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1
Sickness and Death on Male and Female Convict Voyages to
Australia
Note: a much extended version of the arguments in this paper is available in Peter Baskerville
and Kris Inwood (eds) Lives In Transition: Longitudinal Research from Historical Sources (McGill
University Press, 2014).
Hamish Maxwell-Stewart, University of Tasmania
Rebecca Kippen, University of Melbourne
ThepassagetakenbyconvictvesselsenroutetoAustraliawasoneofthelongest
thatanyunfreemigrantshavebeensubjectedto—anaverageoffourmonthsat
sea.OnlyFrenchprisonersshippedtoNewCaledonia(1864‐97)andRussian
convictssentfromOdessatoSakhalin(1879‐1905)weremovedgreater
distances.1Despitethelengthofthevoyage,monthlymortalityonAustralian
boundconvictvesselswasnotexcessive.
Between1788and1868atotalof825convictvesselssailedfromBritish
andIrishportstotheAustraliancolonies.Inthefirsthalfofthenineteenth
centurythethoughtofspendingfourormoremonthsatseawasadaunting
prospectformostlandlubbers.Evenfreemigrantswerewarnedthatthe
distanceofVanDiemen’sLandandNewSouthWalesfromBritishandIrishports
renderedthevoyagea“terribleundertaking”.2Itisthuscommonlyassumedthat
the141,000maleand26,000femaleconvictsshippedtoBritain’sAustralian
penalcoloniessufferedgreathardshipsatsea.
2
Perhapssurprisingly,however,deathratesontheFirstFleet,whichsailed
inMay1787,wereremarkablylowgiventhescaleoftheoperation.Inall,the
schemeinvolvedshipping736maleandfemaleprisonersadistanceofsome
14,000miles.Althoughthevoyagelasted252days,themonthlydeathrateof
undersevenconvictsper1000embarkedwasbenignbylate‐eighteenthcentury
standards.
Tobesure,thedeathrateontheSecondFleet,whichleftBritain’sshores
forAustraliainJanuary1790,wasmuchhigherthanthatofitspredecessor(49
perthousandpermonth).Moreover,arrivalinNewSouthWalesbroughtlittle
relief.Thesurvivorswerelandedinaveryweakenedconditionandafurther16
percentdiedshortlyafterdisembarkation.AstheRev.Johnsonmemorablyputit
theyarrived:“wretched,naked,filthy,dirty,lousy,andmanyofthemutterly
unabletostand,tocreep,oreventostirhandorfoot“.3
Reportsofinadequateprovisionsandthecrowdedconditionsonboard
SecondFleettransportspromptedgreatergovernmentregulation.Intheyears
1792‐5anavaltrainedsurgeonwasappointedto‘superintend’everytransport
vessel.Afurtherriseindeathratesfollowingthediscontinuationofthis
experimentledtoeventighterregulation.From1800bonuspaymentswere
madetomastersforlandingconvictsingoodhealth.Surgeonswerereinstated
and,after1805,placedonthesamerankingasarmymedicalofficers.Asinthe
slavetrade,ships’mastersoftenpulledrankonsurgeonscountermandingtheir
orders.4Inordertosolvethisproblem,surgeonsweregivenauthorityoverall
disciplinaryandmedicalmattersin1815,includingtheventilationandcleaning
ofthevessel.5
3
Followingtheintroductionofthetightened‘surgeonsuperintendent
system’monthlydeathratesfelldecisively,averagingjust2.4perthousandin
theperiod1815‐1868.6Toputthisachievementintoperspective,theequivalent
rateformalesagedbetween15and44onemigrantshipssailingfromEuropeto
theUnitedStatesbetween1836and1853was4.4per1,000.Thediscrepancyis
especiallynoteworthywhenoneconsidersthat,aswellasbeingfree,thetrans‐
Atlanticmigrantswereembarkedonavoyagethattookanaverageof45days
comparedto116toAustralia.7
TheprobabilitythataconvictwoulddieduringthevoyagetoAustralia
mightbeinfluencedbymanyfactors.Ahistoryofpoorpre‐voyagenutrition
(perhapsexacerbatedbyalifeofdebauchery)mightfatallyweakenapassenger
longbeforetheywereembarked.Experiencesinprisoncouldexacerbatethese
effectsifpunitive,butinstitutionaldiets,clothingandheatingmightalso
amelioratetheworsteffectsofpre‐existingpoverty.Theuseofappropriately
trainedmedicalprofessionalsmightimprovethecapacityforeffectivepre‐
voyagescreening,aswellasfacilitatethemanagementofdiseaseandhygiene
regimes.Theremightbelittle,however,thatasurgeoncoulddotomitigatethe
impactofpoorrations(lackofvitaminCspringstomindhere),orcontaminated
water—otherthanpersuadingtheship’smastertostopoffinordertoresupply.
Onafullyloadedvesselthesurgeonmightwellbeoverwhelmedbythenumber
ofpatients,orfindhimselfpowerlesstostopinfectionspreadingthrough
crowdedquarters.Poorlymaintainedvesselscouldalsoposeathreat.Poor
ventilationandship‐boardspacescontaminatedbyyearsofaccumulateddirt
mightencouragethespreadofinfection.Failuretomakegoodspeedcouldput
pressureontheavailablesupplies(includingdrugsandotherprophylactics)
4
whileweathercouldplayhavocwiththebestlaidmedicalplans.Tropicalheat
mightexacerbatesomedisorderswhilepitchingseasandwavesoakeddecks
wouldcutdownexercisetimeandmakeitimpossibletokeepbeddingand
clothingdry.Finally,thebehaviouroftheconvictsthemselvescouldaffect
voyageoutcomes.Therewasaworldofdifferencebetweentreatingcompliant,
asopposedtounruly,patients.
