend the literature on the social
competence of children, by investigating teachers' and parents' ratings of the social skills and
adaptive behaviors of a sample of Iranian preschoolers in the city of Shiraz. This topic was
selected for two reasons. First, despite the evidence provided in the literature, that the acquisition
of appropriate social skills during early childhood facilitates successful educational experiences
and enhances healthy social and emotional functioning, this area has received little or no
attention in Iran. It was believed that a study which furthered a theoretical understanding of the
area of children's social com~etenc-, and provided an emprical basis for exarnining the social
cornpetence of Iranian children, could introduce a different field of study in Iran. with
implications for a variety of disciplines including education, psychology and sociology. Second,
one of the factors which has contributed to a lack of understanding of children's social and
emotional fûnctioning in countries like Iran, has been the lack of accessible psychometric
instruments which are culturally appropriate and normed on a sarnple of children from the
specific country. This study translates the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Skilis and the Social
Skills Rating System into Farsi, Iran's national language, and has adapted them to include the
social behaviors which are valued in Iranian society. By doing so, it was believed the shidy
would provide culturaily fair instruments which could be used to facilitate more compre hensive
exploration of this topic in h. It was m e r hoped that the study rnight provide a foundation
for the development and application of these instruments to M e r empirical investigation in the
area of children's social cornpetence in Iran.
To achieve this, the study focused specificdIy on the following questions:
1. Which specific social skills items are the most important skills for Iranian parents and
teachers of preschoolers (social validity )?
2. To what extent are teachen' and parents' rating of Iranian preschoolers social skills and
problem behaviors correlated?
3. To what extent are teachers' and parents' ratings of Iranian preschoolers' adaptive behaviors
correlated?
4. To what extent are parents' ratings of social skills and parents' ratings of adaptive behavior
correlated?
5. To what extent are teachers' ratings of social skills and teachers' ratings of adaptive behaviors
correlated?
6. To what extent are the fiequencies of social skills and adaptive behaviors of Iranian
preschoolers infiuenced by age, sex, and SES factors ?
Chapter Two
Method
Proced_ure
The procedure in this study included two phases: the translation and adaptation of the
instruments, and the data collection.
Phase 0ne:Translation and Adaptation
In phase one several activities were undertaken, according to the guideline suggested by
Geisinger (1 994).
1 . Translation. Four Uistrcments including two preschool foms of the SSRS (Gresham &
Elliott, 1990) and two versions of the VABS: Survey Form and Classroom Edition (Spmow et
al., 1 984; Harrison, 1985) were used in this study. The SSRS-T preschool f o m is a 40 item
rating scale comprised of 30 prosocial and 10 problem behaviors. The SSRS-T should be
completed by the child's teacher. The SSRS-P is a 49 item rating scale (one item is shared
between two subdomains) comprised of 39 prosocial and 10 problem behaviors. The SSRS-P
should be completed by the child's parent or caregiver. A total of 19 items (9 on the Social Skills
Scale and 10 on the Problem Behaviors Scale) are cornmon across the two forms. The VABS-
Survey Form contains 297 items including 261 adaptive behaviors and 36 problem behaviors
(this is for use with chldren over 5 years of age and therefore was not used in this study). The
Survey Form is a semi-structured scale and should be administered to the child's parent or
caregiver. The VABS-Classroorn Edition contains 244 items and should be completed by the
child's teacher. About 80% of the items of the Classroom Edition and the Survey Form are
shared.
52
Al1 of the items of the SSRS Teacher and Parent F o m Preschool Level, and d l of the
items of the VABS Survey Fom and Classroom Edition were fkst translated fiom English to
Farsi by the researcher. Specid attention was paid to reproduce diable versions of these scales
in Farsi. An attempt was made to write the trmslated items in simple sentences in order to ensure
understanding. To check the validity of the translation, a panel was arranged to compare each
item in the translated versions with the original items. The panel was directed by the researcher
and composed of three Iranian Ph.D. students at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education;
one fkom the Department of Human Development and Applied Psychology and two nom the
Modem Language Center (both of whom were English instnictors at Iranian Universities). The
panel members were asked to discuss the validity of the translation on an item-by-item basis. The
panel met three times to refine the changes to the wording and sentence expression of the items.
In order to ensure the equivalent meanings of some af the concepts across both languages, a few
items in each scale (a total of 15) were translated back to EngLish by another native Farsi speaker
who is pmficient in both English and Farsi, and is unfamiliar with the scales. These items were
chosen because it was difficult to find an exact substitute for the concepts in Farsi. For example,
the phmse "make-believe activities" in the item "engages in elaborate make-believe activities,
alone or with others", is an English concept difficult to translate exactiy into Farsi. The
researcher discussed both sets of translations of these items with the Iranian graduate students
who collaborated in the original translation process until an optimal wording close to the onginai
meaning was agreed upon. The procedure of validation of the translation resulted in the
construction of a second draft of the scales in Farsi.
2. Adaptatioa After reviewing the validity of the translation, the panel members met
again to check the fairness of the scales' items for use in Iran. The researcher trained the
53
reviewers to review each scale on an item-by-item basis using the guideline suggested by Tittle
(1982). This activity resulted in the adaptation and elhination of a number of items. For
example, the panel adapted the "money" and "measure" uni& so that they reflected the
appropriate equivalents used in Iran. They also substituted culturally appropriate names for
places, plays, and stories, and expanded the activities in some items, or suggested alternatives for
them, to make the items appropriate for an Iranian context. The item "sets table without
assistance when asked" for example, has been changed to "sets table or cloth without assistance
when asked" and the item "uses stove or microwave oven for cooking" has been changed to "uses
gas stove for cooking". The panel also eliminated 17 items from the VABS-SF and 15 items fiom
the VABS-CE because they were inappropriate for use in Iran. These included items related to
using "irregular plurals" and "writing in cursive" format which were eliminated fkom the
Communication Domain, and the item "fastens seat belt in automobile independently" which was
eliminated fkom the Daily Living Skills Domain. Although some items were modifieci or adapted
in the SSRS-P/T forms no items were eliminated fiom these scales. The item review resulted in
the construction of a third dmft of the Farsi version of the scaies. To increase the faimess of the
items in the third draft, and to ensure that they reflect the Iranian culture, 20 W a n graduate
students fiom different departments in the University of Toronto and their wives were asked to
evaluate the appropriateness of the expression and contents of the items for use in Iran. Al1 of
these families are parents who have children of various ages. The mothers have educationai
degrees ranging fiom high school diplomas to the doctoral level. Although most of the fathers
were students in different areas of engineering, the group also included preschool teachers,
regular and special education teachers, psychologists, nurses, and medical doctors. The purpose
54
of this item evaluation was to correct or to change the wording of ambiguou or unclear items,
and, if necessary, modi@ or eliminate the biased items fkom the third dmft. Each family was
given a copy of the third ciraft of the Farsi versions of the scales, dong with a passage stating the
purpose of the study, a brief discussion on the importance of adaptive behavior and social skills
assessment, and a request to evaluate the items as biased or unbiased for assessing the adaptive
behaviors and social skilis of Iranian children. As well they received a request to comment on the
language and wording of the items. The families were aiso given an adaptation of Tittie's ( 1982)
guideline for item bias review. Based on this guideline, reviewers were asked to judge the items
in terms of the cuituraI background of Lranian children with regard to gender differences.
socioeconomic factors, religious affiliations or beliefs, and parents' and teachers' famiiiarity with
the activity described in an item. They were asked to mark one or more of the above criteria for
designating an item as biased, or to mention their own reasons for identifying it as such. As a
result of this review, one more item (related to ordering own meal in restaurant, which is
assigned for children 8 years of age) was removed fiom VABS-SFKE (Daily Living Skills
Domain) and some of the items in each scale were expressed in simpler sentences. Items were
eliminated if 50% (or more) of the reviewers evaluated them as biased for any reason. The
evaluators were asked to suggest additional items if they thought a particular social or adaptive
behavior is expected fiom M a n children ages 3-5 which was not included in the scales. No
additional adaptive or social skills were suggested for inclusion in the scales.
draft of the i n s t m e 3. Maki= the final nts. Based on the changes resulting fi-om the
previous steps, the final Farsi versions of the scaies were constmcted. The Farsi versions of the
SSRS-TP preschool F o m include the sarne number of items as the original forms, but the
55
number of items in the VABS-SF and in the VABS-CE changed f?om 261 to 243 and fiom 244
to 228 respectively. Based on the developmental order of the items in the Record Booklet of the
VABS-SF, most of the eliminated items were assigned for individuals older than 1 0 years. Only
7 items were assigned for individuals below age 10 (a hypothetical ceiling for preschool
children). The main changes to the items on the SSRS-PTT Preschool Level, and the main
changes to the items on the VABS-SFKE as well as the eliminated items fiom îhese scales, up to
age 10 are presented in Appendix A (Al, A2, A3). The Maladaptive Behavior Domain of the
VABS-SF cornprising 36 items appropriate for individuals older than 5 years, was not used in
this study. The background information sheet and instructions for parents and teachers were
attached to the scales, and the scales' structures were designed in a way that facilitates
administration and testing.
4. Pilot Test of the Scales. Triai administrations of the scaies were conducted with five
parents of Iranian preschool children in Toronto. The purpose of this pilot was: (a) to find out
whether or not the parents understand the instructions, (b) to identifi any potential problems
faced by the respondent in understanding the statements, and by the examiner in the scoring
process, (c) to obtain an idea about the basal and ceiling d e s suggested in the VABS-SF
manual, and (d) to obtain an estimate of the time requirement for each scale. From this pilot test.
it was found that (a) the basal d e suggested in the VABS-SF manual can be applied to Iranian
preschool children, @) the tirne requirement for each scaie may increase due to questions by the
parents, and (c) offering examples of the behaviors cited in the items to parents and teachers
helps them to understand the item and to respond with more confidence. It was also found that
some minor changes in the format of the scales were necessary (i.e., in the titles and the spacing).
56
The information and experience obtained from this activity were usefûl in the data collection
stage and were communicated to the interviewers.
Phase Two: Data Collection
Seîting
The sample for this study was drawn fiom preschool children in the city of Shiraz, the capital
city of Fars province, and the fifth largest urban area in Iran (approximately 900 Kilometres south
of Tehran). The population of this city according to the 1991 Ce- is about 1 million. The city
is well recognized as a tourist center, having a moderate climate as well as many histoncal and
religious monuments. It is also identified as a cultural, educationd, and administrative centre.
Shiraz has one of the oldest and most prestigious univenities in Iran. From a socioeconomic and
industrial point of view Shiraz is arnong the most developed cities in han.
Partici~ants
The parents and teachers of 207 preschool children were asked to rate the social skills and
adaptive behaviors of their children. Participants were 103 females and 104 males, between 36
and 60 months (mean = 48), fiom 14 daycare centres in Shiraz. These were the children attending
the daycare centers whose parents consented to participate in the study. in order to be selected for
the study the children had to be between 3 and 5 years of age, and have attended the daycare for
more than two months. In order to select a representative sample of preschool centers, compnsed
of children fiom families with different socioeconomic statu and educational backgrounds, the
researcher chose 12 preschool centres (among 25) fiom different sub-areas of Shiraz, based on
information obtained fiom local staff about the schools' demographic composition. These centres
included eight private daycare centres (out of 18), two self-contained centers (out of 4), and two
centres located in social welfare complexes (out of 3).
To be able to contact parents and teachers of children, permission for the study was fim
sought fiom the local Department of the Social Welfare. This permission allowed the researcher
to gain access to al1 the preschool cectres in Shiraz (Appendix B 1). The researcher and one of the
interviewers met the director of each of the selected schools to arrange for the data collection.
Prior to contacting the children's parents, the researcher explained the objectives of the study and
the data collection procedure to the school director and then parental consent letters were sent to
parents by teachers. In this letter parents were idormed of the nahue of the study. They were
asked if they would like to participate in the study, and if their child's teacher could have
permission to complete two rating scales assessing hidher social behaviors. The parents were
also assured of the coddentiality of al1 information collected (Appendix B2 and B3). For those
parents who agreed to participate in the study, an appointment was made for an interview to be
conducted at the school. Because the number of parents who agreed to participate in some
schools was low, two schools were selected at a later stage (one private and one fiom a social
welfare complex). On average there were about 15 participants fiom each school included in the
study .
The data for this study was collected in the summer and fa11 of 1995 by the researcher and
ihree interviewers including two who held bachelor in special education, and a Master's student
in educational psychology. The interviewers were recognized as responsible, high achievers in
their university programs, and were recommended by their professors at the Faculty of Education
at Shiraz University. The researcher trained the interviewers in the interviewing style and the
sconng mles before the beginning of data collection. The interviewers were also offered 300
58
Toman (about CDâl) per interview. M e r one week of data collection, a meeting was arranged in
order to exchange information and experiences regarding testing and scoring procedures and to
discuss the questions raised by interviewers.
The SSRS-P and the VABS-SF were adrninistered to parents during interviews conducted
by the researcher and the interviewers. Parents who had a high school diploma or higher
education degree completed the SSRS-P themselves. The respondents rating the subject's
behaviors were primarily mothers (94%) rather than fathers (6%). Subsequent to the parent
interview, the child's teacher was asked to assess the child on the SSRS-T and the VABS-CE
within a week. The researcher taught the teachers how to complete the rating scales and
requested that they observe the student informaily for 2-3 days before completing the scales.
Instmctions were also provided on the forms to familiarize teachers with the rating procedure. A
total of 35 teachers rated the subjects, with an average of about 6 children per teacher. Al1 of the
teachers participating in this study were female. The average experience of teachers was about 8
years (ranging fkom 1-23). In order to promote cornpliance by the teachers, each teacher was
ofTered 300 Toman per child assessed.
The demographic distribution of the study sample was clarified based on the information
provided by parents on the scale booklets. The demographic information included the child's sex
and age, the number of siblings, parents' education, parentsr occupation, teacher's education,
teacher's years of experience, and the area in which the child lived. Demographic data appears in
Appendix B4.
