Short title: The control of photosynthesis by ethylene · 2 39. to other types of photosynthesis (C4 and crassulacean acid metabolism) and highlight the species-40. specific effect

1

Short title: The control of photosynthesis by ethylene 1

Corresponding author 2

Prof. Dr. Ir. Bram Van de Poel 3

Department of Biosystems 4

University of Leuven 5

Willem de Croylaan 42 6

3001 Leuven 7

Belgium 8

[email protected] 9

0032/16325527 10 11

Update: Ethylene exerts species-specific and age-dependent control of 12

photosynthesis 13

14

Ceusters Johan1,2 & Van de Poel Bram3,* 15

1 KU Leuven, Department of Microbial and Molecular Systems, Bioengineering Technology TC, 16

Campus Geel, Kleinhoefstraat 4, 2440 Geel, Belgium 17 2 UHasselt, Centre for Environmental Sciences, Environmental Biology, Campus Diepenbeek, 18

Agoralaan Building D, 3590, Diepenbeek, Belgium 19 3 KU Leuven, Department of Biosystems, Willem de Croylaan 42, 3001 Leuven, Belgium 20

*corresponding author: [email protected] 21

One sentence summary 22

Ethylene regulates many different aspects of photosynthesis in an age-dependent and species-23

specific manner. 24

Author contributions 25

J.C. and B.V.d.P. performed the literature search and wrote the article. 26

Funding information 27

J.C. and B.V.d.P. thank the Research Fund and Internal Fund of KU Leuven for financial support 28

(OT/14/082, STGBF/16/005 and 3H140277) 29

30

Abstract 31

The volatile plant hormone ethylene plays a regulatory role in many developmental processes and in 32

biotic and abiotic stress responses. One of the under-explored actions of ethylene is its regulation of 33

photosynthesis and associated components such as stomatal conductance, chlorophyll content, light 34

reactions, carboxylation events, carbohydrate partitioning, and age-related senescence. In this 35

update, we summarize the current knowledge concerning the regulation of photosynthesis, focusing 36

on the model species Arabidopsis thaliana. We describe how ethylene directs photosynthesis in 37

juvenile non-senescing leaves and mature senescing leaves. Furthermore, we extend these insights 38

Plant Physiology Preview. Published on February 2, 2018, as DOI:10.1104/pp.17.01706

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2

to other types of photosynthesis (C4 and crassulacean acid metabolism) and highlight the species-39

specific effects of the physiological action of ethylene on this complex metabolic pathway. 40

Introduction 41

The volatile plant hormone ethylene (C2H4) is involved in many cellular and developmental 42

processes, such as germination, root and hypocotyl development, climacteric fruit ripening, and 43

senescence (Abeles et al., 1992; Wen et al., 2015; Van de Poel et al., 2015), as well as in the response 44

to biotic and abiotic stress (Bari & Jones, 2009; Kazan et al., 2015). Photosynthesis is one of the least 45

referenced processes regulated by ethylene, which plays a role in all three carbon fixation pathways 46

used by plants: C3, C4, and crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) (Box 1). Photosynthesis is a complex 47

autotrophic process mediated by the interplay of factors such as light quantity and quality, 48

atmospheric CO2 concentration, stomatal aperture, chlorophyll content, light harvesting complex 49

efficiency, sugar feedback, water availability, nutrient status, and hormonal cues. The role of 50

ethylene in controlling photosynthesis was first described by Kays and Pallas in 1980, who found that 51

the hormone reduces photosynthesis in peanut (Arachis hypogaea). This hormonal control seems to 52

be an ancient response in plants because ethylene downregulates photosynthesis in the charophyte 53

green algae Spirogyra pratensis, suggesting that the regulation of photosynthesis by ethylene is 54

likely conserved and predates the colonization of non-aquatic habits by plants (Ju et al., 2015; Van 55

de Poel et al., 2016). 56

The effect that ethylene exerts on photosynthesis depends on leaf age (Figure 1). Ethylene directly 57

controls photosynthesis in juvenile non-senescing leaves and acts indirectly in mature leaves by 58

promoting leaf senescence. In this review, we describe the effect of ethylene on young non-59

senescing leaves, focusing on the elements that influence plant photosynthesis (chlorophyll content, 60

stomatal conductance, light dissipation, carbon fixation and carbohydrate partitioning). We also 61

briefly highlight the role of ethylene in leaf senescence and refer the reader to a more specialized 62

review on this topic by Kim et al. (2015). 63

64

Ethylene is essential for normal photosynthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana 65

The molecular regulation of photosynthesis by ethylene has been studied using ethylene-related 66

mutants in Arabidopsis and other model plants. Box 2 highlights the steps of the ethylene signaling 67

pathway. Grbic & Bleecker (1998) initially showed that juvenile non-senescing leaves of the 68

Arabidopsis ethylene-insensitive mutant ethylene resistant 1 (etr1-1) possess lower chlorophyll 69

contents, Rubisco activity, and expression of photosynthetically active genes (PAGs) such as CAB 70

(chlorophyll a/b binding protein) and RUBISCO SS (ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase small subunit), 71

suggesting a role for ethylene in controlling photosynthesis in non-senescing leaves. These results 72

were further corroborated by Tholen et al. (2004, 2007, 2008) who showed that ethylene-insensitive 73

mutants of Arabidopsis (etr1-1 and ethylene insensitive 2, ein2) and ethylene-insensitive transgenic 74

tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) plants carrying the dominant mutant allele of Arabidopsis etr1-1 have a 75

lower whole-plant and leaf photosynthetic capacity, especially under saturating light conditions. 76

These studies suggest that basal ethylene perception is essential for achieving normal 77

photosynthetic capacity in Arabidopsis leaves. In addition, transient ethylene treatment of non-78

senescing leaves reduces chlorophyll content (Zacarias & Reid, 1990) and downregulates CAB 79

expression in Arabidopsis (Grbic & Bleecker, 1995), suggesting that excessive ethylene inhibits 80

photosynthesis in juvenile leaves. To our knowledge, no actual photosynthesis measurements from 81

non-senescing leaves of Arabidopsis exposed to ethylene are currently available. 82



3

The control of photosynthesis by ethylene also affects plant biomass production by influencing final 83

rosette size. Arabidopsis ethylene-insensitive mutants (etr1-1, ein2 and ein3) have larger rosettes 84

compared to wild-type plants (Bleecker et al., 1988; Guzman & Ecker, 1990; Ecker et al., 1995; 85

Alonso et al., 1999). However, this discrepancy is probably manifested during later stages of plant 86

development where ethylene controls photosynthesis by stimulating leaf senescence (Figure 1). 87