Inordertoexploretheseissuesinmoredetailweassembleddatafor289
convictvesselsthatsailedfromsouthernEnglishorIrishportstotheBritish
penalcolonyofVanDiemen’sLandintheperiod1818‐1853(39voyagesfor
whichsurgeons’journalscouldnotbelocatedwereomitted).Togetherthe
vesselsinourstudycarriedatotalof48,215maleand12,396femaleconvicts.As
wellasinformationonthetonnage,insuranceratingandageofeachvesselwe
calculatedthenumberofdaysspentatseaandtheamountoftimethatelapsed
betweenthestartoftheembarkationprocessandthepointatwhicheachvessel
actuallysailed.Weusedthelistofcasestreatedrecordedineachsurgeon
superintendent’sjournaltodeterminethedayeachpatiententeredtheship’s
hospital,thedaythattheyweredischarged,thediagnosisandtheoutcome.8
Whilethesurgeons’journalsarearichsourceofinformationtheyvary
greatlyintermsofthenumberofcasescovered.CharlesHenryFulleronthe
Blenheim,forexample,recorded356separatemorbidityepisodeswhileby
contrastWilliamHendersonontheBussorahMerchantrecordedjustsix.9We
foundthatthemoreexperiencedthesurgeon(measuredintermsofthenumber
oftimestheyhadpreviouslysailedtoAustraliaonaconvictvessel),thefewer
thenumberofcasestheywerelikelytorecord.Therearetwoplausible
explanationsforthis.First,itispossiblethatoldhandswerebetteratpreventing
5
andtreatingdiseasethangreenhorns.Ifthiswasthecaseitmightprovide
powerfulevidencethatmedicalexpertisecouldmakeadramaticdifferenceat
sea.Second,surgeonswhohadpreviouslymadethevoyagetoAustraliafeltthat
theyknewtheropesandasaresultweremoreblaséaboutkeepingdetailed
paperwork,onlynotingthemostseriouscases.Aswecouldfindnorelationship
betweenthenumberofrecordedcasesofsicknessandthenumberofdeaths,we
suspectthatsecondexplanationisclosertothemark.Inotherwordstherewas
nothingtosuggestthatexperiencedsurgeonsweremoresuccessfulatkeeping
theirconvictchargesalive.
Wealsofoundanotherunderlyingtrendinthedata.Thenumberofcases
enteredontothesicklistincreasedovertime.Apreviousstudyofmorbidityon
femaleconvictvesselssailingtoNewSouthWalesuncoveredasimilartrend.R.
V.Jacksonattributedthistothetendencyforlargernumbersoffemaleconvicts
tobeshippedonlatersailingvessels.10Thus,hereasonedthatmorecrowded
conditionsatsealedtoincreasedlevelsofsickness.Weagreethattherewasa
riseinreportedmorbidityovertime,butnotethatthiswasnotmatchedbya
similarriseinmortality.Oncemorewesuspectthattheincreaseincasesreflects
recordkeepingtrendsratherthandeterioratingonboardconditions.
Thesefindingsraiseuncomfortablequestions.Wasitpossiblethatour
datamighttellussomethingaboutshiftsinrecordkeepingpracticebut
otherwiseshedlittlelightonthefactorsthatimpacteduponlifeanddeathat
sea?Reassuringly,however,wedidfindarelationshipbetweentheamountof
sicknessonboard(measuredintermsofthetotalnumberofdaysconvictswere
recordedasbeingsufficientlyunwelltorequiretreatment)anddeaths.
Intriguinglywealsofoundanevenstrongerrelationshipbetweensicknessatsea
6
andpost‐voyagemortality.Convictswhoarrivedonsicklyshipswerelesslikely
tosurvivetheirfirstyearundersentenceinVanDiemen’sLand.
The death rate in profile
Convictmonthlymortalityratesfortheperiodbetweenembarkationandsailing,
thevoyageandthefirst12monthsofcolonialservitudeareprovidedinFig.1.
Thesehavebeenseparatedbysex.Inall,128surgeon’sjournalsrecordedboth
thedatewhenconvictswerebroughtonboardandthedateofsailing.The
embarkationprocesswasslightlylongerforfemalevessels,17dayscomparedto
16formale.ThelengthofthevoyagetoAustraliarangedfromthe80‐dayvoyage
oftheRodneyin1853tothe190‐daypassageoftheJanein1831.Meansailing
timeforbothmaleandfemalevoyageswasjustlessthanfourmonths(116days
formale,118forfemale).Inordertoexaminethetimingofdeathacrossthe
entirecohort,wespliteachvoyageintoquartiles.
Severaltrendsarediscernable,ofwhichperhapsthemostnotableisthe
increaseinmortalityoverthecourseofthevoyage.Thisisinsharpcontrastto
theprofileofdeathsonfreemigrantvoyagessailingtoSouthAustraliainthe
secondhalfofthenineteenthcentury.Migrants,particularlyinfants,diedintheir
greatestnumbersathirdofthewayintothepassage.11Analysisofthetimingof
deathsintheAtlanticslavetradehasalsosuggestedthatpeakmortalityoccurred
mid‐voyage,althoughtherewasmuchvariation.12Itispossiblethatthelarger
vesselsandfastersailingroutestoAustraliaintroducedmid‐centuryweremore
successfulincombatingmortalityamongstfreemigrantsinthesecondhalfofthe
voyage,asopposedtothefirst.Thelargenumberofinfantsonboardmigrant
7
vesselsmayalsohaveincreasedtheriskofmortalityfromdiarrhoealdiseasesin
thetropics(theequatorwascrossedathirdofthewayintothevoyage).13Yet,
thedifferenceinthetimingofdeathsonconvictandmigrantvesselsisstriking
andremainslargelyunexplained.