In this study parentst level of education was used as the main critenon of the family's
socioeconomic status (SES). Using parental education as the main indicator of family SES in Iran
has been supported by previous researchen both before and after the Islarnic revolution
(Mehryar, 1972; Mehryar & Tashakkori, 1984). Mehryar and Tashakori (1984) found a close
relationship between a father's education and his occupational stahis md incorne. Also, they
found that compared to less educated fathers, fathers with higher educational attainments had
wives with a higher IeveI of literacy and more culturally emiched home environments. Moreover.
the homes of the higher educated fathen appeared to be more luxurious with a greater number of
rooms, and io modem residential areas of the city. More recent snidies have also used parents'
education as the main predictor of family SES in Iran (Tashakkori, Thompson & Yousefi. 1990;
Yousefi, Shahim, Razavieh, Mehryar, Hosseini & Alboni, 1992). Parents educational attainment
was grouped into eight categories fiom illiterate to doctoral level. However, for the purpose of
data analysis these groups were combined into three larger groups. The low educated group
includes children of families where a maximum of one parent has a high school diploma. The
intermediate educated group includes only children of families where both parents have a high
school diploma. The high educated group includes children of families where at least one parent
has a college education or a univenity degree. Considering the figures in Appendix B4 and the
rate of literacy in Iran, which is about 65% for individuals over 15 years of age (Iranian National
Census Centre, 1991) the parent sarnple in this study was better educated than the general
population of Iran.
Teachers and parents were not provided with feedback about their ratings of the child.
However, they were told that they could ask questions about the child's behavion. The data was
compiled and analysed by the researcher using SPSS programs. Seven subjects were rated only
by their parents and one subject was rated only by his teacher, thus, most of the analyses were
completed on 199 subjects.
Instnunen@
Social Skills rat in^ Svstenl. The Social Skiils Rating System (SSRS; Gresham & Elliott,
1990) is a collection of nom-referenced and multirater instruments for the assessrnent of
children's social behaviors. The SSRS components include three behavior rating scales (parent,
teacher, and student forms) and an assessment-intervention planning record. The SSRS employs
teacher (SSRS-T), parent (SSRS-P), and student (SSRS-S) rating scdes to sample the domains of
social skills, problem behaviors (only the teacher and parent forms), and academic cornpetence
(only the teacher form and oniy for school age children). The teacher and parent forms are
available for three developmental levels: preschool, grades K-6, and grades 7-1 2. The student
self-rating form is available only for grades 3-6 and 7-12. The SSRS Preschool Teacher and
Parent forms measure three subdomains of social skills: Cooperation, Assertion, and Self-
Control. In addition to these subdomains, the Parent Form rneasures a Responsibility subdomain.
B o t . Preschool forms aiso have a Problern Behavior Scale which measures Internalizing
Problems and Extemalizing Problems subdomains. Each social skills subdomain on each form
contains 10 items. The Extemalizing subdomain and Internalizing subdomain on each preschool
form contains 6 and 4 items respectively. The prosocid items are rated on two dimensions: (a)
Frequency, and (b) Importance. The Frequency rating provides information on "how ofien" a
perceived behavior occurs in the classroom or in the home ( 2 = very often, 1 = sometimes. and O
= never). The Importance rating reflects the importance or the social value of the behaviors being
assessed (2 = critical, 1 = important, and O = not important). The Problem Behavioa Domain is
rated only on the Frequency dimension. "Administering the (SSRS) forms is relatively simple
61
and selfexplanatory"(Gresham & Elliott, 1990, p. 1 1). The manual provides detailed procedures
for scoring, interpreting, and identiQing the chilci's strengths and weaknesses. Each SSRS form
requires about 20 minutes to complete and about £ive minutes to score. N o m are available for
three major variables age, sex, and handicap status.
The national standardizatïon sample for the SSRS consisted of 4,170 children.
Approximately equal numbers of male and female students were rated by 1 ,027 parents. 259
teachers, as well as by themselves. These children were selected fiom different racial and ethnic
groups based on the U.S. population distribution and f?om four geographic regions. Handicapped
students including students with learning disabilities, behavioral disorders and developmentai
delays, comprised about 17 percent of the standardkation sample. The standardizatïon sample for
the Preschool Form consisted of 2 12 preschool children rated by 34 teachen and 193 parents
based on the national tryout sample obtained in 1987.
The Reliability and Validity
The SSRS manual provides technical data about reliability and validity of the forms.
Across al1 foms and levels, the median intemal consistency using Cronbach's alpha for the
Social Skills was .90, for the Problem Behaviors scale .84, and for the Academic Competence
scale .95. Coefficient alpha for the Social Skills and Problem Behaviors Scales at the preschool
level are .94 and .82 respectively for the teacher form and .90 and .73 for Parent Form. At the
elementary level, a Cweek test-retest reliability coefficient for the Teacher Form was .85 for
Social Skills, -84 for Problern Behaviors, and -93 for Academic Competence. Coefficients for the
Parent Form for Social Skills were .87 and for Problem Behaviors .65. Test-retest reliability
coefficients for the Preschool Form have not been reported. According to Gresham and Elliott
62
( 1990) a primary reason for the SSRS use of a multirater approach is to get different views of the
subject being rated. In fact, different raters are expected to contribute a unique perspective on the
subject's social behavior. On the other hand, different raters use different scales with Iess than
fi@ percent overlap. Therefore, a very high interrater reliability is not expected.
To establish the constmct validity for the SSRS, Gresham and Elliott (1990), defend a
behavioral assessrnent perspective (Cone, 198 1 ; Gresham, 198Sa; Johnston 62 Pennypacker,
1980) against a classical test theory perspective (Numdly, 1978) and argue that the fluctuations
in SSRS scores due to the situational factors operating in the child's environment provide usehl
information for a functionai analysis of behavior. rather than inaccuracy. They present several
methods which they use to approach the problem of consmict validity. These methods include an
analysis of the patterns of developmental changes, gender differences, intercorrelations,
correlations with other instruments, convergent and discriminant validity, factor analyses. and
group differentiation studies.
Other investigators have examined the psychological properties of the SSRS. Madnani
( 1994) investigated the constmct validity of the SSRS-teacher Form by comparing it with the
Child Behavior Checklist-Teacher Report Form (CBCL-TRF) and the VABS-CE. Correlation
between Total Composite Scores of the SSRS-T and Total Composite Scores of the CBCL-TRF
was low and non-significant (-0.12) suggesting that these instruments measure different aspects
of social skills and can be used to supplement each other. The findings also indicated a
significant positive correlation (0.57. pc.00 1) between the SSRS-T and VABS-CE, suggesting
that both instruments deal with the same measure of a child's social skills and can be used
interchangeably. Flanagan et al. (1996) exarnined the convergent validity of the Social Skills and
63
Problern Behaviors Scales of the Behavior Assessrnent System for Children (E~Asc; Reynolds &
Karnphaus, 1992) and the SSRS on a sample of minority kindergarten chikiren. They found
preliminary convergent validity evidence for both instruments. The correlation between the
BASC Adaptive Skilis Composite and the SSRS Social Skills Scale was .37 @ < .01) for
teachers and -62 @<.O0 1) for parents. The correlations between the Problem Behaviors Scale of
the SSRS and the Probiem Behaviors Subscales of the BASC range fkom Iow to high. For
example, the correlations between the Externalizing Composite and the Intemalking Composite
of the BASC and the Problem Behavion Scale of the SSRS were .55 @<.001) and .26 (ns) for
parents and .55 (p<.OOl) and .37 (p<.Ol) for teachers.
Compared to other fomis, the technical aspects of the SSRS Preschool Forms have
received less investigation (Treuting, 1992). In a study conducted by Bacon (1 990, as cited in
Treuting, 1992), the concurrent validity coefficient between the SSRS and the VABS was -50-
Test-retest reliabilities were in the Iow .701s with a coefficient alpha of -93. Taylor (1 993)
evaiuated the SSRS as a preferable alternative to other rating scaies because it enhances
assessment through the use of multiple ratings, consideration of social vaiidity of behavios, and
assessment-intervention record. However, he criticized the SSRS Preschool Form due to the
small standardization sample.
The Vineland Adaotive Behavior ScalesNABSh The Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales
(Sparrow et al., 1984; Harrison, 1985) is a revision of the Vineland Social Maturity Scale (Doll.
1935, 1965). The VAsS assesses the personal and social sufficiency of handicapped and
nonhandicapped individuds fiom birth through age 19. The VABS is available in three versions:
the Survey Form (SF), the Classroom Edition (CE), and the Expanded Forrn (EF). Each version
64
of the VABS measures adaptive behavior in four domains: Communication, Daily Living Skills,
SocialUation, and Motor Skills. The communication domain includes Receptive, Expressive, and
Written subdomains. The Daily Living Skills domain consists of Personal, Domestic, and
Community subdomains. The Socialkation dornain is divided into Interpersonal Reiationships,
Play and Leisure Time, and Coping Skills. The Motor Skills dornain uicludes Gross and Fine
subdomains. The four adaptive behavior domains together coIlStitute the Adaptive Behavior
Composite which is a measure of general adaptive functioning. The Survey Form and the
Expanded Form include an optional Maladaptive Behavior domain (with no subdomains) for
individuals five years of age and older. The number of items in each domain, subdomain. and
fom is presented in Appendix B5. The VABS versions c m be used separately or together. They
are designed to be administered to a third-party informant who is familiar with the daily activities
of the individual being assessed. N o m are available for each domain and for the Adaptive
Behavior Composite for a wide variety of populations. Standard scores include percentile ranks.
Stanines, Adaptive levels, and Age-equivalent scores . The VABS domains and the Adaptive
Behavior Composite in al1 versions have a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15.
The VABS-SF is a nom-referenced instrument that yields information on the strengths
and weaknesses of the child's adaptive behavior. It was standardized based on a sample
consisting of 3,000 handicapped and nonhandicapped individuals who were stratified by sex,
race or ethnic group, cornrnunity size, region, and parents' level of education based on the 1980
U.S. census. The user of this form obtains information by following a semi-stnictured interview
format with a parent or caregiver. To rnake the administration easy, the items in the Survey Form
Record Booklet are listed according to domain, presented in developmental order within each
65
domain, and are identifïed for each adaptive behavior subdomain. The administration of items in
each domain usually begins at the item suggested for the individual's chronological age and then
basal and ceiling d e s are applied to score appropriate items to the individual's level of
functioning. Each item is scored based on a three-point scale (O = never performed the activity,
1= sometimes or partially performed the activity, and 2 = h a b i W y performed the activity). On
the Survey Form the response N rnay be given to some items indicating that the individual has no
oppominity to perform the activity and the response DIS rnay be given to some items indicating
that the parent or caregiver does not know whether the individual performs the activity. N and
DK responses are assigned 1 point and are added to the totals. The Survey Form Manual includes
the necessary information for admùiistering, scoring, and interpreting the scales. as well as
information about the development, standardization, technical qualities, and normative tables.
Supplementary n o m are also given for special populations. It requires about 20 to 60 minutes to
administer.
The VABS Classroom Edition is also a nom-referenced questionnaire developed for
assessing school-based adaptive behavior (Harrison, 1985). The age range for the Classroom
Edition is fiom 3 to 13 years. Items are arranged on a subdornain basis and administered without
applying basal and ceiling d e s . Teachers are required to rate the student's functionuig, across al1
items, in one of two ways. If the teacher has definite knowledge of the student's ski11 or has had
sufficieut opporhinity to observe the activity described in the item, the item is scored in a column
labelled "Observed Performance". If the teacher is unsure of the child's performance or has had
little opportunity to observe the activity, the item is scored in a column labelled "Estimated
Performance". The teacher assigns a score for each item (2, 1, or O), using the same cntena as the
66
Survey Form under "Observed Performance" or "Estimated Performance". The information about
"Obsewed Performance" and "Estimated Performance" can be used to detennine whether the
teacher knows enough about the child's adaptive skills to be a valid informant for the assessment.
The VABS-CE requires about 20 minutes for a teacher to complete. The normative data for the
VABS-CE is based upon a representative sample of 2,984 Amencan children fkom 3 to 13 years.
closely matched to the 1980 U.S. Census by sex, geographic region, parental education, race or
ethnic group, and community size.
The Reliabilitv and Validitv
The manual of the VABS presents information about three types of reliabilities: interna1
consistency, test-retest, and interrater. Intemal consistency coefficients were determined based on
the split-hdf method. The median split-half reliability coefficients across 15 age groups for the
Survey Form for the Adaptive Behavior Composite is -94 and for the Maladaptive Behavior
Domain is .86. The median intemal consistency for the Adaptive Behavior Composite of the
Classroom Edition is .98. The test-retest reliability coefficients for the S w e y Form Domains and
Adaptive Behavior Composite, within two to four week interval across six age groups, were in
the -80s and -90s. The average test-retest reliability for Maladaptive Behavior Domain was -88.
Interrater reliability coefficients for Survey Form Adaptive Behavior Domains and Adaptive
Behavior Composite range fiom .62 to .75. The reliability of the VABS subdomaim appears to
be poor for some age groups.
Concurrent validity of the VABS was established by comparing it with several tests such
as the Vineland Social Mahirity (Doll, 1965), the AAMD Adaptive Behavior Scale (ABS, Nihira
et al., 19741, the Kahan-Achievernent Battery for Children ( K a h a n & Kaufnian, 1983), the
67
WISC-R (Wechsler, 1974), and the Peabody Pichue Vocabulary Test-Revised (PPVT-Et, Dunn &
D m , 198 1). The resulting correlations were al1 moderate and positive. Correlations between the
VABS and other adaptive behavior scales were higher than correlations between the VABS and
intelligence measures. For example, correlations between the VABS Survey Form Adaptive
Behavior Composite and the K-ABC Mental Processhg and Achievement Scales were -32 and
37 respectively. Correlations between the Adaptive Behavior Domains of the VABS and the
AAMD Adaptive Behavior Scaie subdornains ranged nom .40 to .70 (Sparrow et al. 1 984). ï h e
correlation between the VABS and its predecessor, the Vineland Social Maturity Scale was .55.
The content validity of the VABS in terms of the rationale for the selection of items,
domains, subdornains. and various editions has been based upon severai activities including a
review of the child development literature, a review of other adaptive behavior scales. clinical
experience, application of statistical procedures for each item, and geographical field testing
(Cicchatti & Sparraw, 1990). The discriminant validity of the VABS was estimated by
comparing selected sarnples of special groups of children in the standardization sample. The data
indicated that the VABS differentiated arnong visually handicapped, hearing impaired,
emotionally disturbed, and nonhandicapped children as was expected (Cicchatti & Sparraw.