Ethylene-insensitive mutants show a delayed onset of senescence, extending their growth period, 88

resulting in larger rosettes compared to wild-type plants (Hua et al., 1995; Grbic and Bleecker, 1995; 89

Alonso et al., 1999; Tholen et al., 2004). Juvenile non-senescing 3-week-old etr1-1 mutants grown in 90

well-ventilated conditions do not have a larger total leaf area and relative growth rate compared to 91

wild type plants during vegetative development despite their reduction in photosynthesis, 92

confirming that delayed senescence in these ethylene-insensitive mutants likely controls rosette size 93

(Tholen et al., 2004). 94

95

Ethylene and chlorophyll content 96

Ethylene can stimulate the degradation of chlorophyll during fruit ripening and leaf senescence 97

(Burg & Burg, 1965; Abeles et al., 1992). In non-senescing developing leaves, ethylene-insensitive 98

mutants (e.g. etr1-1) also have reduced chlorophyll content in Arabidopsis, (Zacarias & Reid, 1990; 99

Grbic & Bleecker, 1995) and protoplasts of etr1-1 have reduced chlorophyll fluorescence (Kim et al., 100

2017), suggesting that basal ethylene levels are required to ensure normal chlorophyll content. The 101

opposite is true for mature leaves prone to senescence, where chlorophyll content is found to be 102

higher in ethylene-insensitive mutants (etr1-1 and ein2-1) of Arabidopsis (Grbic & Bleecker, 1995; Oh 103

et al., 1997), tobacco (Yang et al., 2008) and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) (Monteiro et al., 2011). 104

Chlorophyll content is also higher in mature leaves of ACC oxidase (ACO) antisense lines of tomato 105

(Picton et al., 1993; John et al., 1995; Jensen & Veierskov, 1998) and ACC synthase (ACS) antisense 106

lines of maize (Zea mays) (Young et al., 2002). These findings suggest that ethylene is involved in 107

establishing normal chlorophyll contents in non-senescing leaves and promotes chlorosis through 108

chlorophyll degradation in mature leaves (Figure 1). 109

Ethylene and stomatal conductance 110

Photosynthesis is intimately linked with stomatal conductance, which mediates CO2 uptake and 111

transpiration (Matthews et al., 2017; Vialet-Chabrand et al., 2017; Males & Griffiths, 2017). Ethylene 112

treatment by ethylene gas, ACC, or ethephon induces stomatal closure in Arabidopsis (Desikan et al., 113

2006). The stomata of Arabidopsis ethylene-insensitive mutants (etr1-1) show reduced conductance 114

compared to wild-type plants (Tholen et al., 2004). These observations suggest that ethylene 115

negatively influences stomatal conductance in Arabidopsis. It must be noted that the etr1-1 mutant 116

also has smaller stomata (Tanaka et al., 2005), indicating that ethylene influences stomatal 117

development. Indeed, Arabidopsis plants continuously grown in ethylene, as well as the constitutive 118

ethylene response mutant ctr1-1, possess more stomata (Kieber et al., 1993), yet it is unknown if 119

these plants also display higher CO2 uptake or net photosynthesis. 120

It is not clear if altered ethylene levels play a primary role on stomatal conductance or have a 121

secondary effect through the crosstalk with abscisic acid (ABA) (Wilkinson & Davies, 2010; Murata et 122

al., 2015). In Arabidopsis, external ethylene, or constitutive internal ethylene production by the 123

eto1-1 mutation, inhibits ABA-induced stomatal closure (Tanaka et al., 2005; Watkins et al., 2014). 124

The ethylene signaling mutants (etr1-1 or ein3-1) and the ethylene perception inhibitor 1-MCP (1-125

methylcyclopropane) do not affect ABA-induced stomatal closure (Tanaka et al., 2005). The 126

inhibition of ABA-induced stomatal closure is also observed in wheat (Triticum aestivum), but older 127



4

leaves are more sensitive to ethylene, while younger leaves are more sensitive to ABA (Chen et al., 128

2013). The inhibitory action of ethylene on ABA-induced stomatal closure is mainly regulated by 129

hydrogen peroxide signaling (Desikan, 2005; Desikan et al., 2006; Shi et al., 2015). Ethylene 130

stimulates flavonol production in the guard cells, which subsequently suppresses reactive oxygen 131

species (ROS) accumulation and consequently reduces ABA-induced stomatal closure (Figure 1; 132

Watkins et al., 2014; Watkins et al., 2017). 133

Ethylene and energy dissipation (light reactions) 134

The capture of light energy by photosystems (PS) I and II is necessary to accommodate electron 135

transport and the reduction of CO2 (the so-called dark reactions of photosynthesis) in plant 136

chloroplasts. Wullschleger et al. (1992) re-examined the light-response and CO2-response curves of 137

soybean (Glycine max) reported by Taylor and Gunderson (1988) and found a 30% decline in the 138

electron transport capacity (Jmax) following a 4-hour exposure to ethylene. In line with these results, 139

transient overexpression of a specific ethylene responsive factor (CitERF13) in tobacco leaves 140

compromised photosynthetic rates. Significant declines of the maximum quantum efficiency as well 141

as the effective quantum efficiency of both PS I and II occurred respectively 3 and 2 days after 142

infiltration with Agrobacterium carrying CitERF13 (Xie et al., 2016). In addition, pulse-amplitude 143

modulation fluorimetry-based chlorophyll fluorescence analyses by Kim et al. (2017) reveal that 144

ethylene-insensitive mutants of Arabidopsis (etr1-1) display lower PS II activity compared to wild-145

type plants. These results are further corroborated by augmented expression of the cellular energy 146

stress sensor AKIN10 (ARABIDOPSIS KINASE 10) in ethylene-insensitive mutants. AKIN10 is an 147

isoform of the evolutionarily conserved energy sensor SNF1-RELATED PROTEIN KINASE (SnRK1) and 148

has the ability to modulate the ratio catabolism/anabolism to sustain cellular viability (Broeckx et al., 149

2016). It must be noted that a second mutation in the Arabidopsis etr1-1 mutant produces a 150

premature stop codon in ARC3 (ACCUMULATION AND REPLICATION 3), which is responsible for the 151

abnormally large chloroplasts observed in etr1-1 but not ein2 and ein3 mutants (Cho et al., 2012). 152

ARC3 plays a role in chloroplast division (Maple et al., 2007) and the arc3 mutant displays abnormal 153

chloroplasts in mesophyll protoplasts, independent of the etr1-1 mutation (Cho et al., 2012). Given 154

this important secondary mutation (arc3) in the etr1-1 mutant line commonly used in ethylene 155

research, it is advised to seek additional confirmatory lines of evidence, especially when working on 156

photosynthesis. Nonetheless, ethylene signaling mutants outcrossed from the arc3 secondary 157

mutation (etr1-1sg) are also found to have a lower maximum quantum efficiency, higher chlorophyll 158

fluorescence lifetime of PS II and, consequently, a lower quantum yield of PS II (Kim et al., 2017). 159