Otherhistorianshavearguedthatmortalityonmalevesselswaslikelyto
behigherthanthatforfemaleshipsastheyweremorecrowded.Wecanfindno
evidencetosupportthis.14Despitethegreaternumbersonboardmalevessels
andtheneedforstricterlevelsofsecuritythatlimitedopportunitiesforexercise,
femalemortalitywashigherinportandremainedhighforthedurationofthe
voyage.Whilethespikeinthefemaledeathrateforthelastquartilewas
accentuatedbythepeculiarexperienceoftheEastLondon(avesselthathada
particularlytraumaticpassage),thedeathrateremainedsignificantlyhigher
thanthatformaleconvictsevenwhendataforthisvoyagewasexcluded.15
Second,mortalityratesformaleconvictsremainedhighintheperiod
immediatelyfollowingdisembarkation.Third,thefemalemortalityrecordpost‐
voyagefelltobelowthatofmenandremainedconsistentlylowerforthetwelve
monthsafterdisembarkation.Whilethefemaledeathrateinthefirsttwo
monthsafterlandingwaselevated,thetrendwasfarlessaccentuatedthanitwas
formales.Finally,femaleconvictsalsospentsignificantlylongerinsickbay
duringthevoyage.
Wefoundnoevidencethatthesizeofthevesselandthenumberof
passengersonboardimpacteduponmortalityrates.Inallwewereabletolocate
populationdatafor228(79percent)ofthevoyagesinoursample.Weestimate
thatjustover10,000seamanwereemployedtomanthevesselsthatbroughtthe
60,611convictsinthisstudytoAustralia.Whilemilitarydetachmentswerenot
8
employedonfemalevessels,aguardwaspresentonallmalevoyages.We
estimatethatjustover7,400soldiersalsomadethevoyagebringingwiththem
1,300wivesandjustunder1,800children.Asmallnumberoffreepassengers
werealsopresent,mostofwhomarrivedonboardfemalevessels(consideredto
provideasaferpassage).Manyofthesewerethewivesanddependentsofmale
convictswhohadalreadybeentransportedandwereconsideredhavebehaved
wellenoughforthestatetoassistwithfamilyreunification.16Theyalsoincluded
smallnumbersofcabinclasspassengers,generallythewivesandfamilyof
officialstravellingtoAustralia.Togethertheseamountedto700adultsand
around750children.Finally,the12,396femaleprisonerswereaccompanied
intoexileby1,900oftheirownchildren(afurther81birthsoccurredonthe
voyagetoAustralia).Thus,intotalweestimatethatinadditiontoconvicts,the
vesselsinoursamplecarriedafurther23,800otherpassengers.
Ouranalysisrevealsthatmaleshipsweremoretightlypackedthan
female.Theycarried0.62passengerspertonwhilefemaleconvictvessels
carried0.54.Wefailedfindevidenceofarelationshipbetweenloadingand
mortalityandthisremainedtrueevenwhenmaleandfemaleshipswere
examinedseparately.Ourresultsmirrorfindingsfortheslavetradeandfree
migrantvoyages.Contrarytoexpectations,thedensitywithwhichvesselswere
packeddoesnotappeartohavesignificantlyaffectedmortalitylevels.17
Comparativeanalysiswithothervoyagesservestoillustratethepoint.Although
convictvesselsweremorecrowdedthanthoseemployedtocarryfree
passengersacrosstheAtlantic,theirrecordofagespecificmortalitywas
noticeablybetter.
9
Thereislittleevidencethatthevesselsusedtoshipfemaleconvictsto
Australiawereinotherwaysdeficient.Theshipsemployedinthemaletrade
wereonaverage13yearsold,whilethoseusedtotransportfemaleconvictshad
spentanaverageofjust11yearsatsea.Asthiswouldimply,thelatterwere
morelikelytohavebetterinsuranceratings.
Neitherwasthereasignificantdifferenceinvoyagelength.Femalevessels
tookanaverageof118daystoreachtheirdestinationcomparedto116fortheir
malecounterparts.Incontrasttotheslavetradewherethemonthlydeathrate
washigheronlongervoyages,wecouldfindnosuchrelationship.18Thisis
because,unliketheirtrans‐Atlanticcounterpart,convicttransportsoftenputin
toportenrouteinordertoresupply.Whilevesselsthatstoppedgenerallytook
longertoreachAustralia,stoppingreducedmortalityrates.Thus,whileputting
intoportcarriedtheriskofexposingthoseonboardtonewsourcesofinfection,
thesedangersappeartohavebeenoutweighedbyreductionsindeficiency
diseasesresultingfromtheopportunitytopurchasefreshrations.19
Wecouldalsofindnodifferenceintheagestructureofmaleandfemale
convictsexceptthatfewerfemaleconvictsweretransportedintheirearlyteens.
Themeanageofmaleandfemalepatientsrecordedonadmissiontohospitalon
thepassagetoAustraliawasnearlyidentical(26.25formencomparedto26.92
forwomen).Althoughwedidfindthatsurgeonsonfemaleconvictvesselswere
lesslikelytohavesailedasasurgeonsuperintendenttoAustraliabefore(they
madeonaverage0.83priorvoyagescomparedto1.63forthoseonmaleships),
asnotedearlierwefoundnoevidencethatpriorexperiencewasassociatedwith
areductionineithermorbidityormortality.