1990).
A review of the literature indicates that most of the test reviewes are agreed on the
adequacy of the standardization and technicd qualities of the VABS (Anastasi. 1988; Cicchetti &
Sparrow, 1990; Harrison, 1990; Aylward, 1991). The VABS format has also been recognized as
usehl for the purpose of placement and educational programrning (Taylor, 1993).
However, compared to the Survey Fom, the Classroom Edition has been found to be less
68
technically sound. In fact, some reviewen question the practicality of the Classroom Edition
(Sattler, 1990; Taylor, 1993). They consider it to be lengthy and to have some items that teachers
often have littie knowledge about. For example. in the Communication Domain. the teacher must
respond as to whether the child says at least 100 recognized words (Sattier, 1990). Knoff (1 992)
has argued that some of the domains of the Vineland scaies have inadequate floors for preschool
children. For example, the beginnllig item in the written subdomain of the Communication
Domain in the Classroom Edition relates to the child's ability to recite the letters of the alphabet
and the second item relates to his/her ability to identiQ d l the printed letters of the aiphabet-both
upper and lower case. According to Knoff (1 992), inadequate floors clearly lead to psychometric
and diagnostic problems with young children. Reviewers (e-g., Aylward, 1991) have also been
concemed about the low correlations between the scores fiom the Classroom Edition and the
Survey Forrn particularly at the preschool level. Harrison (1990) reported the results of several
studies in which the Vineland Survey Forrn and the Classroom Edition were compared (Arffa et
al. 1984; Harrison, 1985; Rainwater-Bryant. 1985; Ronka, 1984). According to Harrison ( 1 990)
the differences between the scores on the two scales were not generally significant. and the range
of correlations was low to moderate. In one of these studies (Arffa et ai., 1984) which was done
on a group of preschool children in a Head Start Program, correlations between the Survey Form
and the Classroom Edition ranged between -.O5 to .54. Based on these findings Harrison
concluded that the Survey Form and Classroom Edition measure different aspects of the adaptive
behavior and that administering both of them yields a complete picture of the child's adaptive
functioning .
Overall, a review of the literature on the assessrnent of the social-emotiond functioning
69
of preschool children indicates that both the SSRS and the VABS are among the strongest tools
available to educators and psychoiogists. Of the nine criteria that were used in a review of
preschool assessment instruments (Bracken, et al., 1994), the SSRS met al1 except one (inter-
rater reliability = oP.90) and the VABS met al1 except two (median subtest reliabitity = or 2-80
and inter-rater reliability = or > .90).
Chapter Three
Results
The results are presented in the order of the research questions which guided the
statistical analyses. The major statistical procedures include descriptives to compare Iranian
parents' and teachers' ratings of the fiequency and the importance of the social skills and adaptive
behaviors, Pearson product-moment correlations to investigate the relationships between ratings
by parents and teachers, and a senes of MANOVAS to test the influence of sex, age, and parentst
education in ratings of social and adaptive behaviors.
Com~arison of SSRS Importance Ratines bv Parents and Teachers.
The first research question addressed the SSRS items that parents and teachers considered
important for Iranian preschool children. The statisticai means of the Importance Ratings for each
item were used to rank order parents' and teachers' ratings of the importance of specific skills on
the SSRS preschool f o m . Table 1 displays the top ten rank ordered skills deemed important by
parents and teachers of Iranian preschoolers (in order to make a better cornparison. items related
to the Responsibility Subscale which only exists in the Parent Form are not inciuded in the
ranking). As Table 1 shows, within the top ten important items, the number of items related to
each SSRS subscde for parents and teachers is different (Self-Control three and four;
Cooperation three and four; and Assertion four and two for parents and teachers respectively).
Also, the specific skills considered important within each subscde differ for each group of raters.
For example, Self-control items do not represent the same skills in parents' and teachers' lists. A
M e r illustration is that item number 27 " puts away toys (work)" which is a common item in
both preschool forms (included in Cooperation Subscales), is ranked nine in the parents' list,
whereas, it is ranked first in the teachers' iist
Table 1 TOD Ten Im~ortant Items on the SSRS-Parent/Teacher Foms
8 of Iranian bchoolers As rared bv Parents As rated bv Teachers** of Iranian Preschoolen
Rank Item Content*** Mean Subscale**** Jtem Content M e q Subscale II
1 Speaks in appropriate voice 1-84 Self-Control a---
Puts work away 1-78 Cooperation --- -
2 Attends to instructions -
1-82 Self-Control FolIows niles in games 1 -70 Self-control --
3 Comrnunicates problems . -----
1-76 Cooperation Responds appropriately to teasing 1-69 Self-Control C- - -- - . - - -
6 Receivescriticismwell - ---- - 1-67 Assertion Follows directions 1-63 Cooperation - . -. - -
7 1s self-confident -- . - - - - - 1-67 Assertion Tells you when treated unfauly 1-60 Assertion
-A
8 Responds appropriately when hit 1-66 Self-control - ---
10 Expresses feelings when wronged 1-63 Assertion II Receives criticism well 1-53 Self-Control
* N=206
Gives compliments 1-57 Assertion -- - - - - - .
9 Puts away toys - ++
1.65 Coopemtion
** N=35 ** * Items are abreviated, reported fiom Gresham & EHiott ( 1990, p 130, 133) **** Responsibifity Subscale items were not inchded in the ranking
c produces correct work 1-53 Cooperation --- -
However, only 3 items with similar content (follows mies, receives criticism well, and puts away
toydwork) are common across the top ten important items for both infonnants. There is even less
similaity between the bottom five items considered important by parents and teachers. As Table 2
shows, in the parents' list, four of the items considered least important reflect Cooperation and one of
them reflects Assertion, ~ ~ b l e , in the teachers' list, two of the items considered least important reflect
Assertion, two reflect Self-control, and one reflects Cooperation. The means for the top ten and the
bottom five important items indicate the magnitude of difference between items as ranked by parents
and teachers (Tables 1 & 2).
Table 2 Bottom Five Important Items on the SSRS-ParentITeacher F o m
As rated bv parents* of Iranian Preschoole~ As rated bv TeacherP of Iranian ~reschooleq
Rank Item Content*** -- -- -- -- - S u Mew Subscale bscale* * * *
I Helps with tasks 1- 19 Assertion - ---A A - A - - -
2 Attempts household tasks 1-19 Compromises in conflicts --
1.20 Self-Control
3 Starts conversation - - - . . . - - - - - :z Assertion 1 4 Completes tasks
. - -- Cooperation
* * * O ResponsibiIity Subscale items were not included in the ranking *** **Appeared in Farsi Version
Accepts peers' ideas 127 Self-Contro l -- - - - - - Acknowledges compliments 1-28 Assertion - -
5 Volunteers help 1-46 Cooperation
Cornparison of parent and teacher Importance ratings on the SSRS subscales was done in two
stages, because each teacher completed this rating only once, and there were a number of parents'
ratings associated with each teacher. To enable valid statistical comparison one parent nting was
randomly chosen from those associated with each teacher. Subsequently statistical analyses were done.
Table 3 displays the means for the 35 Iranian parents' and teachers' ratings of the importance of social
skills on the SSRS subscales. As Table 3 indicates the social skills considered important by parents of
Iranian preschoolers were different fiom those considered important by teachers of Iranian preschoolers.
Iranian parents appear to stress skills related to Self-control, Assertion, Cooperation. and Responsibility
respectively, whereas Iranian teachers appear to stress skills related to Cooperation, Self-control and
Assertion respectively. Given that each subscale in both the SSRS parent and teacher forms includes ten
items, comparison of means of Importance ratings across al1 subscales also indicates that a larger
number of behaviors are considered either " Important" or "Critical" by parents than by teachers.
Engages and socialkes with new 1.30 Cooperation people when being introduced to them*****
N=206 ** N=35 *** Items are abbreviated, reported from Gresham & Elliott(1990, p. f 30, 133).
Table 3 Means and Standard Deviations of Im~ortance Ratines on SSRS-Parent/Teacher
SSRS-Pmt* SSRS-TeacherS
Subscale &an si2 Main a2 Cooperation 16.03 3.3 1 14.54 3.41
Assertion 16.83 3.00 13.37 3.52
Self-control 17.23 2.91 14.26 3.12
Responsibility 15.59 3.27 - -
Note: Scores are in raw form. Cross-cornparisons cm be made across subscales because each is composed of 10 items. High scores indicate increased importance,
*N=35 --
A MANOVA was administered to h d out whether the means obtained for parents' and
teachers' ratings across ail items on the SSRS subscales were significantly different. Wilks'
lambda main effect was significant, F (5,30)=8.68, p<.0001). Univariate analyses (3 x 2
ANOVA) showed that: (a) parents' importance ratings on ail three SSRS subscales were
significantly higher than teachers' ratings (Responsibility Subscaie was not included in this
analysis), @) both parents and teachers rated Self-Control skills significantiy higher than
Assertion skills, (c) the interaction between parentst and teachers' ratings were not significant. (d)
the differences between parents' and teachers' importance ratings of Cooperation and Assertion
and Cooperation and Self-control were not significant, but the interactions were significant. That
means, teachers considered Cooperation more important than Assertion skills and parents
considered Self-Control more important than Cooperation skills. Examining the means and
standard deviations in Table 3, the effect size for the differences between parents' and teachers'
Importance ratings appears to be about one standard deviation unit, with the parents consistently
rating higher. However, the effect size for within-informant type Importance rating on the SSRS
subscales was not as large as the effect size for between-informant ratings.
The difference between skills considered important by Iranian parents and teachers was
also evidenced by the low correlations between parents' and teachers' ratings of the Importance of
Social Skills on the SSRS items. Pearson correlations between parents' and teachers' rathgs of
the importance of social skills are presented in Table 4. As shown in Table 4, the highest
correlation between raters' Importance ratings of social skills was f o n d for the Cooperation
Subscale (r=.25, ns) and the lowest correlation was found for the Assertion Subscale (F. 14. ns).
Table 4 Correlations Between Parents' and Teachers' Importance Ratin~s of Social Skills on the SSRS-PITT Subscdes
Parents Ratings/Teachers Ratines*
Subscale - r B
Cooperation -25 mS*
Assertion .14 ns
Self-control -17 11s
The low correlations between parents' and teachers' ratings of the importance of the social
skills on the SSRS subscales were also observed when subscales are computed using only items
which are simila. on the parent and teacher f o m (Table 5) (The number of similar items is four.
three, and two for Cooperation, Assertion, and Self-control Subscales respectively).
75
Table 5 rrel ti a ons Between Parents' and Teachers' Im~ortan ce Ratings of Similar Items on the SSRS- Co
P-T Subscales
Subscale
Coo peration
Assertion
Self-Control
Parents Ratinfleachers R a t i n e
r - P
.15 mS*
.O0 I1S
-. 15 m
*N=35 * * ns = nonsignificant
The overall results of the ratings of the importance of the social skills by Iranian parents and
teachers suggest that Iranian parents and teachers value different social skills for their children
within the home and at school environrnents.
Cornparison of the SSRS Frequenc~ Ratines bv Parents and Teachers.
The second research question addressed the relationships between parents' and teachers'
ratings of the fiequency of the social skills and problem behaviors of Iranian preschoolers on the
SSRS. Table 6 contains descriptive statistics including means, standard deviations, and the range
for Total Social Skills, Total Problem Behaviors, and al1 subscaies of the SSRS-PIT for 206
parents' and 200 teachers' ratings. As shown in Table 6, on average, parents of Iranian
preschoolers reported more social skills, as well as more problem behaviors, for their children
than did teachers. The greatest difference in the mean ratings of parents and teachers on the
SSRS subscales for the Iranian sample appears on the Assertion Subscaie. The means for the
Assertion subscale for parents' and teachers' ratings are 14.89 and 10.43 (out of 20) respectively.
Table 6 nformation for the Soc'al Skills Ratine S~stem: Parents Ratine of Descfi~tbe 1 I ' and Teachers'
the Social Skills and Problem Behaviors of the Iranian Preschoolers.
Parents' Ratines* Subscale/Scale M e 0 S p Range
Cooperation 12.56 3.32 3-20
Assertion 14.89 2.77 7-20
Self-control 12.57 3.08 3-19
Responsibility* ** 12.44 3.1 1 4-20
Total-Social S kills 40.01 7.07 22-55
Total Problem Behavior 6.36 332 0-18
Teac hers' Rat inns* * Mean SI) Ran~e
The scores are in raw score foc& and are comparable across subscales because al1 subscales across forms include equal numbers of items. The higher the score on Social Skills scales the better, the lower the score on Problem Behaviors the better * N=206 **N=200 *** For a better cornparison, Responsibility SubscaIe Exciuded From the total-social skills for parents
Correlation coefficients between parents' and teachers' ratings for both social skills and
problem behaviors were low (Table 7). Correlations between comparable social skills subscales
were for Cooperation -12 (ns), for Assertion -24 @ <.005), and for Self-control -.O4 (ns). The
correlation between parents' and teachers' ratings on the SSRS-P/T Total Social Skills was low
and nonsignificant(1=.05). The Responsibility Subscale which only appears on the Parent Form
was excluded frorn the total social skills for parents and correlated with teacher f o m subscales
and total scales separately (Table 7). As shown in Table 7, the correlation between raters on the
SSRS-PR Total Problem Behaviors was also low (F. 19, p < .005). Correlations between
comparable Problem Behaviors subscaies were -1 l(ns) for Intemalizing and .22 (p<.005) for
Extemalizing. Correlations between cross-informant ratings of the Total Social Skilis and the
Total Problem Behavion on the SSRS-PTT were low and negative (Table 7). Only the correlation
between the Total Social Skills rated by teachers and the Total Problem Behaviors rated by
parents was significant (F. 15, p < .OS).