These findings suggest that normal ethylene sensitivity is required for optimal photochemical 160

efficiency of PS II independently of an altered chloroplast structure caused by the secondary arc3 161

mutation (Kim et al., 2017). Besides photochemical quenching, ethylene has also been found to 162

influence non-photochemical quenching properties by intervention of the xanthophyll cycle 163

mechanism. Chen and Gallie (2015) demonstrated that Arabidopsis eto1-1 mutants, with increased 164

ethylene production, are affected in their ability to convert violaxanthin to zeaxanthin by impairing 165

violaxanthin de-epoxidase activity. As a consequence, these plants are particularly prone to elevated 166

ROS production and photosensitivity. 167

Ethylene and carbon fixation (dark reactions) and carbohydrate partitioning 168

A study by Grbic & Bleecker (1995) showed that young leaves of Arabidopsis ethylene-insensitive 169 mutants (etr1-1) have reduced Rubisco activity, while older leaves have higher rubisco activity 170 compared to wild type plants. Using ethylene-insensitive transgenic tobacco plants, Tholen et al. 171 (2007) also revealed a decrease in Rubisco transcripts and protein content of about 76% and 42%, 172 respectively, in comparison to wild-type plants. A high degree of downregulation of Rubisco occurs 173 for both ethylene-insensitive tobacco and Arabidopsis seedlings growing on a glucose-enriched 174



5

medium (Zhou et al., 1998). Further investigations into the decreased rates of photosynthesis in 175 tobacco after transient overexpression of CitERF13 reveal that the maximum rate of Rubisco 176 carboxylase activity (Vc, max) is indeed affected (Xie et al., 2016). We can conclude from these reports 177 that normal ethylene sensitivity is required to achieve maximal Rubisco activity in non-senescing 178 leaves. As Rubisco is inefficient due to its typical error-prone catalytic properties (Bracher et al., 179 2017), ethylene is also likely to influence protein abundance and/or activity of Rubisco activases 180 (RCAs), adding an additional layer of complexity to mediating the carboxylation process. RCAs are 181 well known as molecular chaperones for Rubisco to deal with its dead-end inhibited complexes due 182 to its high affinity for its substrate ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate and similar sugars when the active site 183 has been left unprimed with CO2 and Mg2+ cofactors (Parry et al., 2008). 184 Khan (2005) reported an increased activity of carbonic anhydrase (CA) in mustard (Brassica juncea) 185 upon a treatment with the ethylene-releasing growth regulator ethephon. Besides participating in 186 the regulatory network to control chloroplast pH and protect stroma enzymes from denaturation 187 during severe and sudden changes in light conditions, CA can elevate the concentration of CO2 in 188 close proximity to rubisco and, as such, limit the proportion of photorespiration (Badger, 2003). 189 Carbonic anhydrase also plays a role in C3 but even more critically in C4 and CAM photosynthesis, 190 providing sufficient bicarbonate to fuel PEPC (DiMario et al., 2017). Work on the effect of ethylene 191 on carbon fixation in C4 and CAM plants is limited. Young et al. (2004) reported that an acs6 192 mutation in maize (C4) results in lower ethylene production, leading to higher Rubisco content and 193 higher CO2 assimilation for both young and mature leaves. These results suggest that basal levels of 194 ethylene suppress maximal carbon fixation in maize. We have not found other studies that report 195 the effect of ethylene on Rubisco, CA nor PEPC in other C4 or CAM plants, making it difficult to draw 196 firm conclusions about the impact of ethylene on C4 and CAM carboxylation. 197 Following diurnal synthesis, triose phosphates need to be continuously removed from the Calvin 198

cycle, by either being deployed for starch formation in the chloroplast or exported to the cytosol to 199

fuel sucrose synthesis to replenish non-photosynthetic parts of the plant. Efficient sucrose transport 200

is critical for achieving optimal carbohydrate partitioning in a plant that is robust but also responsive 201

to environmental changes. To carefully monitor the carbohydrate and energy status, plants use an 202

intricate network of transporters, enzymes and metabolites such as sucrose, glucose, triose, and 203

hexose monophosphates, trehalose-6-phosphate, fructose 1,6 bisphosphate, and fructose 2,6 204

bisphosphate (Braun et al., 2014). It is expected that ethylene also intervenes in carbohydrate 205

partitioning, as different nodes have already been established in the complex webs that interrelate 206

sugar and hormone signaling (Figure 1). The mutually antagonistic relationship between glucose and 207

ethylene signaling confers a nice example (Figure 1; Zhou et al., 1998; León and Sheen, 2003). 208

Ethylene-insensitive plants (etr1, ein2 and ein3) are hypersensitive to glucose (supplemented to the 209

medium), while constitutive ethylene activation (ctr1 mutant) or ethylene overproduction (by eto 210

mutants or ACC treatment) result in decreased sugar sensitivity (León and Sheen, 2003; Zhou et al., 211

1998; Yanagisawa et al., 2003). Conversely, glucose also crosstalks with ethylene by stimulating EIN3 212

degradation, which reduces ethylene sensitivity, causing a feedback mechanism that amplifies 213

glucose sensitivity (Yanagisawa et al., 2003). Moreover, in the rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis), 214

increased latex production after ethylene treatment is accompanied by the enhanced transcript 215

abundance of HbSUT1A and HbSUT2A, which encode transporters belonging to the SUT (sucrose 216

transporter) group (Dusotoit-Coucaud et al., 2009). More recently, Zhou et al. (2017) also reported 217

altered expression of the TREHALOSE-6-PHOSPHATE SYNTHASE genes (HbTPS1 and HbTPS2) upon 218

ethylene treatment in the rubber tree. In addition, ethylene has recently been shown to accelerate 219

the circadian oscillator to shorten the circadian period, a response that can be overturned by 220

externally applied sucrose (Haydon et al., 2017). These findings indicate that ethylene and the pool 221

of sucrose originating from photosynthesis can crosstalk to influence circadian rhythms and control 222

plant photosynthetic capacity (Haydon et al., 2017). 223



6

Ethylene and leaf senescence 224

Besides influencing photosynthesis in non-senescing leaves, ethylene also inhibits photosynthesis 225

through the initiation and stimulation of senescence in mature leaves (Figure 1; Kim et al., 2015). It 226

has been shown that external ethylene stimulates leaf senescence (Bleecker et al., 1988; Zacarias & 227