10
Thatconvictwomenwereatgreaterriskofmortalityatseacomparedto
menisinitselfnotsurprising.Cohen’sstudyoftrans‐Atlanticfreemigrants
foundasimilardiscrepancyinmortalityoutcomesformenandwomen.20A
furtherstudybyStaniforthofassistedmigrantvoyagessailingtoAustraliainthe
years1837‐9alsosuggestedthatwomendiedatgreaterratesthanmen—a
discrepancyheattributedtothecomparativelypoorpre‐voyagenutritionof
womenanddeathsinchildbirthatsea.21Thisisplausible.
Ifdifferencesbetweenthevesselsusedtoshipmaleandfemaleconvicts
toAustralia,thenumberofpassengersplacedonboard,andtherelative
experienceofsurgeonsuperintendentscannotexplainvariationsinshipboard
mortalityandmorbidity,itispossiblethatdifferingpre‐voyageexperiences
might.Severalsurgeonsonfemalevesselswereconcernedthattheconvictsthey
receivedwerepre‐disposedtosickness,especiallydeficiencydiseases.Sincethe
wayinwhichmaleandfemaleconvictswereprocessedpriortoembarkation
differed,thisisadistinctpossibility.Aftertheyhadbeensentencedto
transportationmostmaleconvictswereremovedtohulks.Thesewere
dismastedvesselsanchoredinportsandusedasmobilelabourdepots.The
averageamountoftimethatlapsedbetweensentencingandembarkationfor
Australiawassevenmonths.22Thiswasnearlytwiceaslongasthevoyageitself.
Bycontrastfemaleconvictswereforwardedtothetransportvesselfrom
regionalprisons.Asthesetwotypesofinstitutionwerecharacterisedby
differentworkanddietaryregimesitispossiblethatthisimpacteduponmale
andfemaleconvictexperienceatsea.
11
MarkStanifortharguedthatfemaleassisted‐migrantsweremoreatrisk
thantheirmalecounterpartsbecauseoftheircomparativelypoorpre‐voyage
recordofnutrition.Thereareagrowingnumberofstudiesthatsuggestthat
intra‐householddistributionofcaloriesfavouredmenattheexpenseofwomen
asworkingclassfamiliesattemptedtoprotectthewageearningpotentialof
malebreadwinners.Thereisevidence,forexample,thatfemaleprisonersgained
weightingaolincontrasttomen.23Thus,whilewomenreceivedsignificantly
fewercalorieswhileinprisonawaitingtransportation,itispossiblethatthis
representedanimprovementinrecentnutritionalcircumstances.Institutional
workregimesthatsubjectedmentogreaterphysicallabourmayhavealso
servedtoeffectivelyclosethegap.Whileitisdifficulttoassesstheimpactthat
institutionaldietshadonvoyagemorbidityandmortalityrateswefoundno
evidenceofelevatedmortalityonmaleandfemaleconvictvesselsdeparting
IrelandaftertheoutbreakoftheIrishpotatofamine,asharpcontrasttotherate
of“shipfever”,probablytyphus,recordedonpost‐faminemigrantvoyagestothe
UnitedStates.24Thissuggeststhat,whileinstitutionalpre‐voyagedietsmayhave
beenmeagrebymodernstandards,theyweresufficientlyhightomitigatethe
effectsofchronicundernutrition.
Severalsurgeonscommentedonthefatiguedstateoftheirfemale
charges.WhilethoseembarkedfromprisonsinthegreaterLondonarea
appearedhealthy,otherswhohadtravelledfromcountygaolswerenotasfit.
DavidThomson,onboardtheEliza,expressedconcernforthewellbeingof
ElizabethFieldingwhofellseriouslyillthedayaftershewasembarked.He
discoveredfromacompanionthatshehadsufferedfromdysenteryinStafford
gaolandhadsubsequentlybeenmovedtoLondonontheoutsideofacoach
12
“exposedtotheweather”.25JosephStreetontheEdwardremarkedthat“the
prisonerscomeonboardinsmallnumbers—atdifferenttimes,andassome
comefromconsiderabledistances(Yorkforexample)theyareoftenmuch
fatiguedandnotinfrequentlyhavecatarrhs.”Neverthelessheaddedthatthese
wererarelysevere.26Whendiarrhoeaaccompaniedbyfeverbrokeoutamongst
thewomenonboardtheWilliamBryanthesurgeon,ThomasRobertson,
reportedthatitappeared“chieflyamongstthecountrywomen”.27MorganPrice
ontheHectorreportedthattheconsiderablenumberofwomenforwardedfrom
Scotland“hadsufferedseverelyfromaverytediousvoyage…inasmallsloop
andwereconsequentlyverycrowdedandtheirhealthhadsufferedgreatly.”28
Wefoundthattherewasarelationshipbetweenthedistancetravelled
priortoembarkationandfemaleconvictmorbidityratesatsea.Womenwho
travelledfromprisonslocatedinNorthernEngland,WesternWalesandDevon
andCornwallspentlongerinhospitalthanwomenwhohadbeentransferred
fromtheMidlands.ThoseconvictedinLondonandtheSouth‐Easthadaneven
lowermorbidityrecord.WomenconvictedinScotlandwereattheleastrisk,
suggestingthatavoyageonamailpacketwaslessdemandingthanbeing
transferredoverland,orthatinstitutionaldietsinScotlandweresuperior,or
possiblythatScottishwomenwereinbettershapepriortoconvictionthantheir
EnglishandWelshcounterparts.Neverthelesstheoveralldifferencesweresmall.
ThemortalityriskforawomanconvictedinnorthernEnglandwasonly1.14
timesgreaterthanthatofawomanconvictedinLondon.