Table 7 Correlations Between Parents' and Teachers' Ratines of Social Skills and Problem Behaviors of the Iranian Preschool Children on the SSRS-Parenfleacher
Teachers Rating COOD Asser S-C Total-SS Inter E r Total-PB
Parent Ratinq
Cooperation -13 .O6 -.O3 .O6 -.O6 -.IO 4 0
Assertion .O8 .24** -.O9 .IO -.Il .14* .O7
S eif-Control .O3 -.O4 -.O4 -.O2 .O4 -.O7 -.O5
Responsibility -14" .16* -.O8 -10 -.O8 -.O0 -.O3
Internalizing -.O3 -. 12 -.O 1 -.O7 .ll -04 .O8
Extemalizing -. 19" -.O9 -.17* -. 16' .O7 .22** .21**
To tal-PB -.16* 4 2 -. 13 -.15* .IO -18" .19** Coop = Cooperation, Asser = Assertion, S-C = Self-ControI, SS= Social Skills, Inter = Internalizing, Exter = Extemalking, PB= Problem Behavior. *p <.O5 **p<.005 * **Responsibility Subscale is excluded from the total-Social Skills for parents
Correlations between cross-informant ratings of similar items on the SSRS-P/T subscales were
also low (Table 8). Cross-informant ratings suggest that, compared to entire subscales,
78
correlations between informants' ratings of the similm items on the SSRS subscales was slightly
higher for Cooperation(r=. 15, p <.OS), and slightly lower for Assertion (r=. 19, p c -0 1 ). On the
Self-control Subscale, correlation between similar items (r=.06, m) was not different from
correlation between entire subscales across raters (Tables 7 & 8). The low number of simila.
items for Cooperation (4), Assertion (3), and Self-control (2) Subscales may afFected these
correlations.
- -
~ a b i e 8 Correlations Between Parents' and Teachers' Ratines of Similar Items on the SSRS Subscaies
Parents Ratindïeachers Ratines
Subscale
Cooperation
Assertion .19 .O 1
Self-control .O6 ns*
When subjected to factor anaiysis, as was expected from the correlation results, the parent
and teacher ratings formed separate factors. Table 9 presents the subscales and associated
varimax-rotated factor loadings for each of the two factors which were derived fiom the
principal-axis method. Factor loadings of .30 or greater were considered as a cutoff for purposes
of interpretation. Factor 1 was labelled the teacher factor because the SSRS-T subscales were
loaded on this factor. Factor 2 was labelled the parent factor because SSRS-P subscaies were
loaded on this factor. The Intemalizuig subscale on the SSRS-P was the only variable which
failed to meet the factor loading criterion of .30. As cm be seen in Table 9, there is no significant
loading of a variable common between two factors. This suggests that iranian parents and
teachers rated social skills of preschoolers differently or as Eiliott et al. (1989) concluded, the
SSRS Preschool Parent Form and the SSRS Preschool Teacher Form are two different measwes
of social skills. The SSRS-Parent Fonn appears to measure home-related social cornpetencies
w hereas the S SRS-Teac her Forrn appears to measure SC hoo 1-related compet encies.
Table 9 Varimax Rotated Princi~al Axis Factor Loading for the SSRS-Parenfleacher for Iranian
Subdomain
S S RS-Parent
Assertion
Cooperation
Responsibility
Self-control
Extemalizing
Intemalizing
SSRS-Teacher
Assertion
Cooperation
Self-Control
Extemalizing
Internalizing
Factor 1
-02959
.O 1953
.O2446
-.O63 89
-. 16634
-.O7700
-71639
.go367
.81801
-.3743 1
-.500 14
Factor 2
.50369
.O7784
-72329
.74063
-.459 15
-.24 126
.12442
.ID77
-.O7632
-.O42 14
-.O703 1
80
It is notable that in the present study the correlations between subscales on the Parent and
Teacher forms of the SSRS ranged fiom moderately low to moderately high. These
intercorrelations are consistent with the pattern of correlations among the subscales of the SSRS
presented for the standardkation sample. Aii social skilis subscales were correlated positively
with each other and negatively with the Problem Behavior subscales across two forms.
Intercorrelations of Problem Behavior subscales were positive. Theses fmdings suggest intemal
consistency for the SSRS subscales as they were rated by the Iranian parents and teachers.
Appendices Cl and C2 show specific subscale and total scale intercorrelations for both parent
and teacher foms. The intemal consistency of test items for the social skills of the SSRS
preschool forms were found to be -84 and .92 for parent and teacher forms respectively.
Cornoarison of the VABS Ratines bv Parents and Teache-
The third research question concemed the relationship between parents' and teachers'
ratings of the adaptive behaviors of Iranian preschoolers. Table 10 presents descriptive
information including means, standard deviations, and the range for the Iranian preschool sample
for subdomains, dornains and Adaptive Behavior Composite of the VABS-SFICE. The
correlations between parents' and teachers' ratings of Iranian preschoolers' adaptive behavion for
the VABS-SFICE subdomains, domains, and Adaptive Behavior Composite are s h o w in Table
1 1. The range of correlations for comparable adaptive behavior subdomains is fiom -.O 1 to -43
and for comparable adaptive behavior domains is fiom -12 to .34. The correlation between the
Adaptive Behavior Composites of the VABS-SFICE is .33 @<.001). (for more detailed
information on the correlations between the VABS-SF and the VABS-CE subdomains see
Appendix C3). Comparing these correlations with the correlations between SSRS-PIT subscaies
indicated that Iranian parents' and teachers' ratings correlated higher on the VABS than on the
SSRS.
Table IO Descriotive Information for the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale-Swev Form/Classroom Edition*
Survev-Forrn(Parent!* * Classroom-Edition(Teacherl** *
Subdomain/Dornain Mean SD Range Mean SD Range
Receptive
Expressive
Written
Communication Domain
Personai
Domestic
Community
Daily Living Skiils Domain
Interpersonal Relationships
Play and Leisure Time
Coping Skills
Sociaiization Domain
Gross
Fine
Motor SküIs Domain
Adaptive Behavior Composite
* About 80% of the items in both forms are identical. The number of items for each subscale for each fom is presented
in Appendk B5 ** N=206 *** N=200
uiterestingly, the lower correlation between parents' and teachers' ratings on the VABS-SFfCE
domains was for Socialization Domain (r=. 12, os), which is consistent with the low correlation
(r=.05, ns) between their ratings on the SSRS Total Social Skills (Table 7).
Table 1 I Correlations Between Parents' and Teachers' Ratine of Adaative Behaviors of Iranian Preschool Sarnple on the VABS-Smev Fonn/Classroom Edition
Receptive
Expressive
Written
Communication Domain
Personal
Domestic
Community
Daily Living Skills Domain
Interpersonal Relationships
Play and Leisure Thne
Coping Skills
Socialization Domain
Gross
Fine
Motor SkiUs Domain
Adaptive Behavior Composite
Table 12 Varimax Rotated Princi~d Axis Factor Loadin~s for the VABS-Survev Fonn/CIassroom Editioq for Iranian Preschool Sarnple
Subdomai~
Survev Fom
Receptive
Expressive
Written
Personal
Domestic
Community
Interpersonal Relationships
Play and Leisure Time
Coping Skills
Gross Motors
Fine Motors
Classroorn Edition
Receptive
Expressive
Written
Personal
Domestic
Community
Interpersonal Relationships
Play and Leisure Time
Coping Skills
Gross Motors
Fine Motors
Factor 1
-02728
-19375
- 1 1257
-06006
-04049
.27396
.O3 162
-.O3269
.O4443
-26532
.28882
-30034
-62 160
-3 141 1
-8075 1
-76846
-79593
-7713 1
-77378
.73938
-547 1 1
-72486
84
Similar to the Iranian parents' and teachers' ratings on the SSRS, principal axis factor analysis of
the Iranian parents' and teachers' ratings on the VABS resulted in two separate factors.
accounting for 45% of the variance (factor loadings are presented in Table 12). The overail
conclusion nom these results is that, across settings, Iranian parents and teachers perceived more
consistent preschoolers' adaptive behaviors on the VABS-SFfCE than their social skills on the
SSRS-P/T. This may in part be due to the greater homogeneity between the two first scales
compared to the second.
Intercorrelations among the VABS domains in the present study ranged from .33 to -60
for the Survey Form (Appendix C4) and fiom .43 to .72 for the CIassroom Edition (Appendix
CS). These correlations are for the most part higher than the intercorrelations among domain
standard scores for the same age group in the standardization sample, specially on the Classroom
Edition. They provide evidence for the intemal consistency of the VABS scales as they were used
in iran.
The Relationships Between the SSRS and the VABS Ratings by Parents and bv Teachen.
Questions number 4 and 5 addressed the relationships between social skills and adaptive
behaviors of the Iranian preschoolers as rated by the same informant. Table 13 presents
correlations between parents' ratings and Table 14 presents correlations between teachers' ratings
of the social skills and the adaptive behaviors of Iranian preschoolers. As is evident fiom the
tables, teachers' ratings on the SSRS-T and on the VABS-CE were correlated higher than parents'
ratings on the SSRS-P and on the VABS-SF. The correlations between SSRS-T subscales and the
VABS-CE domains ranged fiom .28 to .56 whereas the correlations between SSRS-P subscales
and the VABS-SF domains ranged from .16 to .41.
Table 13 Correlations Between Parents' Ratin Parents l Ratings of A d a ~ tive Behaviors of Iranian Preschool Sarnple on the SSRS-P and on the VABS-SF
Assertion
Cooperation
Responsibility
Self-control
Total-Social Skills
Externalizing
Total-Problem Behaviors
Communication Daily Living Skilis
. I7*
.39***
.39***
.29***
.42*@*
-.23***
.O0
-. l7*
VABS-SF
Socialization Motor Skills
78*** .-
.29***
.36***
24***
.38***
-.17*
.O 1
-. 12
Adaptive Sehavior Composite
75 * * * . - .43***
.46***
x***
.48***
-.25***
-.O 1
-. 19**
* p <.O5 **p<.Ol ***p <.O01
Table 14 Correlations Between Teachers' Ratinps of Social Skills and Teachers' Ratines of Adaptive Behaviors of Iranian Preschool Sample on the SSRS-T and on the VABS-CE
SSRS-T
Assertion
Cooperation
Self-Control
Total-Social Ski1 1s
Externalizing
Internalizing
Total-Problem Behaviors
Communication Daily Living Skills
.46*** .47***
.47*** .56***
28*** -36***
.46*** .53***
.12 .O8
-. 17* ,Tl** .-
.O2 -.O2
VABS-CE
Socialization
.49** *
.56***
.41***
.56***
.O2
-.24**
-.O8
Motor Skills
.37***
.46***
29***
.42***
.O9
-. 17*
.O0
Adaptive Behav ior Composite
.52***
-61 ***
.40***
.58***
.O8
- -- 74**
-.O3
The correlation between the SSRS Total Social Skills and the VABS Adaptive Behavior
Composite was .48 (p<.OOl) for parents. while it was .58 for teachers. However. for both parents'
and teachers' ratings the weakest correlation was between Self-control and Communication and
the strongest correlation was between Cooperation (ignoring Responsibility which only exists in
the SSRS-P) and Daily Living Skills (shared with Socialization in teachers' ratings) (Tables 13
and 14). The VABS domain that appeared to have the strongest relationships to the SSRS Total
Social Skills was Socialization for both parents' and teachers' ratings (respectively r=.44. pc.00 1
and r=.56, p4.00 1). Considering the number of similar items on the two measures these results
were expected. The VABS domain which had the lowest correlation with the SSRS Total Social
Skills was Communication, as measured by parents (r=.27, pc.001) and Motor Skills, as
rneasured by teachers ( ~ 4 2 , p<.001) (followed by Communication, r.46, pX.001). Interestingly.
the patterns of relationships between Problem Behavion on the SSRS. and Adaptive Behavion.
on the VABS were reversed for parents and for teachen. Parents' ratings on the VABS-SF
predicted better Extemalizing behaviors on the SSRS-P whereas teachers' ratings on the VABS-
CE predicted better InternaliPng behaviors on the SSRS-T. That means, for the Iranian parents,
the more the child is behaviorally adapted the less the child is extemaiized, whereas, for the
Iranian teachers, the more the child is behaviorally adapted the less the child is intemaiized.
Overall, for the Iranian preschoolers, the correlations between the VABS domains and the SSRS
Problem Behaviors factor, for both parents' and teachers' ratings were low (Tables 1 3 and 14).
However, there was a higher correlation between Total Problem Behaviors and Adaptive
Behavior Composite rated by parents (r-. 1 9, p<0 1 ) than correlations between the same
constructs rated by teachers (-.03, ns). These results suggest that adaptive behaviors, as
87
measured by the VABS cm not adequately predict problem behaviors, as measured by the SSRS.
particularly, upon teachers' ratings. Overall, correlations between both the SSRS-P and the
VABS-SF and the SSRS-T and the VABS-CE provide evidence for the cnterion-validity of these
scales as they were used in Iran.
The Influence of Demomaphic Factors
The final research question concemed the influence of demographic factors in parents'
and teachers' ratings of social and adaptive behaviors of Iranian preschoolers. To investigate the
effects of sex and age on the Iranian preschoolers' social functioning, a MANOVA with repeated
mesures was conducted on the SSRS-PTT subscales as dependent variables, with age and sex as
independent variables. Sex and age were the grouping factors and parents' and teachers' role was
the repeated factor. Multivariate anaiysis indicated a significant main effect for age, F(5, 19 1)=
2.51, pc.05; sex, F(5, 191)= 6.40, pc.005, and role, F(5, 191)=64.06, pc.005. A significant
multivariate effect was also found for sex by role interaction, F(5, 191)=2.30, pc.05. Means and
standard deviations are shown in Table 15 and the results of univariate analyses are shown in
Appendix C6. The results of univariate analyses suggest that, (a) Iranian junior preschoolers were
found to be less cooperative and less intemalized than senior preschoolers, (b) females were
more cooperative and less extemalized than males, (c) teachers rated males higher than femaies
on Extemaking, and (d) parents rated their children higher than teachers on the Assertion,
Extemalking, and Internalizing subscales. A separate analysis of variance was conducted with
the Responsibility Subscale of the SSRS-P to examine the efTects of age and sex on this
subscaie(the Responsibility Subscale was not included in the repeated rneasures MANOVA
because it only exists in the SSRS-P). No signuicant effect was observed.