Reid, 1990), while ethylene-insensitive mutants (etr1-1, ers1, ein2-1, ein2-5, ein3-1 and ein3-1 eil1-1 228

in Arabidopsis and Nr in tomato) show a reduced rate of senescence (Bleecker, 1988; Hua et al., 229

1995; Grbic and Bleecker, 1995; Oh et al., 1997; Lanahan et al., 1994, Li et al., 2013; Kim et al., 2014). 230

Both etr1-1 and ein2-1 mutants have increased ethylene production compared to wild-type plants 231

(Guzman & Ecker, 1990; Woeste et al., 1999), yet their insensitivity towards ethylene overturns the 232

additional ethylene, resulting in a delay in leaf senescence. Eventually, ethylene-insensitive mutants 233

age and show senescence, suggesting that ethylene controls both the rate and timing of leaf 234

senescence (Grbic & Bleecker, 1995). Delayed senescence and concomitant decline in chlorophyll 235

content and photosynthesis has also been observed in antisense plants for ACO of tomato (Picton et 236

al., 1993; John et al., 1995; Jensen & Veierskov, 1998) and acs6 mutants of the C4 plant maize 237

(Young et al., 2004), but not for acs mutants of Arabidopsis (Tsuchisaka et al., 2009). Arabidopsis 238

plants continuously exposed to ethylene gas do not display an enhanced rate of senescence (Kieber 239

et al., 1993), but have smaller rosettes, similar to ethylene overproducing and constitutive ethylene 240

sensitive mutants (eto1-1, eto1-13, ctr1-1; Guzaman & Ecker, 1990; Kieber et al., 1993; Christians et 241

al., 2009). Tomato plants constitutively overexpressing ACS also show altered leaf development but 242

no signs of enhanced senescence (Lanahan et al., 1994). In general, we conclude that a temporal 243

exposure to ethylene stimulates leaf senescence in mature leaves, while continuous exposure 244

instead causes altered leaf development. 245

A transient ethylene treatment of mature leaves stimulates senescence by upregulating the 246

expression of senescence-associated genes (SAGs) (Grbic & Bleecker, 1995; Guo et al., 2004; Breeze 247

et al., 2011; Figure 1). Several important SAGs have been shown to play a prominent role in different 248

cellular processes such as programmed cell death, autophagy, chlorophyll catabolism, plastid 249

differentiation, sugar metabolism, and resource allocation (Thomas, 2012; Pujol, 2015). The master 250

transcription factor EIN3 has been identified as an important player in controlling SAGs (Li et al., 251

2013). It can activate the expression of NAP (NAM/ATAF1,2/CUC2) and NAC2 (ORE1/NAC092), two 252

important transcription factors controlling leaf senescence (Woo et al., 2004; Kim et al., 2009; Kim et 253

al., 2014). Furthermore, EIN3 binds to the promotor of the microRNA (miRNA) miR164 and 254

progressively inhibits its expression during leaf development (Li et al., 2013). In turn, miR164 inhibits 255

the expression of the transcription factor NAC2 (Kim et al., 2009; Kim et al., 2014; Li et al., 2013), 256

unraveling a dual feed-forward and feedback regulation of senescence by ethylene through the 257

action of EIN3 (Figure 1). 258

Ethylene exerts a species specific response on photosynthesis 259

Extensive literature review indicates that the negative effects of ethylene on different aspects of 260

photosynthesis for both juvenile non-senescing and mature senescing leaves cannot be generalized 261

across species. Various physiological experiments with different ethylene treatments have revealed 262

a species-specific reduction in photosynthesis in some plants (including important crops), although 263

ethylene has no effect on photosynthesis in other species (Table 1; Pallas & Kays, 1982; Squier et al., 264

1985; Taylor & Gunderson, 1986) In one mustard species (Brassica juncea) ethylene was found to 265

stimulate photosynthesis (Kahn, 2004; Iqbal et al., 2011). Besides the major crops listed in Table 1, 266

ethylene also lowers photosynthesis in other species such as radish (Raphanus sativus), pumpkin 267

(Cucurbita pepo), green foxtail (Setaria viridis), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), sunflower 268

(Helianthus annuus), Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus), common cocklebur (Xanthium 269



7

strumarium), and green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), although ethylene has no significant effect on 270

runner bean (Phaseolus coccineus), common orache (Atriplex patula), touch-me-not (Mimosa 271

pudica) and white clover (Trifolium repens) (Pallas & Kays, 1982; Squier et al., 1985; Taylor & 272

Gunderson, 1986; Woodrow et al., 1989). When investigating these data, it should be noted that 273

differences in treatments, growth conditions, timing of the measurements and/or the 274

developmental stage make it impossible to draw firm conclusions, but the general trend is that 275

ethylene inhibits photosynthesis in non-senescing leaves, or has no effect at all on photosynthesis, 276

with the exception of the Brassica juncea species of mustard. Furthermore, studies on tomato and 277

potato (Solanum tuberosum) have shown that a long term ethylene treatment (several days) and its 278

subsequent recovery phase result in a biphasic response of photosynthesis with alternating periods 279

of improved and attenuated photosynthesis compared to the untreated control (Briede et al., 1992; 280

Dueck et al., 2003). These studies provide preliminary insight into the dynamic temporal regulation 281

of photosynthesis by ethylene in tomato and potato, and stress the importance of the time point of 282

sampling after the treatment. In addition, Woodrow et al. (1989) and Woodrow & Grodzinski (1989) 283

provide evidence that the ethylene-induced reduction of photosynthesis in tomato and common 284

cocklebur is mainly caused by a reduced light perception of leaves as a consequence of the epinastic 285

response induced by ethylene. The orientation of the leaves towards the light source is another 286

important element that influences net photosynthesis. 287

Table 1 and the summary above clearly indicate that our knowledge concerning the influences of 288

ethylene on photosynthesis is mainly derived from C3 species. Whilst several C3 plants are listed, 289

with the exception of maize and green foxtail, C4 plants are unrepresented. C4 photosynthesis in 290

maize seems unaffected by an ethylene treatment (Pallaghy & Raschke, 1972; Taylor & Gunderson, 291

1986; Squier et al., 1985), while natural transposon mutants of ACS6 of maize show reduced 292

ethylene biosynthesis, resulting in higher chlorophyll and Rubisco contents and higher 293

photosynthesis rates (Young et al., 2004). These data suggest that endogenous levels of basal 294

ethylene seem to suppress maximal photosynthetic activity in maize. There are no reports that 295

describe the effect of ethylene on CAM photosynthesis to our knowledge; one manuscript reports 296

ethylene gassing experiments with the C3/CAM intermediate ice plant (Mesembryanthemum 297

crystallinum), but only in the C3 mode (Hurst et al., 2004). As no nocturnal increase in either malic 298

acid or PEPC transcripts could be observed after treatment with 200 ppb ethylene, Hurst et al. 299