Ifthedistancetravelledtotheconvictvesselimpacteduponmorbidity
andmortalityatseaonewouldexpectthistobeparticularlysoduringthewinter
monthswhentemperatureswerecolderandtravelbyroadmoredifficult.Like
13
JacksonwefoundthatfemaleconvictvesselsdepartingEnglandandIrelandin
December,JanuaryandFebruaryhadlongersickliststhanthosethatdepartedin
othermonths.29Thisdifferencewasnotstatisticallysignificant,however,nordid
itresultinagreaternumberofdeaths.
Thedistancetravelledtothevesselmayhaveimpacteduponvoyage
morbidityandmortalityinotherwayshowever.Femaleconvictswerenearly
four‐timesmorelikelytodieinportthantheirmalecounter‐parts.Inpartthis
reflectsthedifferingembarkationprocedures.Becausetheirchargeswere
loadedindivisionsfromhulkslocatedneartothetransportvessel,surgeonson
maleshipswereabletoconductpre‐voyagescreeningchecks,ataskinwhich
theywereassistedbythehulksurgeon.Therelativelylowrateofdeathonmale
transportspriortoembarkationsuggeststhatthesemeasureswereatleast
partiallysuccessful.30Itwasmoredifficultforasurgeononafemaletransportto
rejectawomanwhohadbeentransferredfromagaoloutsideofLondon,since
returningherfromwhenceshehadcomewaslogisticallymorecomplicated.This
wasespeciallythecaseifthewomanwasaccompaniedbyoneormorechildren.
Indeedthepresenceofchildrenalmostcertainlyrestrictedtheabilityofthe
surgeontopreventtheintroductionofperniciousdisorderssinceitwas
logisticallyimpossibletorejectasickchildwithoutalsorejectingthemother,
regardlessofthelatter’sstateofhealth.Undersuchcircumstancesitseemslikely
thatsurgeonswerepressuredintoembarkingpassengersonfemalevesselsthat
theywouldhaveotherwiserejected.
Morbidity and Mortality at Sea
14
Whiledifferencesinpre‐voyageexperiencescanexplainsomeoftheelevated
riskthatfemaleconvictswereexposedtoonthevoyagetoAustralia,itis
noticeablethattheriskofdeathincreasedasthevesselneareditsdestination.A
featureofbothmaleandfemalevoyageswasthatsomeconditionsweremore
likelytobediagnosedinthefirsthalfofthevoyageandothersinthesecond.
Disordersthattendedtodeclineoverthecourseofthevoyageincludeddiseases
ofthedigestivesystem(largelyconstipation),feversandheadaches.Thosethat
roseincludedscurvy,accidents,diarrhoeaanddysentery,anddiseasesofthe
respiratoryandmusculoskeletalsystems.Althoughdeathsrelatedtopregnancy,
childbirthandthepuerperiumaccountedforlessthan2percentofallfemale
mortality,otherdisordersappeartohaveposedasignificantrisk.Thiswas
particularlytrueofdiarrhoeaanddysentery,listedasacausein47.6percentof
femaledeathsbutjust27.1male.
Thisdiscrepancysuggeststhatfemaleconvictvesselswerelesshygienic
thanmale.Thisposessomethingofapuzzlesincesimilarhygieneregimeswere
imposedonallvessels.Surgeonswereabletoensurethattheirchargeswere
regularlywashed(usuallytwiceaweek),asweretheirclothes,whilebedding
wasairedanddecksdryscrubbed.31Indeedothershaveassumedthatdeath
ratesonfemalevesselswouldbelowerthanthoseformen,notjustbecauseof
theadditionalspaceallocatedtoeachprisoner,butbecausetheratioofsurgeon
toconvictpatientwaslowerthusleadingtoabetterorderedvoyage.32Ifthe
introductionoftrainedsurgeonsmadeanimpactitisnaturaltoassumethatthis
wouldbeparticularlynoticeableonvoyageswheretherewerefewerpotential
patients.Itwasalsothecasethatfemaleconvictsspentlongerondecksincethey
15
wereconsideredtopresentlessofasecurityriskandthatthereforetherewas
littleneedtoexercisethembydivisionaswascommonpracticeonmaleships.33
Itispossiblethatthewaterplacedonboardthevesselatthestartofthe
voyagewasasourceofcontamination.Thameswaterwasnotoriouslyoffensive.
Waterborneinfectiousagentswerenotisolateduntilthesecondhalfofthe
nineteenthcentury—DrJohnSnowpublishedhisfamousmapshowingthe
relationshipbetweenLondonwatersourcesandcholeraratesin1854,theyear
afterthelastvesselinourstudysailed.34Despitethis,thecommonassumption
that“allsmellisdisease”undoubtedlyprovidedsomeprotectiontoconvicts.
Riverwaterwasfiltered(presumablybypassingitthroughbedsofsandor
gravel)beforeitwasplacedincasks.35Fromthe1820sonallconvictvessels
werealsofittedwithcharcoalwaterfilters.
Contaminationislikelytohavebeenafarworseproblemduringsummer
althoughwecouldfindnoevidencethatsummerdeparturespresented
additionaldangersforthoseonboard.Neithercouldwefindanythingtosuggest
thatfemaleconvictvesselsweremorelikelytodepartataparticularseason
comparedtomale,oranyreasonthatthewatersupplyonfemalevesselswould
beanyworsethanthatprovidedformaleconvicts.
Whiletheevidencethatseasonofdeparturecouldimpactonvoyage
outcomeswasweak,thesamecouldnotbesaidforseasonofarrival.Convict
vesselsthatreachedtheirdestinationduringtheAntipodeanwinterhadahigher
rateofon‐boardmorbidityandpost‐voyagemortality.TheSouthernOceanwasa
wildplace.Indeed,itisnoticeablethatafterconvictvesselsmovedintotheSouth
Atlantic,theaccidentrateincreasedaswindspeedandwaveheightpickedup.