Table 15 Means and Standard Deviations for Parent.' and Teachers' Ratines of Social Skills and Probfem Behaviors of Imian Preschoolers on the SSRS-P/T bv Aee and Sex G r o u ~ s
Male
Junior Senior
Fernale
Junior %Qk
Su bscale/Scale
Assertion
Cooperation
Responsibility
Parents Ratings
Self-Control 12.27 2.70 12.39 3.54 12.59 3.08 12.97 2-65
Extemalizing 5.00 2.19 4.87 2.69 4.51 2.20 4.37 2-59
Internalizing 1.15 1.43 1.75 1.45 161 1.42 2.04 1.93
SubscaIdScale Teachers Rarin~s
Assertion 10.63 4.64 10.00 4.57 9.68 5.00 : 1.33 5.46
Cooperation 11.90 3.93 11.94 3.44 12.07 4.30 13.64 4.77
Self-control 13.09 3.68 12.71 3.77 13.00 3.58 13.42 4.37
Extemalking 3.95 3.49 4.33 3.49 1.94 2.60 2.53 2.67
Internalizing 1.27 1.67 1.25 1.36 1.1 1 1.61 1.46 1-84
Separate MANOVAS were administered on the VABS-SF and VABS-CE domains to
investigate the effects of age and sex on the Iranian preschoolers' adaptive behaviors. On the
VABS-SF, a significant multivariate main effect was found only for age, F(4, 199)=9.77,
pc.0005 .The results of univariate analyses suggested that senior preschoolers demonstrated more
advanced adaptive skills on al1 VABS-SF domains than junior preschoolers as they were rated by
their parents. Similarly, on the VABS-CE, the ody signincant multivariate main effect was for
age, F(4, 193)=2.77, pC.05. Univariate analyses indicated that Iranian preschool teachers rated
senior preschoolers higher than juniors on the Daily Living and Motor Skills. Means and
standard deviations are displayed in Table 16 and the results of multivariate and univariate
analyses are detailed in Appendk C7.
Table 16 Means and Standard Deviations for Parents' and Teachers' Ratings of Adautive Behaviors of Iranian Preschoolers on the VABS-SFKE bv Ape and Sex Grouus
Male Female
Junior Senior Junior Senior
Su bscale/Scale Parents R a t i n ~
Communication 65.72 4.20 70.71 5.91 66.90 5.12 68.51 4.21
Daily Living Skills 7 1.88 12.35 83.23 16.79 73.68 10.66 79.73 12.1 1
Socializaiion 71 -25 9.78 73.46 13.60 68.59 9.73 71.91 9.58
Motor Skills 58.45 5.34 62.17 7.05 57.64 6.22 62.73 4.87
Subscale/Scale Teachers Ratinm
Communication 59.18 1 1.56 59.69 7.74 55.46 8.85 58.15 8.04
Daily Living Skills 79.88 24.62 8 1.66 19.99 70.37 21.92 8 1-55 22.34
Socialization 50.04 15.85 48.28 12.48 43.03 16.66 46.53 17.17
Motor Skiils 43.25 9.25 45.87 7.67 41.07 8-31 45.37 8.91
A MANOVA with repeated measures was performed to examine the possibiiity of a
parent education effect on the participants' social skiils functioning. Planned contrasts were used
to decompose the overail F into single degree of hedom tests. The first contrast (contrast 1)
compares the low education group with a combined intermediate and high education group. The
second contrast (contrast 2) compares intermediate and high education groups with each other.
The resuits of Multivariate analyses on the SSRS-PTT yielded a significant effect for parent
education, F(10,386)= 1 -94, pC.05; contrast 1 of parent education, F(5, l92)=3 -06, p=.0 1 ; parent
education by role interaction, F(10,384)=2.02, pe.05; contrast 1 of parent education by role
interaction, F(5, 192)=4.00, p<.005; and for role, F(5, 192)=65.50, pc.005. Neither Contrast 2
nor its interactions were significant. Means and standard deviations are displayed in Table 17 and
the results of univariate analyses are shown in the Appendix C8.
Table 1 7 Means and Standard Deviations for Parents' and Teachers' Ratines of Social Skills and Problem Behaviors of Iranian Preschoolers on the SSRS-P/T bv Parent Education
Parent Education
LOW* Intermediate** Hiph***
Mean a2 bk?!l SD Mean 222 Su bscaIe1Sca~e Parents rat in^^
Assertion 14.67 2.56 14.7 f 2.93 1 5.24 2.78
Cooperation 12.75 3.46 1 2.40 3.01 12.34 3 -49
Responsibility 1 1.86 3.37 12.37 2.97 13.17 2.83
Self-Control 12.80 3.38 12.32 2.95 12.53 2.72
Extemalizing 4.67 2.56 4.90 2.3 1 4.46 2.43
Interna1 king 1.97 1.70 1.53 1.54 1.39 1.41
Subscale/ScaIe Teachers Ratin=
Assertion 8.50 4.46 1 1 .O4 4.90 1 1.75 4.86
Cooperation 10.92 3.99 13 .O9 4.00 13.17 4.09
Extemalizing 2.98 3.15 3.45 3.39 3.13 3.18
* Includes chiidren of families whose maximum educational level is a hi& school diplorna. ** Includes only children of families where both parents have a high school diploma ** * Includes children of families where at least one parent has a college education or a university degree
Univariate analyses indicated that, (a) the effect of parent education was significant on the
participants' assertive behaviors, @) children of low educated families were rated significantly
lower on Assertion and Cooperation, and higher on Intemalking than children of combined
intermediate and high educated families, (c) compared to parents, teachers rated children of low
educated families lower than children of combined intermediate and high educated families on
the Assertion, Cooperation, and Self-control subscales.
A separate analysis of variance showed an overall significant effect of parent education.
F(2,203)=3.06, pc.05, and a significant effect of contrast 1 of parent education, F(1.203)=3.86,
p=.05 for the Responsibility Subscale of the SSRS-P.
On the VABS-SF, MANOVA indicated a significant effect for parent education. F(8.
400)=3.78, p<.0005; contrast 1 of parent eaucation, F(4,200)=5.21, p<.005; and contrast 2 of
parent education, F(4,200)=2.54, p<.05. The results of univariate analyses suggest that, children
of low educated families scored lower than children of combined intermediate and hi& educated
families on al1 adaptive behaviors domains as assessed by their parents. Also. children of fmilies
with intermediate education scored lower than children of hi& educated families on al1 domains
except for Motor Skills Domain. SUnilarly, on the VABS-CE, MANOVA indicated a significant
multivariate effect for parent education, F(8,388)=4.53, p<.OO 1, and conûast 1 of parent
education, F(4, 194)=8.46, pc.00 1. The results of univariate analyses showed that teachers of
Iranian preschoolers scored children of low educated families lower than children of combined
intermediate and high educated families on al1 VABS-CE domains. There were no significant
ciifferences between adaptive behaviors of children of intermediate educated families and
children of high educated families. Means and standard deviations are shown in Table 1 8 and the
detailed results of muitivariate and univariate analyses are presented in Appendk C9.
Table 18 chers' Ratiiigs of Adaoti Means and Standard Deviations for Parents' and Tea
lranian Preschoolers on the VABS-SFKE bv Parent Education
Parent Education
L i Q W L Intermediate* * Hieh***
Subscale/Scale
Communication 66.58 5.08 67.84 4.5 1 70.17 5.84
Daily Living Skills 74.92 13.98 76.33 12.37 81.48 15.16
Socidization 68.91 11.69 70.59 10.13 75.05 10.38
Motor Skills 57.97 7.34 60.70 5.2 1 62.44 5.58
SubscaIe/Scale Teachers Ratine
Communication 55.12 8.10 58.85 8 .O2 60.70 10.69
Daily Living Skills 69.05 20.08 80.32 22.04 86.56 22.16
Socialization 38.84 13.33 48.94 14.81 53.96 15.14
Motor Skills 41.08 8.29 44.45 8 -97 46.55 7.82
* Includes chiIdren of families whose maximum educational ievel is a high school diploma ** Includes only children of families where both parents have a high school diplorna *** lncludes children of farnilies where at least one parent has a college education or a university degree
Chapter Four
Discussion
The purpose of the present study was to explore which specific SSRS social skills are the
most valued social behaviors for Iranian preschoolers as rated by their parents and teachers; what
is the relationship between parents' and teaches' Importance ratings of social skills of Iranian
preschoolers; what is the relationship between parents' and teachers' ratings of the kquency of
the social skills and adaptive behavion of Iranian preschoolers; and to what extent social skills
and adaptive behaviors of Iranian preschooles are influenced by age, sex, and parent education
factors.
The Social Skills Rating System-Parenfleacher Preschool forms and the Vineland
Adaptive Behavior Scales-Swey Fomi/Classroom Edition were translated and modified for the
purpose of this study.
The Importance of the SSRS Social Skills for Iranian Parents and te ache^
The first major finding of this study was related to the social validity of the SSRS items
for Iranian parents and teachers. The social validity refes to the social importance of the
behaviors chosen by parents and teachers for successful interactions with others. These behavios
are usually reinforced by society and should be the centre of social interaction remediations
(Gresham & Elliott, 1984, 1990; Kazdin, 1977; Treuting, 1992; Wolf, 1978). The SSRS
Imponance rating was used to document the most critical behaviors perceived as socially
significant by Iranian parents and teachea. The comparison of the top ten most important items
of the SSRS and the comparison of the means of the importance ratings as well as the
correlational analyses indicated that Iranian parents and teachers considered different social skills
94
to be important. Self-control skills and Cooperative skills respectively were the most important
skills that Iranian parents and teachers perceived of as criticai for the development of preschool
children. Previous studies in which the SSRS importance rating was used to document the most
critical behaviors perceived by parents and teachers have resulted in findings which are both
similar to and different from the findings of the present study. Four studies were found in the
literature, three of which (Elliott et al., 1989; Gresham & Eliiott, 1988; Powless & Ellion, 1993)
used an earlier version of the SSRS and therefore it is difficult to compare them with the present
study. The one study in which the new version of the SSRS was used with a sample of preschool
children, was conducted by Treuting(1992). Comparison of the Importance ratings by Iranian
parents and teachers with those of Amencan parents and teachers (of typical group) in Treuting's
(1992) study reveals that five items among the top ten most important items ranked by Amencan
and Iranian parents are similar. These items include: "attends to instructions", "communicates
problems", "expresses feeiings when wronged", "follows de s " , and "is self-confident". The
same number of items were also similar among the top ten most important items ranked by
Amencan and Iranian teachers of preschoolee. These items include: "puts work away". "follows
directions", "waits tum", "participates in games" and "follows d e s in games". The item "pub
work away" ranked first in both lists. Comparison of the present study with Treuting's ( 1992)
study in terms of the Ieast important items also reveais that among the five least i m p o m t items
ranked by the Iranian and Amencan parents and teachers, one item is similar in both parents' and
teachers' Iists. The sllni1a.r item in both cases relates to "offering help without being asked".
As Treuting (1992) reported, and as Powless & Elliott (1993) found, the ski11 "follows
your instructions" was ranked high in al1 of the previous studies across raters and across ages.
95
However, this item did not appear among the ten top most important items ranked by the Iranian
parents. It was ranked 26th by the Iranian Parents. Iranian parents, on the other hand, ranked the
item "attends to your instructions" the second most important skill for their children.
It is important to note that the items "follows your instructions" and "attends to your
instructions" appear on the Self-control Subscale of the SSRS Preschool Parent Form, and that
Iranian parents ranked Self-Control skills as the most important skills for their children.
Surprisingly, however, the Iranian parents chose the second item among the ten top most
important item rather than choosing both. These hdings may suggest that the [ranian parents
rnay expect their young children attend to their instructions rather than just follow them. This
rnay also relate to the concept of politeness embodied in the second item.
On the most recent version of the SSRS Preschool Teacher Form (Gresham & Ellion,
1990), the item "follows your instructions" has been replaced with the item "follows your
directions". This item (follows your directions) was ranked the sixth most important item by
Iranian preschool teachers. In view of the similarities in the content of these two items. the
findings of the present study suggest that unlike Iranian parents, Iranian preschool teachen
considered the skill "following instructions" as an important social ski11 for their students.
Another similarity between the fïndings of the present study and the findings reported by
Treuting (1992) is that at the preschool level, teachers are more concemed with social
interactions rather than control. In the present shidy, Iranian preschool teachers rated sorne peer
interaction skills as the most important behaviors for classroom success. "Gives compliments to
peers", "participates in games", and "responds appropriately to teasing by peers" are examples of
behaviors rated important by Iranian preschool teachers. These findings are inconsistent with
previous studies in which Amencan teachers of school-age children rated peer interaction
behaviors as the least important for classroom success (Gresham & Elliott 1988), and
emphasized behaviors dealing with cornpliance, quietness, academics, and classroom
management (Hersh & Walker, 1983; Waker & Rankin, 1983, as cited in Gresham & Elliott,
1 98 8). Given that peer interactions among school-age children can interfere with academic
activities and classroom control (Gresham & Elliott, l988), the differences between preschool
teachers and teachers of school age children in terms of the importance of peer interaction skills
are reasonable. Another interpretation of the findings of the present study as well as those of
Treuting (1 992) is that unlike upper grades, and regardless of the community, at the preschool
level, socialization and peer interaction activities contribute to successful classroom
management.
Other results of the present study are also consistent with those of Treuting (1992) in that
peer related social skills are more important for preschool teachers while adult-child related
social skills are more important for parents. As show in Table 1, Iranian parents rated important
skills such as "communicates problems", "is liked by others", "receives criticism well", and
"expresses feelings when wronged". While, Iranian teachers rated important skills such as
"responds appropriately to teasing by peers", "waits tum in garnes", and "gives compliments to
peers,
Despite the differences between Iranian and Amencan culture, it seems that in both
societies a discrepancy exists between parents' and teachers' judgements about the most
important social skills for the successful development of preschool children. This was evidenced
b y the Io w correlations between Iranian and American parents' and teac hers' Importance ratings
97
of the SSRS social skills. The average correlation between parentsr and teachers' Importance
ratings of social skills on the SSRS subscales was .19 (ns) in the present study, .O4 in Ellion et al.