(2004) concluded that ethylene was not involved in signaling of the C3-CAM transition. 300

301

Concluding remarks 302

The vital process of photosynthesis supplies plants with energy and carbohydrates and sustains 303

other life on earth by the production of precious oxygen. Over recent decades, tremendous 304

advancements have been made in our understanding of the process of photosynthesis and its 305

adjacent pathways, yet its hormonal regulation by ethylene remains largely unexplored (see also 306

Outstanding Questions Box). This review highlights that ethylene exerts species-specific regulation 307

on plant photosynthesis where it reduces photosynthesis in some species, and has no effect in other 308

species. It must be noted that ethylene exerts a dual action in which it reduces photosynthesis in 309

young photosynthetically active leaves and inhibits photosynthesis in older leaves by the stimulation 310

of leaf senescence. We have updated the recent findings on how ethylene interferes in different key 311

processes such as chlorophyll biosynthesis, light reactions, stomatal conductance, carboxylation 312

events, carbohydrate partitioning and leaf senescence. The precise mechanisms of how ethylene 313

controls these processes remain only superficially investigated and more research efforts are needed 314



8

to create a profound understanding how ethylene controls one of the most vital processes in plants. 315

In the long term, this knowledge should be translated into biotechnological applications that benefit 316

agriculture. 317

318

Acknowledgements 319

J.C. and B.V.d.P. both thank KU Leuven Internal Funds for financial support and the reviewers for 320

their constructive comments. 321

322

Tables 323

Table 1. Overview of studies that investigate the role of ethylene on net photosynthesis and/or stomatal 324

conductance in different crop species. 325

Species Ethylene treatment

Conditions (PAR and CO2) Sample Plant age

Net photosyn-thesis (PN)

Stomatal conductance (g) Reference

Arachis hypogaea

(C3)

1 ppm ethylene

340 µmol.m-2

.s 350 ppm CO2

1st fully

expanded leaf 1-2 months Decrease Decrease Pallas & Kays,

1982 1-21 ppm ethylene

325 µmol.m-2

.s 318 ppm CO2

Whole plant 5-7 weeks Decrease Decrease Squier et al., 1985

Brassica juncea (C3)

1.5 mM ethephon

1050 µmol.m-2

.s 360 ppm CO2

New fully expanded leaf

45 days Increase Increase Khan, 2004

400 ppm ethephon

1008 µmol.m-2

.s CO2 n.s.


80 days Decrease Decrease Kahn et al., 2008

200 ppm ethephon

680 µmol.m-2

.s CO2 n.s.


50 days Increase Increase Iqbal et al., 2011

Glycine max (C3)

5.1 ppm ethylene

510 µmol.m-2

.s CO2 n.s.


3-8 weeks Decrease Decrease Taylor & Gunderson, 1986

10 ppm ethylene

460 µmol.m-2

.s CO2 n.s.

1st leaf pair 2-3 weeks Decrease Decrease Gunderson &

Taylor, 1991 3.5 ppm

ethylene 338 µmol.m

-2.s

350 ppm CO2 1

st leaf pair 2-32 weeks Decrease Decrease Taylor &

Gunderson, 1988 1-21 ppm


-2.s

318 ppm CO2 Whole plant 5-7 weeks Decrease Decrease Squier et al., 1985

Gossypium hirsutum (C3)

0.28 kg.ha-

1 ethephon Open field New fully

expanded leaf Early season

Decrease Decrease Pettigrew et al., 1992

5.1 ppm ethylene

510 µmol.m-2

.s CO2 n.s.



Phaseolus vulgaris (C3)

5.1 ppm ethylene

510 µmol.m-2

.s CO2 n.s.



1 ppm ethylene

340 µmol.m-2

.s 350 ppm CO2

1st fully

expanded leaf 1-2 months No effect - Pallas & Kays,

1982 1500 ppm

ethephon n.s. Greenhouse conditions

5 leaves 3 months - Decrease Vitagliano & Hoad, 1978

Pisum sativum (C3)

1-10.000 ppm ethylene

1500 µmol.m-2

.s 288 ppm CO2

5th

leaf 20-25 days No effect No effect Pallaghy & Raschke, 1972

5.1 ppm ethylene

510 µmol.m-2

.s CO2 n.s.


3-8 weeks No effect No effect Taylor & Gunderson, 1986

1 ppm ethylene

340 µmol.m-2

.s 350 ppm CO2

1st fully


1982 Nicotiana tabacum

(C3)

1-21 ppm ethylene

325 µmol.m-2

.s 318 ppm CO2

Whole plant 5-7 weeks Decrease Decrease Squier et al., 1985

Solanum lycopersicum

(C3)

5.1 ppm ethylene

510 µmol.m-2

.s CO2 n.s.


3-8 weeks Decrease No effect Taylor & Gunderson, 1986

300 g.m-3

ethephon

800 µmol.m-2

.s 335 ppm CO2

Whole plant 11-12 leaves

Decrease - Woodrow & Grodzinski, 1989

2 mM ethephon

700 µmol.m-2

.s 300 ppm


11-12 leaves

No effect No effect Woodrow et al., 1988

Solanum tuberosum (C3)

5.1 ppm ethylene

510 µmol.m-2

.s CO2 n.s.


3-8 weeks No effect Decrease Taylor & Gunderson, 1986



9

1 ppm ethylene

340 µmol.m-2

.s 350 ppm CO2

1st fully


1982 1-10 ppm


-2.s

340 ppm CO2 New fully expanded leaf

3-4 weeks Decrease Decrease Govindarajan & Poovaiah, 1982

5 ppm ethephon

1200 µmol.m-2

.s CO2 n.s.

1st fully

expanded leaf 30 cm tall plants

Biphasic Increase Briede et al., 1992

450 ppb ethylene

Open field conditions

Whole plant 3.5 weeks Decrease Decrease Dueck et al., 2003

Triticum aestivum

(C3)

5.1 ppm ethylene

510 µmol.m-2

.s CO2 n.s.


3-8 weeks No effect Decrease Taylor & Gunderson, 1986

50 mM ethephon

1200 µmol.m-2

.s Open field CO2

Flag leaf Flowering plants

No effect Increase Yang et al., 2014

Zea mays (C4)

1-10.000 ppm ethylene

1500 µmol.m-2

.s 288 ppm CO2

5th

leaf 20-25 days No effect No effect Pallaghy & Raschke, 1972

5.1 ppm ethylene

510 µmol.m-2

.s CO2 n.s.