Sailingvesselsintheselatitudesmaderapidprogress,buttheydidsoatadded
16
risktothewell‐beingoftheirpassengers.Theimpactonconditionsonboardis
vividlyillustratedthroughtheriseinaccidents.Convicts,crewandpassengers
werehurledacrossdecksanddowncompanionways.Astheaccidentrate
increasedsodidtheriskofinfectiononfemaleconvictships.
Badweatherputexcessivestrainontheuseofwaterclosets.Menwere
encouragedtorelievethemselvesondeckusingtheheadsthatwerealsousedto
servicetheneedsofthecrewandmilitarydetachment.Tubswereprovidedfor
femaleconvicts.Onallconvictvessels,prisonswerealsofittedwithwater
closets.Itwasnotjustthatheavyseasputgreaterstrainonthesefacilities.
Pitchingdecksandpoorlightimpededcleaning,aproblemwhichsurgeons
thoughtwasparticularlythecaseonfemalevessels.36Onereasonforthiswas
thenumberofchildrenwhoaccompaniedtheirconvictedmothersonthe
journeytoAustralia.
Whilethemilitarydetachmentsplacedonboardmalevesselswere
accompaniedbysignificantnumbersofwivesandchildren,thesewere
quarteredinaseparatesectionsofthevesselawayfromtheareassetasidefor
prisoners.Thus,thereisnoreasonwhymaleprisonerswouldhavecomeinto
contactwithyoungchildren.Bycontrast,childrenwerepresentoneveryfemale
convictvesselandwerehousedintheprisonwheretheirpresencealmost
certainlyincreasedtheriskoffaecaloraltransmission,particularlywhenrough
seascompromisedroutinesanitationandmessingarrangements.
Post-voyage experience
17
Despitetheirgreaterrecordofmortalityatsea,femaledeathrates
declinedmorequicklythanmalefollowingdisembarkationinVanDiemen’s
Land.Post‐voyagemortalitywasundoubtedlyinfluencedbytheexperienceof
beingatseafornearlyfourmonths.Thenumberofdeathsthatoccurredduring
thepassageandtheaveragenumberofdaysspentperconvictinsickbaywere
bothcorrelatedwithpostvoyagemortality.Thecomparativelyquickadjustment
madebywomentocolonialconditionscomparedtomen,however,suggeststhat
factorsotherthanvoyageknock‐oneffectswerealsoatplay.
UpondisembarkationwomenweresenttotheCascadesFemaleFactory
whilemenweremarchedtothePenitentiaryinCampbellStreet.Theprincipal
usetowhichfemaleconvictswereputwasasdomesticservants,demandfor
theirservicesoftenoutstrippingsupply.37Afterlanding,motherswereseparated
fromchildrenwhohadbeenweanedand,whilethechildrenwere
institutionalised,thewomenwereassignedtocolonialsettlerhouseholds.Many
ofthesehouseholdswerelocatedinHobartandthereforethedistributionof
womentotheirplacesofcolonialemploymentdidnottakelongtoorganise.38By
contrastmaleconvictswereeitheremployedinroadgangsorassignedtofarms
intheinterior.Thelogisticsofallocatingmaleconvictlabourwasthusmore
complicatedanddelaysweretheinevitableconsequence.Asaresultitislikely
thatfemaleconvictsspentlesstimeininstitutionsinthemonthsimmediately
followingdisembarkationthantheirmalecounterpartsandthushada
comparativelylowerexposuretoinfection.
Coloniallabourextractionprocessesalsoappeartohavetakentheirtoll.
Thelabourthatmaleconvictsundersentenceperformedwasdangerous.While
thestandardpunishmentreservedforfemaleconvicts,workingatthewashtubs,
18
mayhavebeenphysicallydemanding(anddemeaning),itcarriedlessriskof
deaththanquarryingorstonebreaking.Whilemedicalcausesofdeathwereonly
sporadicallyrecordedintherecordsmaintainedbytheconvictdepartment,
accidentswerealwaysreported.Maleconvictswererunoverbyloadedcarts,
killedinquarryexplosionsandlandslidesandevenasphyxiatedbycarbonicgas.
Manywereemployedintimberfellingandsignificantnumberswerekilledby
fallingtrees.Othersweredrowned,ofteninriverswhileattemptingtocooloffin
thesummermonths.Therewerealsoaconsiderablenumberofviolentdeaths
connectedwithotheraspectsoftheconvictsystem.Severalmaleprisonerswere
shotattemptingtoabscond.Theexecutionratewasalsofarhigherthanin
EnglandandWales—abloodycodewascertainlyinoperationinthepenal
colonies.Inallnearlynineteenpercentofmaleconvictdeathscanbeattributed
toviolentcauses.Thiswas6.7timesmorethanthatfortheirfemale
counterparts.
Conclusion
TherewasasignificantreductioninmortalityonAustralianboundconvict
vesselsaftertheintroductionofthesurgeonsuperintendentsystem.Thereis
littleevidencethatthestateofmedicalknowledgepriortothesecondhalfofthe
nineteenthcenturywassufficienttoaffectachangeinmorbidityandmortality
outcomes.Beforethepost‐CrimeanWarNightingalereforms,forexamples,
hospitalsaregenerallyconsideredtohavedonemoreharmthangood.39.
Shipboardexperience,however,suggeststhatthiswasnotnecessarilythecase.