(1 989) study' for white and black American's, about -10 for Native Amencan's, and about .O7 for
white American's in Powless and Elliott's (1993) shidy. Although the correlations between both
Iranian parents' and teachers' and Arnerican parents' and teachersr Importance ratings on the
SSRS were Iow, the order of the social skills factors rated important by Iranian parents and
teachers was different fiom that of American parents and teachen . Both Amencan parents and
teachers ranked the cooperative behaviors the highest followed by self-Control and then social
initiating behaviors (assertive behaviors) (Elliott et al., 1989). While Iranian parents ranked first
self-control behaviors, followed by assertive behaviors, and then cooperative behaviors and
Iranian teaches ranked important cooperative, self-control, and assertive behaviors respectively.
The discrepancy between parents' and teachers' Importance ratings of social skills reflec t
the social demands of the situations in which children interact (Baumgart, Filler & Askvig,
199 1 ). According to Baumgart et al. (1 99 l), regardless of the age, American parents see their
children in less socially demanding situations such as in the living room and grocery store than
do teachers in situations such as recess, the cafeteria, and the classroom. Consequently, American
parents may perceive children's social skills as less important. This conclusion is different fiom
the findings reported for the preschool standardization sarnple of the SSRS (Gresham & Elliotf
1 990). In the SSRS manual, the means for Importance ratings on the Cooperation, Assertion. and
Self-control subscales are, on average, higher for parents (12.6) than for teachers (10.5).
However, there is no report as to whether the differences are significant. The results of the
present study are also different fkom those found by Baumgart et ai. (1991). As indicated earlier
(Table, 3), the means provided by iranian parents on the SSRS Importance rating were
significantly higher than those provided by M a n teachers, indicating that Iranian parents place
a greater emphasis on social skiils for their chiidren than do teachers.
The higher importance ratings of social skiils by Iranian parents compared to teachers can
be related to the high aspirations of Iranian families for their children. Traditionally, Iranians
respect education very much and make every atîempt to provide a significant education for their
children (Mehryar & Tashakori, 1984). In fact, the strong tendency among Iranian parents to
provide the best education for their children is a burden for the parents. Due to socioeconomic
changes, this tendency among Iranian families has been increasing in recent years. Regardless of
the child's strengths andor weaknesses, exaggerating hidher abilities is routine in many families.
Also, it is not surpnsing that Iranian parents considered Self-Control skills the most important
social skills for theK children. Although Iranian parents, especially the traditional families,
expect their children to be polite, considerate, quiet, and good listeners, they don? like them to be
open and independent. Self-Control skills help them to discipline their children more easily.
However, the fact that Iranian parents rated assertive skills as the second most important skill for
their chiidren (Table 3) may indicate a change in their expectations for them. It was interesting
for the researcher when during an interview a father said: " 1 dont want my child to be a sheep
anymore, 1 like him to be a woif ". It would be worthwhile investigating the rasons behind such
attitudes.
Cornparison of the means presented in Table 3 and in Table 6 indicate that, among al1
subscales, the greatest difference between Importance ratings and Frequency ratings appears on
the Self-Control Subscale for parents. Based on this fïnding and based on the SSRS guidelines
99
for social skills interventions, among al1 SSRS social skills, Self-Control skills within the home
appear to be behaviors most in need of intervention for Iranian preschoolers. According to
Gresham and Elliott (1990). behaviors which are rated low on "Frequency" and high on
"Importance" scaies identie behaviors most in need of intervention in a particular setting. Ln this
case, intervention strategies should focus on social interactions in which children can pactise
self-control skills. This can be arranged either at home or at school. Teachers c m help parents
increase their knowledge about how to train their children to develop self-control skills. In fact.
parents and teachers need to cornmunicate the child's strengths and weaknesses in order to
enhance hisher social skills in one particular area. Getting a complete picture of the child's
strengths and weaknesses also prevents parents and teachers fiom exerting undue pressures on
the child to achieve a particular social skill. Othenvise, the child may resist developing hidher
skills in that area. In the interest of balance, a child who is too assertive needs to develop some
self-control skills and the child who is too self controlled needs to develop some assertiveness.
The Relationship Between Parents' and Teachers' Ratin~s on the SSRS and on the VABS
The second major finding of the present study is found in the relationship between
parents' and teachers' ratings of the frequency of social skills, problem behaviors, and adaptive
behaviors that occurred for W a n preschoolers.
The correlations between parents' and teachers' ratings of the frequency of occurrence of
social skills for Iranian preschoolers on the SSRS subscales and total scale were low, indicating
little agreement between raters. These correlations are close to the pattern of correlations reported
by Elliott et al. (1989) for a sample of white and black Amencan preschoolers, by Powless and
Elliott (1 993) for a sample of white American preschoolers, and by Treuting (1 992) for a sample
100
of typical preschoolen. However, the average correlation between parents' and teachers' ratings
for Cooperation, Assertion, and SelfControl subscales reported by Treuting (1 992) for Total
group (.33) and for at-risk goup (.30) and by Powless and Elliott (1993) for Native herican
preschoolers (-40 )were higher than the average correlation found in the present shidy (. 13). The
correlation between parents' and teachers' ratings of social skills for the SSRS Total Scale for the
standardization sample was .25 (N= 1 93. pe000 1 ), while this correlation for Iranian preschoolen
was -05 (N=199, ns). Similar to the correlations between parents' and teachers' ratings of social
skills of Iranian preschoolers, correlations between parents' and teachers' ratings of the problem
behaviors of Iranian preschoolers were low. However, consistent with the theoretical and
experimental hdings (Gresham & Elliott, 1990), in the present study, correlations between the
subscales and the Total Problem Behavios across the SSRS preschool foms were positive.
showing a higher and significant correlation for Externalizing Subscale ( ~ 2 2 , p<.005). Also.
consistent with previous research (Elliott & McKinne, 1994; Merreli, 1993, in the present study,
correlations between social skills and problem behavior factors were negative, though the range
of correlations in the present study is smaller than those found in the previous research (Elliott &
McKinne, 1 994; Merrell, 1995).
Total Problem Behaviors and Total Social Skills were negatively correlated on the SSRS-
PTT. Problem Behavior factors were positively correlated on the SSRS-Pm (Table 7). This,
therefore, provides good evidence for the validity of the results of the present study.
On the average, parents of Iranian preschoolers reported more social skills as well as
more problem behaviors for their children than did their teaches. The difference in parents' and
teachers' scores was significantly evident on the Assertion (pc.005) and Externalizing (pc.005)
behavion. This may suggest that lranian preschoolen exhibit assertive and extemalking
behaviors more at home than at school. Cons ide~g that a majority of the items on the Assertion
subscale of the SSRS deal with initiative behaviors and a majority of the items on the
Extemalizing subscale involve arguing and aggression toward others (Gresham & EIliott, 1990).
these fmdings are expected in an Iranian context. Iranian children usually tend to be more
reserved and are encouraged to practice self-restraint, specially when they are dealing with
teachers or datniliar adults. Very similar to the Chinese culture (Chen, Rubin & Sun, 1992), in
Iran, quiet children are called polite or good children. Also, open expression of personai feelings
to others is not encouraged as it is in western societies. As was indicated earlier (Table 3) Iranian
teachers considered assertive behaviors as the least important skills for their students. This may
originate kom the traditional teacher-student relationship in Iran. Ln Iran, as opposed to western
societies, teachers enjoy greater authority in the classroorns, and -dents are expected to respect
their teachers very much and to Men to their instructions attentively and carefully. This is a
behavior that is taught to Iranian children at a very early age.
Overail, the low correlation between Iranian parents' and teachers' reports of preschoolers
social skills indicate that Iranian parents and teaches have different expectations for children at
home and in school senings. This was reflected in their ratings of the importance of the items on
the SSRS. Lack of convergence between parents' and teachers' ratings of the fiequency of
occurrance of social skills in the present study may also indicate that Iranian parents and teachers
may have different observationai skills or opportunities to observe different aspects of the chiid's
social behaviors. Or they may even have different levels of tolerance for childrens' positive and
negative behaviors. Since Iranian children spend more time with their parents than with their
102
teachers, and also since they have the privilege to play and cornmunicate with their peen within
their extended families and in the neighbourhood, Iranian parents have more chance to deal with
their children, observing theu social behaviors in a variety of settings. On the other hand,
teachers rnay have only a restricted opportunity to observe childrens' behaviors in a setting which
is less stnictured and f o d than school settings. Therefore, the finding that Iranian parents and
teachers reported different information on children's social interactions is not surprising.
Another reason for the discrepancy between Lranian parents' and teachers1 reports of
childrens' social behavior may have to do with the fact that chiidren are not expected to behave at
school as they behave within the family. This phenomenon is different fkom what typically
occurs in western societies. In addition to the severe formal structures, schools in Iran are more
af5ected by socio-political factors. Consequently, in Iran, as compared to western societies.
situational factors play a different role in the way parents and teachers perceive children's
behaviors. As a result, one finds in this study a higher discrepancy between Iranian parents' and
teachers' reports of childrens' social behaviors compared to previous western research
(Achenbach et al., 1987; Elliott et al., 1989; Powless & Elliott, 1993).
Because the nurnber of items on the VABS subdomains is different in each form. and
because the Survey Form of the VABS uses basai and ceiling d e s , but the Classroom Edition
does not use these d e s , it was diacult to compare the fkequency of the adaptive behaviors of
Iranian preschoolers on the Survey Form (Parent Fom) with those on the Classroom Edition
(Teacher Form). However, the means for Domestic and Coping Skills subdomains which have
the same number of items on both forms are quite close, showing higher means for parents'
ratings (Table 10).
1 O3
Similar to the findings on the SSRS, the results of the present study indicated that Iranian
parents and teachers perceive and think about adaptive behaviors difFerently. This was evidenced
by the low to moderate correlations between parents' and teachers' scores on the adaptive
behavior domains of the VABS-SF/CE for lranian preschoolers. However, compared to the
correlations between parents' and teachers' ratings on the SSRS-P/T subscales, correlations
between parents' and teachers' ratings of M a n preschoolers' adaptive behaviors on the VABS-
SFKE were higher. The correlation between parents' and teachers' rathgs on the Total-Social
Skills of the SSRS-P/T was -05 (ILS), while the correlation between their ratings on the Composite
Adaptive Behavior of the VABS-SFICE was -33 @<.001). The higher correlation between the
VABS forms, compared to the correlation between the SSRS foms, might in part be due to the
fact that, the VABS items rneasure other areas of chiIdrensl behaviors than socialization which is
the main focus of the SSRS items. The larger nurnber of items as well as the relative objectivity
of the items on the VABS, compared to the items on the SSRS, might also contribute to the
result.
The overall findings of the present study for the adaptive behaviors of the VABS are
consistent with the findings of previous researchers who found low agreement between parents'
and teachers' ratings of adaptive behaviors of children. Harrison (1 987) reported the results of
several studies in which parents and teachers were utilized as informants and correlations
between two raters were low to moderate. In a majority of these studies parents rated participants'
adaptive behaviors higher than did teachers. In a meta-analysis by Achenbach et al., (1 987) the
average interrater correlations was found to be .28. For the standardization sample of the VABS.
correlation between Adaptive Behavior Composite of the Classroom Edition and Adaptive
1 O4
Behavior Composite of the Survey Form was -43, indicating that each edition rneasures different
adaptive behavion (Harrison, 1 985).
The level of correlation between parents' and teachers' ratings of preschoolers' adaptive
behavion suggest that Iranian parents and teachers agreed on Motor Skills, Daily Living Skilis,
Communication Skills, and Socialization Skills Domain respectively. This pattern demonstrates a
trend from the objectivity (personal) to the subjectivity (inter-personal) of behaviors. Among al1
subdomains, Fine Motor Skills and Community Skills subdomains on each VABS Scale.
indicated the largest range of correlations with domains and subdomains on the other scale
(Appendix C3). This means that, on the VABS, Fine Motor Skills and Community Skills
subdomains predicted better adaptive behaviors of Iranian preschoolers in home and school
settings as rated by their parents and teachers. Interestingly, on both Survey Form and Classroom
Edition of the VABS, Fine Motor Subdomain correlated with Socialization Domain at a higher
level than Gross Motor Subdomain. A similar hding was reported by Merrell and Popinga
(1 994). They found that Fine Motor Skills on the Scales of Independent Behavior correlated with
Total Social Skills on the SSRS at a higher level than Gross Motor Skills. Further research needs
to be undertaken to determine whether this result can be replicated and be interpreted as
significant. The smallest range of correlations was for the Receptive Skills Subdornain followed
by Interpersonal Relationships Subdomain. The low and nonsignificant correlation between
parents' and teachers' ratings of Iranian preschoolers' social skills on the SSRS-P/T and the
lowest and nonsignificant correlation (. 12) between their ratings on the Socialization Domain of
the VABS-SFICE, compared to other domains (Table 1 l), suggest that Iranian parents and
teachers rated Iranian preschoolers less similar on the Interpersonal aspects of their social
cornpetence than other aspects.
The scatter plots of the scores for the VABS-SFICE revealed that on the Receptive
Subdomain of the VABS-SF (parent rating) 70% of the scores were loaded on a single score
(Mode=24, range fkom 22 to 26), while, the scores for this Subdomain on the VABS-CE (teacher
rating) were scattered in a wider range (Mode= 19, range from 1 1 to 20). This means that
compared to Iranian teachers, Iranian parents rated their c hildren's receptive skills more similarly .
This might be due to the fact that parents have no noms to use as a ba i s for ratings. Also, it was
found that scores on the Written Subdomain of both VABS scales were not distributed in a
normal pattern. The scores on the Written Subdomain of both forms, specially on the SF were
obviously skewed. Specifically, 73% of the subjects on the Written Subdomain of the SF and
44% of them on the Written Subdomain of the CE were scored O by their parents and their
teacher respectively. This finding supports Knoff s (1 992) suggestion that the Written Subdomain
of the VABS scales have inadequate floors for preschool children. In addition, as the VABS
reviewers (e.g., Aylward, 199 1 ; Sanler, 1990; Taylor, 1993) reporte4 there were many items on
the VABS-CE subdomains, particularly on the Domestic Subdomain, which Iranian preschool
teachers had to respond to by guessing, due to a lack of knowledge or having no opportunity to
observe the child's behaviors in those areas. These hdings explah why the correlations between
parents' and teachersf ratings on the cited subdomains were low. They also suggest that these
subdomains are not appropriate for use with preschool children.