3-8 weeks No effect No effect Taylor & Gunderson, 1986

1-21 ppm ethylene

325 µmol.m-2

.s 318 ppm CO2

Whole plant 5-7 weeks - No effect Squier et al., 1985

n.s.: not specified; 326

327

Figure legends 328

Figure 1. Overview of the regulatory effects of ethylene on plant photosynthesis and its features for 329 juvenile/non-senescing and mature/senescing leaves. Because the regulation of photosynthesis is species-330 specific, this general scheme does not apply to every species, but merely reflects the general mode of action 331 for the inhibitory effect of ethylene on photosynthesis as found in Arabidopsis. ABA, abscisic acid; CTR1, 332 CONSTITUTIVE TRIPLE RESPONSE 1; EIN2, ETHYLENE INSENSITIVE 2; EIN3, ETHYLENE INSENSITIVE 3; EIL, EIN3-333 LIKE; ERF, ethylene response factors; ETR, ethylene receptor; H2O2, hydrogen peroxide; PAG, 334 photosynthetically active genes; ROS, reactive oxygen species; SAG, senescence-associated gene. 335

Figure 2. Overview of the three modes of photosynthesis (C3, C4 and CAM) in plants, indicating the importance 336 of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco) and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) 337 as main enzymes involved in carbon fixation. 338

Figure 3. Overview of the plant ethylene signal transduction pathway. Ethylene binds the ethylene receptors 339

(ETR) at the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) resulting in auto-phosphorylation of the receptor and inactivation of 340

the downstream kinase CONSTITUTIVE TRIPLE RESPONSE 1 (CTR1). In the absence of ethylene CTR1 341

phosphorylates the ER localized ETHYLENE INSENSITIVE 2 (EIN2) directing it for proteasomal degradation by 342

the ETPs. When ethylene is present, the EIN2 C-terminal part (EIN2-C) is not phosphorylated and gets cleaved 343

and migrates to the nucleus, where it activates the master transcription factor ETHYLENE INSENSITIVE 3 (EIN3) 344

and EIN3-likes (EILs). In the absence of ethylene, EIN3 and EILs are targeted for proteasomal degradation by 345

the ETHYLENE BINDING FACTOR (EBF). EIN3 and EILs on their turn activate ethylene response factors (ERFs) or 346

ethylene responsive genes. The EIN2-C can also interact with the mRNA of selected transcripts, including the 347

5’UTR of the EBF mRNA, to inhibit translation. 348

349

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627



Juvenile/non-senescing leaves Mature/senescing leaves

ETR

CTR1

Ethylene

EIN2

EIN3/EILs

ERFs

PAG

PS I & II efficiency

Chlorophyll contentETR

CTR1

Ethylene

EIN2

EIN3/EILs

ERFs

SAG

Chlorophyll catabolism

Stress

Photosynthesis Photosynthesis

ABA

Flavonols

Stomatal closureROS (H2O2)

Chlorophyll biosynthesis

miR164

Glucose/sugars

Sugar partitioning

Rubisco

Figure 1. General overview of the regulatory effects of ethylene on plant photosynthesis and

sub-elements that are likely to co-regulate photosynthesis for both juvenile/non-senescing and

mature/senescing leaves. Because the regulation of photosynthesis is species-specific, this gen-

eral scheme does not apply to every species (e.g. ethylene stimulates photosynthesis in mus-

tard), but merely reflects the general mode of action for the inhibitory effect of ethylene on

photosynthesis. ABA, Abscisic acid; CTR1, CONSTITUTIVE TRIPPLE RESPONSE 1; EIN2, ETHYLENE

INSENSITIVE 2; EIN3, ETHYLENE INSENSITIVE 3; EILs, EIN3-likes; ERF, ethylene response factors;

ETR, ethylene receptor; PAG, photosynthetically active genes; ROS, reactive oxygen species; SAG,

senescence associated genes.



C3 plants C4 plants CAM plants

Calvin

cycle

Glyceraldehyde

3-phosphate

CO2

Mesophyll

cell

Calvin

cycle

CO2

Bundle

sheath

cell

Malic acid (C4)Mesophyll

cell

CO2

CO2

Calvin

cycle

CO2

Malic acid (C4)

Mesophyll

cell

CO2

Night

Day

Rubisco

PEPC PEPC

Rubisco Rubisco

Glyceraldehyde

3-phosphate

Glyceraldehyde

3-phosphate

Sucrose Sucrose Sucrose

Figure 2. Simplified overview of the three modes of photo-

synthesis (C3, C4 and CAM) in plants, indicating the impor-

tance of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase

(Rubisco) and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) as

main enzymes involved in carbon fixation.



P P

P

P P

P

CH

HC

H

H

ETREIN2

CTR1

ETP

EIN3EIN3

EBF

EIN2-C

ERFs

ER

Nucleus

ER lumen

Cytosol

NO ETHYLENE ETHYLENE

EBF

Ethylene responsive genes

EBF mRNA

EIN2-C

EIN2

CTR1

ETRC

H

HC

H

H

CH

HC

H

H

CH

HC

H

H

Figure 3. General overview of the plant ethylene signaling transduction pathway. Ethylene binds with the

ethylene receptors (ETR) at the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) resulting in auto-phosphorylation of the receptor

and inactivation of the downstream kinase CONSTITUTIVE TRIPPLE RESPONSE 1 (CTR1). In the absence of

ethylene CTR1 phosphorylates the ER localized ETHYLENE INSENSITIVE 2 (EIN2) directing it for proteasomal

degradation by the ETPs. When ethylene is present, the EIN2 C-terminal part (EIN2-C) is not phosphorylated

and gets cleaved and migrates to the nucleus, where it activates the master transcription factor ETHYLENE

INSENSITIVE 3 (EIN3) and EIN3-likes (EILs). In the absence of ethylene, EIN3 and EILs are readily targeted for

proteasomal degradation by the ETHYLENE BINDING FACTOR (EBF). EIN3 and EILs on their turn activate

ethylene response factors (ERFs) or ethylene responsive genes. The EIN2-C can also interact with the mRNA of

selected transcripts, including the 5’UTR of the EBF mRNA, to inhibit translation.