19
Themajorityofsurgeonsuperintendentswereanti‐contagionistswho
attributeddiseasetoacombinationof‘pre‐existing’and‘exciting’causes.In
theirviewthechiefamongstthelatterwasexposureto‘miasmas’(emissions
emanatingfromdampenvironmentsanddecayingandfetidmatter).Whiletheir
patientsmayhavebroughtmany‘pre‐existing’causesonboard—theeffectsof
livinglifeatthesharpendoftheindustrialrevolution—surgeonsuperintendents
hadoneadvantagenotsharedbytheirshore‐basedmedicalcolleagues.Astheir
chargeswereunfreetheycouldimposetheirauthority,punishingthosewho
refusedtoobeymedicalinstructions.Formuchofthenineteenthcenturyrespect
forprivacywasseenasanEnglishvirtueandthismeantthatstateattemptsto
regulatedomesticenvironmentsremainedunpopular.40Bycontrastallspaceon
aconvictvessel(apartfromtheofficers’quarters)waspublicspace.
Althoughmiasmatheorywasbasedonapoorunderstandingofdisease
transmissionprocesses,theauthorityvestedinsurgeonsuperintendentsmeant
thatthemeasurestheyputinplacewerelargelyeffective.41Suchprocesses
includeddeckscrubbingandscrapingandregularwashingofbothconvictsand
theirclothingandbedding.While,likeslavers,surgeonsuperintendentswere
quicktoblamedeathsatseaonpre‐existingcausesoutsideoftheircontrol,
longitudinalanalysissuggeststhatthepowerthattheyexercisedoverboththeir
chargesandshipboardspacewaseffective.
Wecouldfindnoevidencethatthedensitywithwhichvesselswere
packedaffectedmoralityoutcomes.Whilemorepassengerswereembarkedper
tononsomevoyagesthanothers,thisdidnotjeopardisethewelfareofconvicts.
Heavilyloadedvesselswouldhavekeptthesurgeonbusy,yet,higherpatientto
medicalpractitionerratioswereunlikelytomakeanydifferenceas—once
20
patientsfellsick—medicalinterventiondidlittletoaffecttheoutcome(with
notableexceptionofscurvywhereaneffectiveremedywasavailable).Ifmedical
interventionhadmadeadifferencewewouldhaveexpectedtofinda
relationshipbetweenthepriorexperienceofthesurgeonandreductionsin
shipboardmortality.Wedidnot.
Theotherprincipalbenefitofemployingmedicallytrainedofficialswas
thattheywereabletoconductpre‐voyagehealthchecks.Asonfreepassenger
voyages,theywerelesseffective,however,atreducingdeathratesamongst
women.Longitudinalanalysissuggeststhatsomeofthedifferenceinthese
outcomescanbeattributedtothewaysinwhichmaleandfemaleconvictswere
processedpriortoembarkation.Womenweresuppliedwithlesscaloriesthan
theirinstitutionalisedmalecounter‐partsandsomeweremovedlongdistances
inthedaysimmediatelyproceedingembarkation.
Itisalsopossiblethatthelivesledbyconvictwomenpriortoarrestwere
characterisedbyextremedisadvantage,puttingthematgreaterlong‐termrisk
thantheirmalecounterparts.Whileworking‐classnineteenthcenturywomen
mayhavebeennutritionallydisadvantagedasaresultofintra‐householdfood
distributionstrategies,thereislittleevidencethatthisputthematriskduring
thevoyagetoAustralia.Ifthishadbeenthecasewewouldhaveexpectedtosee
risingmorbidityandmortalityamongstpost‐famineconvictsshippedfrom
Ireland.Thatwedidnotsuggeststousthatprisonandhulkdietsweresufficient
tooffsetthemostperniciouseffectsofpre‐arrestmalnutrition.
Analysisofthediagnosesprovidedforfemaleconvictsenrouteto
Australiaindicatesthattheywereatgreaterriskofdiarrhoealdisorders.The
mostlikelyreasonforthiswasthepresenceofinfantchildrenintheprison
21
wherefemaleconvictswerequartered.Highseasinsouthernlatitudes,
particularlyinwinter,appeartohavefurthercompromisedshipboardhygiene.
Thepresenceofchildrenalsoimpactedontheabilityofthesurgeontoconduct
effectivepre‐boardscreening.
Inmarkedcontrasttoshipboardexperience,femaleconvictswereatless
riskofdeathinthefirstyearinthecolony.Post‐disembarkationdeathratesfor
bothsexeswereelevatedasaresultoftheknock‐oneffectsofalongvoyageat
sea.Women,however,wereabletomakeaswiftertransitiontolowermortality
ratesbecausetheirexperienceofpost‐voyageinstitutionalisationwasbenign
comparedtomenand,perhapsironically,becausethecoercivepracticesofthe
stateseparatedthemfromtheirchildren.
Themannerinwhichthecolonialstatepolicedtheprivatelivesofconvict
womenalsoresultedinlowerfertility,therebyreducingtheriskofdeathin
childbirth.Bycontrast,theworkundertakenbymaleconvictscarried
significantlyhigherriskofaccidentaldeathandthiswasespeciallytrueofthose
undergoingpunishmentlabour.Thus,exploitivelabourpracticeshad
diametricallyopposedimpactsonmaleandfemaledeathrates.Ingeneral,
however,statesurveillance(andtheincreasedregulationthatcamewithit)
loweredratherthanraisedmortalityrates.Whiletransportationmayhave
conferredphysicalbenefitsthisdoesnotmean,however,thatitwas
psychologicallybeneficial.Indeed,itwaspreciselybecausetheprisonersshipped
toAustraliawereplacedinasituationwheretheywererelativelypowerlessthat
thestatewasabletoimprovemorbidityandmortalityoutcomes.