Similar to several studies reviewed by Keller (1988), especially those with minority
groups, in the present study within-informant @arent/parent or teachedteacher) correlations were
higher than between-informant (parentkeacher) correlations on the social and adaptive behavior
1 O6
measures. This pattern was observed more clearly for the teacher measures. Moderately high
correlations between the Adaptive Behavior Composite of the VABS-SF/CE and Total Social
Skills of the SSRS-PD' (compared to the lower correlations between the VABS forms and the
SSRS forms) not only suggests that the rater-ratee relationship influenced the assessrnent of
childrens' social competence but also suggests that parent and teacher forms of the VABS and the
SSRS measured different aspects of social competence. The only comparable study in which both
the SSRS and the VABS were utilized (Madnani, 1994) showed findings very simila. to the
present study. Madnani (1994) found a correlation of .57 (pc.001) between the SSRS-T Total
Social Skills and the VABS-CE Composite Score for teachers' ratings. In the present study, the
correlation between the Adaptive Behavior Composite of the VABS and the Total-Social Skills
on the SSRS was .48 (pc.00 1) for parents and .58 @<.O0 1) for teachers. Madnani (1 994) reponed
correlations between only three VABS-CE subdomains with the SSRS-T social skills subscales.
These correlations are comparable with the correlations obtained for the similar factors in the
present study (for example, correlations between Interpersonal Relationships, Play and Leisure
Time. and Coping Skills subdomains of the VABS-CE and the Assertion Subscale of the SSRS-
T in Macinani's (1994) study were respectively -50, -39, and .44. These correlations in the present
study were .49, Al, and -39). Correlations between the same informants' ratings in the present
study are also comparable to those reported by Merrell and Popinga (1994) for a sample of
kindergarten through third grade shidents with various disabilities. Merrell and Popinga found a
correlation of .46 between parents' ratings of the Scales of Independent Behavior (SIB,
Bniininks, Woodcock, Weatherman, & Hill, 1984) Broad Independence Total and their ratings
on the SSRS Total Social Skills .
1 O7
The resuits of the present study for the relationship between the SSRS Problem Behaviors
factor and the VABS domains were also similar to those found by Merrell and Popinga ( 1 994) in
terms of the relationship between the SSRS Problem Behaviors and the SIB clusters. The range
of correlations between the SIB cIusters and the SSRS Problem Behaviors was fkom -. 18 to -18 in
Merrell and Popinga's (1994) study. In the present study the range of correlations between the
SSRS Total Problem Behaviors and the VABS domains was from -. 12 to -. 17 for parents and
from -.O2 to -.O8 for teachers. Merrell and Popinga (1994) found the highest correlations between
the Socialization cluster of the SIB and the SSRS subscales. Similady, in the present study. the
highest correlations were beîween the VABS Socialization Domain and the SSRS subscales for
both parents and teachers (Tables 14 and 15). Despite these low correlations, the overail results
of the correlational analyses on the Iranian parents' and teachers' ratings on the SSRS and VABS
measures provide evidence for the constnict-related validity of the these instruments for use in
Iran.
The Influence of Demoqphic Variables
The final major hdings of the present snidy addressed questions regarding the influence
of age, sex, and parent education on the social skills and adaptive behaviors of Iranian
preschoolers.
There is little evidence in the previous literature showing a strong relationshi p between
social skills and age (Gresham & Elliott, 1990). Using a sample of over 100 three-and four-year-
olds Canadian preschoolers in her shidy, Wright (1 980) concluded that her results were
inconclusive as far as the relative importance of preschool expenence and age in the production
of social skills gains are concemed. Waker and McConnell(1988, as cited in Gresham & EIliott,
1 O8
1990) also "found correlations that 'approximated zero' between grade level and each of the three
subscaies of their test" (p. 120). Similarly, the developers of the SSRS (Gresham & Ellion, 1990)
found no consistent developmental trends between social skills and age. n i e resuits of the
present study, however, indicated a relationship between age and the Cooperation and
Intemaiizing subscales of the SSRS, with lower scores for junior preschoolers. These findings
suggest that young lranian children improve their cooperative skills and exhibit more
intemalizing behaviors as they grow up. Because of the lack of recorded information on the
length of attending preschool for each child it is difficult to Say, whether higher cooperative
skills was as a result of having more interactions with peers, responding to preschool
environment demands, or due to developmental factors. Although a combination of intemal
factors, familial factors, and school related factors might be involved in higher internalizing
behaviors for older children, the information is not adequate to emphasize one over the others.
Unlike age, previous research indicated a significant effect of gender in the development
of social behavion (Crombie, 1988; Elliott et al., 1989; Halle, 1985; Block 1983). The authors
of the SSRS (Gresham & Elliott, 1990) found gender to be the most important characteristic of
the child associated with differences in social skills. They provided separate noms for boys and
girls in the SSRS manual. in the SSRS standardization study, girls were rated higher on the social
skills subscales, whereas, boys were rated higher on the problem behaviors factor. The same
results were found by Elliott et al. (1989) on a sample of preschool children. Consistent with
these -dies, in the present study, gender was associated with social skills. For example, the
findings indicated that Iranian male preschoolers were rated as having higher extemalizing
problems than females and femaies were rated as having more cooperative skills than males.
1 O9
These differences were expected for the Iranian context. In the Islamic societies such as Iran,
fernale children are expected to identi& themselves more with the motherhood role and be more
cooperative in household tasks than boys are.They are also expected to be more obedient. kind.
and gentle than boys fiom the very earliest age. It is more accepted for boys, to be outgoing and
less cooperative in houshold tasks.
In tems of age effects on adaptive behavior, the results of the present study supported
previous research (Harrison, 1 985; Sparrow et al., 1 984) and the theoretical fiameworks (e.g.,
Grossman, 1983; Harrison, 199 1, 1990) suggesting that adaptive behavior increases with age.
The fmdings indicated that, on the VABS-SF, Iranian senior preschoolers were rated significantly
higher than juniors in al1 domains. On the VABS-CE, though the means for seniors were higher
than the means for juniors in al1 domains, the differences were significantly higher only in the
Daily Living and Motor Skills domains. The fmding that teachers did not rate senior preschoolers
higher than juniors on two domains, particularly on the Communication Domain is questionable.
considering that compared to other domains a larger number of items on the Communication
Domain represent academic-related skills in Expresive and Written language areas which
essentially children acquire in school. These findings rnight also be due to the eEect of the
inadequate floor for the Communication Domain on the VABS-CE.
Although the multivariate effect of gender was not significant for both parentsf and
teachers' ratings on the VABS, univariate analyses were significant for teachers' ratings on the
Communication and Socialization domains of the VABS-CE, with higher means for boys. The
higher scores given by teachers to Iranian boys on the Communication and Socialization domains
were expected because in Iran boys are encouraged more than girls to cornmunicate and to
110
engage in social activities. In fact, there are many social n o m which are different for boys and
girls in Iran. These social n o m may not be expected to be demonstrated by preschool children,
but they are expected from older children. Most of these social n o m corne fiom the Islamic
codes of behaviors and usually are applied more to girls than to boys. Some of these n o m
include behavion such as dressing, groo~ning, smoking, and social interactions. Neither the
SSRS nor the VABS are sensitive to the subtle gender role expectations in Iran.
The findïngs of the present study regarding gender differences in adaptive behavior are
inconsistent with the previous research. On the VABS-SFKE, for the standardization sample
(Harrison, 1985; Sparrow et al., 1984), the mean standard scores obtained for females were
higher than those obtained for males. Also, the technicd manual of the Adaptive Behavior
Inventory for Children (ABIC, Mercer, 1979, cited in Keller, 1988) reported more adaptive
behaviors for females than for males across al1 domains.
The results of the present study indicated that socioeconomic factors Muenced the social
and adaptive behaviors of M a n Preschool children. As the findings suggested, children of
families with lower socioeconomic status (SES. defined by parent education) manifested social
and adaptive functioning lower than children of families with higher SES. Overd , on the SSRS.
compared to children of families with intermediate and higher education, children of families
with low education scored lower on the Assertion, Cooperation, and Responsibility subscales.
Differences were mainly observed on the scores given by teachers. These finduigs rnay suggest
that more educated parents provide richer environment to develop assertive, cooperative, and
responsible behaviors in theu children. In Iran, families with different SES have different child
rearing styles as well as different expectations fiom children. Parents with higher education are
more sensitive and concemed about their children's sociai behaviors than parants with low
education. In fact, families with low education carmot af5ord many social and cultural activities
such as hobbies, entertainment, plays, and art activities which contribute to the development of
social behaviors in children. It is also accepted that families with lower education (mostly
traditional families), encourage their children less than families with higher education to
socialize with peers and initiate and participate in conversations with others. The former family
group descnbes the quiet or polite child as "good" more frequently than the latter family group.
This might also be a reason for the finding that children of families with a lower education
obtained higher intemalizing scores than children of families with high education .
One interesting finding was the disagreement between parents and teachers on the
evduation of the social skills of children from different SES. The disagreement appeared on
teacher scores for Assertion, Cooperation, and Self-Control skills. giving iower scores for
children of families with less education. These findings might be interpreted in different ways:
(a) teachen have higher expectations or standards than families with less education for social
behaviors, (b) farnilies with low education are not aware of the noms or standards for social
behaviors. (c) teachers might be biased in favor of children of farnilies with greater education and
underestimate the social behaviors of children of farnilies with less education. Another
interesting finding regarding Iranian preschoolers' social skills is that there was no signi ficant
differences between the sociai skills of chiidren of families with intermediate education and
children of families with high education. This may indicate that having parents with a hi&
school diploma means having children with better social skills.
With the adaptive behavior scales, significant differences were found between children of
families with low education and children of families with intermediate and high education for
both parents' and teachers' ratings across d l domains. However, ualike the findings on the social
skills subscales, on the adaptive behavior domains, not only did parents with low education rate
their children significantly lower than did parents with intemediate and high education, but also
parents with intermediate education rated their children significantly lower than did parents with
high education (except on Motor Skills Domain). Therefore, the higher the level of parents'
education, the higher the adaptive functioning of their children in the Communication, Daily
Living Skills, and Socialization domains.
In Iran, more educated families provide a richer environment in their homes and
participate in sociocultural activities more than less educated families. For example, they read
books and newspaperes and use audio and video facilities, and telephone more kequently than
less educated families. Considering that many items on the VABS represent skills related to these
resources, the higher scores on the adaptive scale for children with more educated parents
compared to those of less educated parents is not surprising. Overall, the findings of the present
study support the findings of other studies (Ellion et al., 1989; Fombonne & Achard, 1993;
Harrison, 1985; Sparrow et al., 1984; Tashakkori et al., 1988; Tombokan-Runtukahu & Nitko,
1992; Wright, 1980) suggesting that SES is an important factor in the development of social and
adaptive functioning in children .
In conclusion, the results of the the present study indicate that (a) Iranian parents and
teachers value different social skills for preschool children; (b) Iranian preschoolers' social skills
and adaptive behaviors differ fiom home to school; (c) cultural and demographic factors also
influence the social and adaptive fimctioning of Iranian preschoolers. These results support
113
previous research showing that a child's social and adaptive functioning varies fiom one setting
to another and that persons with different roles and relationships with the child may report on
hisher behavion differently. The results of the present study also provide evidence for the
convergent validity of the modified forms of the VABS and the SSRS in the Iranian context.
Overall, the results of this study were more consistent with previous research (see Achenbach et
al., 1987) supporting the situational specifity of the social competence than those supporting the
stability of behaviours across situations. Social siulls were more situationally specific than
adaptive behaviours.
Imdications
Deficits in social competence have serious impacts on children's social and emotional
adjustment as well as on their educational potential (see Atkins-Burnett, 1997; Cartledge &
Milbtm, 1995; Elliott & McKinnie, 1994; Parker & Asher, 1987). Early identification and
intervention of social and adaptive behavior deficits in children who have not mastered age
appropriate skills help them develop adequate social and adaptive skills within the home and
schooi settings (Guralnick, 1990; Harrison, 199 1 ; Odom et al., 1992; Paget & Nagle, 1986).
Unfomuiately, these services are not available to Iranian children. It is hoped that the content and
the results of the present study will help Iranian psychologists and educators to enhance their
knowledge in the area of children's social competence and as a result pay more attention ro this
area in their practices and theu teachings.
The results of the present study regarding parents' and teachers' perceptions of the
importance of social skills provide preschool centres and curriculum designers with the
knowledge that there is a discrepancy between parents and teachers when valuing social
114
behaviors. The resuits also help them to know which specific social skills are socially appropriate
in the view of Iranian parents and teachers. The inclusion of the behaviors, which are sociaiiy
important to parents and teachers in the curriculum, yields positive outcornes such as successful
peer and aduit interaction for children. It also facilitates rernediating behaviors that should be
changed. Further, it prevents inappropriate reinforcement or punishment of the behaviors which
arise fiom the misunderstanding of expectations or the existence of double standards. As stated
by Achenbach et al. (1 987), the differences between a child's social and behavioral functioning
reported by parents and teachers may indicate that there is a need for different intervention
techniques and objectives to be used at home and at school.
The experience obtained during data collection and the outcome of the translation and
adaptation procedures as well as the findings of the present study can be considered as a
preliminary attempt at standardization of the instruments for Iranian children and in making other
social competence measures sensitive to Iranian culture. There is hope that the findings of this
study raise some questions for Iranian researchen interested in the area of children's social
competence. The results of such studies will help Iranian teachers to serve young chiidren more
effectively. In particular, the results would be helpfid to those with social and adaptive
functioning deficits. The findings of the present study regarding Iranian preschoolers' social and
adaptive behaviors and their parents' and teachers' perceptions of children's behaviors add to the
body of the information in the relevant literature and help researchers interested in cross-cultural
studies enhance their understanding of the area. The findings regarding the infiuence of
demographic factors suggest that any attempt to improve childrens' social hctioning must take
into account contextuai factors.
&ggestions for Future Research
To investigate M e r the validity of the results of the present study, research using
similar instruments with a similar sample of preschoolers is recommended. Comparative studies
using other sources of information, rnethods, and other measures of social competence would be
informative. This study could be replicated with different groups of children including children
with various disabilities. The results of studies with special needs children would develop our
understanding of the constnict of social competence in general and provide valuable information
about the adaptive behavior and social skills of children with special needs in Iran.