BOX 1. Photosynthetic Pathways in Plants

Photosynthesis involves the light-mediated conversion of inorganic substrates (i.e. carbon dioxide and water) into organic compounds and occurs via three pathways in terrestrial plants (Fig. 2). C3 is the ancient and most common pathway, found in about 93% of plant species. C3 photosynthesis relies on direct CO2 fixation during the light period in the chloroplasts, mediated by the enzyme ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco). C4 and crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) can be regarded as evolutionary adaptive mechanisms of photosynthesis that enhance the CO2 concentration at the Rubisco carboxylation site, thus helping plants adapt to the pronounced reduction in CO2 and rise in O2 levels that started about 350 million years ago (Baars, 2017). Both modes of photosynthesis deploy the same machinery present in C3 plants, but differ in the initial mode of carboxylation (West-Eberhard et al., 2011). Carbon uptake in C4 plants (about 1% of plant species) uses diurnal activity of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) in the leaf mesophyll cells followed by decarboxylation of the synthesized malic acid in the chloroplasts of bundle sheath cells where Rubisco activity is enhanced by achieving high internal CO2 concentrations (Sage et al., 2012). CAM plants (about 6% of plant species) employ a temporal separation between carboxylation events, allowing initial nocturnal CO2 sequestration by PEPC followed by Rubisco-mediated carboxylation during daytime behind closed stomata, thereby conserving considerable amounts of water (Borland et al., 2011).



BOX 2. Ethylene Biosynthesis and Signaling in

Plants

Ethylene is a gaseous hormone that can easily migrate from cell to cell, gradually diffusing throughout the tissue and regulating ethylene-responsive processes (Fig. 3). Most of the ethylene signaling pathway was unraveled by screening for ethylene-related mutants in dark-grown seedlings (triple response) of Arabidopsis (Merchante and Stepanova, 2017). In the light, these mutants have different phenotypes, such as altered photosynthesis. Screening for light-specific ethylene mutants can provide new insights into how ethylene regulates photosynthesis. Ethylene is produced from the precursor 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC; Adams and Yang, 1979) by the dioxygenase ACC-oxidase (ACO; Ververidis and John, 1991). ACC is synthesized from S-adenosyl-L-methionine by ACC-synthase (ACS; Adams and Yang, 1977; Boller et al., 1979). The synthesized ethylene can bind to the ethylene receptor (Bleecker et al., 1988), a two-component receptor kinase (Chang et al., 1993) located at the endoplasmic reticulum (ER; Chen et al., 2002) forming active hetero- and homodimers (Schaller et al., 1995; Bakshi et al., 2015). Ethylene binding to the active site promotes autophosphorylation of the receptor (Moussatche and Klee, 2004; Bisson and Groth, 2010) and inactivation of the downstream kinase CONSTITUTIVE TRIPLE RESPONSE1 (CTR1; Kieber et al., 1993). Active CTR1 kinase phosphorylates

ETHYLENE INSENSITIVE2 (EIN2; Ju et al., 2012), an ER-bound N-ramp protein (Alonso et al., 1999), which is subsequently targeted for proteasomal degradation by two F-box proteins, EIN2 TARGETING PROTEIN1 (ETP1) and ETP2 (Qiao et al., 2009). When ethylene is bound to its receptor, EIN2 is not phosphorylated and gets cleaved by an unknown protease (Qiao et al., 2012). After cleavage, the EIN2 C-terminal fragment migrates to the nucleus (Ju et al., 2012; Qiao et al., 2012; Wen et al., 2012). There, the C-terminal end activates the master transcription factor EIN3 (Roman et al., 1995; Chao et al., 1998) and its homologs EIN3-LIKE1-3 (EIL1-3) (Chao et al., 1998). In the absence of ethylene, EIN3 and EILs are rapidly turned over by proteasomal degradation through the action of two F-box proteins ETHYLENE BINDING FACTOR1 (EBF1) and EBF2 (Guo and Ecker, 2003; Potuschak et al., 2003; Gagne et al., 2004; An et al., 2010). Recent work also demonstrated that the EIN2 C-terminal end inhibits translation of the EBFs through interaction with their 5′UTR mRNA region, which blocks ribosomal activity (Merchante et al., 2015; Li et al., 2015). Activated EIN3 and EILs bind to an ethylene binding sequence in ethylene-responsive genes, of which the ETHYLENE RESPONSIVE FACTORS (Solano et al., 1998) encode downstream secondary transcription factors that induce ethylene-responsive gene expression (Nemhouser et al., 2006; Chang et al., 2013).



ADVANCES

• Integrating available surveys of different plant species reveals a species-specific regulation of photosynthesis by ethylene. Ethylene inhibits photosynthesis in some plants, but not in others, and was found to stimulate photosynthesis in only mustard (Brassica juncea).

• Ethylene interacts with photosynthesis at different mechanistic levels by influencing transcription, translation, and key enzyme activities implicated in chlorophyll synthesis, stomatal conductance, light capture, electron transport, carbon fixation, and carbohydrate partitioning.

• Ethylene cross talks with sugar metabolism to fine tune feedback mechanisms of photosynthesis.

• The ethylene master transcription factors EIN3/EIL control SAG genes and senescence-associated microRNAs in senescing leaves as well as PAG genes in juvenile leaves.



OUTSTANDING QUESTIONS

• Why is the action of ethylene on photosynthesis species-specific? Other ethylene-regulated processes are also species-specific, such as hyponasty, epinasty, aerenchyma formation, climacteric fruit ripening, etc., but we lack a comprehensive physiological explanation.

• What are the downstream ethylene-responsive transcription factors that control photosynthesis-related gene expression?

• What is the effect of ethylene on the initial carboxylation mediated by CA and PEPC in C4 and CAM plants?

• How does ethylene influence carbohydrate partitioning in photosynthesizing leaves?

• Ethylene triggers leaf senescence and thus reduces photosynthesis in an age-dependent manner. What are developmental cues that control this age-dependent regulatory role of ethylene on leaf senescence?



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Breeze E1, Harrison E, McHattie S, Hughes L, Hickman R, Hill C, Kiddle S, Kim YS, Penfold CA, Jenkins D, Zhang C, Morris K, JennerC, Jackson S, Thomas B, Tabrett A, Legaie R, Moore JD, Wild DL, Ott S, Rand D, Beynon J, Denby K, Mead A, Buchanan-Wollaston V(2011) High-Resolution Temporal Profiling of Transcripts during Arabidopsis Leaf Senescence Reveals a Distinct Chronology ofProcesses and Regulation. The Plant Cell 23(3): 873–894.


Briedé J, Fisher JT, Manuchia DJ (1992) Ethephon-mediated Changes in Gas Exchange of Tomato Plants. HortScience 27: 233–235.Pubmed: Author and TitleCrossRef: Author and TitleGoogle Scholar: Author Only Title Only Author and Title

Bracher A, Whitney SM, Hartl FU, Hayer-Hartl M (2017) Biogenesis and metabolic maintenance of Rubisco. Annual Review of PlantBiology 68: 29-60.


Broeckx T, Hulsmans S, Rolland F (2016) The plant energy sensor: evolutionary conservation and divergence of SnRK1 structure,regulation, and function. Journal of Experimental Botany 67: 6215-6252.