22
1 Alice Bullard, Exile to Paradise: Savagery and Civilization in Paris and the South Pacific (Stanford,
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Transportation and the Abolitionists,” in Emma Christopher, Marcus Rediker (eds) Many Middle
Passages: Forced Migration and the Making of the Modern World (Berkeley, University of California
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British Slave Trade, “Economic History Review, 53, no. 2 (2000): 273. 5 Charles Bateson, The Convict Ships (Sydney, Library of Australian History, 2004), 38-49. 6 John McDonald and Ralph Shlomowitz, “Mortality on Convict Voyages to Australia, 1788-1868,”
Social Science History, 13, no. 3 (1989): 291. 7 Raymond L. Cohen, “The Determinants of Individual Immigrant Mortality on Sailing Ships, 1836–
1853,” Explorations in Economic History 24 (1987): 378. Note that 94 per cent of male convicts landed
in Australia were aged between 15 and 44, Tasmanian Archives and Heritage Office (henceforth
TAHO), Con 23/1 and 2. 8 The National Archive, Great Britain (henceforth TNA), ADM 101 series. 9 TNA, ADM101/12/7 & ADM101/14/5. 10 R. V. Jackson, “Sickness and Health on Australia’s Female Convict Ships, 1821–1840,”
International Journal of Maritime History, 18, no. 2 (2006): 72, 76–7. 11 Robin Haines & Ralph Shlomowitz, “Causes of Death of British Emigrants on Voyages to South
Australia, 1848-1885,” Social History of Medicine, 16, no.2 (2003): 201-207 12 Haines, McDonald and Shlomowitz, “Mortality and Voyage Length in the Middle Passage,”: 503-33. 13 Haines & Shlomowitz, “Causes of Death”, 207 14 Jackson, “Sickness and health on Australia’s female convict ships”, 80 and Mark Staniforth, “Diet,
Disease and Death at Sea on the Voyage to Australia, 1837-1839,” International Journal of Maritime
History, 8, no. 2 (1996), 122. 15 The East London left Dublin for Van Diemen’s Land in April 1844 with 133 female convicts and 50
of their children on board. Of these 19 women and 12 children perished at sea. With the exception of
shipwrecks this was by far the highest mortality rate encountered on any voyage to Van Diemen’s
Land. TNA, ADM 101/22/1. 16 Perry McIntyre, Free Passage: The Reunion of Irish Convicts and their Families in Australia 1788-
1852 (Dublin, Irish Academic Press, 2011) and Ian Brand and Mark Staniforth, “Care and Control:
Female Convict Transportation Voyages to Van Diemen’s Land", Great Circle, 16, no. 1 (1994): 34 17 James Rawley and Stephen D. Behrendt, The Transatlantic Slave Trade: A History (Lincoln,
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23
19 McDonald and Shlomowitz, “Mortality on Convict Voyages to Australia,” 290. 20 Raymond L. Cohen, “Mortality on Immigrant Voyages to New York, 1836–1853,” Journal of
Economic History, 44 no. 2 (1984): 289-300. 21 Staniforth, “Diet, Disease and Death at Sea”, 127. 22 Calculated using data from TAHO, Con 31 series and TNA, ADM 101 and HO 8 series. 23 Sara Horrell, David Meredith and Deborah Oxley, “Measuring Misery: Body Mass, Ageing and
Gender Equality in Victorian London,” Explorations in Economic History, 46 (2009): 93-119. 24 “Diet, Disease and Death at Sea,” 132. 25 ADM101/23/6. Fielding did not survive the voyage. She died 21 days after the ship had put to sea.
TAHO, Con 40/3 p.39. 26 ADM101/22/8 27 ADM 101/74/06 28 ADM 101/32/9 29 Jackson, “Sickness and Health,” 77. 30 Stephen Nicholas, “Unshackling the Past”, in S. Nicholas (ed.) Convict Workers: Reinterpreting
Australia’s Past (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1988), 9. 31 Kim Humphery, “A New Era of Existence: Convict Transportation and the Authority of the Surgeon
in Colonial Australia,” Labour History, 59 (1990): 59–72; Katherine Foxhall, “From Convicts to
Colonists: The Health of Prisoners and the Voyage to Australia, 1823-53,” The Journal of Imperial and
Commonwealth History, 39, no. 1 (2011): 1-19. 32 Brand and Staniforth, “Care and Control”, 24. 33 Jackson, “Sickness and Health,” 84. 34 Steven Johnson, The Ghost Map (London, Penguin, 2006) and P. D. Curtin, Death by Migration:
Europe’s Encounter with the Tropical World in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press, 1989), 50-6. 35 Bateson, Convict Ships, 68. 36 Brand and Staniforth, “Care and Control”, 31 and TAHO, CSO 22/88/1859, Edward Caldwell,
Surgeon R.N to Sir William Burnett, Hobart Town, 1843. 37 Kirsty Reid, “Setting Women to Work: The Assignment System and Female Convict Labour in Van
Diemen’s Land, 1820-1839,” Australian Historical Studies, 34, no. 121 (2003): 4-9. 38 Lucy Frost, Abandoned Women: Scottish Convicts Exiled Beyond the Seas (Sydney, Allen and
Unwin, 2012), 46-65 39 See for example McKeown, Modern Rise, 150 40 Simon Szreter, ‘The Importance of Social Intervention in Britain’s Mortailty Decline c. 1850-1914:
A Reinterpretation of the Role of Public Health”, Social History of Medicine, 1, no 1 (1988):, p.32. 41 James Colgrove, “The McKeown Thesis: A Historical Controversy and Its Enduring Influence,”
American Journal of Public Health, 95, no. 5 (2002): 725–729 and Szreter, “The Importance of Social
Intervention, 1-38.