The adaptation and the application of the SSRS and the VABS in this study provided a
tentative version of these scales in Farsi that are linguistically and culturally appropriate for use
in Iran. Further professional evaluation of these scaies and utilization of these scales by other
investigators will help in the standardization of these scales in iran. This work will lead to the
development of an independent and national social competence scale.
It should be remembered that Iran is a multi-ethnic country with a considerable number of
different ethnic and social groups. Therefore, the generalizability of the findings of this study to
al1 Iranian preschoolers and their teachers and parents is limited. Conducting sirnilar studies with
samples from other regions of the country is recommended. Investigating the social significance
of social skills across other age groups will provide information about which social skills iranian
parents and teachers think are important for older children. This information can be used to plan
intervention programs for children with inadequate social cornpetencies.
To investigate the effects of preschool education on the findings of the present snidy.
research on the social skills and adaptive behaviors of non-attending preschool children is
needed.
Although the interviewers were trained in interviewhg and scoring procedures. in the
present study the effect of the in te~ewers on the results was not Uivestigated. In fùture the
possibility of interviewer effects need to be investigated.
Finally, as Hamadah (1992) suggested one area of research that can shed light on the
findings of studies in which the relationships between parents' and teachers' ratings are
investigated is to examine how dBerent teachers perceive the same child's behaviors and how
mothers and fathers individually perceive theu children's social behaviors.
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Appendix Al Items changed in the SSRS
Domains/Subdornains. Number of the Item. Content of the Item in SSRS- ParentITeacher (SSRS-PiTl. Content of the Item in SSRS- P/T-Farsi Version[FV)
Domain /Subdomain No. of the item* Content of the item in SSRS-P(T) Content of the item in SSRS-P-FV
Cooperat ion
Assertion
Responsibility
8(12) Introduces herself or himself to new people Engages and socializes with new without being told people when being introduced to
them.
Invites others to your home Invites hislher freinds or peers to your home
Congratulates family members on responds verbally and positively to the accomplishrnents. success of fainily members
Attends to speakers at meetings such as in Attends to speakers at meetings such church or youth groups. as in mosque or youth groups.
Self-Control - - - The number of the items in SSRS-T appear in parenihesis.
Appendix A2 Items chan~ed in the VABS-SF
Version(FV) * Domain /Subdomain No. of the Item Content of the Item in VABS-SF Content of the Item in VABS-SF-FV
Communication Romain . .
Recept ive
Expressive
Written
Daily L i v u m Do . . mai^
Personal
Domestic
Community
Cornmunity
-
Uses "a" and "the" in phrases or sentences
Uses irregular plurals.
Writes in cursive most of the t h e .
Dresses in anticipation of changes in weather without being reminded.
Sets table with assistance
Clears table of breakable items.
Sets table without assistance when asked
Uses stove or microwave oven for cooking
Obeys traffic lights and Walk aiid Doii't Walk signs
States value of penny, nickel, dinie, aiid quarier,
No equivalent
No equivalent
No equivalent
Dresses in accordance with weather condition without being reminded.
Sets table or cloth with assistance
Clears table or cloth of breakable items,
Sets table or cloth without assistance when asked
Uses gas stove for cooking.
No equivalent
Recognizes "Panj Rialy". "Dah Rialy", "Beest Rialyw,and "Pani Ah Riallv" .
Appendix A2 (cont.)
Domain ISubdomain
Interpersonal Relationships
Play and Leisure Time
Coping S kills
Gross
Fine
Item No. VABS-SF
Orders own complete meal in restaurant.
Has a preferred fiiend of either sex
Engages in elaborate make-believe activities, alone or with others.
Plays more than one board or card game requiring ski11 and decision making.
Pedals tricycle or other three- wheeled vehicle for at least six feet
Catches small bal1 thrown h m a distance of 10 feet, even if moving is necessary to catch it.
VABS-SF-FV
No equivalent
At least has one close friend
Engages in imaginative or fantasy plays, alone or with others.
No equivalent
Pedals tricycle or other three-wheeled vehicle for at least two meters.
Catches small bal1 thrown from a distance of 3 meters, even if moving necessary to catch it.
* Changes in persons' names are not reported
Appendix A3 jtems C b e d in the VABS-CE D o m a IISubUain,
umber of th e Item. Content O f the Item in VABS-Classroom Edition(CE). Con - - rlr . . tent of the Item in VABS CE Farsi VersionlFV)
No. of the Content of the Item in VABS-CE Content of the Item in VABS-CE-FV 1 tem
Communication Domaiq . .
Receptive
Expressive
Written
-
Uses "a" and "the" in phrases or sentences
Uses inegular plurals.
Articulates clearly, without sound substitutions.(Examples of sound substitutions are "fiow" for throw and " wabbit" for rabbit.
Identifies al1 printed letters of the alphabet, uppercase and lowercase
Reads simple stories(for example, The Cat in the Hat or Little Bear) to a listener.
Writes in cursive most of the time.
- No equivalent
No equivalent
Articulates clearly, without sound substitutions. (Examples of sound substitutions are "germez" for ghermez" and "goshashtam" for "gozashtam".
Identifies al1 printed letters of the alphabet, continued and discrete.
Reads simple stories(for example, Fox and Ciconiidae or Deer and Turtle.
No equivalent
Cares for al1 toileting needs, including Cares for al1 toileting needs, including flushing toilet and washing hands, without washing oneself after easing nature and assistance. washing hands, without assistance.
Appendix A3 (cont.)
Domain /Subdomain
Persona1
Domestic
Community
Item No, VABS-CE
36 Dresses in anticipation of changes in weather without being reminded. (for example, the child takes an umbrella or raincoat if rain is likely).
Clears table of breakable items.
Sets table with assistance ... Sets table correctly and without assistance, when asked.(The child must also take the tableware fiom the storage place).
Uses stove or microwave oven for cooking, without assistance.
Obeys trafic lights and Walk and Don't Walk signs.
Fastens seat belt in automobile, without assistance and without being reminded.
States value (in cents) of penny, nickel, dime, and quarter. (if the child states the value of one, two, or three of these coins, score 1 ).
Correctly counts change from purcliase costing more than a dollar
VABS-CE-FV
Dresses in accordance with weather condition without being reminded. ( for example, the child takes hisher jacket when the weather is cold)
Clears table or cloth of breakable items.
Sets table or cloth with assistance,..
Sets table or cloth correctly and without assistance, when asked. (The child must also take the cloth from the storage place).
Uses gas stove for cooking, without assistance.
No equivalent
No equivalent
Recognizes "Pangi Rialy ", "Dah Rialy ", "Beest Rialy", and "Panj Ah Rial y". (If the child recognizes one, two, or three of these coins, score 1 ).
Correct1 y counts change from purchase costing more than hundred Toman.
Appendix A3 (cont.)
Dornain ISubdomain
Comrnunity
. . . ocialization Domain
Interpersonal Relationships
Play and Leisure Time
Coping Skills
otor SkillsDomah
Gross
Item No. VABS-CE VABS-CE-FV
28 Orders own cornplete meal ... in restaurant.. . .
No equivalent
38 Uses d e r , tape measure, or other Uses ruler, tape measure, or other measuring device to measure in inches and measuring device to measure in feet. centimetr and meter,
Has a preferred friend of either sex... At least has one close fiiend ... Engages in elaborate make-believe Engages in imaginative or fantasy plays, activities, alone or with others ... alone or with others ... Plays more than one board or card game No equivalent requiring ski11 and decision making.
14 Catches small bal1 (such as a tennis bal1 or Catches small bal1 thrown fiom a baseball) thrown from a distance of 10 distance of 3 meters, even if moving is feet, even if moving is necessary to catch it necessary to catch it.
15 Pedals tricycle or other three-wheeled Pedals tricycle or other three-wheeled vehicle for at least six feet ... veliicle for at least two meters.
Fine * Changes in persons' names are not reported
Appendix B 1
Appendix B2
In the narne of God
Letter of Permission
Dear parent:
i am a graduate student in Applied Psychology at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. University of Toronto (Canada). 1 would like you CO take part in my research study about social skills and adaptive behavior of Iranian chiidren, aged 3-5 years. The purpose of my study is to determine the base rate of social and adaptive skills among Iranian preschool children. Also the study attempts to detemine the domains of strengths and weaknesses of the participants. and to compare boys and girls of different socioeconomic statw in those areas.
The result of this study will hefp the Iranian preschool policy rnakers to embedded the necessity skills within preschool and kindergarten cumcutum to help the child to cope with the demands and expectations of the school and society in future years. The results also can provide parents with the information that guide them to arrange appropnate activities for iacreasing their children's social and adaptive skills at home.
You will be asked to complete two questionnaires related to your chiId's social skills and adaptive behavior. This study wilt take approximately one hour of your tirne. Your chiid's teacher also will be asked to complete sirniIar questionnaires about your child in the same areas. Your participation in this study is entirely voluntary, and you are free to stop and withdraw fiom this study at any time. Al1 responses will be kept completely confidential, and your identity and your child's identity will not be reported anywhere.
If you agree to participate in this study, please complete the below section. sign. and retum it to your chi ld's schoof. Your participation is grately appreciated.
Sincerely yours,
Khalil Nourani
I have read the letter explaining the research study to be conducted by Mr. Khalil Nourani. 1 understand that 1 will be asked to complete two questionnaires about my chiid's social skills and adaptive behaviors.
1 understand that Mr. Nourani will obtain information regarding my child's social skills and adaptive behaviors corn hidher teacher at the daycare.
1 understand that information obtained will be confidential and at no time will my name or my child's name be used in connection with this study. 1 also understand that 1 am participating fkeely on a voluntary basis, and that 1 can withdraw ftorn the study at anytirne.
1 would like to participate in this study. yes- no-
1 do give permission to my child's teacher to rate hidher social skills and adaptive behaviors for the purpose of this study. yes- n o -
Child's name: Parent's signature: -
SchooI Date: -
Appendix B3
Appendix 84 Demoizra~hic Characteristics of the Sample
Child Age
Sex
Sibling
Parent Education Father(Mother)
Farnily Status
Parents' Occupation
Responding Patent
Teac her Sex
Education
Experience
3-4 Years 4-5 Yean Male Fernale O 1 2 3+
Less ttian high school dipIoma IIIiterate Elementary Intermediate
Diploma and Post Secondary High school graduate Two years college
Four or more years of university Bachelor Master Doctor
Single parent Two parents
Both parents work Only father works Only mother works Neither parent works
Mother Father
Female Male High school diploma Two years college 1-5 years 6- 10 years 1 l+ years
* Numbers have been rounded
Appendix B5 Items in the Vineland Adaptive Beha vior Scales-Survev Fonn/Classroom Edition b~ Domain and . *
Domain and Subdomain
Communication Domain Receptive Expressive Written
Daily Living Skills Domain Personal Domestic Cornmunity
Sociaiization Domain Interpersonal Relationships Play and Leisure Tirne Coping Skills
Motor SkiIls Domain Gross Fine
Adaptive Behavior Composite
Maladaptive Behavior Domain*
Survey Fom (Parent Fom)
Classroom Edition (Teacher Fom)
Reported fiom Sparrow, Balla, & Cicchetti ( l984), p. 3 *The Maladaptive Behavior Domain is for optional use, with individuah older than 5 years.
Appendix C 1
lntercorrelations Between Subscale and Total Scale for the SSRS-Parent Form for Iranian Preschool Saq&
Cooperation
Assertion
Responsi bility
Self-Controi
Total-SS
Externalizing
Intemalizing
Assertion
.33***
-
- O
-
- -
Social Skills
Responsibility
-51 *** .48***
Self-control
.53***
,29***
*49***
Problem Behaviors
Total-SS Externalizing lnternalizing
.go*** -,29*** -.O3
.64"* -.O8 -.22* *
.go** * -.21** -,O9
,76*** -.48*** -. 14*
- -.38*** -, 18*
- - ,33***
- - "
* O b ' ? V!
Appendix C4
Intercorrelations Between Subdomain and Domain for the VABS-Survey Form for Iranian Preschoal Sarnple
Subdomain/Domaia
1. Rcccptivc
2. Exprcssivc
3. Wriiten
4. Communicaiion Domain
5. Pcrsonal
6. Domcstic
7. Community
8. Daily Living Skills Domain
9. Intcrpcnonal Rclaiionships
10. Play and Lcisurc Timc
I 1. Coping Skills
12. Socialization Domain
13. Gross
14. Fine
15. Motos Skills Domain
16. Adaptivc Behavior
Coiripiisiic
Correlatioiis: 4 3 = ns, 14-1 7 <.O% 17- 19 <.O 1,20-23 <.005. 24 and up <.O005
Appendix C5
Intercorrelations Between Subdomain and Domain for the VABS-Classroom Edition for Iranian Preschool Sample
.. .
~ o m a i n / û o m a ~
1. Receptive
2. Expressive
3. Writttn
4. Communication ûomain
5. Persona1
6. Domestic
7. Community
8. Daily Living Skills Domain
9. lnicrpcrsonal Relationships
10. Play and Leisure Time
I 1. Coping Skills
12. Socialization Domain
13. Gross
14. Fine
15. Motor Skills Domain
16. Adaptive Behavior Compiisiie
Correlations: <13 = ns, 14- 17 c.05, 17- 19 <.O 1,2023 c.005, 24 and up <.O005
Appendix C8
es MANOVA and Un Re~eated Measur ivariate Results: The Effects of Parent Education on the Social Skilis of Iraian Preschoolers
the SSRS-P/T
Parent Educatioii by Role Parent Education
Contrast 1 * Contrast 1 Main effect Contrast 2* * Main effect Interaction I
Multivariate -
Univariate
Assertion
Cooperation
Self-Control
Extemal izing
Contrast 2 1
1 nternal izing
F
I
** Contrast 2 compares children of intermediate and high educated families.
***Role represents the difference between parents' and teachers' ratings. ns-nonsign i ficant
* Contmt I compares children
f 1 1 I I 1 I ns 1 I
i l 1
of low educated families with children of combined intermediate and high educated families.
156
AGS"
IMAGE NALUATION TEST TARGET (QA-3)
APPLIEO IMAGE. lnc 1653 East Main Street - --s Rochester, NY 14609 USA -- --
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