Burg SG, Burg EA (1965) Ethylene action and the ripening of fruits. Science 148: 1190-1196.Pubmed: Author and TitleCrossRef: Author and TitleGoogle Scholar: Author Only Title Only Author and Title

Chang C, Kwok SF, Bleecker AB, Meyerowitz EM (1993) Arabidopsis ethylene response gene ETR1: similarity of product to two-component regulators. Science 262: 539–244.


Chang KN1, Zhong S, Weirauch MT, Hon G, Pelizzola M, Li H, Huang SS, Schmitz RJ, Urich MA, Kuo D, Nery JR, Qiao H, Yang A, JamaliA, Chen H, Ideker T, Ren B, Bar-Joseph Z, Hughes TR, Ecker JR (2013) Temporal transcriptional response to ethylene gas drivesgrowth hormone cross-regulation in Arabidopsis. eLife 2013(2): 1–20.


Chao Q, Rothenberg M, Solano R, Roman G, Terzaghi W, Ecker JR (1998) Activation of the Ethylene Gas Response Pathway inArabidopsis by the Nuclear Protein ETHYLENE-INSENSITIVE3 and Related Proteins. Cell89: 1133-1144.


Chen YF, Randlett MD, Findell JL, Schaller GE (2002) Localization of the ethylene receptor ETR1 to the endoplasmic reticulum ofArabidopsis. The Journal of Biological Chemistry 277: 19861–19866.


Chen L, Dodd IC, Davies WJ, Wilkinson S (2013) Ethylene limits abscisic acid- or soil drying-induced stomatal closure in aged wheatleaves. Plant, Cell and Environment, 36(10): 1850-1859.


Chen Z, Gallie DR (2015) Ethylene regulates energy-dependent non-photochemical quenching in Arabidopsis through repression ofthe xanthophyll cycle. PLoS ONE 10(12): e0144209.

Pubmed: Author and Title www.plantphysiol.orgon March 1, 2019 - Published by Downloaded from Copyright © 2018 American Society of Plant Biologists. All rights reserved.

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Christians MJ, Gingerich DJ, Hansen M, Binder BM, Kieber JJ, Vierstra RD (2009) The BTB ubiquitin ligases ETO1, EOL1 and EOL2act collectively to regulate ethylene biosynthesis in Arabidopsis by controlling type-2 ACC synthase levels. Plant Journal 57: 332-345.


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http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=Christians MJ%2C Gingerich DJ%2C Hansen M%2C Binder BM%2C Kieber JJ%2C Vierstra RD %282009%29 The BTB ubiquitin ligases ETO1%2C EOL1 and EOL2 act collectively to regulate ethylene biosynthesis in Arabidopsis by controlling type%2D2 ACC synthase levels%2E Plant Journal 57%3A 332%2D345%2E&dopt=abstract

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http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=Haydon MJ%2C Mielczarek O%2C Frank A%2C Roman A%2C Webb AAR %282017%29%2E Sucrose and Ethylene Signaling Interact to Modulate the Circadian Clock%2E Plant Physiology 175%3A 947%2D958%2E&dopt=abstract

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Khan NA, Mir MR, Nazar R, Singh, S (2008) The application of ethephon (an ethylene releaser) increases growth, photosynthesis andnitrogen accumulation in mustard (Brassica juncea L.) under high nitrogen levels. Plant Biology 10(5): 534–538.


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Kim G-D, Cho Y-H, Yoo S-D (2017) Phytohormone ethylene-responsive Arabidopsis organ growth under light is in the fine regulation ofPhotosystem II deficiency-inducible AKIN10 expression. Scientific Reports, 7(1): 2767.


Kim HJ, Hong SH, Kim YW, Lee IH, Jun JH, Phee BK, Rupak T, Jeong H, Lee Y, Hong BS, Nam HG, Woo HR, Lim PO (2014). Generegulatory cascade of senescence-associated NAC transcription factors activated by ETHYLENE-INSENSITIVE2-mediated leafsenescence signalling in Arabidopsis. Journal of Experimental Botany 65(14): 4023–4036.


Kim J, Chang C, Tucker ML (2015) To grow old: regulatory role of ethylene and jasmonic acid in senescence. Frontiers in Plant Science6: 1–7.


Kim J, Woo H, Kim J, Lim P, Lee I, Choi S, Hwang D, Nam HG (2009) Trifurcate Feed-Forward Regulation of Age-Dependent Cell DeathInvolving miR164 in Arabidopsis. Science


Lanahan MB, Yen HC, Giovannoni JJ, Klee HJ (1994). The Never Ripe Mutation Blocks Ethylene Perception in Tomato. The Plant Cell6: 521-530.


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http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=Khan NA %282005%29 The influence of exogenous ethylene on growth and photosynthesis of mustard %28Brassica juncea%29 following defoliation%2E Scientia Horticulturae 105%3A 499%2D505%2E&dopt=abstract

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http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=Khan NA%2C Mir MR%2C Nazar R%2C Singh%2C S %282008%29 The application of ethephon %28an ethylene releaser%29 increases growth%2C photosynthesis and nitrogen accumulation in mustard %28Brassica juncea L%2E%29 under high nitrogen levels%2E Plant Biology 10%285%29%3A 534�??538%2E&dopt=abstract

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http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=Kieber JJ%2C Rothenberg M%2C Roman G%2C Feldmann KA%2C Ecker JR %281993%29%2E CTRI %2C a Negative Regulator of the Ethylene Pathway in Arabidopsis%2C Encodes a Member of the Raf Family of Protein Kinases%2E Cell 72%283%29%3A 427�??441%2E&dopt=abstract

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http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=Kim HJ%2C Hong SH%2C Kim YW%2C Lee IH%2C Jun JH%2C Phee BK%2C Rupak T%2C Jeong H%2C Lee Y%2C Hong BS%2C Nam HG%2C Woo HR%2C Lim PO %282014%29%2E Gene regulatory cascade of senescence%2Dassociated NAC transcription factors activated by ETHYLENE%2DINSENSITIVE2%2Dmediated leaf senescence signalling in Arabidopsis%2E Journal of Experimental Botany 65%2814%29%3A 4023�??4036%2E&dopt=abstract

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http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=Maple J%2C Vojta L%2C Soll J%2C Moller SG %282007%29 ARC3 is a stromal Z%2Dring accessory protein essential for plastid division%2E EMBO Reports 8%3A 296�??299%2E&dopt=abstract

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Short title: The control of photosynthesis by ethylene · 2 39. to other types of photosynthesis (C4 and crassulacean acid metabolism) and highlight the species-40. specific effect